Engineering

For other uses, see Engineering (disambiguation). economics of operation or safety to life and
Engineering is the application of mathematics and property.[3][4]

2 History
Main article: History of engineering
Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans

The steam engine, a major driver in the Industrial Revolution, un-

derscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This
beam engine is on display in the Technical University of Madrid.

scientic, economic, social, and practical knowledge

in order to invent, innovate, design, build, maintain,
research, and improve structures, machines, tools,
systems, components, materials, processes, solutions, and
organizations. Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban,
the foremost military engineer of his age.
The discipline of engineering is extremely broad and en-
compasses a range of more specialized elds of engineer-
devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever,
ing, each with a more specic emphasis on particular ar-
wheel and pulley. Each of these inventions is essentially
eas of applied science, technology and types of applica-
consistent with the modern denition of engineering.
tion.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer,
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium,
which itself dates back to 1390 when an engine'er (lit-
meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to con-
[1] erally, one who operates an engine) originally referred
trive, devise.
to a constructor of military engines.[5] In this context,
now obsolete, an engine referred to a military machine,
i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a
1 Denition catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which
have survived to the present day are military engineering
The American Engineers Council for Professional De- corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
velopment (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET)[2] has de-
The word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately
ned engineering as:
deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning
The creative application of scientic prin- innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever
ciples to design or develop structures, ma- invention.[6]
chines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges
or works utilizing them singly or in combina- and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term
tion; or to construct or operate the same with civil engineering[4] entered the lexicon as a way to dis-
full cognizance of their design; or to forecast tinguish between those specializing in the construction of
their behavior under specic operating con- such non-military projects and those involved in the older
ditions; all as respects an intended function, discipline of military engineering.

1
2 2 HISTORY

2.1 Ancient era the beginnings of mass production.

With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th
century, the term became more narrowly applied to elds
in which mathematics and science were applied to these
ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineer-
ing, the elds then known as the mechanic arts became
incorporated into engineering.

2.3 Modern era

The Ancient Romans built aqueducts to bring a steady supply of

clean fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the

Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the
Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia
and the Colosseum, Teotihuacn and the cities and pyra-
mids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great The International Space Station represents a modern engineering
Wall of China, the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur challenge from many disciplines.
and Indian Temples, among many others, stand as a tes-
tament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and
The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish
military engineers. engineer James Watt gave rise to modern mechanical en-
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[4] gineering. The development of specialized machines and
As one of the ocials of the Pharaoh, Djosr, he prob- machine tools during the industrial revolution led to the
ably designed and supervised the construction of the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birth-
[4]
Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in place Britain and abroad.
[7]
Egypt around 26302611 BC. Ancient Greece de-
veloped machines in both civilian and military do-
mains. The Antikythera mechanism, the rst known
mechanical computer,[8][9] and the mechanical inventions
of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engi-
neering. Some of Archimedes inventions as well as the
Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowl-
edge of dierential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two
key principles in machine theory that helped design the
gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still
widely used today in diverse elds such as robotics and
automotive engineering.[10]
Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hungarian armies em-
ployed complex military machines and inventions such Structural engineers investigating NASAs Mars-bound
as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around spacecraft, the Phoenix Mars Lander
the 4th century B.C.,[11] the trireme, the ballista and the
catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was devel- John Smeaton was the rst self-proclaimed civil engineer
oped. and is often regarded as the father of civil engineer-
ing. He was an English civil engineer responsible for
the design of bridges, canals, harbours, and lighthouses.
2.2 Renaissance era He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an em-
inent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone
The rst steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Sav- Lighthouse (175559) where he pioneered the use of
ery.[12] The development of this device gave rise to the 'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar which will set under
Industrial Revolution in the coming decades, allowing for water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed
 3

blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His ing spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to
lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century
and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been
as Smeatons Tower. He is important in the history, redis- dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century.
covery of, and development of modern cement, because Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely
he identied the compositional requirements needed to empirical with some concepts and skills imported from
obtain hydraulicity in lime; work which led ultimately other branches of engineering.[16]
to the invention of Portland cement. The rst PhD in engineering (technically, applied science
The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation and engineering) awarded in the United States went to
of engineer for the rst time with a count of 2,000.[13] Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was
There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[17]
U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. Only a decade after the successful ights by the Wright
mechanical engineering graduates, with that number in- brothers, there was extensive development of aeronauti-
creasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890 there were 6,000
cal engineering through development of military aircraft
engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[14]
that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to
There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied provide fundamental background science continued by
mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, and no combining theoretical physics with experiments.
chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany es- In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the rst
tablished technical universities earlier.[15] search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Em-
The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s tage.
included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael
Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the
electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.
The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwells 3 Main branches of engineering
equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century
gave rise to the eld of electronics. The later inventions
of the vacuum tube and the transistor further acceler- Main article: List of engineering branches
ated the development of electronics to such an extent that For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of engi-
electrical and electronics engineers currently outnum- neering Branches of engineering.
ber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[4] Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken
Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth
century.[4] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new
materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for
large scale production of chemicals was such that a new
industry was created, dedicated to the development and
large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial
plants.[4] The role of the chemical engineer was the de-
sign of these chemical plants and processes.[4]

The design of a modern auditorium involves many branches of

engineering, including acoustics, architecture, and civil engineer-
ing.

down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines con-

cern themselves with diering areas of engineering work.
The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in
a specic discipline, throughout an engineers career the
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design pro- engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked
cess design while aerospace engineering is a more modern in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often char-
term that expands the reach of the discipline by includ- acterized as having four main branches:[18][19][20]
4 5 METHODOLOGY

tems engineering and management involves a wide range

of subject areas including anthropology, engineering
studies, environmental science, ethics and philosophy of
engineering. A new or emerging area of application will
commonly be dened temporarily as a permutation or
subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as
to when a given sub-eld warrants classication as a new
branch. One key indicator of such emergence is when
major universities start establishing departments and pro-
grams in the new eld.
For each of these elds, there exists considerable overlap,
especially in the areas of the application of fundamental
sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry,
and mathematics. As a result, there are many dierent
Hoover Dam types of engineering degrees available. In the past, engi-
neering could be divided into four major branches: me-
Chemical engineering The application of physics, chanical, chemical, civil and electrical, with sub-branches
chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in or- of each discipline. Today, however, the number of engi-
der to carry out chemical processes on a commercial neering degrees available have increased dramatically.
scale, such as petroleum rening, microfabrication,
fermentation, and biomolecule production.
Civil engineering The design and construction 4 Practice
of public and private works, such as infrastructure
(airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treat- One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and
ment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings. those licensed to do so may have more formal desig-
nations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engi-
Electrical engineering The design, study, and
neer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engi-
manufacture of various electrical and electronic
neer, or Designated Engineering Representative. In the
systems, such as electrical circuits, generators,
UK many skilled trades are called Engineer includ-
motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices,
ing gas, telephone, photocopy, maintenance, plumber-
electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical
heating, drainage, sanitary, auto mechanic, TV, Refriger-
bers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems,
ator, electrician, washing machine, TV antenna installer
telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and
(satellite) and many others.
electronics.
Mechanical engineering The design and manu-
facture of physical or mechanical systems, such 5 Methodology
as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft
products, weapon systems, transportation prod-
ucts, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics
chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation to nd novel solutions to problems or to improve existing
equipment, manufacturing, and mechatronics. solutions. More than ever, engineers are now required to
have a procient knowledge of relevant sciences for their
design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to
Beyond these Big Four, a number of other branches
are recognized. Historically, naval engineering and learn new material throughout their career.
mining engineering were major branches. Other If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design
engineering elds sometimes included as major choice based on their merit and choose the solution that
branches are manufacturing engineering, acoustical best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique
engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and inter-
control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, pret the constraints on a design in order to yield a success-
petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, ful result. It is generally insucient to build a technically
architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical,[21] successful product, rather, it must also meet further re-
geological, textile, industrial, materials,[22] and nuclear quirements.
engineering.[23] These and other branches of engineering
Constraints may include available resources, physical,
are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions imaginative or technical limitations, exibility for future
of the UK Engineering Council. modications and additions, and other factors, such as re-
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional quirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity,
elds and form new branches for example, Earth sys- and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, en-
5.2 Computer use 5

logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit

knowledge to nd suitable solutions to a problem. Cre-
ating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem
allows them to analyze it (sometimes denitively), and to
test potential solutions.
Usually, multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers
must evaluate the dierent design choices on their mer-
its and choose the solution that best meets their require-
ments. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a
large number of patents, suggested that compromises are
at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at
a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the
core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their
designs will perform to their specications prior to
full-scale production. They use, among other things:
prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests,
nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that
products will perform as expected.
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs
that will perform as well as expected and will not cause
Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from
unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typi-
many elds, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic
cally include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce
and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as
the steam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized. the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the
safety factor, the less ecient the design may be.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engi-
gineers derive specications for the limits within which aneering and can help the product designer in evaluating
viable object or system may be produced and operated. his or her design in the light of real conditions. The dis-
A general methodology and epistemology of engineer- cipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge
ing can be inferred from the historical case studies and collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the
comments provided by Walter Vincenti.[24] Though Vin- cause or causes of the failure.
centis case studies are from the domain of aeronautical
engineering, his conclusions can be transferred into many
other branches of engineering, too. 5.2 Computer use
According to Billy Vaughn Koen, the "engineering method
is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in
a poorly understood situation within the available re-
sources. Koen argues that the denition of what makes
one an engineer should not be based on what he produces,
but rather how he goes about it.[25]

5.1 Problem solving

A computer simulation of high velocity air ow around a Space

Shuttle orbiter during re-entry. Solutions to the ow require
modelling of the combined eects of uid ow and the heat
A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engi- equations.
neering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the
utilization of mathematics and science. As with all modern scientic and technological endeav-
ors, computers and software play an increasingly impor-
Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, tant role. As well as the typical business application soft-
6 6 SOCIAL CONTEXT

ware there are a number of computer aided applications

(computer-aided technologies) specically for engineer-
ing. Computers can be used to generate models of fun-
damental physical processes, which can be solved using
numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession
is computer-aided design (CAD) software like CATIA,
Autodesk Inventor, DSS SolidWorks or Pro Engineer
which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D draw-
ings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with
digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as nite
element method analysis or analytic element method al-
lows engineers to create models of designs that can be
analyzed without having to make expensive and time-
consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for
aws; assess t and assembly; study ergonomics; and
to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems
such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emis-
sions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels,
uid ows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of
all this information is generally organized with the use of
product data management software.[26]
There are also many tools to support specic engi- Robotic Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.
neering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM) software to generate CNC machining instruc-
tions; manufacturing process management software for Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Ex-
production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board amples from dierent engineering disciplines include the
(PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam,
MRO applications for maintenance management; and the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extrac-
AEC software for civil engineering. tion of oil. In response, some western engineering com-
panies have enacted serious corporate and social respon-
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the sibility policies.
development of goods has collectively come to be known
as product lifecycle management (PLM).[27] Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human
development. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, has a
very small engineering capacity which results in many
African nations being unable to develop crucial infras-
6 Social context tructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of
the Millennium Development Goals requires the achieve-
ment of sucient engineering capacity to develop infras-
The engineering profession engages in a wide range of ac- tructure and sustainable technological development.[28]
tivities, from large collaboration at the societal level, and
also smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering All overseas development and relief NGOs make consid-
projects are obligated to some sort of nancing agency: erable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and
a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few development scenarios. A number of charitable organi-
types of engineering that are minimally constrained by zations aim to use engineering directly for the good of
such issues are pro bono engineering and open-design en- mankind:
gineering.
Engineers Without Borders
By its very nature engineering has interconnections with
society, culture and human behavior. Every product or Engineers Against Poverty
construction used by modern society is inuenced by en-
gineering. The results of engineering activity inuence Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
changes to the environment, society and economies, and
its application brings with it a responsibility and pub- Engineers for a Sustainable World
lic safety. Many engineering societies have established Engineering for Change
codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members
and inform the public at large. Engineering Ministries International[29]
7.1 Science 7

Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner

inside National Ignition Facility (NIF) target chamber

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know

It,[36] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research
Radar, GPS, lidar, ... are all combined to provide proper naviga- has a character dierent from that of scientic research.
tion and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007 DARPA First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics
Urban Challenge) or chemistry are well understood, but the problems them-
selves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
Engineering companies in many established economies There is a real and important dierence between engi-
are facing signicant challenges with regard to the num- neering and physics as similar to any science eld has to
ber of professional engineers being trained, compared do with technology.[37][38] Physics is an exploratory sci-
with the number retiring. This problem is very prominent ence that seeks knowledge of principles while Engineer-
in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low ing uses knowledge for practical applications of princi-
status.[30] There are many negative economic and politi- ples. The former equates an understanding into a math-
cal issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues[31] It ematical principle while the latter measures variables in-
is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an volved and creates technology.[39][40][41] For technology,
image crisis,[32] rather than it being fundamentally an physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is con-
unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid huge sidered as applied physics.[42] Though Physics and Engi-
problems in the UK and other western economies. neering are interrelated it doesn't mean a Physicist is suf-
cient where an Engineer is required. For this mobility,
a physicist to work as an engineer requires additional and
relevant specialized training.[43] Physicists and engineers
7 Relationships with other disci- engage in dierent lines of work.[44] But PhD physicists
plines who specialize in sectors of technology and applied sci-
ence are titled as Technology ocer, R&D Engineers and
System Engineers.[45] Though as an engineer, role of a
7.1 Science physicist is limited.[46] Physicists in their eld, work in
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers theoretical analysis and experimental research.[47]
create the world that has never been. An example of this is the use of numerical approxima-
Theodore von Krmn[33][34][35] tions to the NavierStokes equations to describe aerody-
namic ow over an aircraft, or the use of Miners rule to
calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research
There exists an overlap between the sciences and en- employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to
gineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. pure scientic research, one example being the method of
Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of parameter variation.
materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic en-
classication criteria to analyze and communicate obser- gineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:
vations.
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, Engineering is quite dierent from science.
such as designing experimental apparatus or building pro- Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers
totypes. Conversely, in the process of developing tech- try to make things that do not exist in nature.
nology engineers sometimes nd themselves exploring Engineers stress innovation and invention. To
new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scien- embody an invention the engineer must put his
tists or more precisely engineering scientists. idea in concrete terms, and design something
8 7 RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES

that people can use. That something can be a

complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a
method, a computing program, an innovative
experiment, a new solution to a problem, or
an improvement on what already exists. Since
a design has to be realistic and functional, it
must have its geometry, dimensions, and char-
acteristics data dened. In the past engineers
working on new designs found that they did not
have all the required information to make de-
sign decisions. Most often, they were limited
by insucient scientic knowledge. Thus they
studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biol-
ogy and mechanics. Often they had to add to
the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus
engineering sciences were born.[48]

Although engineering solutions make use of scientic

principles, engineers must also take into account safety,
eciency, economy, reliability, and constructability or
ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and
legal considerations such as patent infringement or liabil-
ity in the case of failure of the solution.

7.2 Medicine and biology

The study of the human body, albeit from dierent direc-

tions and for dierent purposes, is an important common Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait,[49]
has been de-
link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. scribed as the epitome of the artist/engineer. He is also known
for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.
Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even re-
place functions of the human body, if necessary, through
the use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the bodys func-
tions through the use of articial organs and can sig-
nicantly alter the function of the human body through
articial devices such as, for example, brain implants
and pacemakers.[50][51] The elds of bionics and medical
bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants
pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human
body as a biological machine worth studying and are ded-
icated to emulating many of its functions by replacing
biology with technology. This has led to elds such as
articial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary in-
teractions between engineering and medicine.[52][53] Genetically engineered mice expressing green uorescent protein,
which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is wild-
Both elds provide solutions to real world problems. This
type.
often requires moving forward before phenomena are
completely understood in a more rigorous scientic sense
and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge
is an integral part of both. the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[56] the
brain produces electrical signals etc.[57] These similari-
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. ties as well as the increasing importance and application
The human body, as a biological machine, has many func- of engineering principles in medicine, led to the devel-
tions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[54] opment of the eld of biomedical engineering that uses
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[55] concepts developed in both disciplines.
7.5 Other elds 9

Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems bi- ment expertise enables professional engineers who are
ology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for also qualied as management consultants to lead major
engineering, such as systems modeling and computational business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are
analysis, to the description of biological systems.[54] typically sponsored by C-level executives.

7.3 Art 7.5 Other elds

There are connections between engineering and art;[58] In other elds not associated with professional engineer-
they are direct in some elds, for example, architecture, ing the word engineer and or engineering has been
landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the adapted to mean design, develop, contrive, manipulate,
extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included implement an outcome. In political science, the term en-
in a universitys Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in gineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects
others.[58][59][60][61] of social engineering and political engineering, which
deal with forming political and social structures using
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an ex-
[62] engineering methodology coupled with political science
hibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design.
principles. Financial engineering has similarly borrowed
Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to
[63] the term.
have been deliberately artistic. At the University of
South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant
with the National Science Foundation, has developed a
course that connects art and engineering.[59][64] 8 See also
Among famous historical gures, Leonardo da Vinci is a
well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime Main article: Outline of engineering
example of the nexus between art and engineering.[49][65]

Lists
7.4 Business Engineering and Engineering
Management List of engineering topics
List of engineers
Business Engineering deals with the relationship between
professional engineering, IT systems, business admin- Engineering society
istration and change management. Engineering man-
agement or Management engineering is a specialized List of aerospace engineering topics
eld of management concerned with engineering prac-
List of basic chemical engineering topics
tice or the engineering industry sector. The demand
for management-focused engineers (or from the oppo- List of electrical engineering topics
site perspective, managers with an understanding of en-
gineering), has resulted in the development of special- List of genetic engineering topics
ized engineering management degrees that develop the
List of mechanical engineering topics
knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an
engineering management course, students will develop List of nanoengineering topics
industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise,
alongside knowledge of business administration, man- List of software engineering topics
agement techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers
specializing in change management must have in-depth Glossaries
knowledge of the application of industrial and organiza-
tional psychology principles and methods. Professional Glossary of engineering
engineers often train as certied management consultants
in the very specialized eld of management consulting ap- Glossary of areas of mathematics
plied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. Glossary of biology
This work often deals with large scale complex business
transformation or Business process management initia- Glossary of chemistry
tives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas,
machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electri- Glossary of physics
cal & electronics, power distribution & generation, util-
ities and transportation systems. This combination of Related subjects
technical engineering practice, management consulting
practice, industry sector knowledge, and change manage- Controversies over the term Engineer
10 9 REFERENCES

Design [8] "The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project", The An-

tikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 2007-
Earthquake engineering 07-01 Quote: The Antikythera Mechanism is now under-
stood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and op-
Engineer erates as a complex mechanical computer which tracks
the cycles of the Solar System.
Engineering economics
[9] Wilford, John. (July 31, 2008). Discovering How Greeks
Engineering education Computed in 100 B.C.. New York Times.

Engineering education research [10] Wright, M T. (2005). Epicyclic Gearing and the An-
tikythera Mechanism, part 2. Antiquarian Horology. 29
Engineers Without Borders (1 (September 2005)): 5460.

[11] Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century Mili-

Forensic engineering tary technology Quote: The 7th century, by contrast, had
witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of
Global Engineering Education the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic in-
struments of war in the 5th. and But it was the develop-
Industrial design
ment of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention
did not predate the 4th century. It was rst heard of in the
Infrastructure
context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of
Dionysius I of Syracuse.
Mathematics
[12] Jenkins, Rhys (1936). Links in the History of Engineering
Open hardware and Technology from Tudor Times. Ayer Publishing. p.
66. ISBN 0-8369-2167-4.
Reverse engineering
[13] Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1997), A Social History of Amer-
Science ican Technology, New York: Oxford University Press, p.
138, ISBN 0-19-504605-6
Science and technology
[14] Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power
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12 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

[54] Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical
Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and
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methodology that has yet to be dened quote2: It applies
the concepts of systems engineering to the study of com-
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tion.
[55] Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The
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[56] Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers
[57] UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of
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[58] Lehigh University project: We wanted to use this project
to demonstrate the relationship between art and architec-
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versity Press. ISBN 0-8018-4588-2.
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Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitb
f ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya. Pakistan Hijara
Council. ISBN 969-8016-25-2.

[59] National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering:

Professor uses the ne arts to broaden students engineer- 11 External links
ing perspectives
National Society of Professional Engineers position
[60] MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James
statement on Licensure and Qualications for Prac-
Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of
the British Design Council, James Dyson has been design-
tice
ing products since graduating from the Royal College of National Academy of Engineering (NAE)
Art in 1970.
American Society for Engineering Education
[61] University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive
(ASEE)
Arts and Engineering
The US Library of Congress Engineering in History
[62] Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASAs
bibliography
Aeronautical Research
Engineering videos at a secondary school level.
[63] Princeton U: Robert Maillarts Bridges: The Art of Engi-
neering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious History of engineering bibliography at University of
of the aesthetic implications ...
Minnesota
[64] quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engi-
neers..

[65] Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper

10 Further reading
Blockley, David (2012). Engineering: a very short
introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-957869-6.

Dorf, Richard, ed. (2005). The Engineering Hand-

book (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 0-8493-
1586-7.

Billington, David P. (1996-06-05). The Innovators:

The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Mod-
ern. Wiley; New Ed edition. ISBN 0-471-14026-0.

Petroski, Henry (1992-03-31). To Engineer is Hu-

man: The Role of Failure in Successful Design. Vin-
tage. ISBN 0-679-73416-3.
 13

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Junaid sipra, Prerit33, Isambard Kingdom, Blestander, Rctillinghast, Fdhrolia, CV9933, Squiver, Syed ibrahim karaikudi, Jdcomix, Wishva
de Silva, KasparBot, Im to gr8 4 u, Mileve043, John Gayton, Engineeringinindia, CAPTAIN RAJU, Scasby, Linguist111, Derededed-
ede, Icantspellwell, Dogegull, Naisaiah, King Isaiah 323, Joshualouie711, Qzd, InternetArchiveBot, QianCheng, 9091mrsmack, Mythili
Murugan, Fjoys, Marianna251, LunaticPhantasm, Christower137, Sperth, ThePlatypusofDoom, Bender the Bot, Ryank2513, Chaotic21,
Whatengineers, AnonimiuZ, HathFury889, Zeeshan Ramzan, JueLinLi, Heididoerr061, Mathan Ram, Wizphysics, SuperSainGouku, Alm-
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