Harmonic Measurements in Industrial Power Systems
PETER E. SUTHERLAND,P.E.
(MEMBER=)
General Electric Company
8 Automation Lane
Albany, N.Y. 12205
Abstract-Harmonic measurements are made in mdus-
trial power systems m order to: (a) aid in the design of
capacitor or filter banks, (b) vetlfy the design and
installation of capacitor or filter banks, (c) verify
compliance with utllay harmonic distortion
requirements and (d) investigate suspected harmonic
problems. The results of these measurements are used
in design calculations, verification, comparison with
standards, and system modeling. Each of these
objectives will affect the choice of a measurement
approach. The selection of the measured quantities,
measurement points in the system, and the types of
instruments and transducers should be based upon the
measurement objective. Once measurements are taken,
additional calculations must be made to put the results
into a useful form. The measurement results will then
provide a h basis for further engineaiug work.
I. INTRODUCTION
Harmonic analysis studies of industrial power systems
require measurement data. An approximate calculation
may be made using estimates of harmonic maguitudes
derived from equipment nameplate data, but this might
not reflect operating conditions. IEEE Standard 519-
1992 [l] contains " m e n d e d practices for
performing harmonic measurements. The harmonic
measurement process begms with the choice of
equipment and techniques that will determine the
validity of the results. General purpose spectnmr
analysis instruments provide a wide variety of possible
measurement modes, from whicb the proper settings for
power system measurements must be chosen. Special-
purpose power system harmonic analyzers exist which
have fewer choices of measurement modes available,
and thus require an uuderstanding of when and how they
can be used. Transducers that provide the low voltage
input for instruments are a critical link in the
measurement process. Measurement points in the
system depend upon what analysis is to be done with
the measurement results.
II. PURPOSES OF HARMONIC
*
A. Harmonic Filter Design and Camcitor Bank Amli-
Before power factor correction capacitors are applied
in a facllay where s i d c a n t sources of harmonic
currents and/or voltages are present, it is usually
0-7803-1877-3/94/$3.000 1994 IEEE
necessary to perform a harmonic analysis to determiue
whether a capacitor bank may be used, or whether a
harmonic filter is needed. Harmonic current injections
from standard power conversion equipment, such as six-
and twelvepulse drives, may be estimated without
measurement. Howewer, the loading and diversity
factors may not be known. In addition, the wide variety
of harmonic producing equipment in a facility may
make estimation difEcult. The harmonic measurements
should be taken at times when the largest harmonic
sources are in steady-state operation at maximum
loading. Harmonic measurements are also needed to
determine the distortion present from the utility system.
This fnctor can only be determined by measurement.
The harmonic measurement data are then used to calcu-
late the expected harmonic currents and voltages to be
experienced by the proposed capacitor or filter bank.
B. Harmonic Filter and Cauacitor Bank Installation
After the desigo process is complete, and a capacitor or
filter bank has been installed, it should be checked to
determine whether the desired results have been ob-
tained and that the bank has been applied viithiu its de-
sign limits. Power factor measurements and fundamen-
tal ffquency voltage and current measurements provide
initial codinnation of correct operation. Measurements
of the harmonic voltages at, and of currents into, the
bank should be compared with the specified harmonic
voltage and current capabilities of the bank. These
measurements are a baseline for tracking the future
performance of the device. Additional measurements
should be taken when any sigtuficant change is made in
the power system. A bank that has been properly
d e s i p d for one set of conditions may fail when
subjected to conditions not envisioned at the time of in-
stallation.
Harmonic current and voltage levels at a common bus
can vary with not only the m a w e , but the phase
angle of the harmonic sources. For this reason, a single
measurement alone may not indicate worst case
conditions. Harmonic measurements should always be
evaluated in conjunction with harmonic calculations.
C. Comoliance with Ut&
"ts
and IEEE 519 Require
The requirements specified by an electric utility com-
pany for harmonic injection by industrial customers
may be checked by measurements, but additional calcu-
105
lations are often needed. IEEE Standard 5 19 [11 speci-
fies allowable levels of harmonic currents at the "point
INCOMING LINE
of common coupling." Harmonic measurements,
coupled with harmonic analysis of both the worst case
conditions and of the &ects of the addition of power
factor correction capacitors or harmonic filters, will
indicate w h d e r or not a possible harmonic problem
exists, and can also serve to venfy the correctness of the
solution.
0"b Q
III.MEASUREMENT POINTS
k Harmonic Filter Design and CaDacitor Bank h l i -

The harmonic measurement data needed for design

calculations consist of harmonic source currents and HARMONIC CURRENT
voltages. Load equipment, such as rectifiers and
variable speed drives, are modeled as harmonic current m
HARMONIC V O L T A G E
sources in the calculations. The incoming harmonics MEASUREMENT POINT

kom elsewbere in the power system, e.g., the utlllty Ke Y

interfaces, are modeled as voltage sources. 1 - Incoming Lme
Voltage and Current
Harmonic current measurements at feeders and at 2 - Incoming Main Breaker
Voltage a n d Current
substation main breakers may be used to trace harmonic 3 - Feeder Breaker Current
currents to their sources. 4 - Low Voltage Substation
Main Breaker Voltage
Current measurements in a substation should be made a n d Current
at feeder breakers in preference to the main breaker (see 5 - Harmonic Source Current
6 - Capacitor Bank Current
Figures 1 and 2). If some of the feeders go to impedance
loads, such as motors, then measurements should be
made on the f w s ) of interest. The reason for this is Figure 1. OneLme Diagram of Typical Industrial Power
that the harmonic curreuts will divide betweea the System Showing Locations for Harmonic Measure-
transformer and the motors. Measurements may be ments.
made at the main breaker as a check. The s u m of the
feeder harmonic currents as measured should not be
expected to be the same as the harmonic currents
measured at the main breaker, because the phase angles M A I N BUS
of the currents are not measured. If power factor VOLTAGE M A I N BREAKER
correction capacitors are present anywhere in the
system, they should be disconnected during the
measurements to avoid resonance effects. i CURRENT

Current measurements should be made on all three

phases if possible, because harmonic currents may be
Imbalanced.
Voltage measurements at the point of common cou-
HARMONIC
SOURCE
CURRENT
4 i) OPEN FOR
MEASUREMENTS

pling are necessary for the harmonic calculations. As W

with the current data, all three phases should be SCR
CAPACITOR
measured

B. Harmonic Filter and CaDacitor Bank Installation
Measurements taken &er installation do not need to
be as extensive as those made earlier. The harmonic
content of the capacitor current, bus voltage, and of the
current and voltage at the utility tie point should be
checked.
Harmonic voltage measurements at substation buses
will help to locate problem resonances. These
measurements should be made with all existing
capacitors connected.
Figure 2. OneLine Diagram of a Substation with Power
Factor Correction Capacitors and DC Drives.
C. Compliance with Utility and IEEE 5 19 Rauirements
Industrial facilities should not supply more than the
allowed amount of harmonic current to the utility. The
point of common coupling is not always where the
metering is located, as is shown in Figure 3. Due to the
expense of high voltage metering equipment, metering is
sometimes performed at the secondary level (Figure 3b),

106
and the utility billing is corrected for the losses in the More work needs to be done on the accuracy of CT
transformer. When harmonic measurements must be circuits at harmonic fkqueacies
made at the secondary level, they too must be corrected. The impedances m defined as follows:

INCOMING LINE Zp --
mor.
Primary Impedance. This is not a factor in CT

I, Zps --Secondary winding capacitance.

Ze-- Excitation Impedance. This fieqwocy
dependent inductance forms a parallel resonant circuit
with Z(-s
Zs-- Secondary winding Mpedance. This is
smaller than Ze, resultmg in a very high resonant fie
q-cy.
z b -- Burden Impedance. This may have fiequency
dependence as well, which is not modeled here.

(0) P r 8 n o r y Meter,ng

i
INCOMING LINE

POINT OF
+------
COMMON
COUPLING

(b) Secondory Metering Zb

Figure3. OneLine Diagrams Showing Point of

Common Coupling: (a) Primary MeCering, (b) Secon- Figure 4. Current Measurement (a) Circuit, (b)
dary Metering Equivalent Circuit [2].

The Ratio Correction Factor may be calculated from the

N.HARMONIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES formula [2]:
k Transducers
RCF = 1+*+*
z+z z+z,
Current Transformers It is preferable for safety rea- L, Le
sons to make current measurements at locations where Ibe resonant fkquency of Ze and ZCS is well above
current transformers (CTs) are already present for relay- the range of interest. If resistance is neglected, the
ing or metering pwposes. A clamp-on current probe is resonant fiequency of L and C is:
normally attached to the CT secondary leads. l'his
may be done at the back of a relay, or at an ammeter or
ammeter switch.
1
f= (2)
CT accuracy is usually specified only for 60 Hz 2 n m
According to the IEEEStandard 5 19-1992 [11, CTs have Ifthe inductance is fiequency dependent,
an accuracy in the range of 3% at frequencies up to 10 r
L
kHz [2]. The fiequea~cyresponse characteristics of a CT
circuit are a function of the internal impedances of the
CT and its burden. This is illustrated in Figures 4 and 5.
L=3
then the resonant ftequency becomes:
(3)

107
 & -- Impedance of the measurement circuit.
(4)
The input circuit consists of the resistance and induc-
tance of the system forming a low-pass filter with the
For values of Lo = 8, and C = 1 nF for a CT tested by input capacitance of the VT. This does not affect the
Douglas [2], the resonant fkqwncy is approximately
21.6kHz This is well above the range of interest.
The percentage error as compared to the fundamental
1 4800120

may be calculated using (1). For the CT [2] and burden

combination shown, the maximum error at the 50th
harmonic of 60 Hz is less than l.oO/o. l'his is illustrated
in Figure 5. If similar data was available for other CTs,
and if burden impedances versus h q w c y were known,
the accuracy of actual measurement situations could be
2valuated.

C T RATIO C O R R E C T I O N FACTOR

1D1 -
lms .. MBwden MhOUIBwden
m ..
1

laxL ..
Input Ze ZCS Zm Zb
Circuit

(b)
1m1 ..
1 , ; , : , : , , : , : + Figure 6. Voltage transformer, Burden and Harmonic
1 5 9 1 3 1 7 2 1 Z 5 2 8 3 3 3 7 4 1 4 6 4 8
Analyzer Input: (a) Circuit, (b) Equivalent Circuit [3].
HARYOWIC

PT RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR

Figure 5 . Current Measurement Equivalent Circuit F r e
q w c y Response Curves [2]. The CT modeled has a
ratio of 4000/5. The burden is a relay with R = 0.1
ohm, L = 9 3 m

Voltage transformers. Magnetic type voltage

transformers (VTs) are typically used in Industrial
Power Systems. The typical accuracy of a VT [l] is
within 3% for harmonics less than 5 kHz [3]. A typical
VT measurement circuit is shown in Figure 6. "he
Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) [3] is:
1 1 1 1
RCF = l+Z;(-+-+-+-)
4 z, z
c3 zln
Where:
zPs -- Winding Impedance. 'Ihis includes a series R-L
term, and a primary-secondary capacitance.
zb -- Burden Impedance.
ZCS - Secondary capacitance to ground.
2, -- Excitation Impedance. This varies with frequency
in a similar manner to the CT impedance.
Figure 7. Voltage transformer, Burden and Harmonic
Analyzer Input: Frequency Response C w e s [3], using
(5) the data of Figure 6. The burden resistance is 2960
Ohms.and the inductance is 1.52 Henries.
response m the fkquency range considered here. 'Ihe
internal resonant fiequencies of the VT may be analyzed
in a similar manner to those of the CT. These reso-
nances also are above the fieqmcy range of interest for
harmonic measurements.
Direct Connections Direct connection may be made to
Low Voltage circuits in cases where CTs and VTs are
not available. Voltage measurements may be performed
using a 100:1 Oscilloscope probe with d 6 c i e a t voltage
rating. Current measurements may be made by

108
attaching a clampon Current Probe around a cable or
busbar. For all direct measurements, the connection
should only be made while the circuit is de-energzed,
locked out and grounded. The grounds must be
removed, and the circuit reenergzed before the
measurement is made.
B. Probes
Clampon Current Transformers. The clampon cur-
rent transformer contains a split-core in a hmged struc-
ture that allows for easy attachment to the circuit being
investigated. A small burden resistance (typically 5
Ohms) is attached to the CT output. It is selected so as
not to cause saturation, but to provide mthcient input
voltage for the instrument. Frequency response
specifications and/or curves should be available h m
the manufacturer to aid in selection. Clampon CTs are
available in many styles, current ranges, ftequency
ranges, and accuracies. Many CTs designed for use at
60 Hz have an accuracy that fills off rapidly at the
higher harmonics, while CTs designed for higher ffe-
quencies may not be accurate at 60 Hz Suitable
current probes have an accuracy of 0.5 to 2% over a
frequency range of 50 to 10,000 Hz
Hall Wect Probes. Hall effect current probes are
similar to clampon current transformers in their manner
of usage. The semiconducting Hall d e c t device allows
DC currents to be measured as well as AC currents.
?be specified accuracy for typical commercial probes is
2 to 5% over a frequency range of dc to 500 or 1000 Hz
Hall effect probes have not been generally used for
harmonic measurements in power systems,
Voltaae Probes. Voltage probes used for harmonic
measurement serve two fimctions: to reduce the meas-
ured voltage to one usable by the instrument, and to
ke disturbance to the system being measured.
Standard oscilloscope probes are generally used for
harmonic measurements. The two major characteristics
of an oscilloscope probe are high resistance (typically
10 MO) and low capacitance (typically 10-100 pF for a
1OX probe and 2 pF for a lOOX probe) [4]. The
inductance is negbgible. Probe ftequency response is in
the hundreds of MHZ Care should be taken not to ex-
ceed the voltage rating of the probe.
The ground lead of the probe is a critical part of the
measurement circuit. I f a differential input amplifier is
available, two probes may be used, and the ground leads
removed f h m the probes. Where a single-ended meas-
urement must be made, the ground lead may be con-
nected to the grounded side of the circuit being meas-
ured onlv if the voltage is first measured between the
instruments ground (usually the case, which is con-
nected to the third wire of the 120 volt plug for s & ~ )
and the point where the ground lead is to be attached,
and found to be within acceptable limits. It is often the
109
case in a power system that the ground of Voltage
transformers in switchgear is not the same as the ground
of nearby receptacle outlets. If these two grounds are
not the same, applying the ground lead may cause a
short circuit to occur, which may be dangerous to
personnel and damaging to equipment.
C. J e m t h u t Interface
howdance The input impedance of an instrument is
characterized by a resistance and a capacitance.
Typically, harmonic analyzers have a 1 MO input
resistance that is compatible with scope probe inputs.
?be input capacitance of an instrumeat may be in the
range of 10.100 pF. This is too small to have a
noticeable effect for harmonic measurements. If a probe
is used, its input resistance and capacitance apply, not
those of the instrument.
Voltaee Ihe inputs of instruments are only able to
withstand a small voltage. Overvoltages will cause
measurement errors and possibly equipment damage.
Because of this,the use of a lOOX oscilloscope probe is
recommended.
The input range selection should be carefully noted.
Whether the input has manual or auto- ranging, the best
accuracy is obtained when the amplitude signal being
measured is near the top of the range being used.
D. HarmonicAnalvzers
D!Es
Harmonic measurements may be made with any of
several types of measurement systems. Almost all
harmonic analyzers now use the Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) calculation procedure [9] for sampled data.
SWCtrUm Analvzers combine the fimctions of data
input, calculation, and presentation of harmonic
data, usually on an oscilloscope screen. These.are
available in both laboratory and portable types. A
wide variety of frequency ranges and accuracy
levels are available, some of which are suitable for
power system use.
Portable Comwters may be fitted with analog input
boards and used as a spectrum analyzer. The FFT
may be pedormed in software or on a digital signal
processing board.
Power Svstem Harmonics Analvzer. Special
purpose instruments are available to measure
power system harmonics. Harmonic analysis
capability is also available as a feature on other
types of instrument, such as power and disturbance
analyzers.
 Digital Stora~Oscilloscom [5] may be used to and included as if they were lower frequency spectral
gather sampled data, which is then transferred to a lines. Aliasing may cause measurement errors when
computer for processing. signals are present in the system which have a higher
frequency than the highest frequency being measured.
?his effect is minimized by anti-aliasing filters, present
in all harmonic analyzers. Because aliasing is caused
by outside signals, its &kt cannot be included in the
percentage error of the instrumeat. 'Ihe specification
Minimum SDecifications. which describes aliasing is the steepness of the anti-
aliasingfilter.
Fmuencv Ranee. The frequency range to be measured
depends upon the purpose of the measurement. For
capacitor and harmonic filter design and application, Aliasing o f 6 5 t h H a r m o n i c
only those harmonics which have sufEcient m a m e
to affect the current and voltage rating of the device
need to be considered. Typically, measurements may
be made up to the 25th harmonic. The requirements of
IEEE Standard 519-1992 [l] include limitations on
harmonics above the 35th order. Instruments measuring
up to the 50th harmonic (3000 Hz in a 60 Hz system)
may be used. In many situations, harmonic magnaudes
above the 25th are so low that they have no practical
effect.
128 S a m p l e s
Accuracy. It is recommended in IEEE Standard 519-
1992 [l], that the harmonic analyzer used have an
accuracy of 5% of the harmonic limit specified in that
(a)
standard. For example, the limit for current harmonics
supplied fiom a distribution system at the point of
common coupling is 0.3% of the fundamental for odd Aliasing of 65th Harmonic
harmonics of order greater than 35. An error of 5% in
measuring 0.3% means that the overall accuracy must ~ 'T
be 0.015% of the fimdamental. For even harmonics, the
limit is 25% of this. In many practical cases,
measurement may be limited to the first 25 odd
harmonics, resulting in an accuracy requirement of
0.075% of the fimdamental.

Noise in the instrument input circuit may be specified

as an additional source of error in harmonic analyzers.
This should be well below the level of the input signal.
In order to "ise errors caused by noise, the input
voltage to the instrumat should be well above the lower
limit of the input range.
Dvnamic Ranee. 'Ihe dynamic range of the instrument
should be checked to ensure that the smallest detectable
variations are not larger than the resolution required.
The binary word length of the Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC) provides the dynamic range. In order
to resolve a signal variation of 0.015% of fbll scale, a
dynamic range of 76 dl3 is needed. 'Ihis may be
provided by a 14 bit ADC. ADC specifications also
include a linearity error term on the order of f l Least
Significant Bit. This ADC error is included in the
overall instrument specification.
Aliasing occurs when signals of frequencies higher than
the upper limit of the spectrum displayed ace sampled
I O
0
, :
16
. I
32
I
48 64 83 96112
Harmonic
@)
Figure 8. (a) Time plot of the &ect of sampling a signal
of a frequency N/2 + 1 cycles per sampling period.
Here, N = 128 and a = 1. (b) The result of the FFT of
this signal, showing aliasing to N/2 - 1 cycles.
Aliasing is a consequence of the sampling process, and
opemtes on the same principles as the sampling of a
hquency within the range desired. For an N point
sample, frequenciesfrom 0 to N/2 - 1 cycles per sample
period are captured, and the FFT will display them at
the correct fiequency. When the signal fresuency is
between N/2 and N cycles per sample period, two or
fewer samples per cycle are taken Aliasing occurs when
the FFT maps these frequencies into the range of 0 to
N/2 - 1. The amplitude level of the signal is preserved
during aliasing. The spectral Lines are mirrored at N/2,

110
_. .
so that a signal of N/2 +1 is displayed as if it were N/2 -
1. This phenomenon also occurs with desired signals,
so that a signal of fieqwncy 1 is mirrored at N - 1.
When the FFT is calculated, the magnitudes of the lines
fiom 0 to N/2 - 1 are doubled, and the higher order lines
are dropped.
Let the sampled signal be expressed as a h c t i o n of
the sample number, n:
where h is the harmonic order, N the number of
samples, and 8 the phase angle of the signal. If h is
expressed as a function of N/2 and a, where a is the
order of the aliasing:
f(n)=sin
['X
- )+ @) . -+a (7)
lhis may be expressed as the product of a cosine wave
of fiequency N/2 and a sine wave of fiequency a:
This product models the modulation effect shown in
Figure 8(a), and may be expressed as two sidebands of
Nl2:
. - ' /o\
?be FFT produces both of the above terms in an N-line
output. An example is shown in Figure 8@). This is
reduced to N/2 lines, with the values doubled, in the
final output. If a is negative, then the signal is within
the range of the FFT and the aliasing is at the higher
-
fiequency of N a cycles.
A harmonic analyzer that samples 128 times, as in
Figure 8, may have a display that goes to the 50th
barmonic. The 78th harmonic would be aliased to the
50th with a magnitude l/n of 0.0128, causing a 64%
error in the measurement of the 50th harmonic of
magnitude 0.02. Anti-aliasing filters are used to reduce
this error.
Anti-aliasing filters are steep rolloff analog or digital
filters placed in the instrument before sampling takes
place. The filter rolloff starts below the fiequency N/2.
111
- ~
Typical starting points are 50 out of 64 and 400 out of
512 cycles per sampling period. A typical value of
rolloff is -130 dB per Decade. For the example of
Figure 8, the attenuation would be:
Atten. = 13Olog( $) (io)
=25.1 dB
= 5.56%
?bus the aliased signal is .0556/78 = 0.000712 per rmit,
causing a 3.6% m o r in the 0.02 per lmit 50th harmonic.
I h e slope of this anti-aliasing filter is illustrated in
Figure 9.
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Harmonic
Figure 9. Anti-aliasing filter rolloff at -130 &/decade
starting at the 50th harmonic. For a 64 point FFT,
harmonics beyond the 78th would be aliased.
For another example, suppose that the spectral lines
are spaced every 5 Hz,and 400 lines are displayed, the
maximum harmonic shown is the 3314 and the
maximum frequency is 2000 Hz With 512 bits m the
FFT, samples are taken up to 2560 Hz,just below the
43rd harmonic. 'Ihe first aliased hquency that can
appear in the display is 3120 Hz,or the 52nd harmonic.
At -130 dB/decade starting at 2000 Hz.,the attenuation
at 3120 Hz is 25.1 dB.,as in the example above. As
above, this will result in a 3.5% error m the 33rd
harmonic for l/h amplitude distributions.
W i n d o w is used in spectnmr analyzers to provide
filtering in the time domain and bandwidth control in
the frequency domain. Windowing in an FFT spectrum
analyzer performs the same function as bandpass
filtering did in earlier spectnrm analyzers which used
analog electronics. In the time domain, discrepancies
due to changes in the signal during the sampling period
are removed. Windowing is performed by multiplying
the sampled data by a window function, which is zero at
each end of the time record.
A signal should have exactly the same voltage at the
beginning of each consecutive sampling interval [8].
Tbis may be accomplished if the system is in a steady-
-.
state condition with only integral order (characteristic)
harmonics and the sampling mterval, T, is an integral
multiple of the fundamental cycle time, 1/ Under
these conditions, each spectral line of the FFT contains
information on the magnitude of its respective harmonic
only. For N samples, N/2 lines are generated, giving a
maximum harmonic order of
..I
If 1024 samples are taken in 0.2 Seconds, Lax = 42.
The spectral lines are spaced 1/0.2 or 5 Hz apart. In
order to detect non-characteristic harmonics, a
fiequency resolution of less than 60 Hz is required. The
amount of resolution between characteristic harmonics
depends upon the length, T, of the sampling interval.
The bandwidth of the measurement is usually wider
than the resolution due to windowing.
The N samples of the waveform being measured are
assumed by the FFT to be exactly repeated over all
time. If there is a discrepancy in the endpoints, then
errors will occur where signals fiom one fkquency are
added to those at anothex fiequency in the result. "his
is called spectral leakage. Suppose that the sampled
signal has a small frequency &or, E, in comparison
with the sample period, T
f ( t ) = sin(w.t.m(l+s)) (12)
where0=2-n*f7andmisaninteger. TheFourier
Series of this fimction is:
F(t) = cmC,
n=O cos( o e t en + 4,) (13)
where
2nsin( nmE)
=Abs{ n a b } (14)
and a = m (1 + E) - n, b = m (1 + E) + n. Notice that m
is the original harmonic order of the measured signal,
while n is the harmonic order of the calculated
harmonic. This equation may be used to calculate the
leakage error for a small fiequency deviation between
the fiequency being measured and the sampling rate of
the instrument. As an example, a third harmonic signal
measured with a fieqmcy error of 1% gives a second
harmonic component as follows: m = 3, n = 2, E = 0.01,
a = 1.03, b = 5.03, Cn = 0.023. The second harmonic
leakage component is thus 2.3% of the third harmonic
signal. This example is illustrated m Figure 10.
112
. -.
Ifthe error, E, goes to zero, then Cn also goes to zero
unless m = n. When m = n,
2 sin(n-n.E)
q=-.
2 + ~n - n . E '
(15)
which goes to 1 if E goes to zero. One method of
making m = n is to use a phaselocked loop circuit to
lock the sampling period to the power system fiequency.
Third Harmonic x 1.01 1
128 Samples
magnitude
Third Hanonicx1.01 showing leakage.
E 0.05
F 0.04
9 0.03
42 0II 0.02
.E= 0.01
i o
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213
Harmonic Order
~
(b)
Figure 10. Illustration of spectral leakage. (a) Third
harmonic signal with 1% f i e q w c y error. (b) Magnitude
of leakage for lower order harmonic fiequencies.
This is valid as long as neither the f i e q w c y nor the
harmonic content changes during the sampling interval
In the general case, the approach that is used is to
multiply the data by a window fimction that forces it to
zero at each end of the sampling interval [6,7l.This can
only be done accurately if several cycles of the
fundamental are included in the sample interval.
Twelve or more cycles are usually taken. The window
function that provides the best measurement accuracy is
the Flat Top or P201 window, developed by RW. Potter
[6]. 'Ihis window has an accuracy of 1% or better for
signals within the passband, and has minimal ripple
outside, resultiug m very little leakage.
 1
3
mvrms
b

300
uVrms
/DIV

0
Vrms nn- A A A-A- n-n A - A I\

mVolt

5
m V o 1t
/DIV

-20 I
START: 0 Sec STOP: 200 mSec
X: 60 Hz Y: 9.644 mVrms

Figure ll(a). Example of harmonic time and fieqmcy plots.

The lack of a window is a window itself, called the

uniform window [SI. The passband of the uniform
window is the same shape as the Fourier Trandorm of a
rectangular pulse. This is called the Dirichlet kernel, 60 9.643840
120 0.172305
and crosses the h o k t a l axis at integral multiples of 180
240
, 0.111622
0.031441
l/r. All of the signals within any of the lobes are 300 2.22e435
360 0.010796
reported m the FFT as part of the harmonic being 420 0.406912
480 0.031020
measured. 540 0.160509
604 0.021196
660 0.838977
no 0.011017
780 0.211742
E. Wut Formats 840
WO
0.050962
0.165291
960 0.020547
1020 0.516714
Data Storage Requirements. Because of the large 1080 0.014085
1140 0.126692
amount of measurement data collected, the harmonic 1200 0.021903
analyzer should have sufficient non-volatile data 1260 0.149194
1320 0.016943
memory. 'fhis can be in the form of bubble memory, 1380
1440
0.320812
0.019600
solid-state memory cards using electrically erasable 1500 0.102153
1560 0.039994
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) or similar 1620 0.151095
1680 0.023227
devices. Floppy disk data storage may be used ifthe 1740 0.274709
1a00 0.017199
e"ent permits. 1060 0.022349
1920 0.021852
1980 0.119536
Printed Results. The measurement results may be RSS -- 9.9768 mV
printed with both time and frequency plots alongside the
tabulated harmonic magnitudes, as shown in Figure 11.
MO
Vrum - 26.5054 %
16.1146 mV

These results may be printed automatically by the use of

a computer that interfaces with the harmonic analyzer.
Figure 1l(b). Example of harmonic measurement
results m tabular format.

113
 HARMONIC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DATA SHEET
T U T LCCATIOY:
C I M I T D.S(3UPTIO*:
:ma= E VG:~
Figure 12. Example of a harmonic measurement data collection form.
V. EVALUATION OF RESULTS
A. Additional Calculations Needed
The result of a harmonic measurement consists of a
millivolt level for each firesuency on each phase. l'his
can be converted to system volts or amperes by
multiplying by the CT or VT ratios and by taking into
account transducers and burden resistors. It is
important that all necessary data be recorded m the
field. A typical data recording form is shown in Figure
12. This also contains spaces for recording data directly
if an instrument with memory is not available.
Because the power system is modeled with a oneline
equivalent circuit, the harmonic magnaudes fkom all
three phases should be averaged. The harmonics should
be converted to a percentage of the fimdamental, as well
as to system amperes and volts. The total harmonic
distortion ('ITID) and total demand distortion O D ) [l]
must also be calculated.
Harmonics are evaluated on a steady-state basis,
meaning that design values are constant for periods of 1
hour or more [ 11, it may be necessary to average several
measurements taken at different times. This may be
done within the instrument, or later when the data is
114
DATI: ___
TUP: ~
R
Load
mtio
up.
-
-
PT mtlo
CKT Volt.
-
m c or SCOPC:
TIPC or LOAD:
?YPC Or PICK W D M C C :
being analyzed. Careful measurement procedure should
eliminate this added complication in most cases.
B. Use ofresults
The harmonic analysis program should first be used to
model the existing system as a base case. As many case
conditions as necessary should be used to model all
switching configurations in the system. From this the
m a x i " harmonic current magmitudes can be
determined for the PCC and compared with the limits
specified in IEEE Standard 519-1992 [l], or other
standard as required. "his will aid in determining
whether a harmonic filter is necessary. The harmonic
currents and voltages at existing capacitors and har-
monic filters may be calculated and compared with their
ratings.
The next step is to analyze the system for resonances,
usmg existing or recommended capacitors as necessary.
Calculations pdormed usually include determining
amplification factors for injected currents, and
impedance magnitudes and angles. Both of these
calculations produce plots of harmonic scans across the
fkequency range of interest. These calculations should
be done for all case conditions, and for all permutations
of component tolerances within each case condition.
 When appropriate capacitor and/or filter sizes and
locations have been determined, the current and voltage
calculations performed originally should be repeated.
Using the design values, currents and voltages should be
calculated for all permutations of component tolerances
during all case conditions. The worst case results
should then be used in specifying the components. The
current values at the PCC should be compared with the
limits given in IEEE Standard 519-1992 [l], or other
required standard, and with base case values. The
harmonic currents should be reduced to an acceptable
level in the h a 1 result.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
By careful selection of equipment and techniques,
useful harmonic measurements may be made in
industrial power systems.
The accuracy of the various portions of the
measurement system may be estimated as follows, in
percentage of the measured harmonic:
Instrument Transformers 0.1 -- 1%
current Probes 0.5 -- 2%
Harmonic Analyzer 5 yo
Aliasing 0 -- 3.6%
Windowing 0 *- 1%
Leakage 0 -- 5%
Overall measurement error should be on the order of
10% of the harmonic magnitude. If a harmonic is
measured which is 0.3% of the fimdamental, the overall
accuracy required is 0.03%. The instrument accuracy
should then be 0.015% of the fuudamental or better.
The least expensive way to improve accuracy is to use
the spectrum analyzer fumction selections wisely.
Current probe selection is also of critical importance.
The use of probes not designed for use above 60 Hz
can result m far greater inaccuracies.
When the measurements have been completed, they
may be used in harmonic calculations to design filters
and to check compliance with stsndards. If the
measurements have been performed with their final use
m mind, the h a 1 result will be both accurate and useful.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Mr. Randall Schlake of
General Electric Company, who developed some of the
test procedures described here, including the document
shown in Figure 12. The author would also like to
thank Mr. Louie Powell of General Electric Company
for his many helpful suggestions.
115
REFERENCES
[ 11 IEEE Standard 519-1992: IEEE Recommended
Practices and Requirementsfor Harmonic Control
in Electrical Power Systems. New York: IEEE,
1993.
[2] D. A. Douglas, "Current Transformer Accuracy
with Asymmetric and High Frequency Fault
Currents," in ZEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus andsystems, Vol. PAS-100, No.3, pp.
1006-1011, March, 1981.
[3) D. k Douglas, "Voltage transformer Accuracy at
60 Hz Voltages Above and Below Ratmg and at
Frequencies Above 60 Hz," m IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS- 100,
No.3, pp. 1370-1375, March, 1981.
[4] Tektranix, Inc., ABC's of Probes, Beaverton, Ore-
gon: Tektronix, Inc., 1989.
[5] J.K.Winn, Jr., D.R Crow, "Harmonic Measure-
ments Using a Digital Storage Oscilloscope," in
IEEE Transactions on Indusw Applications, Vol.
IA-25,N.4, p ~ 783-788,
. JUlyIAUguSt 1989.
[6] Dick Benson, Techniquesfor Signal and System
Analysis, PN 363-0100-01, Beaverton, Oregon:
Tektronix, Inc., 1991.
[7l The Fundamentals of Signal Analysis, Application
Note 243, Palo Alto, CA: Hewlett-Packard, 1985.
[8] F.J. Harris, "Onthe Use of Windows for Harmonic
analysis with the Discrete Fourier Transform," in
Proceedings ofthe IEEE, Vol. 66, NO. 1, pp. 51 -
83. January, 1978.
[9] W.T. Cochran, J.W.Cooley, "What is the Fast
Fourier Transform?" in Proceedings of the IEEE,
Vol. 5 5 , No. 10, pp. 1664-1674, October, 1967.