Commission of the European Communities

R.MOURAREAU
and
M.THOMAS

PIRES in
BUILDinGS
ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS
FIRES IN BUILDINGS
This first symposium has been organised by:
the Commission of the European Communities (CEC)
the European Association of Professional Fire Brigade Officers (AE)
with the assistance of
the Conference of Fire Protection Associations (CFPA)
the Association of Fire-testing Laboratories of European Industries (IL)
the Association of European Manufacturers of Fire and Intruder Alarm
Systems (EURALARM)

ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Chairman: R. Mourareau, CEC, DG III, Brussels

Secretary: J. Ph. Hayez, AE, Belgium
Publications: D. Nicolay, CEC, DG XIII, Luxembourg
Local organisation: R. Linster, CEC, DG IX, Luxembourg
A. Lickes, AE, Luxembourg

Members: M. Thomas, CEC, DG III, Brussels

J. M. Delesderrier, AE, Switzerland
R. J. Knowlton, AE, United Kingdom
J. J. Descoutures, AE, France
W. H. K. Becker, AE, IL, FR Germany
P. Vandeveide, Rijksuniversiteit Gent, Belgium
H. Aresu de Seui, ANPI, CFPA, Belgium
C. D. Woodward, FPA, CFPA, United Kingdom
G. Linden, Verband der Sachversicherer, CFPA,
FR Germany
M. Maillet, EURALARM, Switzerland
D. De Witte, EURALARM, Switzerland
 FIRES IN BUIL DINGS
Proceedings of a European Symposium
held in L uxembourg, 18-21 September 1984

Edited by

R. MOURAREAU and M. THOMAS

Commission of the Eu ropean Commu nities,
Directorate-General Internal Market and Indu strial Affairs, Bru ssels

ELSEVIER APPL IED SCIENCE PUBL ISHERS

LONDON and NEW YORK

51 ?
ext r ^\ ,
 ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex IG 11 8JU, England

Sole distributor in the USA and Canada

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING CO., INC.
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

WITH 59 TABLES AND 97 ILLUSTRATIONS

ECSC, EEC, EAEC, BRUSSELS AND LUXEMBOURG, 1985

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Fires in buildings: proceedings of a European

symposium held in Luxembourg, 18-21 September
1984.(EUR; 9891)
1. Fire prevention
I. Mourareau, R. II. Thomas, M.
628.9'22 TH9145

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Fires in buildings.

Organised by the Commission of the European

Communities ...[et al.]
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Fire preventionCongresses. I. Mourareau, R.
II. Thomas, M. III. Commission of the European
Communities.
TH9112.F563 1985 628.9'22 85-10343

ISBN 0-85334-381-0

Publication arrangements by Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-

General Information Market and Innovation, Luxembourg

EUR 9891

LEGAL NOTICE

Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf of
the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the following information.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed in Great Britain by Galliard ( Printers) Ltd, Great Yarmouth

 INTRODUCTION

Fire in buildings, and the protection of buildings from fires, is

enormously expensive in economic as well as human terms. The totality of
the costs associated with fire have been estimated to be as high as one
per cent of GDP. Of this figure, 30% alone is accounted for by measures
for the protection of buildings against fire.

The symposium reported in this volume was held in order to assess the
social, technical and economic aspects of fire prevention and the
protection of buildings against fire, and on this basis to determine the
measures that can be taken to cut costs and reduce risks. Of the various
possible measures, particular stress was laid on the harmonization of
standards and regulations with a view to ensuring the free movement of the
relevant products and technologies throughout the European Community
market, and also on research, innovation and the use of advanced products
and techniques.

The discussions fell under the following main headings:

- organization of fire services, their capabilities and limits;

- prevention, fire-fighting and the economics involved;
- fire prevention and protection laws, regulations and techniques in
Member States of the European Conmunity.

More than 400 participants attended the symposium, which included a series
of four working groups dealing with economics, tests and classification,
regulations, and the problems of fire services.

On the basis of reports by the workshop chairmen, a list of points to

follow up has been established including topics such as

- information, training and education

- regulations
- standardization, testing and certification
- research
- economic aspects,

which will be examined in detail and in a European Community context.

The symposium marks a turning point in the approach to fire safety in

buildings, initiating a new, European Community, attack on the economic
burden of fire in buildings.
 Vil

C O N T E N T S

Introduction

OPENING SESSION

Welcoming address by
F. BODEN, Ministre de l'Education Nationale du Grand Duch
de Luxembourg 2

Openinq address by
F. BRAUN, Director-General for Internal Market and Industrial
Affairs, Commission of the European Communities 5

Address by the president of the European Association of

Professional Fire Brigade Officers
J.M. DELESDERRIER 7

PRELIMINARY THEME - FIRE SERVICES

The organization of fire brigades - Their capabilities and

limitations
K. SEEGERER, Oberbranddirektor-, Munich Fire Service 12

Priorities in firefighting
G. CLARKE, CBE FIFire, Hampshire Fire Brigade 21
Priorities in prevention
C. DIRMER, Civil Security Directorate, Ministry of the Interior,
Paris 37

THEME I - COSTS AND BENEFITS OF FIRE PROTECTION

Part 1

Opening remarks by the session chairman

C D . WOODWARD 50
The cost of f i r e
P. DE MOULINS-BEAUFORT, French National Fire Prevention
and Protection Centre, Paris 51
 Vill

Fire risk analysis and costs and benefits of fire prevention

A. GRABER, Fire Safety Department of the CCS (Construction
and Safety Control) Branch of the Bureau VERITAS,
Levai lois-Perret 59

The importance of structural fire prevention measures

A.E. BAMERT, Fire Prevention Service, Zurich 69
Costs and benefits of fire protection - Contribution of building
contents
D. BURNS, Institute for Industrial Research and Standards,
Dublin 86

Fire detection - The first stage in firefighting

F. HEMME, Siemens AG, Munich 94
Costs and benefits of automatic sprinkler systems
R.A. YOUNG, Fire Offices Committee, London 99
Automatic firefighting systems: gaseous and powder systems
A.E. DRINKWATER, The Walter Kidde Company Ltd, Northolt,
on behalf of EUROFEU 103

THEME I - Part 2

Firefighting by people in the buildings

H. ARESU DE SEUI, ANPI (National Fire Protection Association),
Louvain-la-Neuve 110

Escape from fire

H.L. MALHOTRA, Fire Protection Consultant, Radlett.
Herts 115

Salvage operations during the intervention

G. KARRAN, West Yorkshire Fire Service 126
Salvage after fire, corrosion and reconditioning of buildings
A. WEISS, Winterthur Versicherungen, Munich 132
Insurance and fire protection
E.C. WESSELS, Technical Bureau for Loss Prevention, Baarn 140
Legislation and control
P. CANOVAN, Home Office, Fire Department, London 147
Precautions against arson
C D . WOODWARD, British Fire Protection Association, London 154
 IX

THEME II - SIMILARITIES OF FIRE PROTECTION IN BUILDINGS

Part 1

Introduction by the session chairman

J. WITTEVEEN 163
The fundamentals of fire protection
D. STEINHOFF, Advisor to the Senator for Construction and
Housing, Berlin 165

Desiqn requirements for buildings

G. FERENCZY, Socotec Export Division, Montigny-le-Bretonneux 172

Requirements for building elements, materials and contents

E. PEDERSEN, Danish Fire Protection Association, Birkereid 184
Fire development modelling
P.H. THOMAS, Fire Research Station, Borehamwood 187
Testing and classification of the resistance to fire of building
components
P. VANDEVELDE, Rijksuniversiteit Gent 201

Safety concepts - European fire engineering

M. KERSKEN-BRADLEY, Institut fr Bautechnik, Berlin 213
Concrete and masonry structures
K. KORDINA, Institut fr Baustoffe, Technische Universitt
Braunschweig 223

Steel structures
M. LAW, Ove Arup Partnership, London 234
The fire resistance of timber structures
E. SAUVAGE, Timber Industry Technical Centre, Brussels 243
The fire performance of timber-frame multiple-occupation buildings
- Existing examples
M. AYMARD, Fire and Emergency Services, Hautes-Alpes Department,
Gap 245

THEME II - Part 2

Report on a comparative study on reaction-to-fire tests in the EC

G. BLACHERE, AUXIRBAT, Paris 252
Toxic hazards in fire
C. HERPOL, Rijksuniversiteit Gent 261
Wood products
G.S. HALL, TRADA (Timber Research & Development Association),
Bucks 277

Textiles and flooring materials

L. BENISEK, International Wool Secretariat, Development Centre,
Ilkley 287

Mineral boards
G. NEUHAUSER, Gebr. Knauf Westdeutsche Gipswerke, Iphofen 295
Mineral fibres
J.P. LEROY, Isover Saint-Gobain, Rantigny 308
Plastic foams
J. TROITZSCH, Dr. Troitzsch Brandschutz Service, Wiesbaden 322
Fires in buildings: the behaviour of rigid plastic products
U. FLISI, Montepolimeri C.S.I., Bollate (Mi) 326
The contents and the buildings
J. FISHBEIN and H. CREYF, EUROPUR (European Association of
Flexible Foam Blocks Manufacturers), London 337

Means of fire protection in buildings: sprinklers, C0 ? , halons

- Study of similarities
H. BINEAU, Centre National de Prvention et de Protection,
Paris 342

Smoke and heat extractors

S. HALPAAP, Bayer AG, Leverkusen 350
Fire detection systems
F. DE COSTER, EURALARM, Erps-Kwerps 369

THEME III - INNOVATIONS

Innovation in fire protection techniques - Electronic systems for

fire detection, alarm, fighting
A.A.M. BORREMANS, Siemens Nederland N.V., The Hague 374

New intervention techniques

R.C. PARAMOR, Essex County Fire Brigade, Brentwood 383
Protective clothing for firefighting personnel
C.H.M. HAVER, Velsen Fire Service 390
Summary by the session chairman
J.M. DELESDERRIER 400
 XI

SUMMARIES OF THE WORKSHOPS

1 - Economics 404
2 - Tests and classification 410
3 - Regulations 415
4 - Problems of fire services 419

CLOSING SPEECH by
D. VERDIANI, Director, Directorate-General "Internal Market
and Industrial Affairs", Commission of the European Communities 430

ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN DER VORTRAEGE 435

RESUMES DES EXPOSES 537

List of participants 639

Index of authors 661

 OPENING SESSION

Welcoming address by
F. BODEN, Ministre de l'Education Nationale du Grand Duch
de Luxembourg

Opening address by
F. BRAUN, Director-General for Internal Market and Industrial
Affairs, Commission of the European Communities

Address by the president of the European Association of

Professional Fire Brigade Officers
J.M. DELESDERRIER
 WELCOMING ADDRESS
by F. BODEM
Ministre de l'Education Nationale du Grand Duch de Luxembourg

Mr Chairman,

ladies and gentlemen,

On behalf of the Luxembourg Government I am delighted to welcome

you to our country, and I should like to say how pleased I am that the
Commission of the European Communities and the European Association
of Professional Fire Brigade Officers decided on Luxembourg as the
venue for the First European Symposium on Fires in Buildings.

The symposium will concentrate on three main themes: the

organization of fire services, their capabilities and limitations;
prevention and fire-fighting options and the economics involved; and
fire protection in buildings. In particular, you will be studying what
can be done to prevent the loss of life and to protect property in the
event of fire, and assessing the social, technical and economic aspects
of fire prevention and fire-fighting. It will then be up to you to determine
what measures can be taken and to what extent standards can be
harmonized and rules applied with a view to improving what is at
present a somewhat disparate situation from country to country. The
smaller countries in particular, which do not have the infrastructure
necessary for drawing up ad hoc rules are all too often confused by the
wide disparity in products and techniques used in the Member States.

I shall refrain, in what is intended as a brief address, from

going into the technical aspects of what you will be discussing, but
I should like, with your permission, to say a little on the first theme,
dealing with the organization of fire services, their capabilities and
limitations.

In most of the Member States, the fire services are the

responsibility of local authorities, a fact which raises a number of
problems both of a financial nature and in terms of how to organize
fire-fighting services in the event of a disaster which cannot be
tackled on a purely local scale and where the authorities have to call
upon regional, national and even international resources.

The Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg furthers and

subsidizes the organization of fire services at local authority level,
as illustrated by the fact that the 118 local authorities in our country
boast a total of 263 separate fire brigades, for the most part manned
by volunteers. But while fire-fighting is essentially a local matter,
major fires or disasters can always occur where the resources available
locally may not be adequate. For this eventuality, the Government has
set up a network of regional bases headed by firemen and equipped with
heavy gear and other material supplied centrally by the Government.
These regional support bases are called in whenever a local fire
brigade is unable to cope with a particular fire or disaster.
 The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has also entered into agreements with
France, Belgium and the Federal Republic of Germany for the provision of
mutual aid in the event of a disaster so that, should a major fire
or disaster occur, men and equipment can be called in from fire-fighting
services in neighbouring countries. An initial agreement was concluded
with France in 1962 on mutual assistance and the rapid provision of aid
in the event of serious accidents or major disasters in areas bordering
the frontier between Luxembourg and France. The arrangement applies to
fire brigades and their equipment and to all other persons and equipment
at the call or disposal of the two countries, the work being coordinated
and directed by the authorities on whose territory the disaster has
occured. However, the officer directing the work simply gives a general
idea of the jobs he would like done by the reinforcements from the
neighbouring country, leaving the details of the operation up to them.
Border formalities are kept to a minimum and no payment is made by one
country to the other either to cover the cost of the assistance provided
or for any equipment lost, damaged or destroyed. It is, however, up to
the party which has asked for assistance to keep the emergency services
supplied with whatever they may need in the way of supplies while the
operation is in progress. The convention concluded with France in 1962
was supplemented in 1968 to the effect that serious burns cases passed
on from Luxembourg by a qualified authority are admitted to the serious
burns unit in Metz without any formalities. Should the Metz unit be
unable to treat any such cases, it has undertaken to arrange for their
admission to another French hospital. The expenses incurred by the
French medical services in treating burns cases from Luxembourg are
reimbursed to the French Government by the Luxembourg Government. A
similar agreement to the one concluded with France was signed with
Belgium in 1970 and came into force in December 1977, and a third aid
agreement was concluded with the Federal Republic of Germany in March
1978 and came into force on 1 December 1981. These agreements have in the
past given fire brigades an intervention capability which could hardly
be improved on even if far more substantial financial resources were to
be made available, and this brings me on to the cost of fire services.

As I said before, fire services in Luxembourg are the responsibility

of local authorities, who have provided their own local brigades with
highly up-to-date equipment. Needless to say, though, the central
government cannot stand aloof from the question of combating fire and
other natural disasters, which is why - by a law passed in 1905 - the
government introduced a special tax on all insurers providing insurance
in the Grand Duchy against losses caused by fire. The current rate of
levy is 4% on the total value of premiums due for insurance against the
risk of fire to buildings and movable property in the Grand Duchy.
Draft legislation has now been introduced in the Chamber of Deputies with
a view to increasing the rate of levy to 5% or even 6%. Part of the
proceeds of this tax is paid in to the firemen's accident insurance fund,
and another part of the proceeds is used for inspecting fire brigades
and their equipment and for providing training for fire-fighters. The
rest is divided up between the local authorities in the form of subsi-
dies to enable them to buy the requisite material and to organize a
regular and permanent fire service. Subsidies are paid for the acquisition
of fire-fighting equipment and the cost of constructing and converting
premises for the fire services, and are currently 50% and 40% respectively.
As a result of this system, which has been in force since 1905, the range
of fire-fighting equipment available has been modernized over the years,
and fire brigades in Luxembourg now have at their disposal ample supplies
of high-quality equipment. To reduce expenditure on full-time firemen's
salaries, the City of Luxembourg can fall back on volunteer fire-fighters
to help their full-time colleagues whenever required. While a system of
this kind is undoubtedly fraught with organizational problems it has
produced good results. It has effectively reduced the cost of providing
a fire service, while at the same time giving a large number of
volunteers a chance to do something really useful in their local
communities and for their country.

Mr Chairman, ladies and gentlemen,

It is now up to you, over the next four days, to take a look at the
various methods in use in the Member States and to examine the technical
aspects of fire prevention - with special reference to fires in buildings
- and to reach conclusions which might help local authorities throughout
the Community to improve the organization of their fire services and to
achieve optimum efficiency within the given financial constraints in
the interests and for the good of all our people. I hope, Mr President,
ladies and gentlemen, that your work will meet with success and yield
concrete and positive results. You may rest assured that the government
authorities and the people of Luxembourg will do their utmost to make
your stay here as pleasant as possible.
 OPENING ADDRESS

by F. BRAUN

Director-General for Internal Market and Industrial Affairs,

Commission of the European Communities

Sir,
Ladies and Gentlemen,

On behalf of the Commission of the European Communities and, in particular, of

Mr. NARJES, Member of the Commission with responsibility for the Internal
Market, and of Viscount DAVIGNON, Vice-President of the Commission with
responsibility for Industrial Affairs, I should like briefly to offer you our
good wishes for the success of the Symposium and to indicate what we, for our
part, expect this meeting to produce ; in so doing, however, I fear that I am
only repeating what both you Sir, and Major DELESDERRIER have already said.

I am pleased to see so many of you here and to note that there are scarcely
any empty seats. The importance attached to this meeting by the parties
concerned is demonstrated by the quality of the representatives present ;
moreover, the scheduled discussion of what some regard as the most appropriate
action in this field, and of the subsequent proposals for modifications which
can be made with or without major expenditure, undoubtedly represents a major
objective in its own right.

When ten countries send their leading experts to a Symposium at which thirty
associations are represented, the more fact of exchanging information becomes
a significant phenomenon in itself.
President DELESDERRIER, however, has just pointed out that the significance of
the Symposium must not be confined to this exchange of information and that
you have courageously set your sights on the attainment of far more important
objectives which, whilst being of specific concern to each of the associations
or groups represented here, are inevitably interrelated to some extent.

The regulation and harmonization of safety measures may create problems for
certain individuals who might question whether harmonization of the safety
regulations of ten countries is justified. In my view, the answer to this
question is to be found by observing the working life of undertakings, which
is made up of inteirelationships, communication and cooperation. Mr. BODEN
has pointed out how important in themselves such activities already are in
frontier regions. Such a situation renders the adoption of common
regulations essential.

Clearly, the aim of all research and discussion in this field must be to
achieve the highest degree of safety.

Two important factors, however, must be borne in mind in attempting to attain

this objective : on the one hand, as you have just pointed out, Major
DELESDERRIER, all the resources and R&D capacity which can be pooled must be
made available and, on the other, as both the Minister and Major DELESDERRIER
have indicated, existing economic constraints must not be forgotten.
It is now recognized that, in these sectors, the implementation of ten, or
even thirty, parallel research projects would not necessarily produce optimum
results. This is not to say that there should be no parallel and competitive
research ; it simply means that there is a need to pool both resources and
the results of completed research which should lead to important innovations.

The movement of goods, services and individuals, which forms the basis of the
European Community, must be seen not only as a matter of freedom but also, and
equally, as a matter of economics. The Community must make it possible to
seek the most significant and comprehensive standardization possible in
respect of the products used in the building industry as regards both their
free movement and the safety which they must provide.

This is one of the problems which the Commission has been attempting to solve
- with varying degrees of success - for several years ; by this I mean that
certain problems, which were recognized as important, were not necessarily
solved as quickly as was desirable, sometimes because questions of expertise
prevented this, but also because political difficulties precluded a rapid
solution.

A Symposium like ours, which will provide clear, adequate definitions in the
technological and safety fields and which will demonstrate the importance
attached to such activity by representatives of the industry, will itself make
a substantial and decisive contribution to any progress in this field.
Although this is primarily because your meeting will give an impetus to
technological developments, it will also provide the necessary political
stimulus, since you possess considerable expertise and know-how, which has
frequently been the decisive factor as regards the acceptance or rejection of
certain of our proposals.

So far, we have adopted a dual approach to these problems, which has involved
the submission of a draft Directive on the regulation of materials to the
Council, and standardization measures in the context of Eurocodes (EC). Since
we intend to continue with this approach, any new impetus or encouragement
received and, I might add, any influence which you can exert on national
experts, will be of great importance.

By way of conclusion to these remarks, may I express the hope that your
discussions will prove extremely fruitful and result in specific proposals
which we can successfully transform into draft texts, whether these form the
basis for Eurocodes or for Directives, which are more stringent on matters of
safety. Similarly, I hope that the common market, that is the European
Economic Community, can also make progress in this highly and doubly important
field comprising the fire safety of buildings and standards.

Lastly, I hope that this will prove to be a successful and enjoyable Symposium
and, once again, I thank the Government of the Grand-Duchy in the person of
Mr. BODEN for his contribution to this opening session.
 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION
OF PROFESSIONAL FIRE BRIGADE OFFICERS
Major J.M. DELESDERRTER

Minister,
Director General,
Chairman of the Organizing Committee,
Ladies and gentlemen.

The idea for holding this symposium came from two distinguished
members of our association, and was then put to, and approved by the
Commission of the European Communities.

Thus, it is thanks to the wisdom, fore-sight and efficiency of

Commissioner Narjes that we are meeting today in Luxembourg.

Allow me to express our gratitude to the two originators of the

symposium who are here today:
- Major Vangeel, a founding member and Honorary
President of our Association.
- Mr Becker, who has been a tireless member of our
Association since the beginning.

I would also like to thank Mr Mourareau, the Chairman of the

Organizing Committee, who has contributed greatly to the success of
this symposium.

From the outset we have appreciated and profited from the co-
operation and expertise of other organizations and experts within
the EEC.

In particular we would like to thank:

- the Conference of the Fire Protection Associations
(CFPA)
- the Association of Fire Testing Laboratories For
European Industries (IU) .

Those responsible for fire safety are constantly striving to

maintain a balance between optimum protection in human terms and
cutting back on expenditure in the interests of the economy as a
whole.

For a given or enforced level of protection, minimizing overall

costs will involve optimizing the costs of:
- emergency services
- prevention services
 - building materials
- building techniques.

Both consumers and taxpayers will benefit if a concerted effort

is made in all these areas of activity/ to obtain the best value for
money, in which case society will be happy with the reduced loss of
life and the reduction in economic losses.

In addition, if the risks are reduced, the insurance companies

will be able to keep their premiums at an attractive level to encourage
better risk cover on the part of their clients.

Optimizing costs in the economic sector covering all activities

concerned with fire safety will necessitate:
- development in the fields of research and innovation
- better application of advanced technology
- harmonization (or even unification) of national
standards and regulations
- heightened awareness of the Community market so that
Member States refrain from building or producing the
same range of products or the same kinds of appliances
in uneconomic quantities.

Paradoxical as this may appear, adoption of such a programme

should be in the interests of the economic sector as a whole.

The aims of this symposium follow on logically from these

general considerations.

Let us take a look at and define the different stages of the

symposium.

Stage 1 : During the preliminary theme beginning shortly we shall

be taking a look at fire services, their capabilities and, above all,
their limitations, as well as at their main concerns in terms of
prevention and intervention.

Stage 2: On Theme I we shall be analyzing the cost/benefit

element of methods of protection against fires in buildings.

Stage 3: On Theme II we shall be carrying out a comparative

analysis of the protection methods in the Member States, highlighting
similiarities as well as new features.

Stage 4: is very important. The symposium will be subdivided into

four seminars or workshops (to use the English expression).
Each of the four working parties will consider the written questions
arising from the papers and will draw conclusions from the symposium
in the form of broad guidelines for the future.

We would therefore ask each one of you to participate actively

in one of these groups to your specialist knowledge or natural
preference.
 Stage 5: Theme III: Innovation.

During the last session on Friday morning we will be considering

innovations and new technologies which were not discussed at the
previous meetings.

Stage 6: Closing session.

This will be much more than a mere formality as each of the

workshops will be presenting its conclusions to the plenary session.

Having set out the general outlines and the order our discussions
will follow, allow me to finish by expressing, in the name of our
Association, our gratitude to the Commission of the European
Communities for enabling us to participate in the organisation of this
European sympsium. Our members are aware that we owe our existence in
part to the European Institutions, as the Association was created here
under the aegis in 1975.
We believe this European symposium on fire safety in buildings
to be the most important held so far both in terms of its duration
and the range of matters discussed.

We hope that the results obtained from the meeting will be a true
reflection of the effort put into its organization and that they will
pave the way for further work for the good of all the people of
Europe. These are our hopes for the future.
 11

PRELIMINARY THEME - FIRE SERVICES

Chairman: J.M. DELESDERRIER, President of the European Association

of Professional Fire Brigade Officers, Geneve

Rapporteur: F.J. KLOUWENS, Ctd Brandweer Rotterdam

The orqanization of fire brigades - Their capabilities and limitations

Priorities in firefighting

Priorities in prevention
 12

THE ORGANIZATION OF FIRE BRIGADES - THEIR CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS

K. SEEGERER, OBERBRANDDIREKTOR
MUNICH FIRE SERVICE

Summary

Fire brigades throughout the world share a common purpose: "to

save lives and protect property".
The forms of organization are also very similar. Everywhere
there are professional, voluntary, and auxiliary fiia brigades,
not forgetting works.,factory and in-house fire brigades. However,
the legal basis defining the duties of fire brigades and from
which their responsibilities for the elimination of fire or
explosion hazards and for effective fire-fighting are derived,
varies considerably from country to country - even among the
Member States of the European Community.

Both professional and voluntary fire brigades in our various

countries have been affected by a development which has seen
more and more tasks allocated to them, raising justified doubts as
to whether the name "fire brigade" is still accurate. Both public
fire brigades and many works and factory brigades nowadays perform
a whole range of duties with which previously only the larger
professional fire brigades were concerned. They are responsible
for environmental protection in the broadest sense, and scarcely
a problem exists which they would not be expected to solve.

But even the fire brigades cannot work miracles. Their capabilities
are necessarily limited - not least in view of the substantial
changes in the dangers to which their men are increasingly
exposed. It becomes clear, when considering these limitations,
how much they depend upon the nature and extent of the hazard
and a whole list of other local factors. They are determined not
only by the number, equipment, training and availability of the
fire-fighting personnel, but also to large extent by structural
and operational fire prevention measures and other specific
conditions which buildings have to comply with.

Even fire brigades are subject to the laws of nature, and the
resulting limitations on their capabilities must be respected.

This symposium will discuss in detail possible ways and means

of extending these capabilities. Perhaps a comparison of the
systems currently available throughout Europe can enable the
attainable standard to be approached in all Member States at
reasonable cost.

1. Organization duties and field of activity of fire brigades

The common concern of the members of fire brigades throughout
the world is to save life and prevent - or at least restrict -
 13

damage to property, primarily in fires, but also in the event of natural

catastrophes, emergencies and disasters of every kind.
The organizational forms of fire brigades are also very similar: in the
public sector human and animal life is saved and property protected by
professional, voluntary, and occasionally auxiliary fire brigades, or
a mixture of these categories; in the private sector these tasks are
assumed by works/factory and in-house fire brigades.

On the other hand, the regulations which define the responsibilities

of the fire brigades and their status vary from country to country:
Almost universally, there is a legal onus on public authorities to
provide for the elimination of the risk of fire or explosion, as well
as for effective fire-fighting, by organizing, equipping and
maintaining public fire brigades. With few exceptions this responsibility
normally falls upon the local authorities, either within the framework
of local self-government ("own statutory duty"), or on behalf of a
higher authority, or as a "statutory duty as directed", each system
being subject to a different degree of influence on the part of the
national supervisory bodies. Similarly, private fire brigades (works,
factory and in-house fire brigades) are normally formed in accordance
with legal requirements, corresponding to the nature and special
features of the buildings to be protected.

In the Federal Republic of Germany public fire brigades - both the

67 professional and more than 20 000 independent voluntary brigades -
are organized exclusively by the local authorities. Except where national
defence is concerned, the Federal government has no legislative powers
in this field. Legislation on fire protection and all other matters
relating to the activities of fire brigades is the responsibility of the
Lnder.

Professional fire brigades (full-time personnel only) are normally

formed when the population of a town or district reaches a certain level
(in Germany 100 000 - 150 000 inhabitants) or if special circumstances
warrant the organization of a professional fire brigade even tteugh
the population is below this threshold;
Voluntary fire brigades are normally formed in the remaining communities,
sometimes with a number of full-time members. These may be wage-earners,
salaried staff or local authority officials and their number depends on
circumstances;
Auxiliary fire brigades are provided for if a voluntary brigade cannot
be formed or the existing public brigade is insufficient.

Different types of fire brigade can certainly exist side by side,

and with the exception of auxiliary fire brigades generally do so.

Allow me to use the city of Munich as an example. The fire service

there consists of a professional brigade with a strength of around
1 500 men and a voluntary brigade with some 750 men. In addition there
are five works brigades (in the same number of high-risk industrial
plants within the urban area), 11 factory brigades and a large number
of in-house brigades (in theatres, department stores, etc.).

Works fire brigades are found in large high-risk plants, usually

 14

on the requirement of the authorities. The personnel is either full-time,

p a r t - t i m e or a combination of the two;
Factory fire brigades are found in smaller plants and factories and are
the equivalent of the voluntary fire brigades;
In-house fire brigades, which are generally prescribed by building
regulations for certain rypes of buildings, ensure the presence of a
small number of staff who are familiar with the building and trained
in the use of the available fire safety installations, for example in
department stores, office buildings, theatres, etc. during the hours
when these are open.

Although the legal principles in the different Member States of the

European Community vary considerably, there are practically no
differences in the tasks which fire brigades nowadays have to carry out.
Long gone are the days when the work was restricted to "helping in the
case of fire and risk of fire". Professional fire brigades, many works
fire brigades and at least all the larger voluntary brigades - not only
those with full-time personnel - now cover an extremely wide range of
operations: they rescue stranded animals from trees or roofs, catch
swarms of bees, destroy wasps' nests and help in hundreds of other
everyday mishaps. But above all they rescue people and animals from danger,
recover the bodies of drowning victims or search for stolen property
which has been hidden underwater. They deal with radioactive materials
and help with accidents on the road, in factories, in the home, on the
sports field and wherever necessary, not forgetting storm damage, floods
and every imaginable type of emergency.

All that remains unchanged is the original task of the fire

brigade to fight fires, eliminate fire risks, and provide technical
assistance - even if the type of property to be protected as well as
working conditions have in many cases changed completely over the last
fifteen years.

Most recent legislation now takes into account this widening of the
field of activity of fire brigades, which has long been the case in the
more urban areas and is now becoming increasingly more evident in the
country: the "fire brigade" has become more and more a "technical
assistance unit" for all imaginable emergencies. It is no longer just a
"fire brigade" in the literal sense of the word, but a "jack of all
trades", whose help is expected whenever an emergency or danger
threatens man, animal or property; the fire brigade is expected to cope
with the effects of natural catastrophes, emergencies and accidents of
every kind, including the more or less serious problems and mishaps of
everyday public and even private life.

The legally defined duties of fire brigades can, in simplified form,

be outlined as follows:

1. Help in the event of fire or risk of fire

as in the past, even though today the nature and design of buildings
to be protected certainly make conditions more difficult, as we will
discuss later;

2. Technical assistance of every kind

Which was in fact always the case as far as professional fire
brigades in urban areas, particularly the major cities, are concerned;
 15

3. Rescue service, sometimes including ambulance service

depending on the local situation and sometimes regional government
law;

4. Fire prevention
in the context of planning approval and periodic inspections.

Fire prevention, a very wide field, is today one of the most

important duties of fire brigades. Recent legislation attaches almost
as much importance to fire protection as to fire extinction and often
explicitly requires fire brigades to actively participate in defining
fire prevention measures.

I have already mentioned that the dangers and problems facing fire
brigades even when they are doing their original job of fighting fires
(equally so when they are providing technical assistance, a rescue
service or are engaged in fire prevention), have changed considerably.
Some of these can be described under headings such as "high-rise
buildings", "high-shelf warehouse", "large-surface factories, shops and
warehouses", "underground transport systems", "fire behaviour of plastics",
"water-toxic substances", "date-processing equipment", "radioactive
contamination" - in the list is almost endless.

If, at this symposium on "fires in buildings", we restrict ourselves

to discussing the first task of fire brigades which I mentioned, i.e.
"help in the event of fire or risk of fire", we must note, for the sake
of completeness, that the work of fire brigades is subject to certain
priorities:

- first
to save human and animal life

- secondly
to protect property not yet affected by the fire

- and finally
to fight the fire effectively.

Needless to say, it is desirable for the fire brigade to do all three

things at the same time, and it is often the case that a rescue
operation cannot be made until an attack has been made on the fire.

However, I must reiterate that fighting the fire comes after rescue
and recovery operations in the list of priorities.

2. Effectiveness of fire brigades

It is of course clear that parallel operations and maximum
effectiveness are possible only if the necessary resources are available.
For this reason we cannot necessarily maintain that the capabilities of a
fire brigade depend on its organizational form.

The "fire brigade" responding to a call consists of the equipment

and the available local personnel, plus any reinforcements, where required
and available, from neighbouring brigades.
In general, professional and voluntary brigades are divided into three
tactical units, the "company", the "platoon" and the section with a
 16

strength of at least 15, 8 and 5 men respectively.

Whilst in the case of professional brigades and works brigades with

full-time personnel fire stations are manned round the clock - in cities
one crew is always present for every 100 000 inhabitants - the members
of voluntary brigades and works and factory brigades with part-time
personnel normally have to be alerted.

In order to ensure that a sufficient number of men can be reached,

especially at awkward times of day, most tactical units are overmanned
(usually three or four times the nominal strength). The alarm is
nowadays usually raised by radio, i.e. silently.

Other important factors are the level of training and experience

of the personnel, as well as the condition, effectiveness and technical
standard of the equipment available.

The change in the nature of the fire brigade's tasks and the
confrontation with dangers not previously experienced have led to radical
changes in the equipping of our fire brigades, in particular the
voluntary and factory brigades.

In this context I will ignore in-house fire brigades, as they have

only a small number of personnel and of course normally have only the
equipment available in the building at their disposal, e.g. fire
estinguishers, wall hydrants etc.

Heavy-duty breathing apparatus, which allows the wearer to breathe

independently of the ambient air, is nowadays part of standard equipment.
The same applies to flame-resistant or chemical-resistant clothing or a
close-fitting radiation-proof suit for brigades with buildings in their
area which make such precautions necessary.

Apart from the range and quality of equipment and having sufficient
personnel available when called out, the main factors influencing the
effectiveness of the fire brigade, as already mentioned, are the level
of training and experience of the personnel, which can vary quite
considerably. The catalogue of demands made on firemen is as extensive
as the range of different types of operation, which stretches from gas
leaks, through collapsed buildings and accidents involving road tankers,
to train crashes. In addition to basic training, regular exercises are
essential. Practices, training courses and practical instruction cannot
be overdone.

The fireman must always keep his knowledge up-to-date and learn
precisely how to operate vehicles and equipment, which nowadays are often
highly complicated. In addition to a skilful pair of hands, physical
fitness and perfect mastery of his "second profession" as a fireman, he
must remain familiar with the latest technical developments in such
specialized fields as breathing apparatus, radiation protection and diving

In order to keep in direct contact with practice, instructors at

fire brigade training centres should continue on active service. As in
Munich, this can be done by attaching the training centre to a fire
station.
 17

I would like to conclude my remarks about the limitations of fire

brigades by drawing attention to a fact which even today is still
sometimes the subject of controversy but is nevertheless true: the
smallest in-house, local, factory or works fire brigade should not be
considered tactically less important than the strongest professional or
voluntary fire brigade, as the latter have a larger area to cover and
thus inevitably reach the scene later.

I can only repeat that using a large number of pipes after half an
hour cannot make up for not starting the operation with two or three
hoses after a few minutes.

In this context I can only say that it is extremely disquieting,

even irresponsible, that small and very small fire brigades are confronted
with objects in the form of "green-field centres", which are simply
beyond their capabilities; concessions on fire protection are made on
the structural side, allegedly compensated for by "early-warning systems",
whereas what this really means is that responsibility is being passed
on to a fire brigade which is hopelessly out of its depth.

In order to guard against such wrong decision, I am very much in

favour of competent and experienced fire brigade officers participating
in the planning approval procedure. In places where this has been done
over a sufficiently long period of time, drawing upon the vast experience
of the fire brigade, the effect has certainly been positive. Not only
with regard to causes and spread of fires and the extent of fire damage,
but equally from the point of view of the safety of fire brigade personnel.
Many a dangerous situation for our firemen has been and will be avoided
thanks to this system!

Otherwise, the limitations on fire brigade operations are generally

speaking much tighter than the layman often realizes.

If we disregard the additional possibilities in urban areas (for

example the availability of reinforcements or special measures against
particular dangers), we can summarize by saying that these limitations
are such that safety requirements in residential areas or comparable
buildings, e.g. office blocks, schools etc. are met.

In special-purpose buildings, such as department stores, larger

commercial buildings, hotels, hospitals, old peoples'homes, theatres
and other large buildings open to the public, special fire prevention
measures are necessary if a fire brigade operation is to have some
chance of success despite conditions which are not ideal.

Whilst careful measures to prevent the uncontrolled spread of smoke

and heat are certainly necessary in such cases, they are even more
vital for example in chemical or petrochemical plants etc. due to
the special nature of the material which can catch fire (calorific value!),
its flammabil ity and burning characteristics (which \ary considerably
according to the stage of processing), the correspondingly large amount
of extinguishing agents required,and various other aspects.

But it is not only in such industries that the "early-warning systems"

I mentioned before, without the back-up of a strong fire brigade within
easy reach, give a false sense of effective fire-protection measures!
In many cases permanently installed extinguishing devices (e.g. sprinklers)
and effective constructional measures to stop fires spreading provide a
basis for the work of the fire brigade and are essential for a successful
attack.

3. Preconditions for a successful operation

For a fire brigade operation to be considered successful, damage
must be restricted effectively to the extent it has reached when the
fire brigade arrives, i.e. the fire brigade must be able to prevent the
fire spreading.

However, a "successful operation" defined in this way is also

dependent upon a number of preconditions which must be met before
the actual fire brigade attack on the one hand or by the building concerned
on the other.

I would like to mention the most important of these, in a general

context and without using figures:

1. the attack, using sufficient personnel, must take place as soon as

possible;
2. the building on fire must be accessible;
3. the necessary extinguishing agents must not only be available in the
necessary quantities, but must also be able to be applied to the fire
in the necessary quantity per unit of time.

The condition "as soon as possible" means "as soon as possible after
the outbreak of the fire", which means that the fire must be detected
quickly and the alarm raised reliably.

In other words, optimal preconditions are when automatic fire

detection and alarm lead directly to the rapid alerting of a fire brigade
of sufficient strength reliably available a reasonable distance away, i.e.
automatic fire detection and alarm must automatically bring about the
alerting of the fire brigade.

The time between the outbreak of fire and its detection is followed
by the "help arrival time", which also must be kept as short as possible.
This consists of the time needed to report the fire and alert the fire
brigade, plus the time needed by. the fire brigade units to turn out,
reach the scene, assess the situation and prepare for action, it is thus
subject to a wide range of influence.

The technical aids now available to enable this requirement to be met

as well as possible will be discussed in detail during the course of this
symposium. At this stage I would like to limit myself to mentioning that
such aids are available in many forms, and it is not the fault of the fire
brigade if they are not available or in specific cases not considered
necessary.

In this connection we should not forget the adverse traffic conditions

which often impede brigades on their way to a fire and which - often
depending upon the season or time of day - play an important role by
considerably increasing the time needed to reach the scene, i.e. the help
 19

arrival time. This means that appropriate measures are necessary,

particularly in large cities. One such example in Munich was the remodelling
of the tramway on a stretch of road particularly susceptible to traffic
jams so that fire engines can now get through even when the road is
completely blocked.

Finally, we should not fail to realize the extent to which parked

vehicles can hinder fire brigade operations. The problem of streets full
of parked vehicles, particularly in residential and night-life districts,
is probably of universal concern to urban fire brigades in all Member
States.

The second precondition , that the building must be "accessible", not

only means that fire engines should be able to reach it. It
should also be possible to drive round it easily, and all parts of it
(i.e. the storeys above the fire and the roofs) must be accessible to
ladders or other high-lift rescue equipment. The depth of penetration in
such cases must not exceed that to which an internal attack with
breathing apparatus is possible.

The keyword "internal attack" refers to one of the basic principles

of fire-fighting in all our countries, and I am of the opinion that this
should remain so wherever the risk involved in such an internal attack
seems acceptable.

It is a fact that the best possible chances of an operation being

successful lie with an internal attack, even if the depth of penetration
into the building is limited.

The alternative, an "external attack" (using monitors, turntables,

etc.) has from the start only an extremely small chance of success and is
a recipe for extensive damage. It must therefore be regarded as a final
resort in cases where inadequate structural and operational conditions
exclude a more promising line of approach as would be preferred by the
fire brigade.

Thus it becomes clear that there is a whole series of object-related

preconditions for an effective fire brigade operation. These also include
- clean and well-arranged equipment,
- good approach facilities for fire engines,
- ensured direct access to all important areas,
- sufficient water supply or a sufficient supply of the special extingui-
shing agents needed in specific cases,
- facilities for rapid entry, safe orientation based on plans of the
building, signs for the most important parts of the building, key-
cabinets for fire brigade use, etc...

Finally, fire prevention measures - of both structural and operational

nature, as we have seen - also represent an important precondition for a
successful fire brigade operation.

Taking into account the fundamentally different dangers with which

firemen are often confronted today, it is impossible to attach too much
 20

importance to these measures aimed at securing access in an emergency

and preventing the uncontrolled spread of smoke and fire.

In other words, there is a close interrelation between fire

prevention and fire extinction, and I hope I was able, in this short
summary, to make it clear that even the best fire brigade cannot work
miracles and is doomed to failure if either its limitations or these
important object-related preconditions for a successful operation are ignored.

Regrettably, just recently there has been a whole series of examples

of such misconceptions (deliberate or otherwise) - some of them within
the European Community. They should give us food for thought. In my
opinion, it is time to start work on an assessment procedure for high-
risk buildings which, in particular, takes full account of the capabilities
of the brigades which would be called out in case of fire.
 21

PRIORITIES IN FIRE-FIGHTING

G. CLARKE
CBE FIFire, Hampshire Fire Brigade, UK

"A little fire is quickly trodden out. Which, being suffered,

rivers cannot quench".

Henry VI, Part 3 (Shakespeare).

Summary

This paper examines a wide range of factors affecting the fire

officer's actions at the scene of an incident the successful
organisation of which is crucial to his success. A pre-requisite to
his chances of success is a need for the responsible governing
authorities to have already satisfied certain basic criteria. They
must have provided for certain safety legislation, pre-planning of
procedures, recruitment and training of sufficient manpower and
ensured sufficient resources and equipment of adequate standard to
enable the Fire Service to effectively and efficiently carry out its
task. A brief study is made into the operational considerations
facing the senior fire officer, his tactical decisions and deployment
of forces to meet the varying demands upon his men and equipment. It
is hoped by this means to identify a few markers to assist debate and
discussion throughout the remainder of the Symposium. It looks
briefly at the present performance level of Fire Brigades in the
European community. Finally it seeks to promote and encourage ideas
from firefighters and engineers world-wide, and to provide an insight
into some new techniques and innovations which are being researched or
are now entering service with Fire Brigades. Hopefully it will help
to set the scene for the papers to be presented later.

INTRODUCTION
Before the Fire
May I start by laying the foundations on which I believe our
chances of success as firefighters depend?
Firefighters in all countries are inclined to say that there are
only three causes of fires -

Men, women and children,

and accepting this as a truism we must except that fires or the

threat of them will remain with us or even increase as the population
grows.
Happily, we in Europe live in a free society and it is normal for
our peoples to elect either local or national governments, expecting
them to organise our affairs so as to maintain the quality of life that
we enjoy and hope for.
 22

Our rulers therefore are expected by the people to take steps to

protect them from the ravages of fire and it is to them that we look
for a framework of legislative controls to enable us to begin to meet
our operational commitments.
In particular, I believe that those whom we are employed to serve
can at least expect that:-

(a) A reasonable framework of fire safety legislation exists

aimed at ensuring good standards of building construction and
sensible use by the occupants.
(b) Buildings have been surveyed and assessed as fire risks on
some predetermined scale.
(c) Adequate firefighting resources (manpower, equipment and
communications) have been provided and deployed to provide both
satisfactory weight and speed of emergency response.
(d) Sufficient manpower of adequate quality has been recruited
and properly trained.
(e) A satisfactory system exists to enable fire crews to gather
(well before any fire occurs) "fireground intelligence", covering
such aspects as access routes to buildings, the best points of
entry, water supplies, the nature of the construction and use of
buildings and the nature of the occupancies.

Such measures will at least enable fire crews to have a good

chance of success when emergencies arise, however later in this paper,
under the heading of "Levels of Performance", I will refer to certain
legislative controls which, if not properly understood, have the
potential to inhibit or restrain our effectiveness in training for the
operational task.
Let us now look at the climate in which we are required to work.
Europe encompasses an immense diversity of lands, cultural
attitudes, economic values, and language but a common threat which
faces all of us is fire.
The chemistry of combustion is common to all nations, languages
and creeds and shows no mercy to those who are unable to harness it.
These days, world events, minor industrial revolutions, the plastic
consumer age, the planners' dreams and peoples' expectations are
accelerating at an incredible rate - and we as firefighters are obliged
at the very least, to keep pace with all this and in our attempts to
preserve a reasonable quality of life we must be well prepared to put
in something at the planning stages.

THE CALL FOR ASSISTANCE

2.1 Generally we are well served by our communications network which
provides us with a national system designed to connect any user of the
telephone network (free of charge) to the emergency services.
This emergency calling service handles the majority of calls from
the public for the assistance of the Fire Brigade.
Other methods arei-
la) From running callers who go to the nearest fire station.
(b) By fire telephone circuits from special risks and private
circuits from other establishments, such as Police Controls.
(c) From automatic fire detection and sprinkler systems - either
direct by private circuit, via commercially managed alarm stations
or by auto-diallers over the public telephone network.
 23

(d) From Fire Brigade, Police or other radio systems.

When speaking to him it is vital to obtain from the caller the

necessary information required to mobilise the nearest fire appliances.
This in itself can be time consuming especially when dealing with the
young or the very old. Large areas of our inner cities have immigrant
populations speaking little or no English and I am sure that a similar
situation exists in other countries. There are those who are not
certain of their exact location, perhaps those passing through on a
long journey or newcomers to the area. All these things can prevent a
speedy response and so result in greater fire development and
consequent financial loss. Where a Brigade is professionally manned
and equipped with a computerised mobilising facility call handling and
response time are kept to the absolute minimum.
To further aid this process, in recent years city planners and
engineers have developed a computerised traffic control/flow system
which when tied in with traffic lights can dictate the rate of traffic
flow and can be arranged to show a "green light" to fire appliances
proceeding to an incident. Thus the little fire may still be so when
fire crews arrive.

2.2 What Should be Despatched?

As part of extensive preplanning an experienced fire control
operator must be trained to recognise the more serious calls which
could be the most costly in terms of lives and property at risk.
Areas vary in respect of the degree of fire risk which they
present. Ideally we employ a system to categorise fire risk gradings
on a national basis and we specify a minimum size attendance within a
specified time scale dependant on the class of risk. This time scale
needs to be very carefully calculated since seconds count and fire is
no respector of time.
This is especially so today when fires involving modern processes
or furnishings can accelerate to horrific proportions at an alarming
rate. Rapid application of some form of extinguishing medium onto the
fire as quickly as possible is vital to success or failure.
A particular problem or delay arises in calculating the
appropriate attendance times to very large buildings or high rise
blocks. Deploying forces by area of risk can usually achieve the
necessary attendance times to the entrance to the structure but what
about the need to transport our firefighters and equipment to the fire
zone which may be on the 50th floor or more, or a 100 or so metres away
from the fire appliances?

2.3 Procedure En Route

On the way to an incident the officer in charge will always be
reminding himself of the various things he may have to do or consider
on arrival and this is the time when all his local knowledge, pre-
planning, training and experience will be combined. For example, in
rural or coastal areas information on seasonal changes in water
supplies, population or traffic may be very important.
He will be considering:-

(a) Evacuation if called to hospitals, theatres, shopping

precincts and other serious life risks.
(b) How to deploy special appliances such as turntable ladders,
hydraulic platforms, foam tenders or hose-laying lorries at
 24

certain special risks.

(c) The need for assistance if he can see considerable smoke or
fire as he moves towards the incident.
(d) The type of message required to get that assistance.

Some pre-arrival information, warnings of hazards and orders will

be given to his crew to help them to appreciate the possible situation
and the likely method of tackling the incident. In spite of travelling
in a high speed vehicle, the strident tones of the warning horns and
his crew busily donning fire kit and breathing apparatus his
instructions must be given in a calm and clear manner.

ACTION ON ARRIVAL
3.1 On arrival at most fires the fire brigade officer will be
confronted with a number of things which will need his immediate
attention. These will include:-

(a) Making an appreciation of the situation and deciding whether

the appliances and equipment he has, or will shortly have, are
sufficient to control the fire.
(b) Effecting any necessary rescues and searching the building.
(c) Finding the fire, and tackling it with the appropriate
extinguishing medium.
(d) Surrounding the fire and preventing it spreading.
(e) The possible need for ventilating the fire and for carrying
out salvage operations.

A first step will be to enquire from the manager of the building.

Police or from onlookers whether any people are believed to be still
inside but he will never accept information obtained in this way
without question. All likely premises will be searched and searched
again in order to ensure that no people remain to be rescued.

3.2 General Considerations for the Officer in Charge of the First

Attendance
The general principles for handling a fire situation are much the
same irrespective of the size of the building, but there are many
differences of detail in their application to small and large fires.
The extent of organisation and planning required to control
successfully both small and large outbreaks of fire obviously must vary
a great deal.
Where more than one appliance has been sent one of the first
attendance appliances will arrive slightly in advance of the others.
Officers in charge of the later appliances to arrive will be guided
initially in their actions by the position as it appears on arrival.
If there are obviously a number of urgent rescues to be effected, they
will immediately get their crews to work without necessarily
referring to the officer in charge of the first appliance, who in such
circumstances will be very fully occupied. On the other hand, if the
fire is a small one and they are not immediately required, or if the
job to be undertaken is not obvious, then they will contact him first
to ascertain what is required of them.
Riding on one of these following appliances or arriving later in
separate transport there may be an officer senior in rank to the
officer in charge of the first appliance to arrive. He will take
charge of operations until he, in turn, is relieved by an officer
 25

senior to himself> Whenever one officer relieves another there will

always be a definite handing over of command at the fire and the
practice in most Brigades is for the most senior officer to be
identified by a distinctive surcoat which is always handed on to the
next senior officer to arrive.
The officer in charge is responsible for deciding whether or not
the initial attendance is sufficient for the purpose, or whether
additional assistance is required. If there is any doubt, no chances
will be taken and further assistance will be requested.

3.3 Estimating Assistance

Making an estimate of what additional help is needed calls for
very rapid assessment of the position and it is generally known as
'sizing up'. This sizing up will take into account the following
principal considerations:

(a) How far the fire is likely to spread before a suitable stop
can be effected?
(b) How many and what type of water jets are likely to be
required to subdue the fire, and consequently the number of pumps
required to feed them?
(c) Whether any special appliances are required, eg extension or
turntable ladders either for rescue purposes or to gain access to
high windows; turntable ladders for use as water towers; breathing
apparatus or foam to deal with particular types of fire, and so
on.
(d) The nature of the exposures surrounding the building and the
threat to them.
(e) Whether or not the water supplies available are close at
hand and adequate, or whether a water relay from some distant
sources will be required.
(f) The nature of the goods stored or manufactured in the
premises, and the influence the type of construction of the
building could have on operations. The degree of flammability of
the contents and the construction of the building give a good
indication of whether the outbreak is likely to develop fiercely
and quickly or whether it could be readily extinguished. Large
quantities of unprotected steel could lead to early collapse of
the structure.
(g) Whether the fire is on the top storey of a tall building,
thus requiring a larger attendance than one at a lower level
unless it is in a basement. Basement and underground fires are
exceedingly difficult to deal with. Far more hose may be required
unless rising mains are installed in the building and it always
takes longer to get the hose into position and to get messages to
and from the pumps. Extra men may be required to man firemen's
lifts, radio sets, etc. For top storey or roof fires the ordering
on of a turntable ladder or hydraulic platform may be essential
(if one is not included in the initial attendance), since by these
means water can be got on to the fire more quickly than by having
to struggle up internal staircases. A turntable ladder or
hydraulic platform can often make it easier to get men rapidly
into positions which would otherwise be difficult to reach.
(h) How far salvage work will be able to protect property? A
fire on an upper floor often calls for a great deal of salvage
 26

work, so there may be need to order on additional salvage

equipment.
(i) The greatest danger of fire spread in the initial stages is
by ways of internal areas, lift shafts and staircases The width
of the street (except in the very old parts of some cities)
usually stops a fire from spreading at the front, and the
separating walls if properly constructed divide it off from
adjoining buildings and should check lateral spread. The rear of
a building, however, is often vulnerable, and it is important to
provide adequate cover here. An early all round reconnaissance
will soon be made by the experienced officer,
(j) Dwellings fronted by projecting shops sometimes present
considerable rescue difficulties and may require the skilful use
of short extension ladders and lines because the projecting part
often makes it difficult to pitch an extension ladder direct to
the front windows. In such circumstances a ladder must be raised
to the roof of the projecting portion and pitched from there.
Fire escapes and exits from this type of building frequently open
out on to the roof of the main building, sometimes making rescue
problems far from easy.
(k) The assessment must of course take into account manpower.
Men may be required at a fire for many purposes apart from manning
water jets and the assistance request may have to include a number
of pumps specifically to supply manpower.

When calculating the attendance required the wise officer will

always over-estimate since within reason too many appliances are far
better than too few for it is unforgivable to run risks with public
property. If the requirements are underestimated in the early stages,
there will be a serious risk of the fire spreading and developing into
a major and costly outbreak when this could have been avoided. If too
many appliances arrive, the surplus can always be returned to their
stations. On the other hand, the experienced officer in charge will not
get nervous every time he sees an unusually large burst of smoke or
flame and order on additional appliances when those already asked for
have not yet arrived. When asking for special appliances, particularly
in the less densely inhabited localities, he will bear in mind the
distance they will have to travel. To ask for an appliance which will
take so long to arrive that all need for it will almost certainly have
passed by the time it reaches the foreground is pointless.
Before a request for assistance is made, therefore, an officer
must have considered all these points and decided on a plan for
attacking the fire. This appreciation of the situation will be made
almost automatically and in a matter of seconds. An experienced
officer drawing up at a fire will quickly grasp the situation and,
perhaps from the size of the building alone, will see whether the job
is one which can be handled by the first attendance. If not, he will
immediately send back an 'assistance' message which can subsequently be
varied if further investigation shows this to be necessary.
If people are believed to be in the building, at least one
ambulance will be ordered in case medical attention is necessary. This
will ensure that any people who may be rescued from the building can be
removed to hospital without delay. Another advantage in having an
ambulance on the fireground when a considerable number of firefighters
are at work is that there are often minor injuries to firefighters who
can then receive immediate attention.
 27

3.4 Fire Development

The initiation and growth of a fire can be regarded as a gigantic
demonstration of the principles of chemistry and physics. Sufficient
heat is needed to cause a fuel to give off flammable vapours which
ignite, consume oxygen and release more heat. Some of this then heats
up adjacent fuel and the cycle is repeated over and over again.
Convection, radiation and conduction are phenomena with which all
fire officers are familiar and meet in varying degrees according to the
fire loading of the building. They will adopt different tactics to
deal with each perhaps throwing up water curtains moving stock by
hand, or by mechanical means if these are available in large factory
premises etc and by the judicious use of ventilation.

(a) Convection
Some 75 per cent of the heat from most fires is convected and the
super heated products of combustion/ including smoke (which may
have a temperature of 8001200 degrees centigrade) will rise
through the building and heat materials above and near to the fire
to such a temperature that if they are combustible they may in
turn be ignited and so add fuel to the fire.
Since smoke and heated gases tend to rise they will find any
openings in horizontal surfaces which permit them to escape. The
natural path of travel is therefore vertically above the seat of
the fire until the smoke and hot gas or flame reaches the ceiling,
when it will mushroom. If there are open doors, transom lights,
ventilation ducts, holes for pipework or cable ducts, the smoke
will escape through these until it reaches a staircase or other
opening in a horizontal surface. Such paths may be direct openings
such as lift shafts and stairwells of all types, trapdoors,
skylights, belt races, conveyors or escalators, or partially or
wholly enclosed openings, like overhead bridges spanning between
adjacent buildings, ducting for ventilation, heating, dust or fume
extraction. Where pipework passes through from one floor to
another, a bad fit and gaps may allow sufficient space for hot
gases to percolate through. The sizeup of the situation will
include a quick recognition of such features which could allow
fire to spread to adjoining compartments, laterally or
vertically.

l CM.
Upward
travel
of hot
gas /*
r
I y*r

. liai
 28

Readily combustible wall and ceiling surfaces present a particular

hazard. Should one part catch fire adjacent areas are easily
ignited and allow flames to spread rapidly at a rate depending on
the material and on the nature of the convected air flow. A fire
starting low down on a wall is enabled, by convection, to spread
upwards quickly. At ceiling level convection currents are
prevented from rising and move horizontally. This tendency
accelerates flame spread over a combustible ceiling. The
'mushrooming' effect causes horizontal spread of flames with a
marked increase in flame length and heat is radiated downwards on
to materials, thus increasing the rate of fire spread. The
smaller the distance between the ceiling and the top of
combustible materials the greater will be the rate of spread of
fire.
Under some conditions in the growth of a fire there is a flash-
over. This takes place when most or all of the combustible
surfaces in a room have been heated to give off vapours. The
flash-over occurs when these vapours ignite and the room becomes
fully involved in the fire,
(b) Radiation
Radiation from the flames emanating from burning materials is the
main cause of fire spread between buildings and it is capable of
causing the ignition of other combustible materials at quite large
distances away.
Radiation intensity is the product of three factors:-

The intensity of the fire.

The size of the radiating surface.
The distance and location of the fire in relation to the receiving
surface.

Radiation is when heat is transferred from source to receiver

without heating the intervening medium or without the existence of
a material medium.
Radiation can spread fire when it has attained any magnitude by
'jumping' from one side of a street to the other. Intensity of
radiation diminishes rapidly with distance, so that an open space
of sufficient width is the most effective type of fire break.
Radiation of sufficient intensity can ignite woodwork of windows
or doors and break windows in exposed property, permitting the
entry of heat and flying brands. Radiant heat can also pass
through windows without breaking them and cause a fire. Examples
of this are the fires which occasionally occur as a result of the
concentration of the sun's rays through carafes of drinking
water.
Radiant heat from a fire falling on a vertical surface of slate or
tiles which have been nailed in position or fixed with lead clips,
may crack them, allowing them to fall away, or melt the lead
clips, with the same result. The exposed timber battens to which
the slates or tiles are fixed, unless cooled, will probably
ignite. Radiant heat may also soften or melt the lead in leaded
glass windows used for decorative purposes, allowing the glass
panels to fall out.
 29

Radiation is the main cause of fire spread

between buildings. This fire, in a furnishing
store, radiated sufficient heat to set fire to goods
near windows in another store 22 m away

Windows can spread fire, for heat rapidly breaks exposed plain
glass and allows flames to curl up into the windows on floors
above sometimes even missing a floor. Wired glass, however, is a
good reducer of fire spread. Wired glass panes in metal frames
will hold back a relatively intense fire for a considerable
period. Materials in adjacent rooms or buildings can be ignited
by heat or flames passing through windows which are open or break
with the heat, and separating walls cannot be relied on to provide
a fire break if flames can pass round them,
(c) Conduction
Non-combustible materials heated by a fire may conduct heat to
ignite combustible material in contact with them; they may distort
and provide a passage for fire to spread to other areas; or they
may lose their strength if they are structural elements and thus
bring about the progressive collapse of the building.
Most metals are good conductors of heat, and therefore it is
necessary for the fire officer to inspect the ends or sides of all
joists, piping, shafting and other similar objects outside the
affected compartment which might transmit the heat of the fire to
adjacent compartments. Central heating or machinery, for
instance, is often installed long after the building was first
completed, and openings for the pipes or shafting may be cut
through walls which were originally designed as fire breaks.
These do not present a great hazard if they are well away from all
combustible materials but often goods are stacked on or against
them. Central heating piping, carried close to the walls or under
the floors, is nearly always close to timber and dust in floors or
skirtings. Pipes for steam heating present a greater hazard than
those used with low pressure hot water.
Machinery shafting may cause fire spread, for it may be suspended
from wooden roof members in bearings which transmit the heat and
ignite the wood. The bearings are usually well lubricated, and
large oilers may contain sufficient oil, or oil-soaked dust and
cotton waste, to catch fire and fall to the floor, or
alternatively, to involve the roof structure above.
The modern trend in building is to use reinforced concrete, but a
large number of premises still have unprotected steel beams and
 30

joists as part of the structure. A common cause of the spread of

fire by direct conduction is through such steel beams. In some
premises these beams are exposed, and capable of receiving and
transmitting heat generated in their compartment. In multi-
floored buildings with a steel frame structure with brick panel
walls, the walls may resist the transmission of heat, but any
exposed steelwork will act as a good conductor and ignite
combustible materials in adjoining compartments*
On the other hand, steelwork which has been encased in brick or
concrete can withstand a considerable amount of heat before it is
affected by the fire, and before it will conduct heat into
adjoining compartments. The encasing of the steelwork tends not
only to prevent it heating up when surrounded by fire, but also to
confine any heat it may have gained.
A fire-resisting door will usually form an effective fire break
but inspection of the far side will be necessary to see that fire
has not broken out there. The door may have been left partially
open or occupier's goods stacked too close to the door for it to
close. The solid iron doors, which are sometimes found in
commercial premises, will not be regarded as being necessarily
fire-resisting and will be carefully watched. They may buckle
with heat and allow flames to pass through the resulting gap
between door and jamb.
(d) Combination of Methods
The great majority of fires are spread by a combination of these
three processes - convection, conduction and radiation. At large
fires, convection and radiation probably produce the greatest fire
spread, but conduction is often a contributory cause.
(e) Other Considerations
Building design and construction has altered considerably in the
last few decades. The great industrialised nations search for the
greatest output with minimum manpower and maximum profit has led
to the need for vast industrial complexes and storage areas.
Computers and robots not only do the laborious jobs for which they
were hailed, but now also design and construct. One renowned car
manufacturer is proud to advertise -
"Handbuilt by robots, silenced by laser, designed by computer."
This process of eliminating the human being from the working
environment has changed the appearance of buildings all over
Europe. No longer are windows necessary in these environments;
less people frequent them and as a result there are less exits
(that means that from a Fire Brigade point of view, less entry
points). Large high-bay warehouses and factory assembly lines are
ready examples of this.
 31

Highuser goods (2) Lowuser goods (3)

Delivery side

Picking area (4)

: .nar
Receiving area (1) : J. <.**

Thus the fire officer is presented with special hazards. Firemen

could be faced with a fire high above ground level approachable only
through a maze of unprotected steelwork. A ccess may be further impeded
by conveyors or by high density storage. Buildings of all types may
sometimes be found without adequate ventilation and with varying
amounts of installed fire protection equipment. \
A fire in such a complex can rapidly get out of hand with
dangerous consequences to personnel within. Breathing apparatus
wearers may have to travel long distances to reach the seat of the fire
and consequently working duration at the fire front is drastically
reduced. The officer in charge is presented with a logistics problem
in supplying the necessary numbers of breathing sets and available
wearers and this in turn leads to a more complex command and control
problem.
Obviously BA communications will play a vital role in keeping him
informed of progress, but as yet this is not widely available nor is it
completely reliable when radio operated devices are used because of the
screening effects of solid structures.
Large shopping complexes with traffic free walkways and enclosed
malls are another modern trend* Often relying on mechanical
ventilation these precincts can quickly fill with smoke and sound
building practices are essential if the fire is not to be transmitted
along ducting, or between compartments.
Remembering the holocausts of The JoeIma Building, Sao Paolo,
Brazil, MGM Hotel Las Vegas, and the Yon Kak Hotel, Seoul, Korea; I
believe that building practices must be influenced by professional fire
officers if this nightmare is to be avoided. The film "Towering
Inferno" was no doubt an artistic exaggeration of reality but it
contained more than a few grains of truth and offered some very good
cautionary tales to those willing to listen.

3.5 Bringing the Fire Under Control

The prime task is to surround and contain the fire so that it
cannot spread beyond its point of origin, be that the affected room,
floor or building. When deciding on the number, size and position of
water jets account will have to be taken of the need to get the
extinguishing medium onto the heart of the fire, where it will do most
 32

good. Water, unless flashed to steam Is not being used to its greatest
potential and may even be causing more damage than good if allowed to
come into contact with undamaged stock.
Obviously there are times at a major outbreak of fire where the
size and type of nozzle used, are dictated by the reach or 'throw'
required. However, these incidents are rare and can be considered a
containment problem. Very often in those instances ground or aerial
monitors are brought into use and then serious consideration must be
given to whether the structure of the building can withstand the impact
and weight of the water and whether the drains can remove it
sufficiently quickly. If not pumps and crews must be deployed to
remove the water quickly before the structure becomes overladen.
In buildings used for the storage of absorbent materials such as
jute or grain the introduction of water will cause the contents to
swell and this may even lead to the walls being pushed outwards and
total collapse of the building.
There are those occasions where it is just not possible to commit
firefighters to the fire compartment. Fires in deep seated basements
or in compartments where there is a serious risk of explosion or flash-
over can often only be dealt with by total flooding with high expansion
foam. This is not a simple process, nor is it a "cure-all" technique,
since there are some very serious problems of differential pressures to
be overcome in injecting the foam and it is subsequently very difficult
to ascertain if the fire has been completely extinguished. Removal of
the foam is not easy and there are very serious problems of
disorientation and communications if firefighters wearing breathing
apparatus become completely immersed in it.

3.6 Mitigation of Damage

(a) Salvage and Ventilation
The aim of salvage is to minimise the losses arising from both the
fire and the operations undertaken to control it. For a salvage
operation to be successful it must begin immediately on arrival
and to a great extent it is complementary to the firefighting
effort.
It has three basic phases:-

(i) The protection of the contents and the building, against

damage occurring during firefighting.
(ii) Removal of the extinguishing medium used during the
firefighting operation,
(iii) The protection of the building to prevent damage by
inclement weather after firefighting operations.

(b) Ventilation
Ventilation to the fireman is the art of inducing heat and smoke
to leave a building as quickly as possible, thus causing the
minimum damage.
Its purpose is three-fold:-

(i) To prevent or reduce damage to the building and its

contents from smoke and heat,
(ii) To prevent the spread of fire by a build-up of heat,
(iii) To enable firemen to enter, find and extinguish the fire
quickly without suffering excessive punishment from heat
and smoke.
 33

Thus ventilation and salvage are aids both to firefighting and to

making conditions more tolerable. Properly arranged they will
certainly reduce fire losses.
The design of buildings is a critical factor to success in this
action and once again emphasises the need for the fire officer to be
involved at the planning stage, eg he might suggest slightly sloping
floors leading to channels designed to direct water out of the
buildings/ raised cills between compartments to contain flowing
volatile liquids and the provision of automatic smoke ventilators.
Regular training in these basic measures should have ensured that
the importance of these techniques is understood by all concerned.

Various aspects of salvage work

1. F resh air 7. Stock covered by salvage
2. Slit made here sheets
3. F ire here 8. Sheets suspended from
4. Water directed down staircase stanchions to divert water
5. Dollies into tray
6. Sheets suspended from stanchions 9. Drain guard
to divert water through window 10. Pump , ;:

IS THE PRESENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE ADEQUATE7

4.1 Statistics
There is a wide variety of Brigades operating throughout Europe,
employing wholetime, retained and volunteer firefighters. In one
country a private agency provides a good deal of the fire service and
there is certainly no common method of determining standards of
adequacy. There is a tendency to relate efficiency to the amount of
financial loss suffered by the community each year but I believe this
to be a negative approach since it would be much more meaningful (if it
were possible) to relate the cost of the fire service to the number of
lives and amount of property actually saved each year. Regrettably
suitable statistical information is just not available and it would be
straying far beyond my brief in preparing this paper to examine the
reasons for that. A very brave attempt is being made to rectify this
serious deficiency by Mr Tom Wilmot who in 1982 launched in London the
 34

World Fire Statistics Centre (part of the Geneva Association) with the
aim of bringing to the attention of Governments the real cost of fire
which he believes is too often underestimated in considerations of
national economic management. He particularly regrets that insufficient
and inadequate statistical information is being produced annually. Mr
Wilmot has conducted a lengthy and intensive research into the cost of
fire in 12 European countries and in 1979 published some results of his
work in which he had identified the following 7 items which contribute
to the total cost of fire:-

(a) Direct losses 30%

(b) Building protection 30% ) In many
(c) Fire Brigades 15% I countries fire
(d) Fire insurance 15% ) costs 1% of th
(e) Indirect losses 5% ) Gross Domestic
(f) Human losses 5% ) Product
(g) Fire research and propaganda negligible

Total 100%

Meaningful research would obviously be assisted if, at least, we

compiled more accurate information in a uniform fashion amongst our
nations.

4.2 Legislation
I mentioned in my introduction the need for Brigades to be
provided with a firm legislative base from which to work.
Interpretation of any laws applying to the Fire Brigade has to be very
carefully monitored where the contraints imposed may affect its
operational capability. It is perhaps worth noting that in spite of
all the work (and in which we as fire officers participate) which goes
into the design of a new buildng under various regulations things can
still go wrong1
Invariably then, when everbody else is leaving the building, we as
firefighters are required to go in. Ihis hostile environment then is
the workplace of the firefighter and against which we have to train our
men in realistic exercises to prepare them for these dangers.
In the UK it has taken us some time to appreciate that Health and
Safety legislation need not affect efficiency on the fireground. I
recall that initially we were over-reactive to its provisions and
worried greatly that firefighters would be made so conscious of their
personal safety that operational efficiency would be reduced. Because
of some very dedicated work and the provision by our Government of a
specific group to oversee the operation of this legislation in the
emergency services, I believe that we are now even more efficient since
it has led to realistic training which is directly related to
conditions likely to be met in operational circumstances.

NEW INNOVATIONS
Technology is improving daily and as the fire service well knows
it is often this new technology that presents itself at incidents. In
order to meet these new operational demands therefore, we must likewise
improve our own technology and it is encouraging to see some of the
latest equipment and techniques which are becoming available to us.
 35

lhe computer and the microchip have been hailed as the greatest
developments since man invented the wheel. Certainly they have
improved our Fire Controls to the point where they are beginning to
resemble the Houston Control Centre.
Those advances aside then, what about those at the sharp end -
those available to the firefighter on the ground? I have not attempted
to be wildly futuristic but simply sought to highlight some of those
developments which appear to have real practical possibilities without
any suggestion of the "gimmick" about them.

5.1 Thermal Imaging Camera

For years firefighters have been handicapped by the difficulties
of seeing and operating in smoke. We now have a piece of operational
equipment in the thermal imaging camera which can help us to do just
that and which is in regular service with several British Fire
Brigades.

It offers the following advantages:-

(a) Provides clear vision through smoke.

(b) Instantly shows location of fire source.
(c) Substantially increases firefighters mobility in smoke-
filled areas.
(d) Improves firefighter safety by making obstacles and hazards
visible.
(e) Initial external survey of a building can indicate probable
location of fire by indicating heat zone.
(f) When the fire is extinguished it can indicate any isolated
'hot spots' which may cause re-ignition.
(g) Overheating equipment can be located before ignition occurs,
ie defective electric light fittings and overheated machinery
bearings.
(h) When connected from a smoke chamber to a VDU outside it can
be used to monitor techniques of BA teams undergoing training.
This can also be recorded on a standard video tape recorder.

5.2 Light Water Foam

Without doubt this has been a major breakthrough in technique.
The concentrate used with an induction ratio of between 3% and 6% can
be applied as a spray or aspirated in the same way as conventional
foam.
Its big advantage is its quick 'knock down' ability which is many
times greater than its conventional counterpart. Because it forms an
effective vapour seal it reduces the chances of a flash-over and has
excellent burn back qualities. Some quite spectacular results have
been achieved with its use.

5.3 High-Rise Equipment

As I was preparing this paper the new 60 m hydraulic platform was
introduced. It is the latest piece of firefighting equipment in the
world and offers even greater advantages to firefighters working in
city environments. It will be interesting to see what new techniques
are developed from its introduction.
 36

CONCLUSION
There are many textbooks on the subjects of building construction,
fire protection and firefighting techniques and, at best, this paper
can only have provided the merest introduction to the way in which all
these matters are combined when the emergency occurs* The firefighter
is essentially part of the last line in the complex system of defence
we have erected against the common enemy, fire. Unless each component
discipline in that defence understands the problems which face his
colleagues we will have little chance of success and therefore I have
welcomed this opportunity to put forward a view on behalf of the fire
officer.
 37

PRIORITIES IN PREVENTION
C. DIRMER (F RANCE)
Lieutenant-Colonel in the Civil Security Directorate

Introduction

The subject of "Priorities in Prevention" is rather a difficult

one as, according to the notes provided by those who selected the
subjects for discussion , it involves describing the main hazards
to be considered in fire prevention in buildings, hazards which are
regarded by general fire prevention officers as worrying problems as
regards both safeguarding occupants and protecting property from
damage, (forever the hazards affect not only the building itself but
also its surroundings and, of course, its occupants.

1. RISKS IN BUILDINGS
1.1. PHYSICAL NATURE OF BUILDINGS
1.1.1. Excessive size of buildings - buildings underground
These days buildings are continually increasing in size, whether
in height, depth or surface area, to the extent that they sometimes
appear to transcend the human dimension. In many countries of the
Community high-rise office blocks or hotels are often over 100 m high
and sometimes, e.g. in Paris, even as high as 200 m (Tour Maine
Montparnasse and Tour de la Dfense).
With infrastructure too, builders are going deeper and deeper to
build 4, 5 or 6 levels to be used for technical purposes or for
carparks, causing great problems when fires break out, particularly
with regard to extracting smoke and fumes, given that modern vehicles
now contain 100 kg or more of synthetic materials. In some cases
builders even go deeper to build underground railway or subway stations,
which very often have shops or shopping galleries attached (e.g. the
Auber station of the Rseau Express Rgional RER in Paris) and which
are used by hundreds of thousands of people.

But the ground surface area of buildings is also increasing

unrelentingly, whether large office complexes (future Ministry of
Finance in Paris - 300 m long), museums (La Villette in Paris), large
exhibition halls covering tens of thousands of square meters with no
partitioning (Birmingham, Hamburg, Villepinte near Paris) or even
gigantic warehouses which are often not subject to building regulations
on fire safety (this is true in France, for example, except for the
one special case of warehouses known as "Magasins gnraux" (general
stores) where goods are covered by a warehouse warrant). Remember
the following huge fires which have occurred in warehouses.

- SAVECO (Aubergenville-F rance): 12 May 1977.

The building, measuring 170 m 100 m, comprised only a ground
floor (food stores) ; it was not partitioned, had a facade, roof
and framework made entirely of metal was protected by a
sprinkler system which operated properly, and it was completely
destroyed (damage assessed at FF 80 million).
 38

- F ORD (Cologne, FR of Germany): 20 Octobre 1977.

The fire destroyed 75 000 m of Ford AG's central spare parts
warehouse (total area 109 000 m ) . The warehouse had an
unprotected metal framework, was divided into two sections
(75 000 m and 34 000 m ) separated by a fireproof wall and
was protected by a sprinkler system which initially operated
correctly (Material damage assessed at DM 215 million, trading
losses estimated at DM 150 million).

- Cotton warehouses (Le Havre^France): 12 September 1982.

One part of the building (length 530 m) had a metal framework
and the other (length 210 m) was.build of concrete, covering
a total surface area of 84 000 m (width 113 m ) . The total
volume was divided into four compartments. 15 000 tonnes of
cotton out of 40 000 were destroyed. The metal part of the
building was totally destroyed, while in the concrete part one
of the spans collapsed and the one next to it was buckled. The
roof was highly inflammable and this helped to spread the fire.
There was no automatic extinguisher system. The interior
separating walls dividing the warehouse into 19 000 m
compartments were badly constructed.

An analysis of these large-scale fires shows that the top priority

preventive measure-and probably the cheapes& which would have
prevented many disasters and greatly reduced damage should without
question have been the construction of proper fire-proof walls, which
would have stopped the fire from spreading. Of course partitioning is
now no longer compatible with the automatic rack feeders which are
now installed to operate in every direction in large modern warehouse
buildings, often even in high-rise ones.

In short, fire prevention officers feel somewhat powerless when

faced with the huge, undivided volumes, because with their present
technical, scientific and experimental knowledge, they do not know
how the -fire, in particular the smoke and fumes, will spread. Having
admitted their powerlessness, how can they then devise perfectly
suitable, logical and unchallengeable specifications, whether
building provisions (passive measures relating to the fire-resistance
of the components) or dynamic devices (active measures)?

1.1.2. lightweight main structures

Fire-prevention officers have become even more worried by the
trend which began several years ago towards building relatively
"lightweight" main structures for buildings comprising only a ground
floor (commercial and industrial buildings, warehouses etc.) using
metal structures which are not protected against fire, with light
plastic roofing and cladding (PVC and polyesters, for example).

Of course safeguarding the public and personnel does not present

any difficulties since they can be evacuated very quickly (usually
in 5 or 6 minutes) well before the building or any part of it collapses.
But where the structural components are destroyed think of the
economic losses, whether material damage or indirect "trading losses"
Cef. statistics provided by the Plenary Assembly of Fire Insurance
 39

Companies and the European Insurance Committee). Is it reasonable,

particularly in the present economic climate, for the legislator not
to be concerned with safeguarding property?

Naturally those operators who are aware of the hazards will

improve safety levels in their companies by consulting their insurance
company about building regulations previsions and the dynamic devices
suited to their situation (automatic detectors, automatic extinguishers,
partition walls etc.), but should bear in mind that this step is
voluntary and by no means compulsory, particularly as, in the present
state of the market, reductions on insurance premiums are less of an
incentive than previously.

1.1.3. Interior design of buildings

It is increasingly the case that architects want to build large
light shafts, patios and covered atriums inside buildings onto which
the rooms and horizontal passageways open, particularly in buildings
used as offices, hotels and schools.

The danger with this design, which is intended both to use day-
light to light the building (saving energy), and to achieve a certain
esthetic architectural effect, is that it may help fire spread to
different levels. Here again the fire-prevention officer does not
really know what specific and effective specifications should be applied
for this type of building, which can be up to 7, 8 or even 9 floors
high without being classified as a high-rise building.

1.2. CONTENTS

We have to admit that in general the fire prevention officer is

powerless to limit and control the contents of buildings, and it is
even very unusual for regulations to impose quantitative restrictions
(e.g. with high-rise buildings in France).

It is a fact that the heat and fume potential of buildings is in-

creasing continuously and relentlessly. Moreover, most modern materials
used for interior fittings, furniture and decorative fittings are
synthetic and are more susceptible to flames and heat than traditional
materials which are now used less frequently. This danger has been
further increased by the liberal and often unnecessary use of heat
insulating materials based on thermo-plastic (PVC, polystyrene) or
thermo-hardening (polyurethanes) foams in order to limit energy
losses.

Many fires which have claimed lives in recent years have illustrated
these dangerous aspects (made even worse by various abuses), particularly
the fires which occurred in the following discothques and night-
clubs:
1970: fire at the "5/7" dance hall in Saint-Laurent du Pont
(France): 146 killed
1972: fire at a cabaret in Osaka (Japan): 117 killed
1972: fire at a night-club on the Island of Rhodes (Greece): 32
killed
1972: fire at the "Blue Bird" in Montreal (Canada): 42 killed
 40

1976: fire at a dance hall in La Louvire (Belgium): 15 killed

1977: fire at a cabaret-dance hall in Southgate (United States):
161 killed
1978: fire at a dance hall in Stockholm (Sweden): 21 killed
1979: fire at a dance hall in Quebec (Canada): 44 killed
1980: fire at a dance hall in London (UK): 37 killed
1981: fire at the "Stardust" in Dublin (Eire): 48 killed
1983: fire at the "L'Alcala 20" in Madrid (Spain): 82 killed.

In industrial and commercial buildings goods have become more

vulnerable because of the susceptibility of their packaging to fire
(cellular packaging and polyurethane film, for example).

Furthermore, the toxic fumes released during the pyrolysis or

combustion of plastic materials may in some cases be corrosive both
for man and for metal or computer equipment when certain gases are
released (HCl or HCN, for example, when PVC or polyurethane burn).

We must admit that the general problem of reaction to fire and

the specific problem of the denseness and toxicity of fumes are very
difficult to overcome, both in terms of laboratory experimentation
(diversity of methods used in the EEC) and in terms of devising
appropriate regulations which are easy to apply. There is no doubt
that we must somehow one day harmonize our tests, first because
individuals should have the same protection in all the countries of
the Community, and secondly in order to facilitate the free movement
of goods within the EEC.

1.3. TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT

1.3.1. General points

Technical equipment, including safety equipment, may be a problem
on several counts in the event of fire.

Firstly, I would draw your attention to the fact that there has been
a relentless and irrevocable increase in the amount of energy supplied
to buildings (electricity, natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas etc.).
Secondly, the systems used for air-conditioning, controlled mechanical
ventilation and smoke extraction are becoming increasingly complex and
sophisticated, making them more easily vulnerable in the event of an
accident; they can even be the means by which smoke^fumes and hot gases
spread through the building if by some mischance the system is defective
(mechanical fault, malfuntion of fire-proof shutters and fire valves
caused or aggravated by negligent technical maintenance etc.).

In a highly detailed study * of the reliability of smoke extraction

installations in high-rise buildings in the Paris area, the possible
causes of the failure or malfunction of these systems were analysed
using fault-trees (safety of the systems).

* Study of reliability and safety of mechanical smoke-extraction

systems carried out at the request of the DSC by the Central Laboratory
of the Paris Police Headquarters and the Technical Institute for
Building and Public Works.
 41

Very often the situation has been further exacerbated by a fault

in the internal safety system of the building, with staff making
mistakes owing to the bad design of the mimic diagrams, which are not
standardized in France.

1.3.2. Electric cables

Electrical installations feature high on the list of technical
equipment in buildings. When fires break out among bunched cables,
firemen always face clouds of thick, corrosive and toxic smoke and
fumes as the cables are usually covered with halogenated materials
(PVC, for example). In this connection it would be useful if manu-
facturers developed fireproofed halogen-free cables which give off
only small quantities of smoke (or none if possible) and which do not
give off toxic or corrosive fumes when subjected to the heat of a fire.

French cable manufacturers are already carrying out studies and

research which should soon lead to less expensive products than those
manufactured at present.

1.3.3. Automatic fire detection arid computers

We are beginning to find a new cause for concern in the fora of
automatic fire detection systems which are in danger of being "absorbed"
into computerized systems.
These days there is so much information to be processed in large
buildings (commercial or administrative blocks, sports or leisure
centres, high rise buildings etc.) that the tendency is normally to
use computers to handle technical data (boiler room readings, burglar
alarms, lift alarms, automatic fire detectors etc.) and, for convenience
and for reasons of economy, to arrange the various functions on the
same mimic diagram (multifunction computerized system). The danger is
that the sub-system specifically designed to provide protection from
fire is then no longer separate; it is no longer an individual system
and its function tends to be a routine function whereas it should
always be an emergency function. The original sarety-consciousness
which once dictated the design of the system currently in use is
therefore no longer observed.

We should therefore introduce the idea of a safety sub-system

which keeps its own identity within the general system. This involves
defining specific limits for the sub-system, which may be physical
limits and/or limits connected with the program-structuring software.

Furthermore, there is a danger that the central safety office in

large buildings will be manned by someone who is not a specialist in
fire safety and who will neither have had the same training nor be
adequately aware. People who do not have sufficient seniority
(maintenance staff, for example) should also not be allowed to "handle"
programs. This idea of accessibility classification for staff is
necessary so that no-one can/for example,get away with 'neutralizing'
certain detectors. Certain procedures must not be too complex and one
should not have to be a computer expert to be able to operate safety
equipment manually. (In one shopping gallery in Paris the manual
opening of smoke outlets required a whole computerized procedure with
key codes. This complicated system was changed at the request of the
Safety Committee).
 42

With regard to the design of the new system, no fault should be

able to cause the loss of information covering a larger geographical
area than in present systems. With "addressable" detection for
example (examination of each detector in turn) looped lines are more
useful than single lines because they enable information to be held
in the event of a single fault (system redundancy). The maximum
number of detectors permitted on any single line must also be stipulated.

Finally, the introduction of data processing techniques in fire

safety procedures must not have the effect of reducing reliability
and/or availability in comparison with present levels.

Furthermore, even well-designed and maintained automatic fire

detector or extinguisher networks can break down when various adverse
factors coincide, as was proved in the major warehouse fires mentioned
earlier (Saveco in Aubergenville and Ford in Cologne).
At the meeting of the "Fire Group" in London in April 1983, the
representatives of the Ministries for Internal Affairs (fire safety
in EEC countries) stressed the fact that the percentage of false
alarms with automatic fire detection systems is still much too high
in spite of the undoubted progress which has been made in their
manufacturing during the last ten years.

It would therefore seem reasonable and desirable not to place

unlimited confidence in these "dynamic" systems at the expense of
"passive measures".

To conclude this section I would point out that we are at present

examining a detailed statistical survey, carried out in France by the
Industrial Technical Centre for Metal Construction (CTICM) under the
aegis of the Commission of the European Communities, on the subject of
fires in industrial and commercial single storey buildings in which
compensation for material damage amounted to over two million francs.
The information collected relates only to the building and its contents,
the development of the fire, the operation of protective devices and
the behaviour of the structural components.
The statistical analysis will indicate which factors predominate
in the development and spread of fires in this type of building. The
survey will enable us
a) to gather and study the objective data required for a
quantitative assessment of fire hazards in industrial and
commercial buildings;
b) to improve fire prevention by gaining a better understanding
of design problems.
We will have the final results at the end of 1984.

2. TOWN PLANNING
2.1. Fire prevention officers are not merely concerned about
buildings alone, but also about their surroundings and access to them
from roads used by fire engines and rescue vehicles. In some cases,
particularly with buildings on slab foundations known as "Ensembles
Dalles" (in new towns for example), planners have failed to provide
for underground or surface access routes for fire-fighting vehicles.
 43

2.2. Underground planning

When access is by an underground route the problem is much more
complex and there are a number of vital principles which must be
observed by the planners:
- inclusion of wide openings in the slab-work above any underground
access routes measuring several hundred metres in length (these
large air shafts could provide ventilation for the fumes from
the fires and/or for the exhaust fumes from the fire engines
"in action");
- insulation of routes by fire-proof walls along or across the
areas in question;
- installation of powerful lighting and ventilation smoke
extraction equipment;
- installation of automatic water extinguisher systems in the
infrastructure;
- installation of dry risers with feed pipes to the level of the
access route for fire engines;
- installation of a hydraulic extinguisher system with hydrants
staggered on each side of the route;
- construction of pedestrian access routes (for example stairs or
fire towers) so that firemen can reach upper levels on foot;
- construction of special facilities to drain water discharged by
fire hoses and sprinklers;
- setting-up of an internal telecommunications network covering the
infrastructure, the surface and the superstructure.
The above-mentioned fundamental principles may also be a useful
guide for architects when building other underground constructions such
as stations, road tunnels etc.

2.3. Taking the simpler example of pedestrian zones in the middle

of towns, planners must also not forget to provide for essential access
routes for fire engines. The road requirements of fire engines are
stricter than for ordinary vehicles (hardness, bearing capacity etc.).

3. REGULATIONS
However, fire-officers are not only worried about the building
itself and its urban environment, but also about regulations, however
paradoxical that might appear. Let us consider the mast vital and
striking factors of their attitude towards regulations in relation
to the various aspects of fires.

3.1. Loopholes to be closed

In France and other European countries the laws do not cover all
hazards relating to buildings, and certain types of buildings, even
large ones, do not come under any specific fire regulations; among
the most striking examples in France are office blocks not used by
the public and not classified as high-rise buildings i.e. with up to
approximately nine floors and belonging to private companies or public
authorities, or warehouses, with the exception of bonded warehouses.
(In theory this letter loophole should be closed by the end of 1984).
There is no point in listing the countless large-scale fires which
have occurred in these two types of building, which are very common in
 44

our society with its preponderance of service industries and industrial

undertakings. There is an urgent need for legislators to enact laws to
try to reduce the considerable financial losses incurred "very year.

3.2. Linguistic difficulties

Because present developments are so complex it is also becoming
increasingly difficult to translate into clear language which all
those involved can easily understand the restrictions, thresholds and
other guidelines which need to be stipulated in the laws to guarantee
a 'certain' degree of safety, which we unfortunately cannot even
quantify at present.

3.3. Design problems

Given the continual appearance of new technologies and materials
and the boundlessly fertile imaginations of architects, it is becoming
increasingly difficult to 'prescribe' (much less) in a set of regula-
tions suitable answers to and solutions for the hazards created by
modern constructions. As soon as a regulation appears it is soon
overtaken within a few months by situations which the legislator did
not foresee at the outset. Regulations cannot think of everything
and cannot anticipate, and they are inevitably subject to the other
requirements of the building. This being so, we should not protest, as
some people do, when amendments and additions appear which are designed
to keep the laws as up-to-date as possible.

3.4. Difficult choice

All fire prevention officers who are involved in drawing up laws
are continually faced with the problem of choice. How far can regulation
requirements reasonably go? Is a particular threshold too strict, is
another one not strict enough? Here too we must humbly admit that our
'objective' scientific and experimental knowledge is inadequate, not
forgetting the irreplacable value and wealth of knowledge to be gained
from praticai experience of fires.

3.5. Superfluous requirements

In many cases the legislator may legitimately wonder whether the
texts of regulations do not contain redundant and superfluous elements
because of the cumulation of provisions adopted in various fields
(building, dynamic devices, action to be taken by individuals etc), as
if each measure taken on its own would prove ineffective at the time
of the accident.
3.6. Balancing passive and active measures
Firemen are rightly concerned about the present trend among the
legislators of the various countries of the Community of regarding
dynamic devices (automatic detectors and extinguishers etc) as being
increasingly important, sometimes at the expense of constructional
measures. In fact, such measures are always reliable and efficient,
but the same cannot always be said of automatic installations as we
stressed earlier. Here again we are faced with the vital problem
which such installations present - the problem of reliability, which
depends to a large extent on good technical maintenance.
Here too we must ask ourselves a clear question : what would be
a reasonable balance of passive and active measures to order to cover
a given hazard?
 45

3.7. What sort of regulations should we aim for?

In view of the difficulties described earlier the Civil Security
Directorate organized a general conference in France on 9 and 10
November 1983 at the National Institute for Civil Security in
Nainville-les-Roches to try to decide on the best policy to adopt bet-
ween now and the end of the century on regulations for fire safety in
buildings used by the public. The basic idea which emerged was not to
keep regulations on compulsory methods, but to aim for regulations with
compulsory results, using modern methods of safety analysing, known as
"system safety", which are already in use in other safety fields (aero-
space construction and nuclear installations).
The modern methods offer the following advantages:
- the degree of safety can be harmonized;
- comparable degrees of safety can be obtained more cheaply;
- the designer of the construction can be given greater freedom
of expression.
It is better to define the safety objective which dictated the
regulation rather than simply applying the regulation itself, which
is merely a means of showing that the objective has been fulfilled.

Of course the new type of regulations will have to guarantee

at least an equivalent degree of safety to that provided by the
old ones, which were more descriptive and detailed (compulsory
methods). In addition they will have to
- be drawn up so that they can be applied uniformly to all types
of establishments used by the public;
- have an objective technical basis, i.e. the data required to
draw them up must be quantified or evaluated on the same scale
of values;
- be internally consistent, i.e. be constructed from a general
model which can be applied to all types of sub-systems.

Regulations of this sort will also enable different safety

measures to be made equivalent on the understanding that measures
must be applied during the same stages of the fire. There would be no
sense in replacing one measure which is applied at the very beginning
of a fire (automatic detection, for example) by another measure which
must be applied at a later stage (installation of permanent fire-hose
points, for example).
In conclusion, the objectives of a regulation imposing obligations
might be as follows:
- guaranteeing that the probability of fires involving large
numbers of victims (e.g. in buildings used by the public) is
negligible;
- reducing the probability of fires claiming occasional victims
to a minimum;
- preventing fire from spreading outside the area in which it
begins.

4. THE HUMAN FACTOR

Now that the concerns of professional fire prevention officers
with regard to buildings, town planning and regulations have been
considered, all that remains to conclude this paper is to examine
the problems caused by man himself, whether alone or in a crowd,
 46

whether user customer or operator. This fina 1 section therefore

basically deals with the stage when the building is in use, but
specifically excludes criminal intent and terrorism.

4.1. The individual in the 20th century

In our post-industrialized society man is cushioned (occasionally
even looked after) on every level and, unlike his ancestors, is no
longer accustomed to dealing wihh the hostile and aggressive situations
caused by nature and the elements. He is therefore more easily confused
in abnormal situations such as when a fire breaks out; he sometimes
even suffers from claustrophobia ( windowless buildings, underground
constructions etc.).

It is unfortunate to have to admit that man today has a greater

tendency than previously to damage communal areas and collective
equipment in buildings (some people even speak of a general lack of
public-spiritedness, which is obviously very dangerous in the field
with which we are concerned.

4.2. "Collective" man

The individual, who is likely to react badly when isolated, may also
behave erratically, unreasonably and totally unexpectedly in the
middle of a crowd of several hundred or several thousand people when
fire breaks out in a large building. Here too we have to admit that
our knowledge of the aspects of collective behaviour which may cause
panic is very slight.
It has often been observed that the irrational behaviour of a
few people may be enough to cause or increase panic during the
evacuation phase. The problem is .incidentally,connected with the
bottlenecks which may be caused when the public can no longer move
quickly enough because certain exits cannot be used (padlocked exits,
exits partly or totally obstructed by people who have fallen over,
etc.) .
During this particular stage the competence and efficiency of the
building's internal safety team(fire safety officers or employees with
special safety training) are of vital importance for guiding and
directing the crowd. Will these people always be able to cope with
their responsibilities?
4.3. Technical maintenance - Safety officers
We cannot stress too strongly that the communal areas and sections
of buildings must be maintained, as must all the various types of
material and equipment which contribute to the overall safety.
If technical maintenance is neglected it will further reduce the
reliability of the equipment, particularly that which operates
only when fire breaks out, and which therefore goes unnoticed at
normal times. The more sophisticated the material, the more vulnerable
it is and the more thorough the technical maintenance should be.
We are particularly concerned in the present situation, for in
times of economic hardship, or even austerity, those in charge tend
to cut back not only on investment expenditure but also on operational
costs, whether for equipment maintenance or for internal safety staff
whose numbers they try to reduce at all costs.
Here in Europe, where countries are feeling the effect of the
present crisis, it is very difficult to make heads of firms aware of
 47

the necessity of spending money on effective prevention, particularly

where there are no regulations or where regulations are vague. However,
intelligent and reasonable discussions between heads of firms and fire
prevention officers are greatly to be desired to prevent the situation
from deteriorating any further. How many firms which have suffered
serious fires can still remain competitive?

4.4. Misuse of buildings and equipment

. Last but not least . sll of the hazards described above may be
made still worse by errors caused by negligence or thoughtlessness when
using equipment. The following are among the most common misuses:
- changes of activity without taking protective measures to com-
pensate or make allowance for this (the 'contents' are then
no longer adapted to the original premises - it is often the
case that the original premises have a low heat potential which
increases over the years);
- neutralization of safety equipment:
fire doors wedged open, obstructed signs, hatches jammed
or obstructed etc...
- congestion of passageways:
ill-considered storage in corridors, near exits, on staircases
etc.
Finally, to eliminate all the errors, deficiencies and faults
connected with the human factor, major efforts must still be made in
the following fields:
a) education of children in schools
(we would draw your attention to the campaign to be carried out by
the C.N.P.P. in third year classes in France between 15 October
and 15 December 1984 in conjunction with the Civil Security Directorate
and the Ministry for National Education)
b) information and publicity aimed at the general public
(very inadequate part played by the media at present)
c) information and publicity aimed at heads of firms
provided by professional fire prevention officers in the public and
private sectors and in particular through safety officers.
We thus find that fire prevention officers have real and well-
founded causes for concern. What direction should our efforts take to
try to find ways of reducing, if not removing, the major problems des-
cribed earlier? (If possible at European Community level).

It is absolutely essential that we pool our resources, both

intellectual and financial, thus avoiding fragmentation and waste,
in order to gain better scientific and experimental knowledge of

a) the ways in which fire spreads in large areas;

b) individual or collective human behaviour in fires.

We must also press on with the harmonization of tests of reaction

and resistance to fire in order to facilitate manufacturing and to
reduce costs. (N.B. the attempt to harmonize the results of fire
resistance tests carried out by professional researches on lift
doors).
 48

We must also try to ensure that the degree of safety is appreciably

the same in every country in Europe, at least in buildings used by the
public, which are a priority case, since they are visited by millions
of outsiders, for either tourism or work, every year.

The fact that a proposal for a Council recommendation on fire

safety in existing hotels appeared in the Official Journal of the
Communities on 21 February 1984 is an encouraging sign in this
respect.
Let us hope and pray that it will not be the only one.
 49

THEME I - COSTS AND BENEFITS OF FIRE PROTECTION

Part 1 - Chairman: C D . WOODWARD, British Fire Protection Association,

London

Rapporteur: E.J. DENNEY, Fire Protection Association, London

Opening remarks by the session chairman

The cost of fire

Fire risk analysis and costs and benefits of fire prevention

The importance of structural fire prevention measures

Costs and benefits of fire protection - Contribution of building

contents

Fire detection - The first stage in firefighting

Costs and benefits of automatic sprinkler systems

Automatic firefighting systems gaseous and powder systems

Part 2 - Chairman: G. LINDEN, Verband der Sachversicherer, Cologne

Rapporteur: M.H. HAMMER, Verband der Sachversicherer, Cologne

Firefighting by people in the buildings

Escape from fire

Salvage operations during the intervention

Salvage after fire, corrosion and reconditioning of buildings

Insurance and fire protection

Legislation and control

Precautions against arson

 50

OPENING REMARKS BY THE SESSION CHAIRMAN

C D . WOODWARD

The time for this first EEC symposium on fire is interesting and opportune.
It is a time when many activities are being re-appraised.

It is a time when we hope we are emerging from trade recession. At the

same time questions are being asked in our own world of fire safety as to
the effectiveness of our past approaches to almost everything. Questions
are asked as to the future direction for legislative control. Of the
merits of greater self-regulation. As to optimum use of volunteer
fire-fighters and private fire brigades and fire parties to protect
individual risks. Under the aegis of the U.N.E.C.E. there is a collab-
orative exercise going on into how we can improve the compilation of fire
statistics on a more uniform basis. In Europe we are seeing under the
EEC banner an effort to co-ordinate fire safety regulations for hotels.
On a different level, through CFPA Europe and the C.E.A., we are attemt-
ping to come to grips with the problem of arson, which in all of the EEC
countries, has assumed serious proportions.

This symposium is very wide ranging. We look at almost every aspect of

fire prevention and fire protection in buildings.

The preceding theme this morning looked at the role of the fire service
not just in fighting fires but also in preventing them.

Theme II, which follows, is concerned with the detailed technical require-
ments of fire protection. Theme III is concerned with technical inno-
vation both in respect of protection of buildings and in regard to
fire-fighting by the fire brigades.

Theme I, our theme for this afternoon and tomorrow morning, serves
essentially as a broad introduction to themes II and III. The full scope
of our theme is to consider "The choices which are available in preventing
and controlling fire : the costs and the benefits of each". Our objectives
are to paint on a wide canvas in broad strokes. We shall consider each
of the main areas of fire prevention and fire protection, trying in each
case to assess the costs and the benefits in financial terms where that
is possible and in other respects where it is not. In themes II and III
speakers will be giving detailed consideration to the minutae of fire
protection under the various broad headings we have touched upon.

In speaking of the costs and the benefits we have to consider their

implications for governments, for society as a whole, and for individual
companies who have actually to pay for improved fire safety.

In a perfect world no-one would die in fires. In our imperfect world

decisions have to be taken, at least in an oblique way, as to the price
we put on saving a life from fire. We can, if we wish, make it increas-
ingly difficult for materials to ignite but the price would by high
probably unacceptably so. Professor Kletz quoted recently from an
American paper that in the hydrocarbon processing industry in 1984, 18 %
of the cost of new plants will be spent on fire protection. He reckons
that in all up to 30 % of the money spent on new plants goes to safety
and pollution prevention. Of course in other, less safety-conscious
industries, such expenditure would not be acceptable.
 51

THE COST OF FIRE

de MOULINS BEAUFORT
General Manager
French National Fire Prevention and Protection Centre

AN INTRODUCTION TO 'THE COSTS OF FIRE'

Any consideration of the question of how much fire and all its
implications costs may seem an enormous gamble; indeed, it remains to be
demonstrated that any particular purpose is so served. It can be seen,
without the need for proof, that fire costs too much: the fact is that
every fire brings its own wake of tragedy. That observation is worth a
moment's pause for thought, and in any event is the justification for all
mankind's efforts to combat fire, that is to say, its consequences. Until
the last century deliberate crop burning was a capital offence in France
indeed, it is still on the statute book not because of the value of
the crop lost, but because of the consequences which the loss represented.
A burned crop meant the impoverishment of all or part of the local popu
lation, and could well lead to its destitution.
There is one datum which is but poorly known in the analysis of fire,
and that is its indirect cost, that is, the true burden of its consequences.
It is difficult to estimate the emotional cost to the individual occasioned
by the destruction of his home; nobody knows the real cost over time of
the loss of a factory. What price the gradual disappearance of thousands
of hectares of forest around the Mediterranean coast?
Can the cost of fire be expressed in figures, or should it be tackled
in other ways? What precisely is the reality of a fire in today's world?
We should perhaps try to avoid any of the abstract reasoning which
allows us, as with geometry, to think straight with figures which are
crooked. We would be incapable of discerning the wood for the trees.
A few observations may cast some light on the subject, and that is
the immense value of the work of Mr Tom Wilmot: he cannot be complimented
enough on it.
Let us first recognize that scarcely any statistics exist for our
subject. However, a great many figures exist, and they are of great
value since they put the problem into perspective. Broadly speaking they
are enough, since they provide adequate arguments for maintaining a
nation's emergency services at a satisfactory level. Over several decades
insurers, who need statistics in order to define degrees of risk and
determine premiums, have built up analyses of the various risks which they
have had to cover; such statistics meet their own needs but make no claim
to cover all risks. They represent a vital source of our information.
The fire brigade reports on every callout. They seek information
which, with no statistical aim, allows them constantly to develop their
knowledge of the nature and spread of fire. Each time they are concerned
with a specific case; for an insurer there is a mill in every town; for
the fireman is it the mill.
It is often asked how much the fire service costs, particularly the
public service. Many might say that even if the number of fires remained
constant there are probably too many firemen and too much firefighting
material in any European Community country, or in Europe generally. Yes,
if we consider that less than one callout in ten is to a fire, and that
 52

the other nine represent a wide range of other activities, we can say that
the emergency services are too expensive. That is thinking straight with
figures that are crooked: the truth is represented by the multitude of
other jobs for which the fire brigade is on call night and day. What,
then, is the point of assessing the cost of the fire service in a study
of the cost of fire?
On the other hand, the extent of investment can be determined if we
consider the sum of the potential dangers and accidents likely to occur
in a given region, without discriminating between types, and it would be
more logical to compare public investment in the creation and maintenance
of a fire brigade with the dangers of accidents of any kind likely to
require the services of the brigade. That is of more value.
In analysing the cost of fire it is estimated that indirect losses
account for about 5% of the total cost, with direct costs at about 30%.
Recently, however, it was estimated that as far as industrial fires are
concerned, indirect costs were in the region of three times direct costs.
Now if we consider also that industrial fires represent one third of the
total cost of fire in France, the conclusion is that most other fires
entail no indirect costs, and ought in fact to be regarded as having
beneficial consequences. There is a mistake somewhere there, and I leave
it to those with a head for figures to nail it.
Fire prevention has two different viewpoints, that of protecting the
individual, and that of protecting his environment. The authorities set
safety rules which tell anybody operating premises to which the public
has access the minimum he must do in order to attain a level below which
safety is inadequate. The conscientious operator applies the rules in
both letter and spirit. Far too many are content to apply the letter only.
When we have to put a figure on the cost of the statutory requirements,
must we base our workings on the theory of the law, or on the reality
of the situation and the configuration of the premises which are to be
made safe? Must we, in fact, count the cost of the meeting the letter of
the law, or the cost of making the premises safe? What a shopkeeper wants
to know, for example, is not that safety generally represents per cent
of investment costs, but how much money it will cost him.
And although the additional cost of safety systems built into new
premises can be estimated fairly accurately, the same cannot be said in
the case of an ageing hotel which needs to be brought up to modern safety
standards.
It is not my purpose to oppose deliberately all the efforts which are
being made to gather explicit numerical data on the various costs associated
with fire - direct costs (the most easily quantifiable), cost of emergency
services, insurance, etc.; but I believe that if we attach too much
importance to the subject we may end up demonstrating that it is not as
expensive as we feared, losing the motivation, and thus ignoring the real
reasons why we should be concerned at the increase in the number of fires.
After all, fires are not just statistical events; they are incidents of
great importance with tragic human consequences, but whose weight is but
little compared with that of the economic problems facing the world today.
Let us now try to answer more precisely the question put by the
conference organizers, and consider what fire represents in the European
Community.

OVERALL COST OF FIRE

The study carried out by Mr Wilmot for the World Fire Statistics
Centre established the following seven criteria for evaluating the cost
of fires:
 53

direct costs
indirect costs
cost of insurance
cost of emergency services
cost of prevention
cost of research
cost of information
Mr Wilmot's study, which covered 12 European countries for the
period 1970-1975, showed a total cost of fire approximately equal to 1%
of GDP, broken down as follows:
direct costs 30%
protection of buildings 30%
cost of emergency services 15%
cost of insurance 15%
indirect costs 5%
human losses 5%
100%
(note that the costs of research and information were not estimated
on account of their insignificant values)
The following are the World Fire Statistic Centre figures for the
survey: (period 1970-1975, % of GDP)
Country Direct Indirect Emergency Insurance Total
costs Costs Services costs
Belgium 0.45 U.25 0.13 0.23 0.96
Denmark 0.39 0.23 0.13 0.18 0.93
France 0.26 0.28 0.08 0.17 0.79
Germany 0.19 0.20 0.07 0.12 0.58
Italy 0.15 0.10 0.06 0.08 0.39
Luxembourg 0.53 0.25 0.09 0.17 1.04
Netherlands 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.26 0.81
United Kingdom 0.24 0.32 0.28 0.17 1.01
Average : 0.30 0.22 0.12 0.17 0.81
For the pe riod 19
Denmark 0.36 0.048 0.09 0.13
France 0.32 0.100 - 0.16
Netherlands 0.21 0.032 0.16
United Kingdom 0.21 0.140 0.24 0.15
0.32% of France's GDP is FF 885 million; as a comparison, the budget
of the Ministry of Culture for the same period was FF 2997 million.
Taking the seven criteria previously described, we can distinguish
losses and expenses:
Losses: direct costs 30%
indirect costs 5%
human losses 5%
Total 40%

Expenses: prevention 30%

cost of insurance 15%
emergency services 15%
Total 60%
 54

LOSSES:
Direct and indirect costs:
Insurance statistics are the only source of information leading to an
evaluation of losses due to fire.
No more than an estimate is possible since risks not covered are, of
course, not taken into account. This affects principally public institu-
tions and certain major companies which insure themselves. It must also
be remembered that claims are not always met in full by insurance companies,
in addition to the insured having to bear the first part of any cost.
In addition, we must consider whether all fires covered by insurance
are fires in the sense that we use the term professionally. Comparison
of the figures for fire brigade calls and claims figures provided by the
insurance companies would seem to suggest that they are not. In France we
have the following figures for fires of all types (domestic, industrial,
agricultural, etc., including motor vehicles, forest and brush fires):
Year Number of claims Number of calls-out % of claims dealt with
met by insurers made by fire brigade by fire brigades
1982 1.959 .353 192.815 9.84%
1981 1.809 .039 169.486 9.36%
1980 1.579 .916 123.861 7.37%
It will be noted that less than 10% of fires for which claims were
met needed the intervention of the fire brigade.
For other categories we obtain the following figures:
Year Number of claims Number of calls-out % of claims dealt with
met by insurers made by fire brigade by fire brigades
Individuals
1982 1.314 .603 63.016 4.79%
1981 1.231 .363 53.024 4.30%
1980 1.157 .689 38.650 3.30%
i.e. less than 5%
Businesses
1982 314..964 13.781 4.37%
1981 351 .990 13.861 3.93%
1980 332,.845 10.329 3.10%
likewise under 5%
Having set out all these reservations, we can now examine the values
of the fires put forward by the insurers. The figures represent the direct
losses, i.e. the making good of losses sustained to movable and real
property of individuals and businesses, together with the making good of
machinery and stock held by the latter, plus indirect losses sustained
by businesses with a "loss of business" insurance contract.
currency unit: '000 FF
1980 1981 1982
% GDP % GDP % GDP
Individuals
Number of fires 1 157 689 1 231 363 1 314 603
Payments 3 446 119 0,12 4 210 365 0,13 5 965 507 0,16
Average cost 2 977 3 419 4 538
 55

Premium receipts 5 326 880 6 117 273 7 056 885

Businesses :
Number of fires 332 845 351 990 314 964
Payments 4 064 739 0,14 4 540 163 0,14 4 926 554 0,13
Average cost 8 533 8 480 13 507
Premium receipts 4 064 739 4 540 163 4 926 554

Agriculture:
Number of fires 208 991 231 107 336 202
Payments 895 166 0,03 1 303 738 0,04 2 274 723 0,06
Average cost 4 283 5 641 6 766
Premium receipts 1 604 059 1 820 012 2 068 867

Totals;

Number of fires 1 694 499 1 809 039 1 959 353

Payments 7 183 707 0,25 8 498 945 0,27 12 494 403 0,35
Average cost 4 239 4 698 6 377
Premium receipts 10 997 267 12 475 999 14 052 305
The average cost of the fire is a valid element in evaluating the
cost of fires suffered by individuals, but is not valid in the case of
businesses, which must be studied individually in the context of the
national economy.
The most important element is not the cost of direct losses suffered
by the firm, but rather the consequences of the fire on the firm's
livelihood and on that of those who depend on it: employees, sub-contrac-
tors, suppliers, customers, etc.
This brings us to the indirect cost of fire, on which no figure can
be put, since, although the direct victim can cover himself with a
contract of the "loss of business" type, the same possibility is not open
to indirect victims.
Statistics released by the APSAIRD show the past four years' industrial
and commercial fires as follow:
Year Fires costing more Including fires costing
than FF 5 million more than FF 10 million
number value number value
1980 110 1 717 446 000 56 1 353 200 000
1981 107 1 320 300 000 61 1 010 160 000
1982 133 2 369 435 000 68 1 935 885 000
1983 136 2 498 215 000 82 2 111 920 000
In 1982 "loss of business" type policies represented 9.7% of
industrial fire insurance policies, a total of 31 400 policies, with a
total premium of FF 582 million, i.e. 17.82 of all premiums.
Again in 1982, 74 of the 132 businesses which suffered a fire estimated
at more than FF 5 million had a "loss of business" policy.
31 of the 71 largest fires of 1983, or 443!, totalling FF 1 048 040
were covered for loss of business, and the payments made under those
policies totalled 2.6% of all payments made.

HUMAN LOSSES
The latest figures of fire victims published by the NFPA are as
follows:
 56

Country Population (million) No of deaths Deaths per million

Austria 7,5 64 8,5
Canada 24 694 28,9
Finland 4,8 95 20
France 54,3 299 5,5
Ireland 3,4 112 33
Netherlands 14,2 87 6,1
Sweden 8,3 132 15,9
United Kingdom 55,5 919 16,5
United States 234 6020 25,7
Can a price be put on a human life? Disturbing though it may seem,
one can.
In 1981 the French National Academy of Medicine and French insurance
companies estimated the price of a human life (i.e. death), including
not only the costs involved in death, but medical costs, police and
legal expenditure, loss of production suffered by society, at FF 1 400 000
in the case of the average Frenchman killed in a road accident, and
FF 100 000 for each injury victim.
Applying these figures to fire victims we obtain the following
figures for France in 1982:
deaths: 299 II 400 000 418 600 000
serious injuries: 607 X 100 000 607 000 000
total FF 1 025 600 000
or 0.29% of GDP.
This total of just over FF 1000 million compares with FF 50 000
million in losses on road accidents, and shows why the authorities are
more inclined to turn their attention to road safety.

EXPENSES

PREVENTION
There is active fire prevention, and passive.
Active prevention is essentially manbased, working mainly through
information, education, and motivation.
Research and regulation are two forms of passive prevention.
Research helps develop understanding of the causes and effects of fire,
and of the means of fighting it; regulation encourages and enforces the
adoption of a number of construction rules or defensive measures in
buildings, and enforces staff training in fire prevention and fire
fighting.
The cost of such prevention is difficult to estimate, and is shared
between public authorities and the private sector. The public authorities'
share includes financing part of the research, drawing up and following
up regulations, and paying its prevention experts; the private sector's
share includes staff training, maintaining safety teams, fire detection
installations, maintenance and servicing, etc.
Passive protection is that part of fire protection which directly
involves buildings and their installations. It is most commonly met
when safeguarding human life is essential, and is made explicit by
the obligation to adopt certain construction rules during the construc
tion or alteration of premises, which lead to an increase in the cost of
the building.
The amount of the increase depends on a number of factors: the
degree of protection sought (which depends on the purpose to which the
 57

premises will be put: dwellings, industry, public access, etc.); and

the stage at which the protection measures are designed - before or
after design or construction.
A number of years ago the CNPP investigated the effect of safety
installations on the cost of a shopping centre. The resulting increase
varied from 9 to 18% depending on whether the safety systems were
designed in or added whilst construction was under way. This may be
regarded as a special case, since premises to which the public has
access must be protected in accordance with safety regulations, but it
can give an idea of the cost of safety in a number of building types,
whether or not they are used for business.

INSURANCE
Insurance is a major item in the budget of any fire. Insurance
payments give a fairly good idea of the general level of costs in each
category; premiums are another good indicator.
In 1982 France paid a total of FF 14 831 million in fire insurance
premiums, placing it second in the non-life insurance category. Repay-
ments in the same year totalled FF 8 900 million.

CONCLUSION
Can we expect these figures to have any significant effect on our
nations' leaders and captains of industry? It is to be feared that they
will appear rather minor less ineluctable, indeed, than many other
figures and, in the last analysis, less weighty than the number of
days lost by strikes and the economic effects of a shorter working week.
Fire is likely to remain the poor relation, receiving only the scantiest
attention.
The reality of fire is far harsher than any figures will ever show,
but only those who have suffered a fire know that reality. We must
remember that a business can never resume its sales once customers have
given way to urgency and found other suppliers; we must think on the
problems of redundancy for a workforce without jobs; we must consider
the fate of suppliers who have also lost a customer ... and so on.
In today's economic climate there are as a rule too many manufac-
turers of any given product. Only those whose livelihood depends on the
firm are therefore likely to be affected. And the cost of safety is in
that case dependent on the firm's conception of the risks involved, and
the extent to which it is prepared to take those risks.
Outside the world of business, what of premises to which the public
have access? Forgive my return to nationalism, but in France existing
regulations are strict and restrictive, and we can see that they fulfil
their purpose. Those of them that are applied are at least adequate to
avoid any major disasters. But if their application is to be developed
further, then the cost must be bearable and, therefore, any new regula-
tions must be consonant with their aim. Those who legislate must know
how far they may go.
Mr Average, meanwhile, is insured, and if he wishes to avoid trouble
he will act as a reasonable man. To him the cost will be that of his
insurance premium, plus the few safety items everyone should have. It
is true that he can be endangered by his neighbour, and that society
must accept certain rules. And thus we arrive at the realization that
the principal expense in fire safety is the one which is most neglected:
the cost of information and education.
The draft I submitted to the conference organizers - somewhat late,
I fear - contains a great many figures, and that has saved my burdening
 58

you with them now.

If fire prevention is to make progress, and we are to stem the
increase in fires and the tragedies they cause, then we must convince
the public and the businessman that the cost of fire prevention is
negligible when compared with the consequences of fire. They must learn
to appreciate the risks involved.
It is only after people have been convinced that they will do what
is needed to meet any eventuality. In addition, we must hope that those
who are expert in the field, and who pass on their expertise, can keep
a sense of proportion and remain credible, so that their precepts will
be followed.
It is an expensive business, training experts, whether their task
is to be legislating, monitoring, prescribing, inspecting, advising, or
deciding. It is a cost which defies even guesswork, but it is the price
we must pay to avoid tragedy.
 59

FIRE RISK ANALYSIS AND COSTS AND BENEFITS OF FIRE PREVENTION

Mr A. GRABER
Head of the Fire Safety Department
of the CCS (Construction and Safety Control) branch
of the Bureau Veritas

Summary

Fire safety has up to now been an empirical science going no further

than describing prevention techniques as a function of the risks
observed. This pattern is now changing in favour of rationalization
and quantification of the precautions taken.
After reviewing traditional methods, this paper provides a brief
description of an analysis method based on systems reliability cal-
culation, an approach which has been used for a decade in the aero-
nautic and nuclear sectors and which centres on the evaluation of
random factors.
This method can be adapted to prevention and protection against the
risk of fire and offers a fresh approach, particularly as regards
a better balance between cost on the one hand and the level of pro-
tection anticipated on the other.

1. THE COST OF FIRE

Fire is one of the natural catastrophes the consequences of which
have always been feared. Disasters have been recorded in the world's most
beautiful cities: Rome, Florence, London, etc.
The risk of fire and its cost have increased over the centuries as
society and technology have evolved. Examples are the concentration of
dwellings and people in villages, then in towns, and, more recently, the
growth of industries which handle flammable or explosive products such
as oil, synthetics and chemicals. The concentration of these industries
in built-up areas and on industrial estates further increases the scale
of the risk. Lastly, the substantial growth in the production and con-
sumption of energy - electrical, thermal, etc.involves ever-increasing
fire risks and costs.
A distinction should, however, be drawn between two types of risk,
depending on whether they affect human life or merely property.
Let us first consider damage to and destruction of material goods.
This may be the result of combustion, corrosion, plant failure caused by
high temperatures, expansion, distillation, etc. This damage may be to
merchandise stored, furniture, machinery, archives essential to the
running of a business, the premises themselves, etc.
The value of this damage can be calculated in monetary terms, but it
is necessary to distinguish between primary losses arising from destruction
by fire, and secondary losses originating in the after-effects of the
fire and certain of which can be particularly severe. In the case of a
dwelling, for instance, there is the need to find alternative accommodation
 60

while repairs are being carried out, the cost of money borrowed to make
good the shortfall between the value as new and the resale value, the
time needed, etc. In the case of a business concern, its very existence
may be jeopardized owing inter alia to the destruction of its production
machinery or its stocks, the disruption of its trading pattern, outlets
lost, the loss of computer equipment, etc.
Secondly, fire can endanger life and limb. It can cause burns, pois-
oning and can panic people into jumping out of windows. Statistics show
that the number of fatalities ranges from five to thirty per million
inhabitants per year depending on the country concerned. What the statistics
do not always show is the number of non-fatal casualties giving rise to
permanent or temporary incapacities: burns, shock, trauma, etc.
Also noteworthy is the fact that, unlike goods, property and objects,
the "price" paid by the victims of fire can hardly be calculated in mone-
tary terms.
Thirdly, there are the possible effects of fire on the natural and
social environment which have repercussions on the population at large.
A fire in industrial premises can thus lead to redundancies, while a fire
in an oil refinery or a nuclear power station can result in pollution
which is hazardous to the surrounding population.

2. FIRE PREVENTION AND ITS COST

Fire prevention and fire fighting are probably as old as the pheno-
menon itself. Escape from fire has always been a prime concern, but its
effectiveness depends on the surroundings, and if it is to be effective
it obviously has to be properly planned and entails the provision of
sometimes expensive facilities.
Similarly, fighting a fire, whether by means of flails, as was the
practice in ancient times, or by spraying water, a technique already
used in Roman times, presupposes the setting-up of properly trained
brigades and stocks of appropriate equipment. Thus, on top of the cost of
the fire itself and its aftermath, comes the cost of prevention. The two
costs usually evolve in opposite directions, for the cost of fire should
fall as the cost of prevention rises. These costs, however, depend on
factors which are extremely complex and substantial scope is left for
individual options.
The examination of analysis methods for cost optimization will be
preceded by a brief inventory of prevention and protection methods.
Prevention measures are to be found in several types of documents:
- firstly, there are the statutory texts for each country; in France,
the texts are primarily concerned with the safeguarding of human life;
- then there are the rules established by insurance companies;
these rules, on the contrary, relate mainly to the protection of material
assets;
- lastly, there are the standards drawn up which concern more
specifically plant, equipment and their use, either because they involve
an inherent risk of fire, or because they relate to fire-prevention and
fire-fighting equipment.
We have chosen to list here the steps which logically must be taken
as the fire spreads from the scale of a minor blaze to a major blaze
affecting the whole district. A fire starts when a combustible material
comes into contact with a source of ignition. Every effort should there-
fore be made to keep interior combustibles to a minimum (dust, papers,
alcohol, etc.) and to shield every potential source of ignition (bare
electricity wires, sources of heat, fermentation) etc. Fire may also result
from human error, to which the customary recommendations apply.
 61

A fire which has just started can be put out easily. A sheet of paper
which has caught fire can be extinguished by crumpling. A blanket, a lid
are somtime9 sufficient. If the fire is on a bigger scale, portable
extinguishers can prove adequate. If there is no one on the premises when
the fire breaks out, a detection/alarm system can promptly summon the
relvent personnel.
If this first attempt at bringing things under control fails, the fire
will spread in the room in which it began. In order to inhibit this spread,
preventive action may be taken on any combustible materials in the room.
This action will depend on the reaction of the materials to fire and, more
specifically, on the action taken to circumscribe the fire. The combustible
mass of materials stocked, particularly in storerooms, can play a decisive
role in the spread of the fire.
In order to forestall a possible catastrophe, two steps are essential:
- firstly, fast escape routes from the premises must be provided for
the personnel;
- secondly, more effective assistance such as fire points and mobile
extinguishers manned by a competent and well-trained safety team must be
provided.
Lastly, at this stage of events, outside assistance should be requested
whatever the results of efforts made by any safety team that may exist. If
this second step fails, a third phase commences during which the fire
spreads into the other rooms in the building.
This spreading is conducted by hot gases given off by the fire: hot
air, combustion gases, smoke. The gaseous elements expand and occupy any
openings as they progress: doors, frames, windows, conduits, ducts, lift
shafts and stairwells. The hot gases will ignite anything combustible in
their path.
There are different ways of preventing spread. They constitute cutoff
measures and compartmentalization.
The building should whenever possible be divided up by means of
compartment walls and ceilings equipped with passageways which should also
act as fire barriers, and any movable parts can be automatic.
In parallel with this, vents for these hot noxious gases should be
designed into construction (smoke venting).
Provision should be made for general escape routes in order to protect
the lives of the people in the building. These routes, which take the form
of passageways, stairs and sometimes even more rudimentary systems such as
gangways, ladders, etc., should be properly designed, fire safe and suited
to the people who might have to use them.
Lastly, there should be adequate provision for ease of access by the
fire brigade: driveways, hardstandings for mounting their equipment,
hydrants, access to the buildings through the frontage, through the ground
floor or the upper floors by means of ladders.
This gives a brief rundown of the means that exist to date to prevent
fire or fight fire.

3. ANALYSIS METHODS
3.1. Traditional methods and present methods
The preventive methods summarily described above are naturally subject
to a large number of variants differing in effectiveness and cost.
Up until recently the choice of steps to be taken was made empirically
on the basis of observations made during fires. Every major blaze reveals
certain mistakes not to be made again and the remedial steps envisaged
find their way into designers' specifications and statutory texts.
Fire prevention still today is like a corpus of rules, which are not
 62

necessarily appropriate to the building in question or the actual risks

involved.
A more sophisticated method is that fire scenarios. This involves, for
a specific building, seeking out the possible origins of a fire, to examine
how it could spread and develop if the worst should happen. This research
is backed up by past experience and by reports on experimental studies
conducted.
The advantage of this method over the strict application of a
statutory text is that it takes account of the actual configuration of the
building and offers the possibility of assessing different fire prevention
options.
Its drawback is that it remains purely qualitative and therefore too
dependent on the subjective evaluation of the analyst.
For the protection of goods and property alone, a method for calcu-
lating costs is theoretically feasible. The aim is to minimize the sun of
two costs, that of prevention on the one hand and that of fire damage on
the other.
It has already been pointed out that losses through fire include
primary losses and secondary losses, the latter being more difficult to
evaluate in monetary terms. Furthermore, in addition to the value of
designing and installing safety devices, the cost of prevention also
includes expenditure on the maintenance of this equipment, the cost of
running safety teams, the cost of informing people and that of any
outside assistance used, although the latter is financed by the public
sector through taxes.
As the outbreak of fire is a random event, the result of the study
depends on the statistics available and the optimism of the designer.
3.2. Presentation of new methods
The empirical approach has had its day. We will not dwell upon the
many reasons for this, but they include increasingly rapid changes in all
fields, particularly in the technical field, the intensive utilization
of huge quantities of energy, the capital requirement of forestalling so-
called major risks, i.e. those which endanger the environment and the
survival of man.
Very 'efficient analysis methods have been developed in a number of
technological fields, particularly the nuclear field, aeronautic industry,
marine engineering, the oil sector, etc. These methods are part of what
is known as 'risk control'. They are based on a logical analysis of events
and on causal relations between these events. Thus Boolean mathematics
may be applied to then. These methods are the general application to
complex situations of methods collectively known as 'systems reliability
research' and applied to faults in mechanical or electronic systems.
In order to illustrate the foregoing, let us take the simple example
of the automatic sprinkler system.
Fig. 1 shows the water supply for a sprinkler system.
The system comprises eight elements (or components): first of all,
the three water sources, i.e. city water supply (1), pressure tank (2),
and water network pumps (3). These sources are controlled by a system
of four valves numbered 4 - 5 - 6 and 7. Lastly, the sprinkler system is
shown in box 8.
The first stage in analysis is to break down the system into its
component parts and examine each one for its faults, the frequency of
these faults and the consequences of each fault on the other components.
The next tep is to map out logical diagrams.
Fig. 2 shows the reliability of the system. It takes the form of
 63

an operational diagram: if the sprinkler is to be supplied, at least one

of the vertical paths between entrance E and exit S must be functioning.
There are three paths: 1 - 4 - 6 - 8 ; 2 - 5 - 6 - 8 and 3 - 7 - 8 . Inversely,
if the system is to be faulty, which is what happens when the sprinklers
are not supplied with water, all the components shown along the horizontal
line on the diagram must be faulty. Several horizontal sections are possible.
Let us consider sections 1-2-3-, 1-5-7, 6-3 and 6-7. Certain of these
sections pass through three components while others pass through two
only. The system is all the more vulnerable as the number of components
involved in a section is smaller. The diagramme shows a weakness for
component No 6.
Fig. 3 is the failure tree for the same system. Unlike the reliability
diagram, on which the components of the system are shown, the failure tree
shows events, starting with the undesirable event - in this case water
supply failure. We then work up from there step by step to the events which
are the causes of the previous ones: the immediate causes first (supply
by pump, eupply by street mains), then the more removed causes (public
water, supply failure, etc.).
The failure tree has logic gates:
- AND gates, which indicate that all the causes leading to them are
simultaneously required to produce the event;
- OR gates, which indicate that only one event is necessary.
These gates permit probability calculations. The tree, which works
downwards towards the causes, can also be read upwards for consequences.
Using the failure probability of fundamental events as a basis, the
probability of other events occurring can be calculated, particularly the
probability of an undesirable event. The construction of the tree involves
two stages:
- a qualitative stage corresponding to the logic construction;
- a quantitative stage, which corresponds to the calculation of
probabilities.
Reading off the tree can place the causes in hierarchical order at
the very first stage. The rating changes every time and AND gate is
crossed. Rating 1 causes can be seen on the projection immediately below
the first AND gate, and rating 2 causes beneath the second AND gate.
It is interesting to note that the rating 1 causes are the failures
of the two-component sections of the reliability diagram, and that the
rating 2 causes are the failures of the three-component sections of the
same diagram.
There is another analysis method worthy of note, viz. the 'state
graph' method, which presents systems which change as time goes by.
Fire-affected systems thus change as a result of material destruction. An
inventory can be compiled of the possible states of the system arid the
probability of the transition from one state to another worked out.

3.3. Application to fire safety

The question to which we have endeavoured to provide the answer is
whether these risk analysis methods can be applied to our fire safety
problems. The 'system' to be examined is in fact particularly complex,
and the number of 'components' to be examined for failure is very high. In
addition, there are virtually no statistical studies to date on the failure
of these 'components'.
However, by referring to work carried out by engineers in other
fields (nuclear engineering, naval engineering, etc.) we have drawn up
a project which we present here. It relates to the specific case of the
 64

protection of people in buildings frequented by the public. We have chosen

the representation of the failure tree which lends itself to probability
calculations. The qualitative analysis is based on the following:
the undesirable event is serious physical injury resulting in
death or in permanent or temporary incapacity;
the building in auestion complies with statutory requirements. It
therefore has prevention facilities uhich can fail.
At the first stage of analysis, we broke down the undesirable event
into three partevents requiring separate analyses.
Fig. 4 shows that a person can suffer serious injury either in the
room in which the fire started orin another room. Casualties of the fire
provoked collapse of buildings will be discussed separately.
Fig. 5 shows the start of the tree relating to serious physical injury
in the room in which the fire broke out. These injuries are the result
of three causes arising simultaneously:
spread of the fire in the room owing to the presence of combustible
materials
failure to evacuate the room
failure of emergency steps.
Each one of these causes is analysed on its own, but it is not
possible to present here the details of the analysis. Nevertheless, the
tree should have room for all the prevention measures in view of the
specific layout of the building, and quantitative analysis, as has already
been pointed out, presupposes the existence of detailed statistics which
we do not yet have. It is, however, possible even now to mark the tree at
a number of significant points.
We can also establish a maximum casualty rate.
The acceptable fatality rate in air traffic has been set at 10
per hour's flying time, in other words under one fatality per 10 million
hour's flying time. As regards the safety of people in the event of fire,
this figure is estimated in number offatalities per year and per inhabi
tant, and the figure arrived at of 10 (i.e. under one fatality per year
per million inhabitants) does not give rise to any public concern. In the
case of France this figure corresponds to 54 deaths per year. As the
real figure is approximately 400 deaths yearly (corresponding to a rate
of 0.8 10 ) , a fire prevention drive is necessary.
The figure of 1.5 10 given at the top of Fig. 4, is nearer the
actual average cumulated figure of fatalities and serious casualties. It
is not a target figure.
Another figure can be obtained, that of the number of times each
year the fire brigade is called out to deal with fires in buildings.
This figure was 160 000 in 1982 in France, a rate of 3 10 missions
per inhabitant per year. This figure corresponds on our tree to the
number of fires which broke out and which were not immediately extinguished
by the occupants.
As regards safety equipment, their reliability rate depends on the
manufacturing quality which takes us upstream to the quality control
stage and also, and this is critical, on the quality of maintenance
work. Thereliability rating of properlymaintained equipment should be
around 10 failures per operation.
The failure rate of human intervention depends on the level of
preparation and training of the personnel involved. The reliability of
properlytrained personnel should be around 10 failures per mission.
The foregoing information give a failure rate of 10 as regards the
failure to evacuate the premises and for the failure of personnel to act,
the human factor being critical in both cases.
 65

In.addition, we estimate that the probability of a fire spreading is

5 10 (i.e. one out of two).
By applying simplified probability calculation methods the homoge
neousness of the figures given in the diagram can be borne out, i.e.:
Fire breaking out in the premises: ,
(3 10 ) (5 10" ) 1.5 10
Physical injury in the premises on fire:_
(1.5 10"J) (10 10 ) 1.5 10

4. CONCLUSIONS
We are of the opinion that risk analysis methods, particularly the
failure tree, can already be used to improve fire safety.
As far as qualitative analysis goes, the method makes it possible
to map out logically possible causes of fire and the preventive means
needed.
This mapping out is adapted to each specific building. It reveals
risks hitherto not covered as well as instances of excessive protection.
It sets the preventive means in a hierarchical order and makes it possible,
for instance, to avoid highly sophisticated systems coexisting with faults
connected with human error.
On the quantitative analysis side, a major research drive is
necessary, to establish a basis for evaluation, and also to compile and
utilize statistics.
Evaluation of the risk has in our example been related to the human
population, but it could also be related to the floor area of the premises
or any other unit. Another point is that the manner in which the combus
tible element responsible for spreading the fire affects statistics has
not been elucidated.
Despite these shortcomings we feel that the method should make it
possible in future to calculate the risk of an undesirable event
occuring and to compare this risk against a preestablished target value.
As for statutory requirements, it would provide a transition from
the current descriptive type, which sets out the means, to a mandatory
type, which would merely stipulate a target.
The complexity of the trees prompts consideration of the use of
computer techniques to check the logic of the trees, to determine the
critical sections, and to evaluate the event occurrence probability.
Additional software could also evaluate the cost of preventive measures.
It will then be possible to examine alternative solutions for which the
value of the risk as well as the total cost could be established quickly,
thus providing the designers with a very cogent basis for decision.
 66

WATER SUPPLY
PUBLIC WAT ER PRESSURETANK

1
DISTRIBUTION PIPE I [5

SPRINKLERS
PUMPS
3 A

FIGURE 1

RELIABILITY
<> ENTRANCE

j.<K1, 1 3
_, 5.h~1
L... PW
1 2
PT
,_ls h . , 2
pc 4
^Z
s
X7
i '
***
V V
.,? \ y ^' ^ y
6
L. . X V
X ^ ' ' ^ S

X 8
SPRIN
KLERS
EXIT

FIGURE 2
 67

FAILURE TREE fi
FAILURE OF INDESIRABLE EVENT
SPRINKlireU- t'

o

SUPPLY BY 5UPPLY
DISTRIBU- BY
-TIONPIPE "'ME.

A
VALVE PUMP
g^1
VALVE

2 S3
Eti _SEE_

FIGURE 3

RISK A N A L Y S I S
IN PUBLIC BUILDING
TOP OF FAILURE TREE

PHYSICAL
INJURY
4.5

NSIDE^ , INSIDE - "RESULTING

THE BURNING ROOM AN OTHER ROOM OF A C O L L A P S E
0 -5 _ 10"5_

FIGURE t,
 68

RISK ANALYSIS
IN PUBLIC BUILDING
FAILURE TREE
PHYSICAL INJURY
. 5 . 1 0 " 5 _J|NSID E BURNING ROOM

FIRE EXPANSION
jJ[
CHECK ONESCAPE CHECK ON EXTINGUI
OM SHING l>y_/|STAFF

m _DUE TO ALARM
.ISSUES _DUE TO FIRE EQUIP
FUEL LIGHTING _DUE TO SMOKE
5.10-1 _SMOKE
_ PANIC
CONTROL
_DUE TO SAFETY
L A C K OF ORDERS STAFF
% IRE LOAD DENSITY ~
L R E A C T I O N OF FIRE 31 g^3 STARTING FIRE
VENTILATION

FIGURE 5
 69

THE IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL FIRE PREVENTION MEASURES

Dr. A.E. BAMERT
Fire Prevention Service, Zrich

PREFACE

Buildings can and must offer optimum safety to people and property in the
event of a fire. This is particularly applicable to structures such as
hotels, convention centers and department stores to which the general
public has access. It is also essential to carry out risk analyses and to
optimize saftey strategies during the design of office and industrial
buildings. Effective and economically acceptable solutions to fire protec-
tion problems can usually be put into effect only with protection concepts
that are based on a clear picture of the protection objectives for people
and property. Structural measures will prevent, limit or delay fire propa-
gation. The tasks and significance of these measures are dependent on the
building type and its use. The time relationships of the actual fire devel-
opment and the time available for the extinguishing operations are of
particular importance. The consideration of only the fire-resistance values
for construction elements according to the ISO standard fire curve can lead
to disastrous shortcomings. Pragmatic, professional and empirically derived
procedures usually provide the most reliable, effective and, quite often,
the least expensive solutions.

1. INTRODUCTION

A retrospective of the development of the structural precautions aimed at

damage limitation will enhance our appreciation of contemporary fire pro-
tection concepts.

For centuries, fires have devastated villages and cities consisting of

closely built wooden houses. The spread of fire to other highly combustible
buildings was an ever-present danger.

People had to learn how to protect themselves against the dangers inherent
in compact site development projects. In the course of time, settlements
received dwellings with massive perimeter walls, "hard" roof claddings
(i.e., tiles) and firewalls to separate continuous building complexes. In
this manner, it proved possible to considerably reduce the fire area sizes
from the extent of entire settlements down to individual buildings.

At the beginning of the 20th century, reinforced concrete building methods

made it possible to construct fire-resistant floors. The fire areas were
now confined to the individual stories and to rooms with solid partition
walls. The main objective of structural fire protection was achieved:
"burn-through-proof" fire compartments became possible. These compartments
limited fires, protected threatened persons and properties in neighboring
fire compartments and made it easier for the firefighting services to
attack fires from inside the building.
 70

Wood, a much used but highly combustible material has gradually been super-
seded for construction purposes. Wood was also quite often replaced in
places where it presented no fire risk at all and, as a result, new dangers
have arisen that are far greater than those presented by wood structures.

In particular, over the past two decades, the adoption of various types of
construction methods has adversely effected fire safety. Modern construction
methods, growing demands for comfort and prestige, new manufacturing meth-
ods and new storage methods each contrive to render the achieved structural
fire protection objectives questionable again. The problems are:

- Large area or large space construction methods for offices, factories and
storage facilities

- The use of combustible construction materials such as plastics for insu-

lation and lining applications.

- Perforation of a building with openings, shafts and ducts for supply

systems, waste disposal systems, transport systems and air-conditioning
systems.

The destruction of a large department store or of a large warehouse results

in reconstruction costs comparable to those involved when a town was burnt
down a century ago. This is quite understandable since in terms of fire
protection, town walls have now been replaced by the outside walls of a
non-compartmented business, production or storage building.

Where structural fire prevention measures are inadequate, fire protection

objectives today must be implemented as a combination of innovative protec-
tion measures.

2. PROTECTION OBJECTIVES OF STRUCTURAL MEASURES

Depending on the type of construction and the utilization of a building,

the basic task of structural fire protection is the establishment of the
necessary preconditions for one of the two protection objectives:

1) Timely localization or elimination of the hazard and the location of

endangered property and persons in stable, fire-resistant buildings
(with local removals from the immediate vicinity of the fire) or

2) The timely evacuation of the burning building. During the time required
for evacuation, the stability of the building or of its escape routes
must be guaranteed.

The first objective applies equally to the protection of persons and pro-
perty. Whereas the second objective usually applies exclusively to the
rescue of persons.

In practice, however, the achievement of the first objective is pursued in

an excessively unsystematic manner. The main idea of being able to escape
is of course perfectly understandable. However, in large structures com-
plete evacuation is often equivalent to the acceptance of an extremely
hazardous situation (hospitals, homes, hotels, high-rise buildings).
 71

The protection objective should therefore not be defined until the problems
involved have been completely analyzed:

- How rapidly will a fire spread over an entire story or throughout the
building with preference to a given type of construction and contents?
- How much time is required for the deployment of firefighting personnel?
- How much time is required for partial or complete evacuation under unfa-
vorable conditions?
- Would an evacuation prevent immediate firefighting activities?
- How stable and fire-penetration-resistant should the building be?

The last two terms - that must not be equated with the fire-resistance
classification according to the ISO temperature curve for structural mem-
bers - have yet to be discussed and defined in detail.

3. TASK OF STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION MEASURES

Structural fire protection measures reduce the extent of damage but do not
prevent the outbreak of fire. This statement may be trivial, but it is nev-
ertheless suitable for the clear, classification and definition of structur-
al measures taken to protect people and property.

Main Tasks

1 Fire propogation must be prevented or delayed.

2 Buildings or parts of buildings must under no circumstances collapse
or collapse only after a specified time.
3 In the case of fire, escape and firefighting routes must be access-
ible at all times or remain accessible for a specified period.

The noticeable feature of these definitions is the "or" formulation of all

3 main tasks that earlier - in the last century or prior to the introduc-
tion of the ISO F classification - corresponded to the above objectives:

Stable and fire penetration-resistant structural members (even in the ab-

sence of firefighting facilities) = fire resistant building construction
or
Time-limited stability and fire protection strength characteristics of
the structural members (up to the commencement of firefighting activi-
ties) = fire retardant building construction.

The procedures developed over the last 50 years for testing structural mem-
bers by means of standard fire tests (ISO standard temperatuare curve) and
the resulting fire-resistance classifications F30, F60, F90, etc. has un-
doubtedly provided valuable know-how and lead to an increase in the safety
level resulting from structural measures. However, at the same time, they
have lead to noticeable international uncertainty in professional circles
as to which knowledge was sufficiently sound for incorporation in construc-
tion codes and in legislation.
 72

The classifications introduced into the building codes of many countries,

namely:
fire-resistant (= F90)
fire-retardant (= F30)

are admittedly often applicable but in many cases, they are quite mislead-
ing since it is a known fact that structural members with a fire-resistance
lower than F30, as a complete structure, resist a fire for a very long time
(Fig. Ill, Ford warehouse, Cologne) whereas a multi-story building con-
structed of individual F90 structural members can be razed to the ground in
less than 30 minutes. This latter example (Fig. IV, department store in
Turku, Finland) fortunately belongs to a somewhat rarer category.

The fire-resistance duration in minutes (F value) classifies individual

structures using standard tests or accepted computational procedures.

The fire behavior of structural members in composite structures, in combi-

nation with supports, girders, ceilings and walls, is dependent on addi-
tional and, in certain circumstances, more important factors.

In order to underline the importance of structural measures, the "old"

meaning of the term fire-resistant should be considered. Thus, in this
article, fire compartments are defined as being fire-penetration-resistant
and load-bearing structures as being stable.

Structural Fire propagation Escape and firefighting

+colla se are
elements P routes remain

Fire penetration prevented accessible at all times

resistant, stable
Fire retardant delayed accessible for a speci-
fied time

4. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ACTUAL FIRE DEVELOPMENT

Every technical evaluation of fires involving structural material, struc-

tural members or entire structures is linked with the expected tempera-
ture-time curve. Knowledge of basic factors governing the spread of fires
is of prime importance for fire prevention and defense.

Fire and explosion hazards are the result of the type, arrangement, charac-
teristics and quantities of dangerous materials and goods present in a
building.

However, actual fire dangers are mainly due to the building in which these
fire hazardous materials and goods are located.

Buildings increase fire hazards because in the case of a fire, the space
enclosing structural members trap heat, smoke, moisture, corrosive and
toxic gases and vapors and prevent them from freely escaping to the out-
side. The resulting accumulation of heat causes the space temperature to
rise more or less quickly and provide the preconditions for the often very
rapid propagation of the fire.
 73

Other buildingrelated fire hazards are due to the type of construction. A

combustible interior finish facilitates rapid fire development in a room.
If fireresistant doors are not provided, a fire will spread to corridors
and open staircases. Combustible support, wall and ceiling structures also
promote fire propagation.

Using a room fire as a typical example, its development will be discussed

below.

A fire is started either by flame combustion or slow flameless disintegra

tion known as a smoldering fire. With ignition at the ignition temperature
of the heated material, a smoldering fire passes into the flaming stage. A
locally limited fire with flame formation is known as an initial or devel
oping fire while the next stage which involves the engulfment of a large
section or of an entire room is called a total fire (Fig. I).

900.
C u >^*^
> /

/
eoo u b. /
>
0 rf


k

300 c
0
4J
* * f
1 ^*
Standard t i m e -
temperature
f curve
0
^ / I

"Trime .
asoldering ire I n i t i a l fire Total fire

Fig. I C ombustion chamber temperature versus time

After an outbreak of fire, the room temperature, or fire intensity criter

ion, can increase at differing rates depending on the type, quantity and
flammability of the material in the vicinity of the fire and on the dimen
sions, heat absorption capacity, air supply and heat extraction character
istics of the combustion chamber.

A precipitated temperature rise the flashover takes place when the

greater portion of the contents begins to supply combustible gases as the
result of being heated to the disintegration temperature. Inflammability
thus determines the fire hazard presented by the existing combustible ma
terials in the fire development phase.

The fire insurers of the European countries distinguish six fire hazard or
flammability classes. Classes I and II contain materials that present a
fire hazard, classes III to V contain materials of high, medium and low
flammability, while class VI contains nonflammable materials.

The illustration below shows the influence that these material characteris
tics can have on fire development.
 74

Time

A Immediate total fire C Long initial fire

Short initial fire D No flashover, self
extinguishing fire

Fig. II Typical fire development curves

Mixtures of combustible vapors, gases and dusts with air will explode if
the mixture ratio is between the upper and lower explosion limits. If
class I materials predominate, flashover can occur within seconds. If
class II materials are in the majority, flashover will occur within a few
minutes at the latest. When class III materials are involved, the time it
takes for flashover increases between 5 and 15 minutes.

Combustible materials in categories IV and V usually require a supporting

fire of materials of the previouslymentioned classes to develop into a
total fire. Heat accumulation conditions that contribute to disintegration
and to an increase in the burning rate have a significant influence on the
further development of the fire.

5. FLASHOVER

In any given phase, a fire can extinguish itself or if not discovered and
extinguished, develop further and autopropagate. It has been repeatedly ob
served in room fires of a certain stage that the fire suddenly fills the
entire space. The oxygen concentration reduces and the carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide concentration increases by the same amount. This phenomenon
is known as "flashover".

The flashover can be defined as that point that which the fire changes from
a twodimensional to a threedimensional manifestation.

It may be assumed that the turbulent gas flow after flashover is the reason
for the uniform quasistationary gas temperature in the entire room. Gas
temperature fluctuations do not normally exceed a maximum value of 20%. It
can be assumed that after flashover, the gas temperature is not a function
of location but only a sluggish function of time.

This "room filling" flashover occurs only in small and mediumsized rooms.
In a large room (fabrication hall), it is hardly likely that the burn will
behave in such a manner after a local flashover.
 75

The reason for this is the difference between the linear rate of travel and
the rate of diffusion of the gas masses involved. It can require between
minutes and hours until large areas reach a state of total fire.

; i
Heating n n ff* Transformer (~> Water
o t l t a n k s " " ""=e ji KJ tank
m_
| | 0

! IIJ1 1
Fig. Ill Ford warehouse, Cologne, 1977, heat propogation under the
roof registered by the actuation of the sprinkler systems.

Fig. IVa Department store Fig. IVb Failure of a column or

fire, Turku, Finland a splice after 30 min.
caused the building to
in: ve: ,',, )v5 i,i j ; f. .'; .' ;. ac collapse
 76

6. REALISTIC TEST

In many Swiss industrial, trade and office buildings, fireresistant con

struction techniques and the use of fireretardant chipboard doors resulted
in the formation of small fire compartments or fire cells.

Two "adhoc" fire tests in a demolitionscheduled reinforced concrete

building with masonry partition walls were conducted to determine whether
an average office wall would provide fire cell protection under fireload
conditions.

In the first empty combustion chamber, the fire load of office equipment
was simulated by stacks of pine rods.

Door: Chipboard door 40 mm

Room dimensions: L = 5.3 m, W = 4.4 m, H = 2.5 m
Open windows: 2, each 1.4 m 2
Balcony window + door (closed at first): 5 m2
Fireload: 400 kg wood = 6,700 MJ
Unit fireload on 23.3 m 2 floor area: q = 290 MJ/m"

Fire intensity and development was recorded using 27 thermocouples:

10 cm under the ceiling = top, 170 cm above the floor at eye level = middle
and 40 cm above the floor at crawling level = bottom.

Mean valuea of room air temps, at the three helqnt levels

Measuring
position, 4 45 <e
Name KURT 2< MVRT 17B MRT No. 44 top, no. 45 middle,
Symbol t + X X no. 46 bootom

Fig. V Room fire test with stacks of wood rods

A second fire test was intended to provide information concerning the devel
opment of a fire in small furnished office. It was particularly required to
determine if a flashover can occur even at a relatively low unit fireloads.
 77

Room dimensions: 1 = 3 . 4 , = 2.8 m, H = 2.5 m

2 windows, 1.4 m 2 each
Fireload: Wood furniture, total 2040 MJ
Files and paper 630 MJ
Carpet, wastepaper basket 560 MJ 3230 MJ
Unit fireload on floor area of 9.2 m 2 : q = 350 MJ/m2

Mean values of room air temp, at the three height levels

Measuring
position ** *S *t
Name msT :u mtn i7i Mwn <g No. 44 top, no. 45 middle
Symbol + * X no. 46 bottom

Fig. VI Room fire test with office furniture

Conclusions

These tests indicate that with a mean unit fireload in an office with aver
age furnishings, a damaging fire remains confined to one room if it is in
side walls that are fireresistant for 90 minutes and provided with fire
retardant doors. Although the fire was able to penetrate the door frames
towards the end of the test, it remained contained by the test room. Smoke
appeared in the corridor but did not affect visibility.

Neither the adjoining rooms nor the room immediately above the fire test
room were damaged and the floor was only slightly heated.

It can be assumed that correctly installed doors made from 40 mm chipboard

with hardboard trimming or edge consolidation and hardwood or steel frames
would perform even better than the door provisionally installed for the
fire test.
 78

7. ISO STANDARD TIRE CURVE

The standard fire in the test furnace according to the ISO temperature time
curve approximately simulates the actual fire development conditions at the
onset of a flashover.

The current ISO curve was based on the first edition of the American ASTM
standard "Fire Resistance", 1918.

Between 1922 and 1924, S. Ingberg of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards
carried out extensive experimental work in order to represent fire inten-
sity as a function of unit fireloads. He defined the unit fireload as the
sum of the heat energies in equivalent wood pounds divided by the floor
area in square feet.

Measured curve ASTM curve

Fig. VII Comparison of the first systematic fire test with an ASTM
standard fire curve

The conditions that lead to the most severe fire were established by means
of variable window openings. The trial indicated that the results agreed
poorly with the original ASTM curve. It appears that the requirement for a
single standardized temperature time curve was so strong that it was de-
cided to merge the experimentally derived curves with the ASTM curve.
 79

S 2700
u
1

1800
g 1350
900
450
0 0 3 0 60 9 0 1 2 0 180
Fireresistance min.
Fig. VIII Variation of unit fireload with fireresistance duration

In many places at that time, the classification proposals by E.O. Sachs

gained acceptance. In 1903, he developed a proposal for the British Fire
Prevention Committee that categorized ceilings, walls and doors according
to the length of time they resisted a total fire.

The concept of "unit fire loading as a measure of fire intensity" became

accepted everywhere and is still in use worldwide. Its weakness is that it
is completely unable to describe the temperature versus time function of
fire development after the flashover. This was also the conclusion from the
fire tests of Ingberg himself.

8. ROOM FIRE MODEL

About 20 years after similar attempts by Ingberg in the U.S., Kawagoe et

al. evaluated fire tests in Japan. Some of their considerations orginated
from Fujita, a contemporary of Ingberg. During the fire tests, they at
tempted to explain the observed temperature versus time function curve in
theoretical terms.

As a result of investigations carried out in England, Thomas confirmed that

the fire duration and the temperature after flashover was influenced not
only by the unit fireload and the fuel distribution, but as Fujita, Kawagoe
and Sekine concluded from a fluid mechanics approach, by room ventilation
as well. He indicated the necessity for further investigations.

The opinion that the ISO temperature versus time function was based on more
or less arbitrary assumptions and did not correspond to the actual develop
ment of the fires gained general acceptance.
 80

It appeared obvious to determine the necessary structural fire protection

by considering the actual fire development in fire cells. In England, Swe
den and the U.S., this lead to the performance and systematic evaluation of
new fire tests and to the development of complex computation programs.

9. COMPLETE FIRE DEVELOPMENT MODEL

As described before, the ISO standard fire tests and theoretical computation,
using the ISO curve or natural fire model for the postflashover phase, are
suitable for comparative classification of structural members and, probably
also of future partial systems and systems of structural members.

These models have very little to do with the actual fire duration to be
expected in a room, story or building. Although the fire development phase
(preflashover phase) does not affect the strength of structural members
made of wood, steel, reinforced concrete and masonry; it does often deter
mine the success or failure of all active preventive fire protection meas
ures. In all fires with a preliminary phase, the fire should be detected,
the alarm given, people and property protected from smoke as well as from
toxic and corrosive disintegration products within the duration of this
phase. Extinguishing personnel, firefighting units and automatic extin
guishing installations should effectively attack the fire before the total
fire phase or bring it under control. If the duration T e is less than the
time required, T for the deployment of the firefighting unit or for the
response and control time of the sprinkler system, the failure of
these measures in the applicable fire section is predictable.

Fire

a
prevention
Fire damage
prevention
)
Flashover
Flashover point

Firefighting unit
Auto.
Danger from smoke
Fire behavior Fire resistance of
structural membres

Detection
Ignition

Q C r i t i c a l time Te ~^ (Fireresistance time TR )>

Fig. IX Complete fire development model

Under certain conditions, the fire development time can be very short or
firefighting deployment time can be long. Despite such factors, build
ings consisting of a many small fire compartments or fire cells will not be
completely destroyed. With structurally limited fire areas (max. 200
400 m 2 ) , firefighting units have good prospects for success.
 81

The planning of a fire protection concept should be based on an analysis of

the hazards followed by the establishment of a list of structural measures
applicable to the case under consideration. Whether the concepts will need
supplementation by automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems, will
clearly be apparent by the structure-related risk analysis.

In large area and voluminous buildings,an internal attack on the fire in the
fire section involved after flashover has occurred must be abandoned.

The purpose-oriented representation by Klingsohr should be consulted for

the estimation of firefighting unit deployment time, deployment resources
and limits.

10. BUILDING INFLUENCE ON FIRE DEVELOPMENT

The fire development danger inside and outside fire compartments determines
the type and scope of the structural measures. Thus, three building types
are distinguished in Switzerland:

Building type Z: Compartmented type,

prevents and restricts horizontal and vertical fire
spread.

A fire compartment is the entire story. A story is

divided into small fire-resistant rooms with a max.
area of 200 m 2 (fire cells).

Nota bene: Supporting and room enclosing structural elements

such as supporting structures, outside walls, ceil-
ings, partition walls, etc. must possess adequate
fire-resistant characteristics so that in the event
of complete combustion of the existing fireload, the
stability of the structure and the integrity of the
cell is guaranteed.

Building type G: Non-compartmented building construction,

permits and facilitates horizontal but not vertical
fire development.

The fire compartment is an entire story or a large

area section.

Nota bene: Supporting and room enclosing structural elements

must possess an adequate fire-resistance to the unit
fire load.

The stairwells, shafts and other vertical connecting

passages must be cut off.

Building type V: Large volume construction method

The fire compartment is the entire building or a sep-

arate fire-resistant section. Involved are buildings
or building sections whose stories are not or insuf-
ficiently separated from each other.
 82

Buildings which cannot be assigned to type or G are classified as type V.

I" ISO fire

_ Real fire

Large area
Cell construction
construction
G

Te 15 30 min Te = 030 min 2 )

TR = 15 30 min*' Tf = 515 min 2 ' : Time for burning area
to reach 200 to 400 m2.
Ts = 30 60 min Ts = 545 min

2
1)Depending on )Depending on occupancy,
door design fire compartment dimensions
and ventilation

Fig. X Time available for successful extinction

s

Conclusions Based on Practical Experience

The spreading of a fire (heat) from a room in total flames to the neighbor
ing rooms/stories can be prevented by stable and firepenetrationresistant
walls and ceilings for unit fire loads up to 1000 MJ/m 2 (= 250 Mcal/m 2 )
as a nominal value and at least delay the spread of smoke.

Typical occupancies with increased danger to persons such as convention

centers, schools, hospitals, hotels, shopping centers and offices usually
exhibit unit fireloads of about 300 600 MJ/m 2 . With F30F90 structural
members and fireretardant doors (no hollow doors!), structural fire pro
tection fully complies with the requirements in the above examples.

The time available for firefighting unit deployment remains uncritical. The
calculated risk is the loss of the room affected by fire.
 83

In the case of hall buildings and large area multistory buildings, the
following cases can be distinguished:

a) Small unit fireloads up to approx. 200 MJ/m2: flashover conditions are

not to be expected except in the case of local accumulations of easily
ingniteable materials such as foamed plastics and in the case of explo
sive ignition due to the presence of dust and explosive gasair mix
tures. Even when the structural members have a fireresistance of less
than F30, the entire structure is stable and firepenetrationresistant.
Internal attacks on the fire by firefighting units are not endangered by
collapsing ceilings and roofs.

b) Medium unit fireloads between 200 MJ/m2 and 1000 MJ/m2: by choosing the
ISOclassified structural elements (F30F60) in accordance with the unit
fire load according to the Ingberg allocation (Fig. VIII), the collapse
of the supporting structure can normally be prevented with an adequate
safety margin. Alternative procedures of this type are based on the
"natural fire models" and/or on the introduction of an adequate fire
duration.

It is important to assure that the failure of an individual structural

element or of a structural element joint cannot lead to the collapse of
the entire structure. This applies particularly to prefabricated build
ings.

If the size of the fire must remain restricted, the missing structural
barriers of the celltype building must be replaced by automatic fire
safety engineering methods. The deployment options and performance
limits of the firefighting units are to be considered in the following
manner:
. ... Time allowed by fire T 2s
Time ratio : =-. :rj
Time required for deployment

c) Large unit fire loads greater than 1000 MJ/m2: The problems of fire
damage prevention cannot be solved by increasing the fireresistance
capabilities of the structural elements. It is a known fact that the
spalling and destroyed reinforcement of reinforced concrete structural
components result in higher demolition costs than structural components
made of other materials with lower fireresistnce. The solution to the
problem is either smaller fire compartments with the risk of total
damage taken into account or the use of automatic extinguishing systems.

A clear answer to the most important question as to which criteria a build

ing earns the qualification "fire safe" presupposes that the danger para
meter "fire" is taken as the loading case for the design and dimensioning
of a new building or for the evaluation of an existing structure. A risk
analysis that takes into account:

hazards due to the contents of the building

hazards due to the building itself
event probability
 84

operational measures for first aid and extinguishing activities

possible facilities for the automation of fire detection and extinguish
ing
effectiveness and equipment of the firefighting units
protection measures of "structural fire protection"
particular hazards to persons such as lack of familiarity with environ
ment, need for aid, high density of occupation and
particular hazards to property in the case of concentation of material
and sentimental values

lead to the significant endangerment scenarios.

In Switzerland, the Association of Cantonal Fire Insurors (VKF) has issued

a draft code which on the cantonal level is used as a set of guidelines for
fire marshalling regulations. As an alternative to fixed regulations, it
allows a fire to be interpreted as a "load case" in order to define fire
safety.

A clear definition of protection objectives upon which effective and appro

priate protection concepts can be based is essential. Planners, authori
ties, insurers and instructors render good services in those countries in
which procedures for systematic risk evaluation have been introduced.

References

[1] BA MERT E.: Anwendung der brandschutztechnischen Sicherheitsregeln im

Bauwesen, Seminar "Brandschutz und Sicherheit", 1979

[2] SIA (Schweiz. Ingenieur und ArchitektenVerein): Empfehlung Nr. 183,

Baulicher Brandschutz, 1974. Neuauflage der "Risikobeurteilung" SIA
Dokumentation, voraussichtlich Ende 1984

[3] Wegleitung fr Feuerpolizeivorschriften, Vereinigung Kantonaler Feuer

versicherungen, Neuauflage "A llg. Bestimmungen, Verkaufsgeschfte,
Industrie und Gewerbebauten", voraussichtlich Ende 1984

[4] BVDBulletin 3/78: "Gefahren, Massnahmen, Restrisiken", Zrich, 1978

[5] BA MERT E.: "Die optimale Sicherheit oder das akzeptierte Risiko bei
Brnden in Gebuden", llth Kongress der Internationalen Vereinigung
fr Brcken und Hochbau IVBH, Wien, 1980

[6] MA LHOTRA H.L.: "Design of Fire Resisting Structures", Surrey Univer

sity Press, New York, 1982

[7] KLINGSOHR K.: "Der Beitrag der Feuerwehr zur Brandsicherheit, Leis
tungsmglichkeiten und Einsatzgrenzen", Brandschutzseminar in Lindau,
Band 3 der Verffentlichungen der Fachhochschule Biberach, 1983

[8] MA RCHA NT E.W.: "The Relationship between Fire Safety Design and Build
ing Performance, Conference Paper, BVDSeminar, BrandschutzKonzepte,
Zrich, 1984
 85

[9] O'NEILL A.R.: "Financial and Practical Restraints of Fire Protection,

BVDSeminar, BrandschutzKonzepte, Zrich,"1984

[10] DI NENNO P.J.: "Mathematical Fire Modeling Toward the Rational

Integration of Fire Safety Features", BVDSeminar, BrandschutzKon
zepte, Zrich, 1984

[11] THOMAS PH.: " International Cooperation in Fire Research and Recent
Developments", Conference Paper, Fire International, London, 1984

[12] RASBASH D.J.: "Recent Developments in Fire Safety Engineering", Fire

Surveyor, Vol. 13, Number 3, 1984

[13] MALHOTRA H.L.: "The Principles of Structural Fire Protection", Fire

Surveyor, Vol. 13, Number 3, 1984
 86

COSTS AMD BENEFITS OF FIRE PROTECTION

CONTRIBUTION OF BUILDING CONTENTS

Douglas Burns
Institute for Industrial Research, and Standards
Dublin, Ireland

Summary
This paper considers the fire protection of building contents
with particular reference to soft furnishings. It presents an up-
to-date review of the fire protection properties of furniture fabrics,
ranging from traditional textile fibres and materials to more recent
man-made fibres. It includes an extensive review of the soft fur-
nishings used in buildings : curtains, carpets, upholstered furniture,
bed and bedding materials and stacking chairs. It also examines the
likely mode of ignition of various materials and foams, the particular
fire hazard associated with each and whether or not it is likely to
contribute significantly to the development of the fire.
The costs of the materials and foams are reviewed and a compar-
ison is made, particularly between similar materials with and without
fire protection properties.
While fire protection will inevitably lead to an increase in cost,
sometimes to the detriment of aesthetic qualities, the purchaser, by
careful choice of furnishing, can achieve a very significant increase
in fire protection without too great an increase in cost.

Building contents are composed of a combination of (l) soft furnish-

ings (e.g. carpets, curtains, rugs, upholstered furniture) which under a
given set of conditions can be readily ignited and (2) non-flexible fur-
niture (e.g. tables, chairs, wardrobes) which is not easily ignited but
will contribute to the intensity of the fire. However, the contribution
of non-flexible furniture is likely to occur at a stage when the heat and
the gases involved from the earlier ignition source would be lethal to
nearby personnel. In this paper, therefore, consideration will be given
almost exclusively to the contribution of soft furnishings.
Most soft furnishings will be chosen for their aesthetic qualities
either by the architect or builder or by the user of the building. They
may be chosen with careful consideration given to their fire properties or
with none at all. They will be used in a wide range of buildings, from
private houses to places of public assembly such as hotels, guest houses,
hospitals, nursing homes, dance halls, cinemas and discotheques.
Each type of building may have different requirements for the fire
protection properties of the soft furnishing used. For example, one
might not attach as much significance to the fire properties of hotel bed-
ding as one would to bedding in an old people's home. In addition, each
Member State within the E.E.C, will have its own Standards, bye-laws and
regulations. I do not propose, in this paper, to try to distinguish
between these Standards, bye-laws and regulations but rather to try to
outline the improvements which might be made in preventing fire in several
of the more common usage areas. I will in particular try to relate these
improvements to the cost factor, for it is often felt that building
 87

contents are not an important fire hazard and this all ied to a cost excuse
is often used by the consumer as an argument for not taking any action.
In considering the fire prevention properties of a building the
Architect or Fire Officer will always try to consider the building as a
whole rather than each component separately. But, of course, it is not
always possible for the Architect or Fire Officer to know the range of
contents to be used in the finished building, or indeed, the end use of
the building. For this reason, to attempt to specify a particular re-
quirement for a particular type of furniture (e.g. a requirement for
curtaining, a requirement for upholstered furniture) in isolation is not
feasible. For example, the danger of fire to a curtain in a museum would
not be as great as in a discotheque.
A similar sort of argument holds for the individual components of
furnishings: a polyacrylonitrile when used as curtaining in a domestic
home may have much less fire potential than when used as a covering for an
upholstered seat in a discotheque.
However, to understand and to try to offer solutions to the f lam-
mability problem of building contents it is necessary to be familiar with
the fire properties of individual components, while taking account of the
limitations of considering them in isolation.
Soft furnishings are in most cases composed of textile material and
foam. The Fire Resistance properties of the most widely used textile
fibres and foams are discussed. The trade names of some of the synthetic
fibres are mentioned. It is worth noting that in some cases a particular
trade name is much better known than the material type. Nylon is far
more commonly used than polyamide, while the average consumer will be
familiar with dralon but words such as polyacrylonitrile or 'acrylics'
will not mean anything to him.
The Fire Resistance properties of the textile fibres can be divided
into three types - those fibres which have a resistance to fire such as
wool, those fibres which melt away from fire such as polyamide and poly-
ester and those fibres which burn readily such as cellulosics, polyacry-
lonitrile and polypropylene.
While the fire resistance properties outlined above are a very good
guideline to the properties of the materials, other factors must be taken
into consideration such as the weight and structure of the material as
well as the influence of blends and mixtures. Light-weight structures
will tend to be more flammable than heavy structures and loose weave
structures will be more flammable owing to the ready availability of oxygen
to assist burning. Blending of textile materials gives rise to further
complications which can be extremely difficult to predict. One might
expect a polyester material, which melts away from a flame, when blended
with a cotton material, which is highly flammable, to produce a cloth
which is considerably less flammable than a cloth composed of lOO cotton.
This is not the case, as the flaming polyester which can drop off will
be held in by the cotton in the mixture and the flaming polyester will make
a significant contribution to the flammability of the mixture. Many fur-
nishing materials will consist of a blend of two or more materials. The
difficulty in predicting the fire properties of a single material, is
compounded when there are blends of varying percentages.
Wool is normally considered a fire resistant (FR) fabric although
light-weight wool fabrics will burn more readily. The International Wool
Secretariat (IWS) has developed a finish called Zirpro which will increase
the fire resistance of wool.
Leather is inherently fire resistant while the flammability of FVC
varies with the quantities of fire resistant chemicals incorporated into
the PVC mix during extrusion. There are consideratie usages nowadays for
modified acrylic fibres - modacrylics (e.g. Trade Names Dynel, Teklan)
which are inherently fire resistant.
While Polyamide and Polyester (e.g. Trade Names Trevira, Lirelle,
Dacron and Terylene) have flame resistance characteristics owing to their
melting away from the ignition source they can themselves be a source of
ignition owing to melting, flaming droplets which they may give off. Fire
Resistant forms of Polyester (e.g. Trade Names Trevira CS, Terylene FR)
have been produced which will not produce these flaming, melting droplets.
Cellulosic materials (e.g. cotton, linen, viscose) are readily ignit-
able and burn rapidly. These can be rendered fire resistant by means of
a finish applied to the fabric. Some of these chemical treatments, such
as borax-boric acid or ammonium salts, induce temporary flame resistance
which is removed by laundering, if not dry cleaning. These temporary
treatments should not be recommended as they are often applied by people
with little expertise and constant monitoring would be required to deter-
mine whether or not the treatment had been washed out. Other chemical
treatments, phosphorus based such as Proban and Pyrovatex, have more dur-
able properties but there are queries relating to the strength of the
material after repeated washings and also queries about the effect of the
finish on the skin. This latter complaint would probably be more applic-
able for clothing rather than furnishing materials. Polyacrylonitrile
'acrylic' (e.g. Trade Names Acrilan, Orlan, Courtelle, Dralon) and
polypropylene burn readily.
Flexible polyurethane foam, to a very large extent, and rubber latex
foam are used extensively in the upholstered furniture and bedding industry
and both will burn readily if ignited. The foam industry has devoted
considerable resources in time and money in incorporating fire retardant
chemi cals into foam in order to increase their fire resistance. The sub-
sequent improvement has been achieved by producing foams which melt away
from the ignition source.
Polyurethane foams and rubber latex, and to a lesser extent, most
textile fibres, will burn with the emission of a wide range of toxic gases.
In certain cases these gases can form an explosive mixture. Research into
the problem of toxic gas emission is at a fairly early stage of development
and the Fire Legislator is still thinking in terms of prevention of fire
ignition and slowing of Fire propagation rate rather than trying to control
the gases given off when a large conflagration takes place.
Let us now consider the building contents where these materials are
used.

CURTAINS
Curtains are often ignited by flames or radiation from heating or
working appliances or by children playing with matches. Most curtain
materials, because of their density, are relatively difficult to ignite.
Once a heavy curtain has ignited the rate at which it will burn depends on
the type of fabric from which it is made and its density.
As curtains hang vertically, they can burn rapidly, and they are an
especially high risk due to the fact that when the flame reaches the top
of the curtain it can spread to the ceiling.
If the curtains are made of thermoplastic materials the falling drop-
lets are a fuel for the ignition of the flooring material.
The performance of the composite fabric (whether it is a fabric woven
from more than one fibre or a lined curtain) will be largely determined by
the behaviour of the more flammable components. It is therefore important
 89

to note that while curtain material may tie offered for sale as fire resist-
ant it may, nevertheless, burn readily if the purchaser uses a lining of a
different material. All of the textile materials mentioned previously may
be used for curtains.

CARPETS
By and large the fire hazard associated with carpets is not of the
same dimensions as with curtains, except perhaps in the case of carpets
used as wall covering. Carpets are generally laid horizontally and will
therefore propogate flame less rapidly than a vertical hanging. Very
often a carpet will not constitute a fire hazard and if a hazard exists its
nature will depend on the environment in which the carpet is used.
There are many factors in carpet construction other than the type of
fibre which may affect the flammable properties of carpets. The most im-
portant factor is the backing especially if it is composed of rubber latex
but other factors such as density, unit weight, pile height and type of
dyestuff may also affect ignitability and rate of burning. The usual
source of ignition for carpets is a hot cinder or lighted cigarette or
match.
Most of the fibres mentioned previously are used in the pile of car-
pets. Wool and Wool/Nylon blends are widely used in quality carpets owing
to their combination of soft handle with hard wearing and anti-static pro-
perties. Polyamide carpets have similar hard wearing properties without
the softness and anti-static properties, while fibres such as polypropylene,
viscose and polyacrylonitrile are used in the less expensive section of the
carpet trade.
A large percentage of carpets on the market are self-extinguishing
when a small fire is applied when the carpet is laid horizontally. The
main hazard with carpets is where there is a conflagration the carpet will
catch fire and the backing if made from foam rubber, in particular, will
burn readily and give off a wide range of toxic gases.

UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE
At the moment there is a keen public awareness, certainly in Ireland
and the U.K. about the fire hazard of upholstered furniture. Any of the
range of materials mentioned previously may be used. Traditional upholst-
ered furniture consisted of springs used with padding materials such as
animal hair, cotton or wool felts and flocks. However, more recently
formed materials have to a large extent replaced these traditional materials.
Initially, rubber latex foams replaced the traditional materials, but these
have now been replaced to a very large extent by flexible polyurethane foam,
which are used for both loose and built-in cushioning.
Rubber latex foams and polyurethane foams burn readily if ignited -
there are variations in that a smouldering cigarette will ignite latex but
not polyurethane - and furniture in which they are present burns rapidly
with the generation of large quantities of smoke. Extensive research has
been and is being undertaken to determine the fire risk and the ways and
means of reducing it. There are now a wide range of fire resistant foams
but to date their use is limited.
While the flammable components of upholstered furniture consist of
two main components (the fabric cover and the foam interior) it is vitally
important while being aware of their individual fire properties to consider
the combination of foam and covering material together. For example, poly-
urethane foam will not be ignited on its own with a smouldering cigarette
but in combination with a wool material, which is relatively non-flammable,
it can be. The opposite happens if the ignition source is a lighted match.
 90

The generally perceived ignition sources for upholstered furniture

are either a smouldering cigarette or a flaming match and research work
has concentrated mainly in trying to prevent ignition by these two sources.
The solution to the problem is provided by careful choice of either a com-
bination of foam interior and covering material or by the addition of a
fire resistant barrier material between the foam and the covering material.
As well as smokers materials additional research work has been carried
out with larger ignition sources. Research is also taking place into
methods of retarding spread of flame once ignition has taken place as well
as research into toxic gases given off from the ignition of upholstered
materials.

BEDS AMD BEDDING MATERIALS

The fire hazard of beds and bedding materials is similar to that of
upholstered furniture in that one is again considering the combination of
foam (mostly polyurethane) with textile materials. However, there is an
important difference in that with upholstered furniture the product is
used by the consumer as sold by the manufacturer whereas beds and bedding
materials are sold separately. This, therefore, means that a wide range
of combinations of beds and bedding materials will be used, making it
extremely difficult to specify precisely how increased fire protection can
be achieved. It probably means that increased fire protection can only
be achieved by the consumer/user being aware of the range of alternatives
and voluntarily trying to implement them.
Beds and bedding materials account for a high proportion of fires
originating in building contents. These fires are usually caused by eit-
her smokers' materials or electric blankets and will originate from either
a smouldering or flaming source. An average bed/bedding combination might
consist of some or all of the following - mattress and ticking, sheets,
blankets, pillow and pillow-cases and duvet. While there are various fire
resistant alternatives to these items special consideration must be given
to sheets and pillow-cases owing to their proximity to the akin and freq-
uency of washing. Fire resistant cotton is rarely used because it is
alleged to weaken after repeated washings while Polyester is often con-
sidered less comfortable than cotton. However, there are strong economic
grounds for using Polyester rather than cotton sheets in Institutions as
they wear longer and have lower laundering costs than cotton.
By a correct choice of materials a very considerable improvement can
be made in the fire protection of bed/bedding. Certainly the bed/bedding
can be protected against smokers' materials. Significant improvements can
be made by choosing some, if not all of the fire resistant alternatives.

STACKING CHAIRS
Although not soft furnishings some makes of stacking chairs may be
easily ignited. Stacking chairs are frequently used in schools and com-
munity buildings and sometimes in the private house. They may be constr-
ucted from plastics or wood, but from their appearance it is often diffic-
ult to identify the plastics used or to determine whether or not they are
fire resistant.
Stacking chairs often behave very differently when ignited singly as
opposed to being ignited when stacked together in a group of say four to
six chairs. When small ignition sources are applied to chairs singly they
mostly do not support ignition. Polypropylene is an exception as it melts
and forms droplets of burning liquid. Small sources will not ignite fire
resistant polypropylene chairs, and will cause only limited burning to
stacks of six.
 91

To sum up there is therefore a vde range of contents, with, varying

degrees of fire protection which may be used in buildings such as private
houses, hotels, guest houses, hospitals, nursing homes, dance halls, cin-
emas and discotheques. The choice of a particular content will vary
depending on its aesthetic quality, its cost and its fire prevention pro-
perties. The aesthetic quality and the cost factor, for example, may be
of most importance in the domestic situation, while in old people's homes
the fire prevention factor would be the over-riding concern.
In the final analysis, the decision of which building content, of the
wide range available, should be purchased rests with the owner/user (i.e.
the person in charge) of the building.
In some cases the choice of the owner/user may be limited by legis-
lation requiring that the building's contents must comply with a given
Standard, Bye-Law or Regulation (e.g. Curtains in Public Buildings).
In other cases, such as the private house, the owners/users will have
very limited requirements forced upon them by the legislation and must
therefore decide for themselves the fire protection they wish to have in
their building contents. An awareness of the fire protection properties
of the available building contents will depend on the information supplied
by sales people as well as information made available through National
Consumer and Safety Organizations.
Before considering the cost factor the question arises as to whether
or not furniture can be produced that is fire protected as well as having
aesthetic quality. Certainly, there can be disadvantages associated with
Fire Resistant components. Cellulosic fibres when made durably Fire
Resistant tend to be weaker and do not stand up to washing as well as non-
treated materials and often have a harsher handle. Fire Resistant poly-
urethane foam does not often have the recovery properties of the non-Fire
Resistant foam. So, while there may in some cases be consumer resistance
to the purchase of fire resistant materials there are, nevertheless, a wide
range of materials which have usage properties just as satisfactory as non-
resistant materials.
So is there an enormous cost factor in using fire protected materials?
Tables 1 and 2 outline some of the cost alternatives in sterling of the
various building contents. These are a range of retail prices which might
be found in a medium quality city department store in Great Britain or
Ireland, and one would assume in the E.E.C, countries. Again, prices out-
side the ranges quoted in Tables 1 and 2 would be found in supermarkets or
in exclusive furnishing shops. Also it should be noted that Public Auth-
orities will often purchase directly from manufacturer or wholesaler at
considerable discount to the retail price. What is important is not the
absolute price quoted in Tables 1 and 2 but rather the comparative price,
particularly the comparative price between good (FR) materials, medium (FR)
materials and materials which burn readily. The approximate nature of
some of the figures should be borne in mind owing to the quality range of
materials available (e.g. carpets or cotton material for curtains). How-
ever, fairly accurate comparisons may be made when comparing two similar
articles (e.g. cotton and fire retarded cotton and polyester and fire
retarded polyester).
For curtains reasonable non-fire resistant cotton prints may be pur-
chased for 2 a metre while heavy cotton velvet might cost up to 12 a
metre. These and any other cellulosic fibres such as viscose and linen
may be purchased in a fire protected form, with a Proban or. Pyrovatex treat-
ment, for about 15 more. Polyacrylonitrile material might cost 8 to
12 a metre while a similar fire resistant modacrylic material might be
similarly costed. Polyamide and Polyester which melt from fire may be
 92

TABLE I
COST (I) O F BUILDING CONTENTS

CONTENT GOOD MEDIUM BURN READILY

FIRE RESISTANCE (FR) FIRE RESISTANCE (FR)

Uool 4 - 12
Modacryllc 8 - 12 Polyamide) 2 - 7 Polyacrylonltrlle 8 - 12
Curtains
Polyester (FR) 5 - 6 Polyester) Cotton 2 - 12
(ID)
Cotton (FR) 2.50 - 15

Woo,
> 1 2 - 24 Polyamide 5 - 8 Polypropylene )
Carpets
(m2)
Uool/Nylon (80/20) Polyacrylonltrlle ) 2 - 5
Viscose )

Upholstered

Furniture + (20 - 4 0 ) i + (0 - 20)

(3 piece suite)

Stacking
Polypropylene (FR) 8.50 Polypropylene 7
Chairs (each)

TABLE II
COSTISI OF EACH BED AND BEDDING CONTENT

CONTENT GOOD MEDIUM BURN READILY

FIRE RESISTANCE (FR) FIRE RESISTANCE (FR)

M a t t r e s s and Polyurethane foam (FR) and Polyurethane Foan and Cotton

Ticking Cotton (FR) or PVC (FR) Ticking 40
Ticking 50

Sheet Polyester (FR) 6 Polyester 5 Polyester/Cotton 5

Cotton 4.20

Pillow Case Polyester (FR) 2 Polyester 1.50 Polyester/Cotton 1.50

Cotton 1.20

Pillow Polyester (FR) Interior Polyester Interior Polyester/Cotton 1.50

S Cotton (FR) Cover 4.50 & Cotton (FR) & Cotton Cover 2.00
Cover 3.50

Heavy Blanket Wool 25 Polyacrylonltrlle 7.00

ModacryHc 10

Cellular Blanket Polyester (FR) 12 Polyester 10 Cotton 10

Duvet Polyester (FR) 28 Polyester 22

 93

purchased in a similar price range to Cotton prints (i.e. for 2 a metre up

to 7 a metre). However, a fire resistant Polyester (e.g. Trevira C5 or
Terylene FR) might cost 18 - 25 more than its normal equivalent. A
typical fire resistant polyester would cost between 5 and 6 a metre.
Lighter woolen materials for curtaining cost Ik to 6 a metre while the
heavier materials can cost 8 - 12. To purchase woolen materials with
I.W.S. Zirpro treatment usually adds at least an additional 10 to the
cost of the cloth. So for curtains there is a wide price range of Fire
Resistant materials available.
For carpets as for curtain materials there is a wide range of alter-
natives in cost and quality. Polypropylene, viscose and polyacrylonitrile,
with a price range of 2 to 5 a square metre have no fire resistance and
invariably have latex backing which, as mentioned previously, can give off
toxic fumes when ignited. Carpets whose pile melts from fire such as
Polyamide and Polyester retail with a price range of Zk - 8 a square
metre. The most expensive carpets generally are wool and wool/nylon
(80/20) which retail in a range of 12 to Z2k per square metre. These
wool, wool/nylon carpets generally use felt underlay rather than the more
flammable latex. There do not appear to be a wide range of carpets with
Resistance to fire. However, this may not be too significant owing to
the limited fire risk of laid carpets and the widespread use of wool in
quality carpets. Nevertheless, there would appear to be a limited market
for a cheap fire resistant foam backed carpet.
It would not be feasible in this paper to attempt to outline the
alternatives of material, interlining and foam which may be used to produce
fire resistant upholstered furniture, let alone attempt to determine the
cost factor involved. Suffice to say that the range of furniture avail-
able is enormously reduced. However, it is reliably estimated that to
produce upholstered furniture with a fire resistance suitable for a private
house there is an approximate 0 - 20? cost increase, while for upholstered
furniture suitable for places of public assembly there is an approximate
20 - k0% cost increase.
For bed and bedding materials the cost of some of the various foam
and textile alternatives is given in Table 2. Here there is a reason-
able range of fire protected materials available without too great a price
difference.
Similarly, there are alternative fire protected stacking chairs
available in Fire Resistant Polypropylene.
It is apparent from tables 1 and 2 that while fire protection will
inevitably lead to some increase in cost, sometimes to the detriment of
aesthetic qualities, the purchaser by careful choice of furnishing can
achieve a very significant increase in fire protection without too great a
cost increase. It would appear that the absence of fire protection in
building contents is more attributable to a lack of awareness of the alter-
natives available rather than to the cost factor. However, it should be
borne in mind that however much the fire protection of building contents
may be improved they are less important than the fire protection measures
applied to the building itself, both in its design and use.
 94

FIRE DETECTION - THE FIRST STAUE IN FIRE-FIGHTING

F. HEMME

Siemens AG, Munich (D)

Summary

Fires will always break out, no matter what precautions are taken.
Early detection is essential to minimize damage, but it is rarely
sufficient on its own and must normally form part of a fire protec-
tion system.

Such a system must provide a working solution to the problem of fire

protection when fires break out. In other words detection, raising
the alarm, evacuating the building and fighting the fire must be
coordinated.

Various systems are discussed, with particular reference to detection,

and future objectives are outlined. Industrial standards have never
been an obstacle to technological progress and should in future be
used to promote such progress and help to remove the technical
barriers to trade (i.e. national standards).

The effectiveness of fire prevention measures can only be described

in very vague terms owing to a lack of statistics. This is particular-
ly true in the case of fire detection installations, which often
detect and extinguish fires without anyone hearing about them.
Improved knowledge of the success of all fire protection measures
could save a great deal of public money.

Two reports quoted in this paper and produced by the building

research establishment and Euralarm should inprove general awareness
of this subject.

Fire detection, the first stage in fire-fighting

I would like to underline the importance of early fire detection on the

basis of the following three observations:

- There can be no fire-fighting without fire detection.

- The sooner firefighting begins, the greater are the chances of minimi-
zing damage.
- Since detection is only one prerequisite for minimizing fire damage, a
fire protection system is of value only when it includes the firefighting
element.

Automatic fire detection must always be considered in the light of the

primary purpose of the alarm system installed.
 95

There are thus three sets of fire protection objectives requiring an

overall fire protection system which includes a fire warning installation
with other systems and appropriate organizational measures.

(1) Protection of occupants: Detection, alarm, evacuation guidance

(2) Protection of property:
(building and contents)
(3) Protection of valuable
property (difficult or
impossible to replace):
and assistance.
Detection + non-automatic firefigtiting
or
detection + automatic + non-automatic
firefighting.
Detection + automatic extinction +
mechanical protection.

There are now over 150 firms producing fire alarm systems in Europe. As
outlined below, these systems fall into four categories covering all
requirements.

Obviously, time is a crucial factor in firefighting. This was the reason

for the introduction, 100 years ago, of sprinkler systems (System 1).
These are still used today and combine automatic detection and firefigh-
ting.

In those days such systems might well have been regarded as ideal. They
still perform their function, especially in protecting buildings and in
cases where fire crews take a long time to arrive on the scene.

Features (System 1)
- Protection of property.
- Detection by heat, i.e. fairly late.
- Smouldering fires remain undetected for quite a long time.
- Fires cannot be locally contained since sprinklers may sometimes fail
to operate until the fire has spread elsewhere.
- Very little information available in the event of fire.

The advent of the first generation of electronic devices sensitive to

smoke and flames made it possible to reduce very substantially the time
between the outbreak and the detection of fires.

However, it is not possible to reap the benefits of this system (System

2a) unless fire crews arrive soon enough. Early warning systems of this
kind increase the chances of successful evacuation of buildings such as
hotels. For this reason, in the past few decades there have been no
fatalities in fires in Swiss hotels fitted with fire alarms.

Features (System 2a)

- Protection of occupants and property.

- Rapid fire detection.
- Effective warning and alarm system for occupants.
- Automatic calling of fire-brigade.
- More detailed information on the location of fire and
on the condition of the alarm system.
 96

- Careful planning and a serious approach to fire protection are necessary

to avoid false alarns as far as possible.
- Firefighting may be carried out by personnel.

For some time microelectronic devices have made fire detection more
reliable, have reduced the number of false alarms and provide more
information for fire crews, as indicated by the following list of features

Features (System 2b)

- Protection of occupants and property.

- All forms of fire protection operations are to a large
extent controlled by sensor readings.
- Reduction in the number of false alarms thanks to process software.
- Early detection of impending breakdowns in installation elements.
- Extensive information on the site of the fire.

Microelectronics are also used for the general monitoring of installation

functions as well as for the storage and presentation of information in
the event of alarms and breakdowns.

For some time increasing use has been made of the possibility of linking
alarm systems to automatic extinguishers. The most popular systems use
C0 ? or halon, which means there is no damage caused by water - an
argument advanced more often by the owners of buildings than by the
insurance companies.

Features (Systems 3a and 3b)

- Protection of valuable property.

- Rapid detection and rapid extinction.
- Possibility of containment and limited danger of fire spread.
- Reliability ensured by redundancy and/or process software.
- Abundant information on fire location and information relevant
to fire protection, e.g. dangerous materials.
- Permanent monitoring by simulation.
- Maintenance required automatically before breakdowns occur.
- False alarms, even though they occur rarely, can be very
annoying and costly.

Largely automatic systems of this kind provide a highly sophisticated

form of fire protection:

For reasons of cost, systems 3a and 3b are installed mainly in high-risk

buildings, i.e. where losses would be enormous or where fires can spread
easily.

As far as future developments are concerned, I do not intend to speculate

on technological questions but shall describe, instead, the 'ideal'
system.

Features (System 4)

- Adaptable to all fire protection systems.

- Cannot be 'tricked'.
 97

- Cannot break down.

- Automatically initiates the appropriate extinction procedure.
- Has the powers of observation of a perceptive human being.
- Is cheaper than present systems.

This list is in order of importance as I see it. We should ensure, for

the sake of progress, that developments towards such an ideal system
should not be hampered or made impossible by bureaucracy.

In this connection, engineers working in numerous firms have laid the

foundations for the success of fire alarm technology by introducing new
inventions and will try, in the face of constant competition, to work
gradually towards the ideal system. The importance of industrial standards,
on which so much depends, should be emphasized here. The purpose of
standards is to describe the nature and features of a product, and
European standards are the means whereby we can break down the barriers to
trade.

But this is not enough: standards should not prevent technical progress
but should rather promote it by clarifying objectives and desired charac-
teristics. Building regulations or even material specifications should
not as a rule feature in standards. This is particularly true in the case
of devices whose characteristics can easily be checked. The crucial item
for us, however, is - in addition to the devices - the alarm system as a
whole. Here we can only apply a code of practice which allows the manufac-
turer scope to adapt the equipment to specific conditions. In cases of
doubt, a test fire is the only means of establishing the quality of a
system.

I would urge the relevant authorities to see to it that all those concerned
with fire protection should continue to bear standards in mind. Inter-
action between insurers and manufacturers has encouraged technological
progress and helped to void excessive perfectionism.

So far I have outlined the main features of fire alarms in various fire
protection systems. It would be helpful if these observations could be
supplemented by quantitative data on the hazard-reducing effect of alarm
systems. The normal approach would be to carry out a cost-effectiveness
analysis. I would like to concentrate on the 'effectiveness' side, since
this is more difficult to determine than cost. It cannot be calculated,
since it is impossible to indicate the amount of damage avoided in
specific cases by a fire protection system. Thus the only way of deter-
mining effectiveness is to adopt a general statistical approach.

The data necessary for such an approach will be needed if various catego-
ries of buildings are to be considered later.I am not aware of any data
which have been compiled by insurance companies or fire services and
which could shed light on the hazard-reducing effect of the various fire
protection systems. Even if such data existed, there are still a number
of problems to be overcome before a really useful statistical assessment
can be made.
1. If the statistics cover only known cases of damage, only buildings
representing a special risk will be considered, since these are the only
 98

ones in which automatic systems are installed. It is not sufficient to

compare monitored and unmonitored premises, but only those in roughly
the same risk category.
2. Fires extinguished in the early stages may possibly not be considered,
which means that the main benefits of an early warning system are
statistically unrepresented.
3. Only part of the real damage is covered by statistics. It is practically
impossible to assess the cost of lost customers, development plans and
works of art.
4. The statistics relate to entire fire protection systems. However, this
in no way means that any information may be deduced concerning the
subsystems, e.g. detection or intervention.

Although these numerous unresolved questions may be discouraging, improved

knowledge of the relevant material might be economically beneficial. This
applies to the 'special' fire prevention measures which can represent a
major investment for firms, or can be used to obtain a reduction in
insurance premiums. In the long term, insurance companies and national
economies would thus stand to make great savings.

Two works have recently been published which discuss the cost-effective-
ness of fire alarms in very positive terms (1 and 2 ) . While they may be
justifiably criticized in some respects, they contain quantitative data
worthy of note on the benefits of fire alarms as regards reducing damage.
No reference is made to human losses, though these are impossible to
quantify. The makers are convinced, on the basis of many years' experi-
ence, that they are serving a worthy cause. For this reason the European
association EUROALARM will always be ready to lend assistance where
information is needed on the effectiveness of fire alarm installations.

References

1) Economic value of automatic fire detectors

Buildinq Research Establishment Information Paper Nov 80.
2) Effectiveness of automatic fire detection systems in Switzerland
Euroalarm WG 8, Z.I. rue Fourny, F-78530 Buc/France.
 99

COSTS AND BENEFITS OF AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

R.A. YOUNG (F.O.C.)

Introduction
I speak on behalf of the Comite Europeen des Assurances, an
association of the insurance interests of 18 European countries. The
C.E.A. in addition to its concerns on pure insurance matters, promul-
gates technical committees for consideration of the full range of loss
protection measures, including Arson, Building Construction, Fire
Alarm and Detection, Halon and CO. Extinguishing Systems and Sprinkler
Systems. The technical committees have produced equipment standards
and installation codes, which have, in many cases, formed the basis
for ISO standards. In particular, the ISO Draft Sprinkler Standard
is based upon the CEA 'Specification for the performance of sprinklers',
Preparing for this paper has caused me to stand back and take a
broad view of sprinkler protection, against the back drop of the total
cost of fire in our European society today.
That broad view has forced me to the conclusion that it is only
greater investment in active fixed fire protection measures, and
particularly in sprinkler systems, that can reduce the total cost of
fire - in both life and property loss terms.
Firstly, let us consider the total annual fire cost. At present
full European figures have been impossible to obtain, so I have made
my assumptions on the basis of estimates of the U.K. situation, and
I believe that in general terms the principles that emerge will hold
true for Europe.
Now, the total measurable cost of fire is made up of the follo-
wing 6 elements:-

1. Fire Service costs - actual operations, enforcement of

legislation etc.

2. Fire Losses - life loss, hospital costs for injured

- property loss, business disruption etc.

3. Insurance Costs - surveys, administration.

4. Building costs - passive fire protection, such as protection

of steel work, fire doors etc.
5. Building costs - active fire protection, such as
Fire estinguishers.
Halon
CO. systems
Fire vents
Hose reels
Sprinkler systems

6. Research, Standards, Testing of equipment, Conferences etc.

Now, if we take the U.K. figures for 1983, excluding Northern

Ireland, I estimate that the total measurable cost of fire in that
 100

year was E1666M. and about 800 lives. (Pro-rata for Europe that is
8,000M.). Even butter mountains and wine lakes pale into insignifi-
cance against these costs!
The U.K. costs of 1666M for 1983 are made up proportionally as
follows as a percentage,
Fire Service 42
Direct Losses 34
Insurance Costs 10
Premise fire protection in buildings 8
Fire protection equipment in buildings 5
Research etc. 0.6
I have not included a value for life loss, but have made an
estimate of hospital costs for ir.juries . Unquantifiable costs for
business disruption are not included, and no estimate is made for
them.
Now I believe that in this conference we should not simply be
seeking to balance better the different factors which go to make up
fire costs, but that our object should be to investigate means by
which the size of the whole 'cake' might be reduced. A clear
objective to halve the total cost of fire in Europe, in life as
well as material terms by the end of the century, should be a realis-
tic goal for us.
Now, what part can sprinkler protection play in reaching such an
objective? Let us examine the current position. In terms of the
current measurable annual cost of fire, investment in sprinkler
protection is a mere 1 1/2 % of the total!
A visitor form outer space - looking at these figures might say -
well sprinkler protection must be very expensive, very unreliable or
very ineffective in reducing fire losses, if you invest so little in
it. Is this the case? Let's look at these three factors in turn.
Firstly, the cost of sprinkler protection to the current
installation codes. The costs depend upon the risk to be protected,
and the available water supplies. They generally.range from 20 to
45 per sprinkler installed, or 1.6/m to 5/m , much less than the
cost of carpeting an office!!
In relation to cost of building construction, they may amount
to about 5% of the total cost of the building structure, without
taking contents into account. Now this used to be a good measure of
the cost of protection, but in these days where the value of the
contents can be much greater than the value of the building - perhaps
it is better to consider total value at risk. For a recent fire in the
U.K., where the total losses were about 150M the building value was
18M, and the value of the contents about 130M. The building was not
sprinkler protected. The cost of sprinklers would have been about
0.6M - less than 1/2% of the direct cost of the loss! And sprinkler
protection would have served for 30 years or more. Whilst this may
be an extreme example, the cost of sprinkler protection is in general
low, in relation to the value at risk.
This is not an accident. The installation standard used is a
basis for sprinkler standards throughout Europe in that of the CEA.
This was first published in 1969, and was directly equivalent to the
standard used in the U.K., the Fire Offices' Committee Rules, which
first was published 1885 and the 29th Edition of which was issued in
the same year as the first CEA Rules.
Now the rules categorise all risks into 7 groups; from Extra
Light Hazard risks at one end, to Extra High Hazard High Piled
 101

Storage risks at the other, and the design of the system, and hence
its cost, is related to the degree of protection required.
The water supply requirements vary from a need to supply 4
sprinklers at a low density of 2.25mm/min, to 48 sprinklers at high
density, 30mm/min. These require water flow rates which range from
1901/min to 13,0001/min.
These requirements in the rules were determined from records
of 10,000 fires in sprinklered premises over a 40 year period, and
the minimum provision in each of the 7 groups was set at a level that
would give 85% control within the design parameters.
The rules were therefoce written on a cost-effectiveness basis,
aiming at 85 per cent of sprinkler systems controlling fires within
the limits set. In practice, they are achieving about 93%.
Now, secondly, reliability. This needs to be considered in two
parts, firstly the reliability of sprinkler devices themselves, and
secondly the reliability of the total system. For such a small,
cheap, elegantly simple device for detecting and controlling fires
as a sprinkler, the initial approval testing, quality control
requirements and production sample testing by the major world
laboratories, VDS and FIRTO in Europe, and FM and UL in the U.S.A.,
are rigorous in the extreme. They are aimed to produce less than I
failure to operate per 100 sprinklers and less than I ledi per 1/2M
sprinklers installed per year. Our records in the U.K., where the
insurers started testing sprinklers in 1895, show that they exceed
these requirements. They also are expected to have a service life of
not less than 30 years - and comfortably exceed this in normal
environments.
The reliability of the total system, is evidenced by its
performance, and this is affected by the quality of the design in
relation to the Rules, its maintenance, the use of premises, type
or height of goods stored etc. Again using U.K. figures for installed
systems, over a 5 year period 1978 - 1982, 98.5% of fires were
controlled, and nearly 93% were controlled within the system design
parameters.
Now thirdly, how effective are they in reducing the cost of a
fire incident? Unfortunately, total figures for this cannot be
obtained, since smaller losses are not likely to be reported, and,
incidentally, we know that about 25 per cent of fires in sprinklered
premises are extinguished before the operation of the sprinklers by
other means. Also, in more than half the fires where sprinklers do
operate, control is achieved with less than 5 sprinklers operating,
and in many of these cases no claim is made.
However, taking U.K. figures again for 1983, there were some
2000 reported fires in sprinklered premises, which resulted in a
direct loss of some E27M, or less than 15,000 per fire. Therefore,
of the total direct fire loss, the losses in sprinklered premises
were less than 5%.
If we knew just what proportion of premises of each class were
protected by sprinklers we could make more use of theses figures, but
perhaps that is something for the next symposium.
What of the future? Will sprinkler technology stand still and
wait for greater recognition? No. There is a commitment to research
and development by the European Insurers, through the CEA, and by some
German and British government departments, and by Factory Mutual in
the U.S.A. to work in two main areas.
The first area is that of more cost effective protection for large,
 102

high bay warehouses. The second is directed to systems specifically

designed for life safety in residential occupances, hospitals etc.
Both rely on the more rapid operation of individual sprinklers, and
more specific requirements for the water droplet size producted by the
sprinkler.
Considerable progress has been made in both areas, and the
significant advances that are being made will be applied worldwide.
However, whether or not this new advances play a significant
role with regard to sprinkler protection of the future, the figures
provided on the cost, reliability and performance of sprinkler systems
point to the fact that a higher level of investment in sprinkler
protection could reduce the overall cost of fire in Europe.
It should be noted, that whereas some 2.2 million sprinklers
were installed in Europe in 1983, some 14 million were installed in
the U.S.A. Is it possible that this level of investment in the U.S.A. -
some 6 times the level in Europe, would in due course, make 1M + fire
losses, and multiple deaths fires a rarity?
 103

AUTOMATIC FIRE-FIGHTING SYSTEMS:GASEOUS AND POWDER SYSTEMS

A. E. DRINKWATER
The Walter Kidde Company Limited
United Kingdom
on behdlf of Eurofeu

Summary

After more than 60 years of use, gaseous and dry chemical special
hazard fire extinguishing systems are well established. Some U.K.
Government statistics on the effectiveness of fixed fire
extinguishing systems is provided although, it is unfortunate, that
so little attempt has been made, on an official level, to collect
authoritative information on the performance of such systems.
Reference is made to systems known to have operated successfully to
extinguish fires and an urgent plea 1s made to the Directorate
General for Internal Market and Industrial Affairs, within the
European Commission, to consider co-ordinating the collection and
collation of authoritative information from Member States on the
effectiveness of fixed fire extinguishing systems.
The benefits, advantages and disadvantages of these systems is
discussed, leading to the importance of correct selection.
Finally, a further urgent plea 1s made in keeping with the
Article 100 harmonisation programme to establish a model Directive
structure based upon harmonised Community-wide standards (or in their
absence national standards) covering the design, installation and
servicing of fire protection systems, the manufacture and approval
testing of components, and regulations regarding the use and
transport of pressure vessels between European countries.

1.

The theme of this session 1s the costs and benefits of fire

protection. This means, when a Customer buys a fire protection system
does he get value for money, and will spending money on installing a fire
protection system prevent the disastrous results of a serious fire?
As a fire protection engineer who has spent a lifetime associated
with gaseous fire fighting systems I know, from personal experience, that
such systems are cost effective and any money spent buying them is money
well spent.
But how do I convey my confidence to people who may have little or no
knowledge of spedai hazard systems? People want to see facts and figures
and that 1s difficult, because in Europe such data is not available.
 104

1.1
U.K. Fire and Loss Statistics up to 1974, contained Information on
the effectiveness of fixed fire fighting systems, which showed that over a
four year period 800 fires were extinguished by fixed systems before the
arrival of the Fire Brigade, and only 20 fires, or slightly less than 2i%,
being extinguished by the Fire Brigade.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FIXED INSTALLATIONS

EXTRACTED FROM U.K. FIRE LOSS STATISTICS

A - FIRES EXTINGUISHED BEFORE ARRIVAL OF FIRE BRIGADE

- FIRES EXTINGUISHED BY THE FIRE BRIGADE

A TOTAL

160 8 168
1970 95.0% 5.0%

104 5 109
1971 95.5% 4.5%

230 5 235
1972 98.0% 2.0%

306 2 308
1973 99.5% 0.5%

TOTAL 800 20 820

97.6% 2.4%

This 1s an extremely good record, but I was unable to break the

figures down to show types of fixed systems.
I understand a large proportion were C02 systems and as these systems
are designed to extinguish fires, not to control them until the Fire
Brigade arrives, but to completely extinguish them, this is to be
expected.
The Government Department responsible for collecting this data,
stopped doing so in 1974, and so these figures are now historical.
Even this limited information is valuable, but we need much more of
it, not only in the United Kingdom, but throughout Europe.

1.2
May I, therefore, make a plea to the Directorate General for Internal
Market and Industrial Affairs, within the European Commission, to consider
co-ordinating the collection and collation of authoritative information
from Member States on the performance of special hazard fire extinguishing
systems.
 105

The collective Information would enable those that follow to KN OW,

without question, the benefits of automatic special hazard systems
terms of both reduction 1n loss and 1n life safety.

1.3
Individual fire protection companies keep records on the performance
of their systems. Let us use this knowledge. For example two of the
major Halon 1301 manufacturers, Atochem and Dupont, regularly publish
details of fires successfully extinguished by Halon 1301 systems, and I am
sure they would be pleased to include interested organisations on their
mailing lists.
From this source alone, we know that 1n a short period of time over
100 potentially serious fires have been successfully detected and
extinguished.

1.4
The British branch of my own international Company has a large
collection of such information, most of the systems concerned being local
application C02 systems. Since January 1st 1982, we have had 70 reports
of real fires automatically extinguished by C02, Halon or Dry Chemical
Systems.
We do not know the cash value, both direct and indirect of the
"property" being protected by these systems. We can only suggest that it
must have been many tens of millions of pounds. Particularly if we
include the value of property, around and associated with the particular
risks Involved. Such adjacent property would Itself have been at very
great risk had these systems not been installed and, more Important, had
they not operated so effectively.

1.5
Before I leave this section of my talk, I want to tell you about the
opinion of the customer, who as the user of a fire protection system and
the person who spends the money, is the most Important of all.
A customer bought some new colour printing machines which cost him
four million pounds. He asked the price for fitting a fire protection
system and was given a price of 30,000 for a purpose designed local
application C02 system. He didn't want to spend that amount of money, but
when he considered the alternative:
1. loss of the machines,
2. loss of production and customers,
3. loss of the factory and no work for 500 people,
even with Insurance he would not get his customers back, so he placed an
order.
Some time later we received a letter which read, "We had a solvent
flash fire on our Gravure machine last week. The C02 system automatically
operated and extinguished the fire so quickly that no damage was caused.
I feel vindicated in my initial capital expenditure for a fire
protection system because without it on this occasion the fire damage
could have cost many thousands of pounds, not forgetting of course the
possible loss of life, so on behalf of Company Limited, I thank
you for a first class system." That is a typical response of many end
users following the successful operation of their fixed fire extinguishing
system and is probably worth more than all the facts and figures that can
be produced.
 106

1.6
I will leave this subject with a sobering thought. A detailed study
in the U.S.A. indicates that, of all companies suffering a major
disruption of continuity of service to customers resulting from fire, 60%
of them went out of business within four years of that Incident.
It 1s not luck that prevents this happening, it is the foresight to
recognise a fire hazard and the good sense to do something about 1t.
Remember, what you initially pay for a system is not the whole story.
After-fire costs must be added on.

In the U.K. we have a magazine called 'Fire', It 1s described as the

Journal of the Fire Protection Profession.
A lot can be learned by reading about the past and I enjoy doing so.
1 was looking at some back Issues of this magazine and read a headline
that caught my attention. It said, "Gas for fire-fighting should be
explored.", it was dated December 1918.
I don't know the name of the author of the article but what a good
prophet he was, for in the 66 years since 1918 some hundreds of thousands
of gaseous systems have been Installed and constantly improved, so as to
reach their present day peak of efficiency.

2.1
What is the reason for their progressive popularity? Undoubtedly one
reason is their ability to automatically respond quickly to an incipient
fire condition and to extinguish it before the fire has had an opportunity
to develop and cause damage. Serious fires, which are responsible for the
major financial losses, show clearly that if an efficient attack had been
made on the outbreak 1n the first minute, the probability of a complete
loss could have been averted. Those first minutes of a factory fire are
vital. Although thousands of fires regularly occur, it is the small
proportion of large fires that cause the greatest losses.
The spread of a small fire in a special hazard, into a large general
hazard fire, is most often due to the delay that occurs before it is
discovered.
Effective fast acting fire detection is essential, to ensure that
fires are discovered in time, to save U v e s and to keep losses to a few
hundred pounds instead of a few million pounds.
Special hazard gaseous and dry chemical systems have been developed
to work with fast acting detectors. The two go together like bacon and
eggs; eisbein mit sauerkraut; le gin et tonic.
2 2
What are the other benefits of gaseous systems?
C02 and Halon are three dimensional in their extinguishing action, so
they penetrate into cracks and hidden recesses that water or foam cannot
reach.
They are clean agents, so that there is no mess to clean up and
production down-time is reduced considerably.
They do not conduct electricity so they are safe to use on live
electrical apparatus.
Halon 1301 is safe for people in fire extinguishing concentrations.
C02 Is not expensive.
Both are non-damaging to the materials they protect.
We can list the advantages and disadvantages of these agents 1n more
detail.
 107

CARBON DIOXIDE
Advantages
Y. Cost of agent 1s the least expensive gaseous extingulshant. Good
when fires are frequent.
2. Clean - leaves no residue.
3. Can be used successfully on Class , and C fires. The only
suitable gaseous agent for deep seated fires.
4. Safe in presence of electricity.
5. Length of pre-burn is less important because no decomposition
products are formed.
6. Short discharge time 1s not critical.
7. Can be used for local application as well as total flooding. The
only gaseous agent approved for local application at present.
8. Greater tolerance of room leakage than Halon systems.
Disadvantages
" Requires high concentrations and automatic release has to be isolated
for personnel safety when entering rooms protected by total flooding.
Local application systems may need pre-discharge alarms.
2. In some circumstances can chill air resulting in condensation.
3. Visibility is Impaired.
4. Over pressurising enclosed rooms a possibility.

HALON 1301
Advantage?
" Can be used 1n concentrations up to 7% without danger to occupants.
Automatic isolation not required.
2. Low concentrations are capable of extinguishing Class and C fires,
also Class A surface fires.
3. Visibility 1s not normally Impaired.
4. Safe 1n presence of electricity.
5. Less space required for containers.
6. Suitable for modular container array requiring no pipework.
7. No clean up required.
8. Over pressurising of rooms unlikely.
Disadvantages
" Recharging costs are expensive.
2. Short pre-burn times and fast discharge rates are necessary to reduce
the degree of decomposition.
3. Concentrations above 10% are hazardous to life so cannot be used for
deep-seated fires.
4. Losses through openings have vital effect on efficiency.

HALON 1211
Advantages
Low concentrations are capable of extinguishing Class and C fires,
also Class A surface fires.
2. Less space required for containers.
3. Suitable for modular container array requiring no pipework.
4. Visibility not normally Impaired.
5. Safe 1n presence of electricity.
6. No clean up required.
7. Over-pressurising of rooms unlikely.
Disadvantages
Unsafe for people at fire extinguishing concentrations, so automatic
release has to be isolated when entering protected rooms.
 108

2. Short preburn times and fast discharge rates are necessary to avoid
decomposition problems.
3. Not suitable for deep seated fires.
4. Losses through openings have vital effect on efficiency.

DRY C HEMIC AL
Advantages"
TI C an be used successfully on C lass and C, also C lass A surface
fires.
2. Rapid detection is not a critical factor (except ABC powders).
3. Has fast fire knockdown property.
4. Most useful in preengineered local application and total flooding
systems for Class and C fires.
5. Specially formulated powder is the only viable agent for metal fires.
6. Safe in presence of electricity.
Disadvantages
T~. Visibility impaired.
2. Transitory extinguishing effect because it settles out rapidly.
3. Difficult cleanup problem.
4. Piped engineered systems require special application design
knowledge. Limited experience available.

With the knowledge of these characteristics a value judgement can be

made to assist 1n the selection of the most cost effective system in the
given circumstances. For example:
Safety: When protecting a room normally occupied by people, Halon
1301 is the best choice.
Deep Seated Hazards: For extinguishing fires where large quantities
of C lass A" materials are involved and the concentration has to be
maintained for long periods, C02 is the best choice.
Weight and Space Limitations: The best choice is Halon 1301 or 1211.
Cooling Properties: If cooling is an advantage i.e. ovens, use C "2".
If rapid cooling is to be avoided use Halon.
Frequent Recharging: If fires are frequent and recharging costs are
to be kept low, use 02.
Flame Knockdown: If rapid flame knockdown is important and
cleanup delays can be tolerated, use Dry Chemical.
Room Leakage: If rooms have openings that cannot be closed C 02 or
Dry Chemical are~best.
Local Application: For local protection of unenclosed risks C 02 is
the best choice.
This list only provides answers to simple problems. The permutation
of questions and answers covering all the possible conditions are
considerable and often quite complex.
None of the systems compete with one another, whether it be a water
sprinkler system, a foam system, a Halon or C02 system, or a Dry Chemical
system. There is a correct agent for each application, but it is
important to make the right choice.
It is a complex subject and it is easy to make the mistake of not
giving the problem proper consideration.
There is an old saying that is appropriate here
"When you are r i g h t , noone remembers.
When you are wrong, noone f o r g e t s . "
 109

2.3
Recognising the difficulty, the British Standards Institution are
shortly to publish a new Standard linking together their range of
Standards covering fire extinguishing systems for Installation 1n
buildings. It will be entitled, 'Guide for the application of installed
fire extinguishing systems'. Its 75 pages of detailed analysis and
recommendation will meet a much needed requirement.

Finally I want to talk about the extremely important subject of

Standards, and their effect on the costs of gaseous systems. Between the
countries of Europe we must have common standards:
Standards of system design,
Standards of equipment performance and manufacturing quality,
Standards of approval testing,
Standards of installation and system servicing.
In the field of fire protection these things are taking too long to
achieve, whether they be European or International standards. Entrenched
national views and regulations must somehow be harmonised Into one common
acceptable set of standards.

3.1
I would like to see swifter progress made towards achieving the
mutual recognition of certification and testing arrangements within the
Community, consistent with the Article 100 harmonisation programme.
In the U.K. we are moving towards a unified system for certifying
products, and registering design, Installation and maintenance companies,
with certification being undertaken by nationally accredited certification
bodies.
I would like to see accredited testing laboratories, working to a
common test specification, being universally acceptable throughout Europe,
so that the work of any one, does not have to be repeated.
To require products to be tested individually by every member country
of the E.E.C, increases the cost of products enormously. The manufacturer
cannot absorb these costs and they have to be passed onto the consumer.
We must break down the barriers that prevent the free movement
throughout Europe of the pressurised gas containers used 1n fire
extinguishing systems and to enable this to be done we need one set of
regulations acceptable to all - and we need them quickly.
I appeal to those people with the authority to influence these events
to please do so - NOW.
The countries of Europe must work together constructively in these
matters. We must talk to each other more often.
With our joint technology, our history 1n fire research and our huge
population, Europe should be dominating the fire protection market-place
and setting an example of co-operation to the rest of the world.
The members of Eurofeu will be dedicated to these aims and we look
forward to your assistance.
 110

FIRE-FIGHTING BY PEOPLE IN THE BUILDINGS

H. ARESU DE SEUI
Director of ANPI
(NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION)

Summary

The fight against fire is a fight against time.

Because he is on the spot and is likely to know the surroundings
better than anyone, a building occupant has an active role to play
as soon as he sees a fire starting. This is not a time for him to
improvise. He must know what action to take, and whaL not to do.
Among other things, his immediate ain should be to facilitate
intervention by the fire services, which he will have informed
immediately.
Making building occupants aware of this, and training them in
certain cases, is an activity, by no means negligible, carried
out by most of the national fire protection associations belonging
to the "CFPA (Europe)", one of the organizers of this congress.

1. The role of building occupants

When a fire starts a building occupant, or occupants, should not con-
tent himself/themselves with calling the emergency services and passi-
vely awaiting their arrival.
A building occupant should play an active role, which should be
viewed as first-stage intervention. The action of the fire services, aler
ted by the occupant, should be viewed as second-stage intervention, as
a reinforcement. The first speaker quite rightly said that as far as
possible a fire should be attacked from the inside of the building,
and, consequently, an occupant has an important role to play, interior
conditions permitting.
By an occupant we mean a person at home, at his place of work, but
also people in public places.
Legislation in the various countries dealis with the second case in
particular. Indeed, certain industrial safety documents oblige the
employer to set up a fire-fighting team for first-stage intervention,
composed of those people usually in the building - the employees.
At the European level, I would like to quote by way of example from
the "Proposal for a Council Recommendation on fire safety in existing
hotels".
Paragraph 8.4.2. says:
"In the event of fire, the hotel staff must be able to:
- apply the instructions drawn up for their guidance,
- help in the efficient evacuation of all hotel occupants".
In other, national, documents the occupants are also encouraged to
take action against any incipient fire using the available means of
first-stage intervention: portable extinguishers and hose reels with
axial water supply.
 Ill

2. Why is the occupant's role important?

There are four reasons justifying the occupant's role in fighting
fire :
a) he is usually the first to notice a fire starting,
b) he knows the premises better than anyone else,
c) he might know if any other people are on the premises,
d) he might know what action should be taken specific to the
premises.
Let us examine these points in detail:
a) Being the first to spot the fire he can undertake various
measures which we will describe later.
b) Good knowledge of the premises is important because they might
not be as indicated in the plans, which are not always up to
date nor easy to consult during a fire.
Only the occupant knows where to switch off the electricity at
the mains, where to switch off combustible gas or industrial
gas supplies, or where to find keys for access. This also is
true for the switches for smoke extraction, ventilation or air
conditioning systems.
Only the occupant knows whether recently-supplied, dangerous
products are on the premises.
c) Whether it is a residential building, a commercial undertaking
or a building open to the public, people could be present who
are not regular visitors and are not familiar with the premises
and its access points: visitors, participants at a meeting,
tradesmen, outside contractors (painters, plumbers, electricians,
people working in isolated places etc.).
d) Finally, the occupant is able to determine the action to take
in the event of a fire starting. These measures are called "l'ire
Instructions". Such instructions should be specific to the
premises, and we can only condemn the kind of standard instruc-
tions, in small print, which are to be found in factories,
residential buildings, large stores, theatres etc.
Some of these instructions contain advice such as:
"In the event of fire switch off all the meters: gas, electri-
city etc.".
Suah instructions, printed and distributed in their thousands,
and advising that electricity and gas be switched off, do not
take into account the specific conditions which vary from one
building to another, e.g. the fact that switching off electricity
could put a telephone exchange out of service or immobilize lifts
which would be used despite warnings not to use them during fire:
the fact that switches may not be accessible to the occupant for
whom the instructions are intended.
We believe that fire instructions should be specific to the premises.
They should reflect the measures habitual occupants have learned to take
during alarm and evacuation drills.

3. How might the occupant behave?

Faced by a fire, whether in an initial or at an advanced stage, the
occupant can react irrationally or rationally.
Reactions will be irrational if a person finds himself facing a
danger from which he sees no escape.
Such a situation will occur in the following two cases in particular:
1. Production and development of fumes which, on account of their
opacity and irritant nature, not to mention their toxicity, cause
 112

discomfort and reduce the ability to react, so that the occupant

no longer feels able to ensure his own safety. Caught in the
fumes, he feels completely cut off and forgotten by the outside
world. He might be in a state of panic.
2. The length and complexity of escape routes which give the occupant
the same feeling of insecurity.
These two points have to do with building design, the subject of
Theme II of this symposium. The degree of compartmentation and the means
of access, associated with the amount of heat and the way wall coverings
react to fire, make modelling of fire development possible to determine
the conditions the occupant will face. This theme will also be developed
during this symposium. In other words, one can forecast the situation
in which occupants will find themselves by envisaging probable fire
scenarios.
Fire scenarios, mentioned on the first day of this congress, are
very useful. For example, when the alarm goes off in certain office
buildings the lifts might automatically move to the evacuation level
and remain there. If this happens someone might find themselves cut off
on a landing, whose access doors can only be opened via a code or a
magnetic card. This person will be unable to make his presence known.
Such a situation might be discovered through studying all the possibili-
ties during an alarm. The occupants should be aware of the situations
they will face when certain automatic systems have been triggered.
The occupant might have two types of rational reaction. If he is
not prepared for the possibility of a fire he might improvise, act
without thinking, and his reactions might be disastrous. If, on the
other hand, he is prepared, as in the case of fire-fighting teams in
factories, he will be able to adapt his behaviour to the training he
has received. The tendency to regroup is one of the rational reactions,
a reflex when faced by danger, which should be taken into account. This
tendency has been noted in the following cases, among others:
1. During the St Laurent du Pont dance hall fire in France the young
people joined their friends in a group before escaping. Their
behaviour and the routes taken by the survivors have been
reconstructed in detail. They did not make for the exit on hheir
own. They first of all searched for and joined their friends
and then they escaped.
2. During the Summerland recreation centre fire in the UK the
children were separated from their patents. The parent's first
reaction was to look for their children. The children reacted in
a similar manner. Regrouping according to family was the first
stage in evacuation. Leaving the building was only the second
stage.
3. The tendency to regroup before escaping also occurs in hotels
when members of the same family have different rooms.

A. How should the occupant behave?

One can distinguish between action independent of the fire and its
effects and, on the other hand, action resulting from the effects of the
fire.
First and foremost, the occupant must alert the emergency services,
he must not tackle the blaze on his own, hero-style. Residents will call
the fire brigade whereas in a factory - according to its size or the
way it is organized - the immediate alarm will be passed on to the fire
brigade or to the fire-fighting team which, in turn, will call the fire
 113

brigade.
Another thing to do is to ensure the evacuation of non-operational
occupants.
Evacuation is an incorrect terra. We should rather speak of "removal
to safety". In many cases (tall buildings, hospitals) evacuation consists
of moving people from one compartment to another.
The overall time for evacuation consists of:
1. The time taken to convince people that they must leave. It will
be all the more difficult to persuade them if they do not see
any smoke, if they do not hear the fire engine sirens. Before
leaving they will seek confirmation that danger is eminent.
2. The time for evacuation proper.
I repeat that this evacuation procedure should be undertaken
by the occupant, or occupants, immediately after danger has
been discovered,i.e. before the fire brigade arrives.
This evacuation time can be evaluated or calculated by various
methods. In our view the Predtetchenski method is the most
comprehensive and best.
It has been described in a relatively major work published in
Russian and translated into German and English.
For example, a door 80 cm wide will allow people to pass through
at a spead of 20 m/min, wheras a corridor 20 m long and of the
same width, 80 cm, slows this down to 15 or 10 m/min. The laws
governing movement of people, who might react among themselves,
are different to the laws governing movement of inert object.
Therefore, one cannot rely on mathematical models based solely
on the laws of hydraulics or fluid flow.
However, when the occupant is confronted by a fire source or the
effects of an advanced blaze (smoke, heat) he must not improvise.
At home, he should know what to do first when a frying pan is on
fire, when curtains are aflame, when a gas leak occurs, but he should
also know what not to do.
At his place of work, where he might face a larger fire, he should
be trained to tackle an incipient fire, to handle an extinguisher or a
small branchpipe while protecting himself from the heat radiation. Such
training must cover all the conditions experienced when tackling a
fire-smoke, soot, heat, extinguishing water - and could be given in
places specially equipped for this purpose.
Such training is provided in the various fire-fighting schools.
The occupant should be familiar with the following fire-fighting
equipment :
1. Portable extinguisher
The construction and design of extinguishers is governed by
European standards and draft standards. Some countries, such
as Belgium, have already adapted their national standards to the
European ones. One of the advantages of these standards is that
they lay down a standard operating procedure which everyone can
learn without having to read the instructions.
2. Hose reels with axial water supply
We believe that extinguishing water should be quickly available
to the occupant. He will usually be unable to unwind the kind
of hosepipes used by the fire service (except in the case of
members of second-stage intervention teams in factories).
3. Fixed extinguisher installations
CO installations: the occupant should know the dangers posed by
 114

CO. once it has been released.

Halon 1301 installations: these installations are undoubtedly
a technical advance. The occupant should know, however, that
they are all the more effective if they are released immediately
and - in most cases - even when other people are present. The
occupants should know about the very high noise level accompanying
emission of Halon, and which results from the speed of its release
4. Sprinkler installations: the occupant -should know the layout
and storage conditions and limitations relating to the kind of
sprinkler installed.

5. CONCLUSIONS
1st conclusion
We have shown the active role which the regular occupant of a
building should play when facing a fire.
The general public also has a role to play: if asked to evacuate
public premises they should do so as quickly as possible without
seeking confirmation of the danger. But this is another complex field -
not studied enough in our view - which has to do with the public's
behaviour during fires.
2nd conclusion
The present congress is devoted to buildings. There are not many
architects here, and there never are many architects at fire-prevention
congresses.
And if, by chance, a lot did turn up they would be thought to have
come to the wrong congress.
This absence results, in part, from the fact that sometimes we
feel a certain self-satisfaction in drawing up documents which do not
always take account of changes in building techniques, methods, materials
and products, documents which, when published, no longer correspond to
actual conditions.
A building should be basically designed with a view to the occu-
pants' comfort and to operational flexibility. Fire-fighting, safety and
prevention installations should be integrated with these aims.
The architect, who is at the root of building design and shapes
the way the occupant live, work or enjoy their leisure time, should
take account of this integration from the project study stage onwards.
Our regulations can no longer be inflexible. They should aim at
achieving results, taking account of the predictable behaviour of the
regular occupants and of members of the public who might be on the pre-
mises.
They must not be an unjustified obstacle to the architect's basic
creative task.
 115

ESCAPE FROM FIRE

H.L.Malhotra, B.Sc(Eng), M . I . C E . F.I.Fire E.

(Fire Protection Consultant)

Summary

Despite the existance of fire safety regulations in the EEC countries

the danger of life loss in fires is ever present. "Lack" of escape
from fires is primarily due to delayed awareness, poor design of
routes for escape, smoke logging and interference with exits. Whilst
the essential factors for escape route design are known, a rational
approach to optimize the design is not available. It is proposed
that escape planning should be time related and should pay attention
to human, fire growth and design aspects.

THE PROBLEM

Fires in buildings and the dangers they create for the occupants is a
common problem in many countries and members of the European Community
share it to varying degrees. During the last 15 years there have been a
number of incidents in the member countries which have attracted public
comment and led to changes being made in the national safety regulations.
Some of the well known cases are:

1970 France St Laurant du Pont Dance hall 146 died

1973 U.K. Summerland leisure centre 50 "

1973 Denmark Hafnia hotel, Copenhagen 35

1977 Netherland Hotel, Amsterdam 28

1977 Belgium Hotel, Brussels 17

1979 Germany Flour mill, Bremen 14

1982 Ireland Stardust Disco, Dublin 48

1983 Italy Cinema, Turin 50

Tragic fires have occurred in other countries as well, sometimes with

 116

deaths and injuries running into hundreds. Some of the incidents which
made a deep impression on the safety authorites were the hotel fire in
South Korea (1971-163 deaths), the night club fire in Osaka (1972-118
deaths), the office building in Sao Paulo, Brazil (1974-179 deaths), the
night club in Kentucky, USA (1977-164 deaths) and the camping site at
San Carlo de la Rapita, Spain (1978-160 deaths).
The hotel fire in Brussels and Amsterdam were the trigger for starting
the Commission activity on fire safety in hotels and has culminated in the
issue of a draft recommendation in January 1984 for the existing hotels
in the common market countries.
Whilst comprehensive statistics of fires and casualties are not
available for all member countries a general picture emerges from the
information collected by the NFPA in the USA and published in its journal.
The latest data available for the EEC countries for 1979/80 are given in
Table 1.

TABLE 1 - FIRE STATISTICS 1979/90 (source NFPA)

COUNTRY NUMBER OF FIRES NUMBER OF DEATHS

Total Per 103 Total Per 10* Per 103
103 persons persons fires

Belgium 16.7 1.7 122 12.5 7.3

Denmark 15.8 3.1 68 13.4 4.6

France 91.1 1.7 772 14.5 8.6

Germany 528 8.6

Ireland 25.8 7.6
Netherlands 12.7 0.9 96 6.8 7.5

U.K. 117.4 2.1 816 14.6 7.0

The data are incomplete for Germany and Ireland and not available for
some of the other countries. The table shows that the UK had the maximum
number of fires and casualties. However, to put the data in perspective
it is useful to examine them as a proportion of fires and the population.
This has been done in figures 1 and 2 . Figures 1 and 2 show that UK,
France and Germany lead with the number of fires and deaths but expressed
as a proportion of the population Ireland has more fires and UK, France,
Denmark and Belgium are not significantly different from each other in
the number of deaths. On both counts Netherlands seems the safest
country.
 117

x,ff

100 10

UK F D
50

IR

I R DK
DK UK
NL NL

NO OF FIRES NO OF FIRES / l 0 3 POPULATION

FIG 1. Numb er of fires in EEC countries

1000 1 15

10-

500 UK UK DK

5- IR

NL

NL D K I IR I

NO OF DEATHS NO OF DEATHS/l0 6 POPULAT ION

FIG 2. Numb er of fire deaths in EEC countries

 118

Some of the statistical information available in the UK is of interest as

it highlights a number of fire problems. The data for 1982 shows that
there were 919 deaths. 808 occurred in occupied buildings and 90% of
these were in dwellings. 520 of these i.e. 64% were overcome by fire
gases. Most dwelling fires start in the kitchen but these only cause an
insignificant number of fatal casualties. 34% of the fires start in the
living room or the bedroom and are responsible for 83% of deaths. Most
bedroom fires effect che occupants in the room of origin whereas a lot of
living room fires spread to other areas and cause nearly half the
fatalities due to living room fires.
Statistics of this type and studies of actual fires show that the
"lack" of escape from fires is due to one or more of the following
causes :

a. Delayed awareness of the fire.

b. Escape route untenable due to smoke logging.

c. Occupants not aware of the alternative routes.

d. Escape routes inadequate in number or size or design.

e. Exits locked or barred or blocked.

Delayed awareness is one of the major reasons for fatalities in domestic

buildings where the escape routes are reasonably short, well known and
accessible. In public buildings delayed awareness has led to
unnecessarily high casualties. In the hotel fire in Soeul the fire
started due to the malfunction of an LPG heater in the cafetaria and was
immediately noticed, but time was wasted before informing the occupants
and the fire brigade. The use of automatic detection systems linked to
alarm devices can overcome this problem and in certain buildings this
may be an essential need.
However, escape routes will be of little use when a fire starts in
them. If goods or contents which should not have been kept there start
a fire, the resulting smoke and hot gases very quickly put the route out
of commission. Escape routes also become untenable when smoke and gases
from a fire enter either because the doors have been left open or the
smoke barriers are ineffective. Limited amount of smoke, provided the
visibility is not reduced to less than about 3 m. will not create
problems. A smoke clearing system should be provided where smoke is
expected to enter the escape route.
In buildings where the occupants do not normally live or work they
are unlikely to be aware of the existance of all the available escape
routes. In the Summer land fire in the UK the occupants of upper floors
rushed to the open staircase through which they had come ignoring a
protected stairway at the other end of the floor. In the Osaka night
club the escape doors were concealed behind curtains. There is also a
problem in high rise buildings where the normal mode of transport is the
lift and, by not using the stairs, occupants will tend to rush in the way
which they habitually use. Often the signs and lighting of escape routes
are inadequate.
 119

The inadequacy of escape routes has often been responsible for tragedies.
The hotel in Seoul and the office building in Sao Paulo despite their
size were served by a single staircase. Often spiral stairs are permitted
which slow down the rate of movement. A single stairway should not be
permitted in any building of more than 4 storeys and in buildings with
high occupancy levels.
Interfering with exits in the St Laurant du Pont dance hall and the
Dublin disco may have caused high fatalities. The prevention of illegal
entry into entertainment buildings is of concern to the management but
the solution should not be blocking the exit routes. The narrowing of
exit routes is another problem and in a fire in Canada it prevented the
occupants from being able to use, effectively, an alternative route.

ESCAPE DESIGN

In the design of escape routes the most important considerations are,

a. ensuring adequate escape facilities, and

b. keeping the escape routes tenable.

An important factor influencing the escape route design is the human

factor which is concerned with the particular problems due to the occupant
characteristics or their conditions. The main components are the wakeful
ness (or not) of the occupants, their familiarity with the building
layout and their mobility. The table below shows where these are present
in differnet occupancies and an attempt has been made to attach a
numerical value to them.

TABLE 2 HUMAN FACTOR H,

Occupancy Familiar Mobile Awake H

f

Domestic Y Y 0.75

Hotel Y 0.60

Hospital 0.40

Shop Y Y 0.80

School, Office Y Y Y 1.00

Assembly Y Y 0.80

Y means yes and means no.

H f is a numerical factor which denotes the level of risk due to a

combination of human factors. The high value of B . for schools and
offices means that as the occupants are fami liar with their surroundings,
are mobile and there is no sleeping risk the normal escape criteria of
travel distances etc. would prove to be adequate. On the other hand in
 120

hospitals the escape criteria need to be adjusted significantly because of

the occupant problems.
The design of the escape routes requires attention to be paid to the
following:

a. Escape route planning.

b. Escape route protection.

c. Escape route recognition, and

d. Warning and alarm systems.

Escape route planning has the aim of providing the occupants from any
where in the building the possibility of reaching a place of safety within
or outside the building in time available before the conditions become
unbearable. The conventional approach required that all occupants should
aim for the outside of the building. However, in many situations the
escape has to be in stages or phases either because of the occupants or
the nature of the building. In a hospital the patient should in the first
instance be moved horizontally to the next compartment as this is the only
rapid way of evacuating the fire zone. In high rise buildings it is only
necessary for the occupants in the fire zone and the floor above to leave
their areas and the rest to follow if the fire proves uncontrollable.
To make provision for the simultaneous evacuation of a building with
10,000 occupants will require massive escape facilities.
Figure 3 shows that escape from the fire zone in a multi-storey
building means moving from the room or the compartment where the fire has
occurred to a corridor leading to the floor exit and the stairway. In
some cases the room may lead, or the corridor may lead to a lobby before
reaching the stairway. The fire room is the unprotected zone, the
corridor is the partially protected zone and the stairway is the fully
protected zone as once having reached the occupants can move in safety
to the outside of the building. The occupants are at risk in the fire zone
and after sometime in the partially protected zone as well.
The escape route planning should take the nature of the occupancy and
the expected occupant density into account and decide on the number of
escape routes needed, their layout, the acceptable travel distances, the
width of the routes, the location of the exits and stairways. The escape
route protection will consider the need for measures for smoke control by
the provision of doors, smoke dilution and smoke removal systems, the fire
resistance needs for the stair enclosures, lobbies, corridors etc. and
whether there is any justification for installing a sprinkler system for
life safety purposes. Recognition of escape routes is essential in all
buildings where the occupants are not fami liar with the building and
suitable directions, signs and lighting provisions have to be made. The
need for the installation of a detection system has to be considered and
the arrangement for informing the fire brigade as well as the occupants
must be borne in mind.
One of the critical factors in designing escape routes is the
appropriateness of the travel distances. Countries have different
concepts and values for such distances in their national regulations.
In the UK the travel distances have been based on some old studies about
the movement of people in passageways and corridors in connection with
underground trains. When applying this type of data to buildings it is
 121

ROOM
~7\ CORRIDOR STAIR
WAY

.Fully protected
zone

FIG. 3 Escape zones

Walking
quickly

iL Walking
normally

\j\ Disabled

4^&$^ Congested

1 1 1
10 20 30
Speed m /min

FIG. A Travel speed assumption

 122

assumed that the occupants are able-bodied adults able to move at around
12m/min and they have a maximum of 2.5 min available. This gives a basic
travel distance of 30m which is then adjusted for the number of
alternative routes available. In practice the rate of travel depends on
the physical condition of the person and whether he can move freely or not.
Figure 4 shows that the speed may vary between 5 and 15m/min. if the
escape route is congested the assumed speed of 12m/min is rather
optimistic.
The rate of evacuation will depend on the width of the routes and
whether any bottle necks are caused by doors or stairways or some other
constriction. Figure 5 shows that the rates are not the same in corridors
and stairs, and differences exist if people are going upstairs or down-
stairs. Some attempts have been made to develop mathematical models for
the movement of people in escape routes. Studies of actual buildings have
been carried out by Jake Pauls in Canada, Fred Stahl in the USA and
Paul Seeger in Germany. Predtetschenski and Milinski in the USSR have
produced a model for the flow density of people by treating them as
objects of known dimensions moving in a continuous stream through a
channel or an orifice. Ezel Kendrik at the Technical University of Vienna
has compared the model with evacuation exercises in 3 high rise buildings
and found some good co-relation. One of the problem highlighted is the
possibility of congestion when different streams meet at the stair
entrance or corridor junctions.

A RATIONAL APPROACH

It is necessary to develop a rational approach to the question of escape

from building and to develop systems which can be applied with confidence
in the planning and design of escape routes. The first and foremost need
is to develop a time based system so that inter-actions between different
components can be examined. A simple concept of the time based system
is that

t > t , where
a r
t is the time available for escape, and
t r is the time required for escape.

t = t - t where
a c w
te is the time at which conditions become critical, and
tj, is the time of awareness of fire,
if t is the time of start of the fire, then

t is maximum when t - t > O

a w o
Figure 6 shows the conditions in the fire zone when the fire is developing
exponentially and t c is reached when either the smoke density or the
toxicity level or the oxygen depletion affects the safety of the occupants.
In the partially protected zone, (Figure 7 ) , it takes longer to reach t c
and it depends on the leakage paths available to the smoke and other gases.
In both cases time t- is maximum with than without a detection system. In
the fully protected zone, (Figure 8 ) , the rate of leakage is so small that
conditions remain safe for a long time.
 123

Door ways M-,

60s
66 upstairs

69 downstairs
' , ^ _
90 Corridors

No/m wldth/mln

F I G 5." B asic rates of evacuation

Fire growth curv

(5

FIG6 Fire zone or unprotected area

 124

Time available for

escape t

Smoke
density curv

FIG. 7 Partially protected zone

Time available for escape tc

to te

FIG. 8 Fully protected zone

 125

The development of a system of this type is an essential prerequisite

for harmonization within the Community as it cannot be expected for
any one country to change its present requirements without a logical
reason. The Commission needs to give some practical encouragement for
the development of this approach.

REFERENCES

1. Fire Prevention, the FPA journal. Nos 90, 104, 105, 121, 142
Fire Protection Association, London.

2. Jerry Banks, Selected international comparison of fire loss.

1979-1980, Fire Journal, January 1983, N.F.P.A., USA.

3. Fire Statistics, United Kingdom, 1982, Home Office, London.

4. Thinking about fire. Scheme design 2, The Architects Journal,

8 Sept. 1982, London.

5. Fred Stahl et al. Time-based capabilities of occupants to

escape fiees in public buildings: a review of code provisions
and literature, NBSIR 82-2480, April 1982, NBS, Washington

6. Pauls J.L. Improving building design for egress. Journal of

Architectural Education, May 1980.

7. V.M.Predtetschenski & A.I.Milinski, Planning for foot traffic

flow in buildings, Amerind Publishing Co. 1978, New Delhi

8. Ezel Kendik, Determination of the evacuation time pertinent to

the projected area factor in the event of total evacuation of
high rise office buildings. Fire Safety Journal 5, 1983.
 126

SALVAGE OPERATIONS DURING THE INTERVENTION

G. KARRAN, FIFireE
Chief Fire Officer
West Yorkshire Fire Service
United Kingdom

Summary

The Paper will illustrate that to successfully mitigate the

effects of fire in buildings, it is necessary to have a well
defined plan of action which will contain three essential
stages.
These are :-
Stage 1 - Action to be taken by the building occupier as
contingency planning in the event of fire.
Stage 2 - Action to be taken by the Public Fire Service on
arrival and during firefighting activities.
Stage 3 - Action to be taken jointly after the fire by the
Public Fire Service and the building occupier.
Stage 1 will seek to show that by observing simple, but sensible
fire precautions in relation to storage of stock and raw
materials, its distribution within the building and the methods
by which it is handled damage, in the event of fire, will be
reduced. In addition, certain basic building adaptations which
will assist in the second stage are also highlighted.
Stage 2 will demonstrate that to be successful the Public Fire
Service must commence salvage operations on arrival and to a
defined plan, using the minimum of simple equipment, for studies
have shown that failure to take appropriate action at an early
stage negates any subsequent salvage activity taken at a later
stage.
Stage 3 will indicate that if Stages 1 and 2 have been followed,
then considerable mitigation of damage can be achieved and fire-
damaged stock recovered, or essential processes and records
remain available.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. "The main objective of business must be to stay in business".
(1) This is a self-evident truth that requires any person responsible
for maintaining a successful enterprise to do all that is within his
power to minimise loss of whatever type in order to maximise profi-
tability.
It follows that, to achieve this objective, any potentially loss-
causing situation should be identified in advance and steps taken to
reduce the damaging effects of the situation, should it arise.
In contrast, an over concern with remote possibilities and the
expenditure of significant amounts of capital to counter the effects
of these possibilities can equally lead to a reduction in profitability.
 127

1.2. The Value of Salvage :

The damage attendant on a fire is not restricted to the burning
of property. Damage may also be caused by:
i) heat, smoke, steam, fumes, condensation;
ii) water or other extinguishing agents;
iii) debris, dirt and breakages;
iv) the effect of adverse weather conditions on exposed interiors
and their contents;
v) deterioration of stock, plant, machinery, furniture etc. which
is not properly attended to immediately after the incident;
vi) vandalism and pilfering at insecure premises.
The losses attributable to these factors often considerably
exceed those due to the actual fire damage and the differential
appears to be increasing.
1.3. The Aim and Potential of Salvage :
The aim of salvage is to minimise the losses due to a fire and
the operations undertaken to extinguish it, however these losses are
caused. It thus has a considerable economic potential. The financial
benefit derived will depend on the circumstances of each incident -
the salvage work carried out, the nature of the premises and contents
involved, the state of the fire when salvage began, and so on. Studies
have shown, however, that even limited salvage can save a considerable
sum of money. (2)
The amounts saved would depend on a wide range of factors, but
preliminary research would indicate savirs of between 4 1/2% up to 6%
of total fire loss.
1.4. The objective of the three stages of salvage work is to iden-
tify those activities which, if'taken in the right sequence, will be
cost-effective in the event of a fire.
1.5. Stage 1 requires activity by the Building Occupier.
Stage 2 requires activity by the Public Fire Service.
Stage 3 requires joint activity on the part of the Building
Occupier and the Public Fire Service.
2. STAGE 1
2.1. Contingency planning in the event of fire can and should
be undertaken by building occupiers, preferably at the building
design stage.
2.2. These factors include :
i) Floor levels should allow the surface water to drain to outside
doors. There should be no ramps or steps to prevent this, unless
drains are provided,
ii) Consideration should be given to the fitting of sumps or pumps
into basements without drains,
iii) There should be an adequate means of ventilation to clear smoke
from premises,
iv) The fitting of smoke doors, and dividing the building into
compartments,
v) Wall mounted electrical switch gear to be fixed clear of walls
on battens,
vi) Electricity, water, gas and sprinkler control valves to be
readily accessible and the location clearly indicated.
2.3. Even when dealing with existing buildings, many of the
above points can be incorporated.
2.4. Factors directly within the control of the occupier relate
principally to the movement and process of stock and efforts should
be made to keep stock segregated into :
 128

i) Raw materials
ii) Goods in production
iii) Finished products
In the event of a fire this will assist in minimising damage to
the whole of the products and may allow existing orders to be met in
full or in part, or allow production to restart as quickly as
possible.
2.5. Storage of materials and finished products should be on
pallets or similar staging in areas which will allow easy access in
an emergency to remove stock to safety and will hold products above
floor level so that in the event of water entering the area it will
not immediately come into contact with the goods and lead to the
collapse of stacked articles.

3. STAGE 2
3.1. This is the most reactive stage of salvage work and is that
which is principally carried out by the Public Fire Service, although
valuable assistance can be given by building occupiers, if they are
present, in relation to priority, which should be given to goods or
records.
3.2. The objective of the fireman will be to use only that amount
of water which is necessary to extinguish the fire and, in addition,
to make entry into the building in a way which will assist in
reducing damage.
3.3. Once in the building, stock removal, sheeting up with canvas
or PVC sheets, ventilating the premises, sweeping water along floors,
down stairs or into drains, closing doors to reduce smoke damage, and
diverting water through windows at the upper levels by the use of
salvage sheets are the main activities to be undertaken.

Water directed down

Sii de made here stair caso*
Fresh air
=i>
v ifH;; /
^l^Jfeli
FIRE HERE
Sheets suspended from
stanchions to divert water
through window

5tock covered by
salvage sheets
Sheets suspended from
stanchions to divert
water into tray
Drain guard

3.4. Many Public Fire Brigades carry specialised equipment to

assist with salvage work. These items include :
 129

i) Portable electrical generators

ii) Smoke extractor units
iii) Wet/Dry suction cleaners
iv) Deodorizer units
v) General items.
3.5. The extent to which Fire Brigade intervention will be
successful will depend largely upon the pre-training given to the
fireman and the emphasis placed upon salvage by the Fire Brigade
management. In the UK there is a statutory requirement placed upon
Public Fire Brigades to "secure" efficient arrangements for ensuring
that reasonable steps are taken to prevent or mitigate damage to pro-
perty resulting from measures taken in dealing with fires (4).
3.6. The studies referred to earlier (2) showed the importance
of starting salvage work early, preferably at the same time as fire-
fighting commences. The studies also showed that if early salvage
work is not undertaken it is unlikely that later salvage will compen-
sate for the earlier losses.
3.7. In addition to the above points, the use of small jets of
water, or spray jets, is to be encouraged, as is a general attitude
of care on the part of firemen, particularly in relation to domestic
property where articles may possess a high sentimental, albeit a low
financial value.

4. STAGE 3
4.1.Stage 3 is the recovery process and should commence towards
the end of the fire-fighting activity to ensure that unnecessary damage
is not caused by inactivity or lack of forethought.
4.2. Drying Premises :
The actions firemen will have already undertaken should have
protected goods against water damage and removed the bulk of waste
water. Any remaining should now be drained away, e.g. by making
channels through debris or piercing a ceiling with a ceiling hook to
release water trapped there, having first placed a suitable container
below. Drying of the premises will be assisted by ventilation, and
heating plant, if available can also be used. With heating plant,
however, care is necessary. The equipment can in itself be a fire
hazard and in some places, such as seed warehouses, can cause changes
in heat and humidity, leading to serious harm. The effects of any
possible condensation on metal parts should be borne in mind.
4.3. Removing Covers :
Firemen should begin uncovering items they have sheeted over as
soon as conditions allow. First, they should dispose of any water
that may have accumulated in the hollows of the sheets, then lift
the sheets off carefully to avoid damage to any fragile items under-
neath and damage to the sheets from any sharp edges.
4.4. Protecting items from deterioration :
i) Recovery
Firemen should replace in their original locations, any items
they may have moved, especially any taken outside, provided that the
original location is dry and secure. Otherwise they should arrange
alternative cover, perhaps with a waterproof sheet or tarpaulin. They
should check in particular that small, valuable items are not mislaid,
ii) Furniture, fittings, etc.
Wooden furniture should be dried with cloths and drawers and
doors opened to assist drying by air circulation. Water-soaked carpets
 130

should be taken up and left to drain. Light shades should be emptied

of any water they may have collected,
iii) Stock
Where possible, the wet wrappings should be removed from stock
so that the water does not soak through and damage the contents,
iv) Machinery
Machinery is quickly affected by water and atmospheric changes
due to steam, condensation or damp. Surface water should be removed
as soon as possible and parts likely to rust oiled. This has to be
done with care, since different machinery requires different oils
applied in different ways and some machinery parts, such as printing
press rollers, can be damaged by oil. The occupier can best advise
on the right course of action.
4.5. Protection from the weather :
i) Roofs
In addition to covering any item which might have had to be
taken outside, firemen may also have to protect a building and the
goods still within when the roof has been damaged. It may be necess-
ary to move items directly below a hole in the roof, but in any case,
firemen should try to cover the hole if possible,
ii) Windows
Adverse weather can cause damage and inconvenience through
broken windows, skylights, etc. These should also be covered. If at
low level, security covering should be used, e.g. boarding or corru-
gated iron; if at high level, polythene or tarpaulins etc. may be
used.
4.6. Security :
If present, the key-holder will be responsible for the security
of the premises once the fire has been extinguished. If the key-
holder is not by then present, the Fire Brigade officer in charge
will ensure before leaving, that doors and windows are as well
secured as possible. Where there are any problems with security, the
police should be informed and asked to take responsibility.

5. CONCLUSION
5.1. It can be shown that a pro-active response to damage-control
at fires in buildings, both on the part of building occupiers and the
Public Fire Services can achieve worthwhile savings in terms of reduced
losses. (2)
5.2. Equally important are the intangible advantages to a planned
salvage policy. Included amongst these are the maintenance of customers'
orders, either in full or in part, preservation of raw materials, lay-
offs of staff minimised, maintenance of key-records and the continuance
of business initiatives over rivals by a quick return to full produc-
tion.
5.3. The extent of salvage operations may not be related to the
scope of actual fire-fighting; at a very serious fire there may be
little salvage work to to, whilst at a comparatively small fire, the
potential damage by water and smoke could be far greater than the
actual damage by fire.
5.4. Even limited salvage work carried out early in the develop-
ment of a fire may effectively save large financial losses and do
much to relieve the anxiety of owners or occupiers.
 131

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Prof. Peter Drucker "The Practice of Management".
2. Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co. "Cost Effectiveness of Salvage"
Oct. 1976
3. Manual of Firemanship Book 12 Part 4
4. Fire Services Act 1948 - Section 1.1.(e)
 132

SALVAGE AFTER FIRE, CORROSION AND RECONDITIONING OF BUILDINGS

Dr. A. WEISS
Winterthur Versicherungen, Munich

Smmiary

Whenever halogenous plastics, in particular FVC, burn or decompose

in fires, there is a danger that metal sufaces and concrete re-
inforcement materials may corrode. A brief outline of the main
factors affecting corrosion is followed by a description of the ways
in which corrosion and its hazards can be recognized and appraised.
Particular importance attaches to emergency measures which must be
taken as quickly as possible; one of the most effective of these, as
far as large mechanical installations or buildings whose shells
remain largely intact are concerned, is air dehumidification, a
method applied all too seldom hitherto. Metal surfaces can be
effectively cleaned on the basis of analysed chloride deposits and
expert advice on reconditioning. The increasingly important con-
sideration of the repair of electronic and also to some extent
electrical equipment and installations represents a serious challenge
to reconditioning firms.
There is disagreement concerning the reconditioning of reinforced
concrete. This applies to the necessity, scales, method of appli-
cation and effectiveness of the possible processes. Reconditioning
firms should in future monitor the success of their own work, and
their results should be checked by experts. This is the only way of
making absolutely sure that there is no danger of subsequent damage.

When considering the interiors of buildings which are not directly

affected by fire and thus show no signs of heat damage such as flaking
and cracking but are "merely" coated with soot, dust and smoke deposits,
the possibility of further damage should not be discounted. This paper
discusses the corrosion of metal surfaces and damage to concrete re-
inforcement materials caused by corrosive components of smoke deposits,
in particular hydrochloric acid.

These dangers have become virtually universal over the past twenty years,
ever since halogenous plastics, in particular polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
have become widely used for a variety of purposes, i.e. not just for
cable coverings. When PVC carbonizes or burns, hydrogene chloride (HCl)
is given off, and this combines with air humidity of fire-fighting water
to produce hydrochloric acid.

For example, if 100 kg of PVC containing 56 % chlorine is completely

burnt or thermally decomposed, approximately 40 m of hydrogen chloride
is given off, and when this is dissolved in water 200 1 of concentrated
hydrochloric acid (30%) is produced, enough to corrode fairly severely up
to 56 000 m of metal surfaces. Even though in practice the figures
usually fall far short of this maximum, since most of the hydrogen
chloride escapes into the atmosphere with the other fumes or produces
locally heavy chloride deposits, this nonetheless shows that corrosion
caused by PVC can be very time-consuming and costly to repair.
 133

Reference is sometimes made in this connection to the numerous non-

halogenous alternatives to PVC, but the use of the important raw material
sodium chloride inevitably means that the chlorine produced has to be
processed to a mass product such as PVC.

1. When is there a danqer of corrosion ?

The first questions which need to be answered are whether, and to what
extent, chlorous (halogenous) substances are subject to combustion or
carbonization. Ihe first can be very easily and reliably checked by
means of the Beilstein test, whereby the tip of a piece of copper wire is
heated right through (this takes approx. 1 min.), the hot wire then being
placed in contact with the deposit or test substance to be examined, the
test sample adhering to the wire turns the flame into a luminous green or
blue-qreen colour in the presence of halogenous substances (qualitative
test).
Where are corrosive deposits to be found ?
The hot combustion fumes enriched with water vapour, hydrogen chloride and
oxygen (from the atmosphere) are deposited not so much in the immediate
vicinity of the fire as in the more remote colder areas.

On exposed metal surfaces this aqueous layer, under the catalytic influence
of the hydrogen chloride, which is not consumed but is regenerated during
the reaction, produces corrosion by water and oxygen, thus leading to the
decomposition of the metals.

Concrete reinforcement is likely to become corroded when water enriched

with hydrogen chloride and oxygen gradually penetrates to the reinforcement
material and destroys the metal oxide surface designed to provide protec-
tion against corrosion.

Corrosion in likelv to occur on metal surfaces coated with at least

10 /ig chloride/cm . There is general agreement concerning this value.

The situation with regard to reinforced concrete coated with chloride is

different. In this case, factors such as the age and quality of the
concrete (carbonate formation and chloride penetration capacity), the
type and content of the cement (binding capacity of chlorides), the
thickness of the concrete cover, humidity (of the concrete) and the
chloride concentration in depths as far as the reinforcement material
(depth profile) are important considerations when assessing the danger of
corrosion. It is not surprising, therefore, that opinions as to the
tolerable chloride content differ greatly. However, experience to date
suggests that for chloride values up to the limit value given by Richartz
for Portland cement of 0.4 % by weight of chloride (1) in relation to a
cement content of around 15 % (0.06 % by weight of chloride in relation
to the weight of concrete) a danger of corrosion of not unduly aged
reinforced concrete (not subject to carbonate formation) can be safely
excluded. This is also borne out by tests over many years on reinforced
concrete bridges where, despite the influence of pronounced corrosion-
inducing factors such as frequent alternation between humidity (chloride
propagation) and dryness (oxygen diffusion), the periodic use of road
salt and the influence of frost and corrosive atmospheric pollution, even
what have in many cases been substantially higther levels of chloride have
not significantly damaged reinforcement materials (2).
 134

Nonetheless, this limit value of 0.06 % by weight of chloride is applied

in very different ways. Mast German reconditioning consultants still
take the view that it should not be exceeded even in limited areas. Ihey
maintain, indeed, that chloride contamination should if possible be
reduced to the pre-fire level both on and beneath concrete surfaces - a
requirement which is fairly easy to fulfil for metal surfaces. Opposed
to this is the view held mainly by experts at the universities, in the
cement industry and in insurance firms (3 to 6) that despite a partially
higher chloride concentration (e.g. in surface zones at depths of from
0 to 5 mm) no particular reconditioning work is required in most cases
where there is an average of less than 0.06 % by weight of chloride down
as far as the reinforcement material. Furthermore, the chloride content
of these zones is greatly reduced by surface cleaning, which is necessary
in any case.

2. How is incipient corrosion recognized ?

The typical symptom, which often appears only a few hours and not more
than one or two days after a fire, is the uniform rusting of bare metal
surfaces exposed to fume deposits. A comparison with identical metal
surfaces not exposed to such fumes during the fire provides confirmation.

Iron and steel acquire a rust-brown colour, copper and brass turn green,
while zinc and aluminium react by producing white efflorescences (7).

Corrosion of concrete reinforcement materials cannot, however, be detected

visually and must be determined by analysis of drill samples.

3. Immediate steps

Because of the rapid onset of corrosion, in particular on the exposed

metal surfaces of machinery, tools, supplies, semi-finished and finished
goods and on electrical and electronic equipment, immediate salvaging
measures cannot begin too early and should ideally start while the area
affected by fire is still "warm". In Denmark, and to some extent also in
the UK, Sweden and the Netherlands, such measures are successfully
undertaken jointly by the site owners, fire services and insurance firms,
the necessary equipment being provided by the insurance firms, which also
bear the costs incurred (8). This does not apply in the Federal Republic
of Germany. Apart from the fact that no-one bears responsibility for
such tasks, only a few fire services have the necessary equipment such as
ventilation and air extraction equipment, sheet covering, air dehumidifiers
and salvaging equipment. Furthermore, it can take up to three days for
the damage to be reported, which means that in many cases insurance firms
first hear of large-scale fires from television, radio or press reports.
If one adds to this the time which elapses before the consultant and the
person responsible for assessing the damage intervene, and leaving aside
the often amateurish measures taken by the property owner, it frequently
takes a week or more until effective measures begin. By then it is no
longer possible, even with overtime and weekend work, to repair the
damaqe done to metal surfaces by firmly established corrosion. Because
of the need to speed up the processing of insurance claims and in view of
the heavy losses suffered for years by industrial fire insurance firms
(9), industry, public bodies, fire services, fire experts and reconditioning
and insurance firms must cooperate more closely in producing a rapid
"fire damage service".
 135

Two lunediate measures are possible, reqardless of the amount of chloride

deposited on metal surfaces :

The application by spraying of anticorrosion oil, which seals off the

moist layer and inhibits chemical reactions on metal surfaces, consider
ably retards the corrosion process. However, this method has several
drawbacks : it is very labourintensive, and in addition to the cost of
the oil there is the cost of its subsequent removal prior to actual
cleaning, and great care has to be taken to ensure that endangered
areas are completely covered. This is a laborious process when applied
to enclosed machinery (because of afterrunning ventilation) or to
other places which are difficult to reach.

Air dehumidification has none of these drawbacks. Equipment operating

continuously on the recirculating air principle removes humidity from
the air in every part of the room until relative air humidity falls
below 40 %, thus makinq corrosion virtually impossible (10, 11). Using
this techniques, which requires only a few supervisory workers, it is
possible to dehumidify and keep dry for long periods not only stationary
of highly valuable equipment enclosed in polyethylene oovers but also
large sheds (exceeding 100 000 m ). Entire buildings can only be
dehumidified, however, if the shell is either intact or can at least be
temporarily restored without too much trouble (e.g. by covering broken
windows with sheeting. This method also facilitates the removal of
humidity containing chlorides from reinforced concrete.

As long ago as 1976, following a fire at a metal processing works at

Neuhausen near Stuttgart, air dehumidification made it possible to
continue production in a shed coated with condensates from fumes, all
other production facilities having been totally destroyed. A t the same
time the remaining machinery was cleaned (12). A lthough the technique
has been successfully aDplied since then, it has not yet become firmly
established in Germany.

4. Reconditioning of buildings and their contents

4.1. Experts

The "independent" expert on PVC corrosion publicly appointed by the

insurance firm or property owner (several experts may be called in if
there are different firms dealing with buildings, their contents, fire
and loss of production or in contentious cases) examines the extent of
chloride deposition on the basis of preliminary investigations at the
site of the fire and by quantitative analysis of surface and drill probes
in the laboratory (providing a pointbypoint picture of the damage).

A very cautious attitude has been adopted towards the use of quantitative
chloride evaluation at the scene of a fire, especially of the ion
selective electrode technique which has proved its usefulness in recent
years (13, 14). A nd yet a quantitative chloride analysis undertaken
immediately after sampling enables the expert to provide all those
concerned with reliable information without delay on the extent of the
damage and to make recommendations concerning reconditioning. These are
concerned more with the cleaning of the building than with its contents, _
since any deposition of chloride on metal surfaces in excess of 10 g cm
is only of secondary importance in determining the nature of the treatment.
 136

The problem of the varying approaches to the limit value of 0.06 % by

weight of chloride in determining the danger of corrosion and the measures
for reconditioning reinforced concrete has already been discussed under 1.
Discussions under way between experts' representatives and the Verband
der Sachversicherer (VdS), Cologne, are aimed at establishing uniform
criteria, as is the plan drawn up by the VdS which sets out the minimum
requirements for experts' recommendations (15). The plan also includes a
reference to the need for experts to carry out a final check on the
success of reconditioning work : it is impossible to be certain whether
the danger of corrosion and subsequent damage has been eliminated
until chloride analyses have been carried out after the work has been
completed.

4.2. Reconditioning processes

The metal surfaces of equipment which cannot be dismantled are scrubbed

free of rust, passivated and then treated with a preservative. Trans-
portable equipment has been successfully treated by a dipping process
involving a maximum of five stages (cleaning/degreasing, passivation,
rinsing, dewatering and treatment with preservative). A three-stage
(three-dip) process, on which long-term tests have not yet been completed,
may prove to be a speedier and less costly alternative (16).

A number of reconditioning products with very different properties and

applications are available commercially for many metals and alloys (17).
The main types are covered by VdS guidelines drawn up in accordance with
the present state of knowledge (15). The effects of the products which
meet these guidelines are known and can be applied to a variety of
problems and safely disposed of ( important for the environment).

There is no set procedure for the reconditioning of electronic and some

electrical equipment. Success depends more on the quality of the com-
ponents (air and water tightness, insensitivity to solvents) and on the
experience and equipment of the reconditioning firm. Recent years have
witnessed constant improvements in reconditioning in terms of cost and
the speed with which equipment is restored to serviceability (18 to 20).
This has been due in part to the recuperation of very expensive chemicals
and the use of water-based cleansing processes.

Depending on the operational conditions, reinforced concrete with a

protective coating or with a high degree of imperviousness and which is
therefore only superficially damaged may be cleaned mechanically (e.g. by
suction, brushing or sand blasting) or using a wet process (steam jet).
Apart from any supplementary dry processes such as sand blasting, flame
scarfing and chipping, as well as the stripping/concrete injection
process used only in extreme cases, reinforced concrete in danger of
corrosion (see section 1) can be wet-cleaned. Two processes are used for
this : hot high-pressure washing and coating with calcium hydroxide.
They are based on similar principles.

In the hot high-pressure washing process, usually applied two to three

times, water at 70 to 80 C containing a little wetting agent is sprayed
on from bottom to top at a pressure of around 150 bar. Some of the
sub-surface chlorides can be washed out in this way or may be removed
during subsequent drying, which begins at the surface and draws the water
in the concrete pores outwards. Calcium hydroxide coating is applied at
 137

least five times and often up to ten times. During and after application
of the homogeneously mixed lime paste (21), which should preferably be 3
to 7 mm thick, the concrete absorbs the lime water (capillary effect),
thus detaching the chlorides. Wiile the lime dries over the next 12 to
24 hours, the chlorides are drawn out by the lime water and can then be
removed with the surface lime. Attendant chemical processes like the
neutralization of hydrochloric acid do not make any significant difference,
contrary to a view which was still very widely held up until a few years
ago.

An unfortunate side-effect of both processes is that some of the chlorides

cannot be prevented from penetrating further towards the reinforcement
material. Indeed, when frequent lime coatings are applied, the layer
with the greatest chloride content can penetrate as far as the reinforce-
ment material or even further (22). In cases where chlorides penetrate
beyond 3 mm, calcium hydroxide treatment, though described as particularly
advantageous (23), can do more harm than good. Moreover, because of the
highly corrosive effect of the calcium hydroxide layer (there is a danger
of eye injuries and staining on metals like aluminium) and the higter
cost Iten times higher for 10 coatings, making a total of around DM ~
100/m ) , calcium hydroxide treatment is now used far more rarely than
hot high-pressure washing compared with a few years ago. Some specialists
even refuse to apply it.

Tests designed to improve concrete reconditioning (24) suggest a signifi-

cant increase in the effectiveness of both processes if the drying phase
is speeded up by the use of air dehumidifiers, thus increasing the
withdrawal of water containing chloride (possibly also from greater
depths ? ) .

4.3. Reconditioning firms (25)

Since 1981 there has been a significant increase in the number of recon-
ditioning firms in Germany (about 35 firms in 1984, some with several
subsidiaries). Apart from firms and specialists which have been operating
for many years, it is often difficult to assess their competence and
reliability. The expertise of a number of newcomers is very likely
confined to information obtained from experts and/or the manufacturers of
reconditioning products. Ihis is an important reason for the hesitancy
in engaging recently established firms.

Hardly any firms are at present able to check the quality of their own
work and thus the effectiveness of different reconditioning processes,
e.g. to determine the concentrations and reaction times of chemicals.
Firms would therefore be well advised not only to acquire suitable
measuring equipment - a substitute, as it were, for technical know-how-
but also to train personnel to carry out control measurements and increase
their expertise on the basis of regular measurements. Viiile a fundamental
grasp of chemistry is desirable, it is not essential for carrying out
control measurements at points already determined by experts. The VdS
will soon be holding a two-day training course.

In cases of large-scale damage it is difficult to estimate reconditioning

costs and to make usable cost comparisons on the basis of agreed rates
for personnel and equipment. Moreover, the question of whether the cost
of speeding up reconditioning by working expensive extra shifts or
 138

p u t t i n g off cleaning u n t i l t h e f i r m ' s next holidays can be recoupe by

shortening t h e period when production i s h a l t e d can only be r e l i a b l y
answered with t h e h e l p of a proper c o s t a n a l y s i s . Reconditioning firms
should t h e r e f o r e prove t h e i r competence by submitting, in agreement with
p r o p e r t y owners and i n s u r e r s , binding c o s t e s t i m a t e s within 24 hours.
This would be p o s s i b l e i n n o s t c a s e s , except in t h e case of l a r g e i n s t a l
l a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g considerable assembly work o r of enclosed equipment
where t h e e x t e n t of damage cannot be a s s e s s e d . The e x p e r t ' s recommen
d a t i o n s should, however, be a v a i l a b l e , along with d e t a i l s of t h e work t o
be done and t h e time required for i t s completion, before t h e work can be
c o s t e d . This has a l r e a d y proved a s a t i s f a c t o r y arrangement in a number
of c a s e s .

While t h e removal of corrosion and t h e danger of corrosion following t h e

combustion o r carbonization of halogenous substances (PVC) i s based on
many y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e , and although t e c h n i c a l l y acceptable s o l u t i o n s
have been found, r e c o n d i t i o n i n g methods could be improved by c l o s e r
cooperation between a l l those concerned.

REFERENCES

(1) R i c h a r t z , W.: Die Bindung von C h l o r i d b e i d e r Zementhr

t u n g . I n : ZementKalkGips 22 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , H. 10, S. 4 4 7 4 5 6 .
(2) V a s s i e , P . R . : The i n f l u e n c e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o r r o s i o n on
b r i d g e d u r a b i l i t y . I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e on c o r r o s i o n
of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n , London, 1983.
(3) S c h i e l , P . : K o r r o s i o n d e r Bewehrung i n S t a h l b e t o n . I n :
S o n d e r h e f t B a u t e n s c h u t z und B a u s a n i e r u n g , 1983, S. 6 4 7 1 .
(4) R e c h b e r g e r , P . : Mechanismen d e r K o r r o s i o n von S t a h l i n
B e t o n . I n : M i t t e i l u n g e n a u s dem F o r s c h u n g s i n s t i t u t d e s
Vereins der s t e r r e i c h i s c h e n Zementfabrikanten. Chlorid
k o r r o s i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l e s Kolloquium, Wien, 1983,
H. 3 6 , S. 6 5 7 8 .
(5) Hupfeld, J.: Sanierungsmethoden bei Korrosionsschden
Gebudesanierung. 10. BrandschutzSeminar des Verbandes
der Sachversicherer e.V. (VdS), Kln, 1983.
(6) Grupp, H.; Pentenrieder, R. : Korrosionsfolgeschden durch
Chlorwasserstoffhaltige Brandgase, Probenahme und Beur
teilungskriterien fr Gebude und Einrichtung. In: Der
Maschinenschaden 57 (1984), H. 2, S. 5256.
(7) Grupp, .; Wei, .: Erstmanahmen zur Sanierung von Kor
rosionsschden nach Kunststoffbranden. Merkblatt ABS
5.3.1.1 des Allianz Brandschutz Service, 1980.
(8) Johansson, 0.: Sofortmanahmen zur Schadenminderung bei
und nach Brnden. 10. BrandschutzSeminar des Verbandes
der Sachversicherer e.V. (VdS), Kln, 1983.
(9) Kutz, G.: Zur Situation des industriellen FeuerGeschfts
in Deutschland. In: Versicherungswirtschaft 39 (1984),
H. 15, S. 966975.
(10) Vernon, W.H.J.: Study of atmospheric corrosion of metals.
Part III. Transcriptions Faraday Society 31 (1935),
S. 1678 1700.
 139

(11) Grupp, H.: Korrosionsangriff chlorwasserstoffhaltiger

Brandgase und dessen Beeinflussung durch die Luftfeuch
tigkeit. In: Der Maschinenschaden 48 (1975), H. 4,
S. 119124.
(12) Steger, H.: Erfolgreiche Schadenminderung nach einem
Brand. In: Versicherungswirtschaft 32 (1977), H. 4,
S. 250254.
(13) Bernhardt, H.: Chloridbestimmung nach PVCBrnden mit
ionenselektiven Elektroden. In: Schadenprisma 10 (1981),
H. 3, S. 5156.
(14) Wei, .: Unverffentlichte Meprotokolle 19821984.
(15) Die Liste mit Mindestanforderungen an Gutachten sowie
die neuen Richtlinien fr Korrosionsschutzmittel und
Sanierungschemikalien liegen im Dez. 1984 beim VdS vor.
(16) Mohr, .: Wirtschaftliche berlegungen zur Sanierung
chlorwasserstoffgeschdigter Eisenwerkstoffe. In: Scha
denprisma 11 (1982), H. 2, S. 3132.
(17) Grupp, .: Halogenhaltige Kunststoffe und ihre Folge
schden. Teil 1 : Brandverhalten halogenhaltiger Kunst
stoffe, Folgeschden und Erstmanahmen. In: Der Maschi
nenschaden 53 (1980), H. 1, S. 2028.
(18) Tondok, W.: Sanierung elektronischer Anlagen Mglich
keiten und Grenzen. In: Der Maschinenschaden 54 (1981),
H. 1, S. 2830.
(19) Behrens, F.K.; Renz, H.: Neue Wege zur Sanierung be
schdigter elektronischer Anlagen. In: Der Maschinen
schaden 54 (1981), H. 3, S. 7786.
(20) Tondok, W.; Pentenrieder, R. : Schadensanierung in der
Elektronik. In: Der Maschinenschaden 57 (1984), H. 1,
S. 16.
(21) Lowicki, Ch.: Mitteilung bei einem Kolloquium der Sach
verstndigen und Versicherer im Institut fr Schaden
forschung und Schadenverhtung (IfS) , Kiel, 19433.
(22) Schiel, P.: Manahmen bei Chloridschden PVCBrand
gase. In: Mitteilungen aus dem Forschungsinstitut des
Vereins der sterreichischen Zementfabrikanten. Chlorid
korrosion Internationales Kolloquium, Wien, 1983,
H. 36, S. 131143.
(23) Lowicki Ch.; Schuh, R.; Reiter, C ; Spalke, F.: Die
Kalksanierung. Verfahren zur Sanierung chlorwasserstoff
gasbeaufschlagter StahlbetonElemente. In: Schadenprisma
6 (1977), H. 3, S. 3741.
(24) Oehme, .; Bernhardt, H.: Weiterentwicklung der Extrak
tionssanierung. In: Schadenprisma 11 (1982), H. 2,
S. 2631.
(25) Die Liste der Sanierungsfirmen, die Referenzen vorlegten,
und der ffentlich bestellten Sachverstndigen fr
Schden nach Brnden mit PVC ist beim VdS, Technisches
Referat 4, gegen Schutzgebhr erhltlich.
 140

INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION

DR. EVERT C. WESSELS

Director TBBS - Technical Bureau for Loss Prevention,
Baarn, The Netherlands.

Summary

The operation of insurance is not always clear for outsiders.

Therefore, the Interest of fire-insurance in fire-protection is
described in an effort to focus on the specific position of the
insurance-industry within the total structure of authorities,
organisations, institutions and citizens concerned with fires in
buildings.
Furthermore, in a first approach to an understanding of costs and
benefits of fire protection, attention is directed to the
relationship between costs of fire protection measures, their
effects on risk-improvement and fire insurance rates. The
conclusion is that fire protection methods may never be fully
financed out of savings on insurance-premiums.

1. THE OPERATION OF INSURANCE

1.1 Insurer sells a product

There appears to be some misunderstanding about the actual
purposes and .duties of insurers with regard to the promotion or - as
it sometimes might be felt - the neglect of fire prevention consider-
ations. First it has to be made clear, that the insurance-industry
primarily sells a product. This product is financial security and a
certain guarantee of continuity for the Insured. Of course, the in-
surer will have to see to it that his operations remain financially
healthy; in this aspect insurance behaves similar to all other endea-
vours in our economic system. This fact implies that the Insurer must
sell his product at an economically acceptable price. This price is
influenced by levels of prevention of loss.
Furthermore - also quite similar to other branches in a modern
society - the insurer feels an increasing responsibility to contribute
to the 'welfare' of the population.
A significant difference with most manufacturing and trading comp-
anies is that an insurance company never knows the exact cost of its
product at the moment that the price has to be set: only after termin-
ation of an insurance contract does the insurer know if he has made a
profit or a loss. Therefore, even more than in most other branches, he
has to anticipate: he has to learn about and foresee developments,
that might Influence the loss-ratio in order to estimate a reasonable
selling price for his services. If his estimation Is too low, he loses
money and if he estimates too high he loses business when the compet-
ition can operate profitably on a lower price-level.
 141

1.2 The product Is spreading the risk

The goal of the insurance-industry as a whole is to spread the
accumulated risk of many individual insureds. A specific insurer can
only participate in this process if he himself also has contracts with
large numbers of insureds: he then becomes less vulnerable to individ-
ual disasters. Fire prevention-standards and -regulations of a general
nature influence the general risk-level and - consequently the over-
all probability of loss. This probability - of course - is introduced
by the insurer in his calculations. The effect of sound standards and
regulations in a large number of risks is only significant if they are
being accepted and applied on a national - and preferably on an inter-
national - scale. Therefore, the insurer is very willing to cooperate
in establishing unity of opinion: it increases the homogeneity of his
portfolio, which so becomes better suited for an exact analytical
approach.

1.3 Insurer and risk

A number of economic and political uncertainties - such as inflat-
ion and taxes - are included In the systems that insurers apply to
calculate risks and liabilities. Their professional experience helps
Insurers in evaluating these uncertainties as accurately as possible
under the circumstances. There are also technical and societal un-
certainties that have their bearing on risks and liabilities, such as
the growth of arson. As far as the Influence of these uncertainties on
actual losses becomes better quantifiable by standardisation and in-
ternational harmonisation of (government-)management, the insurer is -
of course - highly Interested in such unification.
As a member of society the insurer also clearly feels it to be
his duty to contribute his loss-experience and risk-knowledge to an
improvement of the general loss-prevention-level. Both in his own
interest and in the general interest he will gladly support any initi-
ative to identify and integrate levels of losses by fire. The aim of
the insurer is to try to provide cover for all risks inherent to
modern society, but he does not consider himself to be part of a law-
enforcement or standard-controlling system. He is - of course - very
willing to include set levels of prevention in his operations as far
as they influence the costprice of his product.

1.4 Risk improvement and rate

In an earlier period a risk was rated according to its weight and
size and a corresponding premium-level was established. Having two
parameters at his disposition: risk versus rate, an insurer could
operate handsomely and sound. Now, political, social and economic
developments set limits to one variable - rates - so he must control
the other one - risk - much more strictly. Also today, the insurer -
in his relations with his individual insureds - increasingly considers
it his duty to deliver more than financial cover only. He regards
loss- prevention-recommendations to form an important part of his
service and of his position in a competitive market.
So, in this modern approach, on the one hand the insurer has to
be familiar with government-requirements that are applicable, and, on
the other hand, he is much helped by a unanimous opinion about 'basic
protection' when he wants to formulate additional recommendations to
offer his insureds certain financial advantages.
 142

1.5 Risk improvement and insurability

However, events - in order to be insurable - must be unforesee-
able at the moment of concluding the policy-contract. Increasing ex-
posure may render some risk-categories practically uninsurable when
the probability of loss increases to an unacceptable high level. In
such a situation risk improvement may be a solution to continue to
provide the insured with cover for his risks that would be impossible
to underwrite without special preventive provisions. It is obvious,
that rates (or premium reductions) play a very limited role in such
cases. Risk improvement then only serves to Introduce an acceptable
level of uncertainty in the materialising of loss, so the underwriter
can operate under his 'law of large numbers' again.

1.6 International considerations

Next to the fact that the insurer handles large numbers of risks
one must consider that insurers operate increasingly on an internat-
ional level. There are two developments that make the modern insurer
Interested in international criteria for fire prevention. First, his
insureds become more internationally oriented, and, second, the
national insurance-markets cross more and more borders, both in direct
insurance and through reinsurance. It is of importance that fire
prevention-criteria become more homogeneous all over Europe. The in-
surer bases his operations on existing risk-levels and the more diffe-
rences exist in these levels between countries, the more complicated -
and costly - his operations become. Insurers feel that one country is
usually too small to develop complete knowledge in all aspects of loss
prevention. Exchange of information and experience therefore becomes
very important. Within C.E.A. (Comit Europen des Assurances) a tech-
nical working-group has been formed to study common aspects of fire
prevention in international sub-committees. Subjects reported on in-
clude: statistics, structural protection, alarm systems, portable and
fixed extinguishment-installations, etc.

2. RISKIMPROVEMENT, PREMIUMS AND COSTS

2.1 Two significant conclusions

Of course, rates and premiums for fire insurance play an import-
ant part in economic considerations of fire safety. It is often as-
sumed, that there should be a direct mathematical relationship between
the costs and effects of riskimprovement and rebates on the insurance-
premiums. However, this is usually not correct as is shown in the
calculatory examples below. Although every measure to lower the fire
risk should be and is taken into account in the rate and premium-set-
ting of fire insurers, two very significant conclusions can be drawn
from the examples given:

a. Because of the nature of the insurance operation an Invest-

ment in fire protection measures can never be fully financed out of
savings on the premium. This could only be so, if and when a very low
investment in fire protection would yield a very large protective
effect. However, such measures are almost always already incorporated
in the official building regulations. Also, a decrease in the
firethreat to life cannot be compensated for in the premiums, as
 143

usually this risk Is not part of the normal cover, that Is provided In
the fire Insurance contract. The Insured, however, and the authorit
ies must Indeed be concerned with the protection of life but the
cost of such measures that are designed for lifesafety should not and
cannot be borne by insurers. They can only offer financial assistance
against the costs of measures that (also) affect the actual burning
costs.

b. There is always a certain amount of monetary loss potential

for the Insured that cannot be and is not included in the insurance
cover. Premium rebates can again only reflect that part of risk
Improvement through fire protection, that is subject of the Insurance
contract. The costs of reducing the incidence of uncovered consequent
ial and emotional losses must be borne fully by the insured himself,
or by society.

2.2 The relationship between costs of fire protection measures, their

effects on risk Improvement and fire insurance premiums.

a. GENERAL

For a correct appreciation of the premiumcalculation in fire

insurance It is useful to observe the formula:

+ IR BC + OC + RF + TR + IR, where

" premium (individual premium for a specific risk or total

premium for a class of similar risks);
IR investment results: the premium is collected at the starting
date of the policy, losses are paid during the policyperiod
and insurers Invest the premiumfunds;
BC burning costs, being the actual (expected) monetary loss In
the risk or class of risks;
OC operating costs for insurers: the costs of spreading the
risks;
RF reserve funds: premiumfunds must be reserved, partly to pay
for losses already Incurred, but not yet paid out (BC RF:
burning costs reserve funds), partly for (expected) losses
in the future (PRF: premium reserve funds);
TR technical results: the profit (or loss) on the insurance
operation;
IR + TR total result R
+ IR turnover
RF PRF + BCRF;
OC CC + IC;
CC commission costs: payments to brokers, etc. to compensate for
their acquisition, consultation and Inspection services;
IC Internal costs: the office and inspectioncosts of insurers
themselves.

b. SPE
C IFI
C

To demonstrate the mutual relation between the monetary sums in

the formula an example has been drafted, based on official figures
taken from an annual report of The Netherlands' Insurers Association.
 144

These figures relate to the total nonlife insurance market in The

Netherlands, including fire, health, motor, etc. insurance. The
effects of reinsurance have been eliminated, and the following equat
ion can then be given in millions of Dutch guilders :

6.600 (P) + 535 (IR) = 4.267 (BC) + 850 (CC) + 1.075 (IC ) + 284 (PRF) +
452 (BCRF) 328 (TR) + 535 (IR).

or: 100 + 8 65 + 29 (13 + 16) + 11 (4 + 7) + 3 (5 + 8) MU

IR B
C C
O RF R,
where MU stands for any 'monetary unit'.

c. INFLUEN
C E OR PREVENTION ON PREMIUM

If it is assumed, that a certain fire protection measure lowers

the burning costs (BC ) with 20% to 52 the turnover (P + IR), the
commission costs (C C ) and the premium reserve funds (PRF) will be
lowered by a factor x. The internal costs (IC ) will be somewhat high
er, because of the need to control and inspect the fire protection
measure: an increase of IC might for instance be 6%. If the burning
costs reserve funds (BC RF) are assumed to remain the same and if the
insurer wants to maintain his total result, the following equation
results :

100.x + 8.x = 52 + 13.x + 17 + 4.x + 7 + 3; it follows that is

+ 0,87 and this brings the equation to:

86 + 7 = 52 + 28 + 10 + 3, where
the insured has been given the benefit of the difference in rounding
off.

So, if BC goes from 65 to 52 (20% risk Improvement), goes from 100

to 86 (14% rebate). It is obvious, that only a part (70%) of the risk
improvement can be returned to the insured in premiumsavings.

If we assume a risk improvement of 40% (instead of 20% in the example

above), the equation becomes:

72,5 + 5,8 = 39 + 26,4 + 9,9 + 3.

Here goes from 100 to 72,5 (27,5% rebate) for a risk improvement of
40%; only 60% of the risk improvement shows up in the lower premium.

In the very theoretical case, that the fire hazard is completely

eliminated, the rebate can only be 65%; of course this is an irreal
istlc situation, as insurance has lost his meaning long before this
'absolute safety level'.

d. C OST OF PREVENTION AND BENEFITS TO THE INSURED

In order to construct a calculationmodel for the evaluation of

the cost/benefItaspects of active fire protection systems, let it be
assumed that there are 1000 identical buildings, each valued at 1000
MU. The total value of this class of buildings is then one million MU
(and this should also be the insured value).
 145

Furthermore, It is assumed that in a given year the following

losses occur:

1 total loss 1000 MU

4 losses of 12 1/2% 500 MU
20 losses of 5 1000 MU

25 losses 2500 MU; the average loss 100 MU.

10
The total premium should be: 2500 MU - 3846 MU; the premium
65
per building is then 3,846 MU 3,85 o/oo.

The insured wants to invest IX of the buildingvalue in a fire

protection system: this would be an investment of 10 MU; the annual
cost for the insured would be: depreciation (10%) 1 MU plus interest
(1/2 10%) 0,5 MU, total 1.5 MU.

The fire protection system might yield a 203! or 40% reduction in

the losshazard. The Individual risk per building is equal to the
total burning costs divided by the number of buildings.

The following schedule results:

Risk improvement Premium Cost Risk

0 % 3,85 0 2,5
20 % 3,31 1,5 2,0
40 % 2,79 1,5 1,5

If decisions about fire protection were only to be based on the

premium, cost and riskrelation, these figures imply, that there
would be very little incentive to take any measures. However, it
should be remembered, that considerations of life safety are
eliminated from this approach, while in 'real life' they certainly are
a very important factor.

However, apart from life safety, there is one more lossaspect

that is usually not or insufficiently taken into account in this type
of calculation. The monetary value of direct losses can usually be
insured and so can consequential losses, such as a decrease in earn
ings, reconstitution of files, etc. There are also indirect losses,
both material and Immaterial, that are associated with any fire and
that are not subject to insurancecover. Estimates of these indirect
losses have never been very accurate, but recent publications on the
problem cite an average all over Europe of indirect losses to be
50% of the direct losses. If this factor is taken into account a dif
ferent picture emerges:
 146

Risk improvement 0 X 20 40 %
Premium 3,85 3,31 2,79
Cost of protection 0 1,50 1,50
Indirect loss 1,25 1,00 0,75

Total costs 5,10 5,81 5,04

These figures show, that the investment does pay off in real
money if the risk improvement would be 40%. Again, life safety aspects
are not included but they will certainly be influenced very favourably
by the installation of the fire protection system.

Note: These calculations are only meant as numerical examples of

the main considerations, that should play a part in any decision about
fire protection. Most figures assumed here can be replaced by practic
al data and analogous conclusions can be drawn. The largest problem,
of course, is still the estimation of the 'loss potential' of a class
of buildings. Statistics on loss results in sprinklered and un
sprinklered buildings, in premises equiped or not equiped with fire
detection installations, etc., are being compiled by the insurance and
the manufacturing industry. These statistics could very well provide
factual support to future calculationmodels.
 147

LEGISLATION AND CONTROL

CANOVAN

HOME OFFICE: FIRE DEPARTMENT

Summary

The paper outlines some of the legislative and other measures

currently being taken in European countries to control fire safety
in occupied buildings. A distinction is drawn between the approach
taken towards public buildings, where there is a strong element of
legislative control designed to ensure adequate standards of fire
safety, and that taken towards private dwellings in single occupation
where the responsibility for fire safety is considered to rest with
the occupants, whose awareness of fire hazards and how to avoid them
is assisted by educational and publicity programmes. A n outline
is also given of some new fire safety legislation being developed in
Europe, with particular reference to proposals currently under
consideration in Great Britain for a modified system of fire
precautions control designed to place a greater responsibility for
fire safety on the owners and occupiers of buildings to which the
public has access, with fire authorities acting in an advisory and
policing capacity. A summary is also given of the results of an
exercise which sought to compare the costs of enforcement of the
requirements of the current system in Great Britain with those of
compliance.

Introduction
I have decided to approach this rather complex topic by dividing this
paper into two main sections. In the first section I shall outline some
of the legislative and other measures currently being taken in various
European countries to control fire safety in occupied and, in some cases,
new public buildings and private dwellings; and in the second section I
shall describe the new thinking on fire precautions control that has been
developing in Great Britain against a background of reviews of fire
policy and legislation, which included a study of the relative costs of
enforcement and of compliance with the requirements of the existing
system. I shall also refer in the second section to some of the legis
lative revisions being undertaken elsewhere in Europe. In a paper of
this length I could not hope to provide a detailed analysis of the current
and proposed measures of each member state, nor do I have all the
information available. Instead I shall seek to highlight some of the
major features and common aspects of these measures. Constraints on
length have also persuaded me that it would be advisable to restrict the
scope of the paper principally to measures taken in respect of occupied
buildings, although there are some brief references in the second section
to recent and forthcoming legislative provisions dealing with the design
and contruction of new buildings.

1. SECTION ONE THE CURRENT POSITION

Fire precautions controls in occupied public buildings
1.1 The enforcement under law of fire precautions in occupied public
 148

buildings varies from one European country to another. In Germany, for

example, buildings considered to have a serious risk of fire or
explosion are inspected by the fire brigade, who advise as to how the
dangers may be minimised. Such advice can be enforced by order of the
local building authority. In France, high-rise buildings and places of
public assembly are visited and checked at either one, two or three
yearly intervals, depending on the degree of risk. In Italy the
National Corps of Firemen inspects a wide range of buildings and issues
certificates for the use to which the building is to be put. The onus
for obtaining and renewing certificates rests with the person responsible
for the premises and, in many cases, the certificate is a prerequisite to
the obtaining of a licence to carry out the activity in question. Fire
authorities in Denmark have regulations covering hotels, places of public
assembly, hospitals, homes for the elderly and similar premises. Tech-
nical regulations are also used in Denmark to control industrial premises
using flammable liquids and gases.
1.2 In Great Britain we too exercise control over fire precautions
in occupied buildings according to the use to which the building is put.
The main instrument of control is the Fire Precautions Act 1971, which
requires the owners or occupiers of buildings put to a use designated
by the Secretary of State (currently most hotels, boarding houses,
factories, offices, shops and railway premises) to apply for a fire cert-
ificate from the local fire authority. On receiving the application,
the fire authority has a duty to carry out an inspection of the premises
and to issue a fire certificate if it is satisfied that the means of
escape and related fire precautions are of a satisfactory standard. The
fire certificate must specify the use of the premises which the certifi-
cate covers and a variety of details relating to the means of escape, the
means for fighting fire by the occupants of the building and the means
for giving warning in the event of fire. It may also be used to impose
other requirements relating to fire precautions, including requirements
for the training of staff and the keeping of records. The technical
standards to which fire authorities have regard in considering means of
escape and related fire precautions in designated premises are laid
down in published government guides. If, on inspecting the premises, the
fire authority is not satisfied with the fire precautions, it is required
to serve a notice on the applicant specifying the measures which must be
taken to bring the premises up to the necessary standard. The Act imposes
a continuing obligation on the occupier to meet the requirements of the
fire certificate and to notify the fire authority of any material change
in the premises.
1.3 Other types of public building, for example places of public
entertainment, private nursing and residential care homes, are not
currently subject to the fire certification provisions of the Act.
Instead they are controlled by licence or registration, with the fire
authority being called upon to inspect premises and advise the licensing
or registration authority as to the adequacy of the fire precautions.

Fire precautions in private dwellings

1.4 In contrast to the approach taken towards occupied public buildings,
the view seems to be taken in some countries that legislation is an
inappropriate method of controlling fire safety in private dwellings in
single occupation, on the grounds that the occupants of such dwellings
are in a position to secure their own safety from fire. In Great
Britain such dwellings are specifically excluded from the controls
exercisable under the Fire Precautions Act 1971, although there is a
 149

certain amount of consumer protection legislation which is designed to

improve the fire safety of the domestic environment for example controls
over the ignitability of upholstered furniture offered for sale. However,
a different attitude is taken in Great Britain towards private dwellings
in multiple occupation. Here we have traditionally taken the view that,
because the actions of one occupier may put another at risk, it is
justifiable to apply statutory measures designed to ensure that satisfact-
ory means of escape are provided in case of fire. Controls on fire
safety in houses in multiple occupation are exercised in Great Britain
under national housing legislation, which gives local housing authorities
powers to require the provision of satisfactory means of escape from fire
in houses in multiple occupation and in the case of the larger houses of
this type, imposes a duty on the authorities to exercise these powers.
1.5 Although legislative controls over fire safety in single
private dwellings may be limited, European governments noretheless attach
a high priority to fire safety in the home. We are particularly conscious
that the majority of fires and casualties in occupied buildings in Great
Britain occur in just such dwellings, and the main way in which our Gov-
ernment, and others in Europe, seek to reduce fires and casualties in
the home is through programmes of fire prevention publicity and education.
These are designed to improve public awareness of fire hazards and ways of
avoiding them, and to give guidance on action which can be taken in an
emergency. However very few, if any, European countries are able to
spend the sums of money necessary to run continuing national campaigns.
In Great Britain, as no doubt in other countries, we concentrate our
limited resources on forms of publicity which do not require payment for
advertising time or space, including television "filler" films (which
are shown between programmes} broadcast interviews and editorial coverage
in the national and local press. The Government also produces publicity
materials which are distributed free of charge to Fire Brigades in Great
Britain including posters, booklets and leaflets. These materials are
used in a variety of ways by brigades, depending on local needs.
Exhibitions, displays and house-to-house campaigns are frequently
undertaken, and more recently many brigades have introduced visiting
schemes for the elderly in an effort to protect this vulnerable proportion
of the community from the hazards of fire in their homes.
1.6 Another method of improving public fire prevention awareness
favoured in varying degrees by a number of European countries is the
teaching of children in school. In Great Britain we have produced
various educational aids for schools, including a set of materials
prepared specifically for infants and another for the 8-11 age group.
Efforts have also been made, in collaboration with an educational publish-
ing company, to produce materials which enable fire prevention to be
integrated into the teaching of normal curriculum subjects, rather than
being taught as a separate subject. An interesting approach, which I
understand is favoured in France, is the arranging of a series of visits
to fire stations by children in the 5-7 age group, who are encouraged to
dress up as firemen and to take part in various activities, including the
extinguishing of small fires; the idea being that children are particu-
larly receptive at this young age, and will pass on to their families the
fire safety lessons learned during their fire station visits. I think
there can be little doubt that if practical, common-sense precautions
against fire can be taught to children at as an early an age as possible,
and repeated in some form throughout the educational years, we may in the
long term be able to create a real sense of responsibility in the public
about the importance of fire precautions, not only in the home, but also
 150

in the workplace and at leisure.

1.7 In Great Britain we have learned, as I am sure others have,
that unless the pressure is maintained, the beneficial effects of publi-
city and education gradually die away until we are back to the original
level of fires and casualties. The social attitude towards fires,
especially if they result from carelessness or negligence, varies
considerably within Europe. In Switzerland, and Germany for example,
the causing of fires by carelessness or negligence can be a civil
offence punishable by a fine. Over the years therefore, an awareness
has grown up in these countries that it is wrong and an offence to have
a fire at all.
1.8 As a tail-piece to this part of the paper, I think it might be
of interest to mention a study of fire precautions in European countries
undertaken by a North American Insurance Association some years ago.
This brief study, although marred by several errors of fact and other
inaccuracies, is interesting in that it concluded that the level of
consciousness of the danger of fire among the people of Western Europe
and Scandinavia was very much higher than that among people in North
America and that this was a major factor in explaning why fires and
casualties from fires were much more numerous in North America than in
Europe. Ihe study advanced the view that the level of fire consciousness
in Europe was comparatively high because most if not all European cities
had been in existence for at least one thousand years/at some time in the
course of their long history had been severely damaged at least once by
fire. Thus a high level of awareness of the destructive force of fire
was deeply embedded in the European folk-memory. As a complete explan-
ation this conclusion is perhaps over simplistic but I am sure it contains
some truth. There is a comparatively high level of awareness of the
dangers of fire among the peoples of Europe. We know that such awareness
is the major factor in preventing the outbreak of many types of fires
particularly in the home. We believe that the efforts currently made in
European countries to deepen and spread the awareness of the dangers of
fire in the minds of our countrymen and women are of the greatest value
and represent a commendable use of resources.

2. SECTION TWO - THE WAY AHEAD

2.1 So much for the legislative and other measures currently used to
control fire safety standards in occupied buildings. But what of the
future? It is understood that a number of European countries are in the
course of revising or replacing their legislation concerned with the
design and construction of new buildings and with the protection of life
in existing ones. The Netherlands, for example, are introducing a new
fire law which will ensure that all municipalities will have fire safety
bye-laws in accordance with a model published by the Union of Dutch
Municipalities. France is preparing new improved safety regulations in
public buildings using mathematical models and computers; and I under-
stand that Belgium is actively revising its fire regulations. Italy has
recently extended the scope of its fire prevention legislation to cover
the safeguarding of material goods as well as people and buildings.
Denmark has completely revised its building regulations and in Great
Britain we too are making considerable changes in the area of building
control. Recently enacted legislation covering England and Wales
provides for a.new system of private certification of compliance with
the building regulations as an optional alternative to the present system
of local authority control. Private certification can only be undertaken
by suitably qualified authorised inspectors. In parallel with this, we
 151

are recasting our specific and technical building regulations into a few
simple functional regulations backed up by written guidance documents. It
is intended that this new building control system will come into effect
early in 1985.

Great Britain's Reviews of Fire Precautions Legislation and proposals for

the future
2.2 Earlier in this paper I outlined briefly the fire certification
procedures of Great Britain's Fire Precautions Act 1971,through which
control is exercised over fire safety in occupied buildings put to a
designated use. The Act has not been without its critics, both in the
fire service and in the wider community, and its controls were also
criticised in the Home Office's own Review of Fire Policy, published in
1980, a comprehensive study of fire policy and of the deployment of
resources to combat fire (1). Part of the Review was devoted to an
analysis and comparison of the costs involved in the enforcement of the
1971 Act (both those incurred by fire authorities and those incurred by
government) with those involved in compliance (ie the costs incurred by
the owners or occupiers of designated premises in meeting certification
standards). On the basis of a study of fire brigade activities in Great
Britain carried out in 1976/77, the authors of the Review concluded
that certification work in relation to hotels, boarding houses, factories,
offices and shops accounted for over half the time of fire prevention
officers at an annual cost of 13-3 million. To this had to be added the
cost of certification work undertaken by operational firemen, which was
estimated to be about 700,000. The total amount of fire service
expenditure attributed to the enforcement of the Act was therefore
estimated to be 14 million. The costs incurred by Government Depart-
ments in the administration, monitoring and enforcement of the Act were
estimated at that time to be of the order of 250,000 at 1977/78 prices.
2.3 The authors of the Review had no reliable way of measuring
compliance costs (which fall mainly upon the private sector), so a special
exercise was undertaken in one fire brigade area in the North of England
between 1976 and 1977. This involved the examination of plans drawn up by
the brigade incorporating fire protection requirements, with a view to
calculating the costs of structural and non-structural requirements. The
exercise was far from straightforward, involving subjective judgements
being made on a number of matters, and the average cost figures obtained
from the exercise must be viewed with caution. Moreover, certain
compliance costs (such as the provision of fire doors) are not reincurred
annually, whereas others (such as the maintenance of fie alarms and
extinguishers) are. Nevertheless, and bearing these reservations in mind,
the results of the exercise, scaled up on a national basis, appear to
show that the cost of complying with the fire certification requirements
of the Act amounted to some 45 million a year at 1977/78 prices for
factories, offices, shops and railway premises, and some 25 million a
year for hotels and boarding houses.
2.4 Thus compliance costs were estimated to have been at an annual
rate of some 70 million at 1977/78 prices. The figure for enforcement
costs, uprated to the same price basis amounted to over 16 million. At
present day prices, compliance costs would be around 134 million and the
costs of administration and enforcement would amount to about 32 million.
Although there is evidence to suggest that the cost figures produced by the
Review are not fully reliable and that the position has changed since
1977 and that compliance costs have not continued at the 1977 level, the
Review attempted to explore costs which had never before been estimated
 152

in the United Kingdom or, as far as is known, in any other country.

Ihe authors of the Review went on to examine the effectiveness of the
1971 Act, and concluded that it was an inflexible and extravagant
instrument. On the basis of the costing studies they also considered
that enforcement costs comprised too high a percentage of compliance
costs. Ihey argued that a modified system of controls was needed which
would enable fire authorities to identify fire hazards and seek to raise
fire safety standards in higher risk premises without their needing to
devote equivalent attention to low-risk premises.
2.5 But perhaps the most detailed and radical critique of the Act
has cerne from a Sub-Committee which includes representatives of central and
local government and the fire service, and which was set up to monitor
the Act. In 1982 the Sub-Committee produced a report which summarised the
outcome of a comprehensive review of the Act, identified the requirements
for a new system of fire precautions control, and put forward detailed
proposals for such a system. Briefly, the Sub-Committee took the view
that the certification procedures of the Act involved an inefficient use
of fire brigade resources; and that consideration should be given to a
modified system which would provide the requisite degree of protection to
those classes of occupancy to which the Act now applies, and which would
be capable of being extended to other classes of occupancy as necessary,
but which would also be more flexible in its approach, and less demanding
in the administrative burden which its enforcement would impose on fire
authorities and fire brigades. The Sub-Committee saw such a system as
allowing the skilled manpower released from inappropriate and time-
consuming paperwork to be redeployed and used much more effectively on
the important tasks of inspecting premises, giving advice and enforcing
the law. This in turn would pave the way for the designation of a wider
range of ocucpancies than has been achieved under the current system.
2.6 The Sub-Committee concluded that any new system of control
would need to satisfy two basic requirements: firstly it would need to
enable fire authorities to identify those premises which posed the great-
est risk to the safety of occupants in the event of fire, and secondly it
would need to provide the means whereby the standards of "bad" premises
could be raised without equivalent attention having to be devoted to
premises where standards were good or the risks minimal.
2.7 On the basis of these two fundamental requirements, the Sub-
Committee put forward proposals for a modified system of controls which
would replace the cumbersome certification procedures of the current
system with a statutory duty on the owner or occupier of premises put to
a designated use to achieve and maintain a satisfactory standard of fire
safety. This would not constitute "self-certification", as it would
remain the responsibility of the fire authority to ensure that the
statutory duty was being discharged. It could, however, be described as
a system of "self-compliance". Codes of practice would be issued to ass-
ist owners/occupiers to comply with the statutory duty and they would
also be encouraged to seek advice from the fire authority. It would be
open to the fire authority to recommend additional or alternative
measures to those recommended in the codes, and it would also be open
to owners/occupiers to seek to acheive a standard reasonable in the
circumstances of the case in ways other than those recommended in the
codes. The proposals envisage that owners/occupiers of premises falling
within a designated occupancy would be required to register with the
fire authority, which would seek to identify the individual premises
presenting the greatest risk. These premises would be given priority in
the programme of inspections which each fire authority would be required
 153

to prepare and carry out in respect of all designated premises.

Prosecution would be available in the last resort for breach of the
statutory duty, but the normal course of action when premises were below
standard would be to issue an improvement notice; this would be effective
immediately, but could be challenged on appeal. Provision would also be
made for the issue of prohibition or restriction notices where the risk
to occupants in the event of fire was particularly grave because of
inadequate precautions.
2.8 It is hoped that a consultative document embodying the Sub-
Committee's proposals will be published by the Home Office towards the end
of 1984, with a view to seeking the comments of the wider community.
However, I should emphasise that the proposals are still at an early
stage and future progress will depend on the outcome of the consultation
exercise, the views of Ministers, and, if new legislation is agreed, the
competing demands on the Parliamentary timetable.
2.9 For my part I would argue, at least subject to the outcome of the
consultation exercise, that the fundamental emphasis of the new proposals
is right. It seems to me that at the end of the day, the responsibility
for achieving and maintaining a satisfactory standard of fire safety
ought to rest with owners and occupiers of premises and not with a public
agency such as the fire service. The proper role of the fire service, as
I see it and as the proposals envisage, should be to support, to encourage
and only in the last resourt to compel owners and occupiers of premises
in their efforts to achieve fire safety in occupied buildings.
 154

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST ARSON

C. DOUGLAS WOODWARD
Fire Protection Association
Summary

Arson has become a significant fire problem in the developed countries

responsible for between 15% and 50% of fire costs. Remedial measures
come under three headings: (1) Long-term action, chiefly by Govern-
ments, to change people's attitudes and behaviour; (2) Action in
local communities as exemplified in the arson task force approach
adopted in the United States; (3) Management planning against arson.
Within this final category, management have first to assess the threat,
the motives and targets for arson and to consider how their premises
may be affected. The final section of the paper considers some
practical steps for the control of arson under five heads: design,
security equipment, organization, fuel sources, collaboration.

The previous papers given by the speakers in Theme I have related to

protective measures which apply across the whole spectrum of fire. This
concluding paper of the session relates to a particular aspect of fire
the fires which are begun deliberately ... incendiarism ... arson.
We have not in this symposium had papers relating to fires resulting
from electrical causes or fires caused by cigarettes or sparks from cutting
operations. All these fire causes are important but in the main we have
learned to control such fires and while I suppose they will always be with
us they show a downward rather than an upward spiral certainly insofar
as they affect industrial, commercial and public sector buildings.
However, while it is a fact that because of positive action taken by
many organizations and by individual managements, we are able more effect-
ively to control these fires of accidental origin, our modest successes in
this respect are nullified because of the enormous growth in deliberate
fires, in arson.

The increasing incidence of arson

Arson has become a significant fire problem in most if not all

developed countries. The problem reached very serious proportions in the
United States and Canada during the 1970s. A similar, if not quite such
serious, trend has manifested itself in recent years in European countries.
Detailed studies undertaken in the UK and in the Netherlands indicate that
in both countries from the early 1940s to the late 1970s there was a
fifteen-fold increase in the incidence of malicious fires.
It is unfortunate that fire statistics as a whole are inadequate to
a lesser or greater degree in many countries. In some countries there is
no official figure even for the total number of fires that occur. Few
countries in Europe are able to state how many of their fires are definite-
ly attributable to a particular cause. There is no uniformity as between
one country and another in the way fire statistics are compiled nor as to
the assessment of the cost of fire. Let me say in passing that a major
objective for us in controlling all fires including malicious fires
is to so improve and unify our statistical coverage.
 155

From the figures which are available to us it can be said that the
cost of arson as a proportion of all fire costs is at least 15% and can be
as high as 50% depending on the country.
A report by MUnchener RUckversicherungs-Gesellschaft (Munich Re
Insurance Group) in 1982 stated that fire insurers throughout the world
are having to devote between a quarter and a third of their total loss
expenditure to pay for fire losses resulting from arson.
There is another important point about fires begun deliberately. Not
only has the number of such fires increased enormously, but the cost of
such fires tends to be much higher than accidental fires.
I would like to give you proof of what I am saying by reference to
European statistics. Unfortunately, as I have explained, it is difficult
if not impossible to do this in an accurate way. I will therefore content
myself with some evidence from the UK and ask you to accept that the
situation is not dissimilar in other countries.

Slide 1

Cause of fires in buildings (excluding dwellings)

Year Total fires Smoking Electrical Malicious Malicious Unknown

%
1962 26,160 4,777 5,165 559 2.1 5,202

1972 47,232 5,044 8,128 5,290 11.2 8,451

1982 39,847 3,578 8,526 8,933 22.4 3,120

Slide 2

Cause of 'large' fires

Year Total fires Smoking Electrical Malicious Malicious Unknown

%
1962 537 34 58 32 6.0 334

1972 1,142 65 141 143 13.2 559

1982 881 71 188 321 36.4 158

The slides amply demonstrate how the incidence of malicious fires has
increased in the UK over a 20-year period. We know that in the UK, in the
case of large fires where the cause can definitely be established, it is
not 36% but 44% which are the result of deliberate ignition.
The point one is making is that fires caused deliberately cost
countries all countries very substantial sums of money each year.
If we can begin to control these losses from arson, it would make a most
useful contribution in terms of cost effectiveness in the overall campaign
against fire.
 156

Remedial measures

This brings me to the second part of my talk this morning which is

to explore ways to achieve a reduction in arson fires and the consequent
savings we require in fire losses.
There are three distinct areas for action. Two I will deal with
briefly and the third at greater length.
The first type of action required is of a fundamental kind. Accept-
ing that the enormous increase in arson has to be seen as part of the
general break-down in law and order that afflicts society in the present
age, then we have to look to fundamental changes in the attitudes and
behaviour of society as the ultimate cure. To effect such changes in
people's attitudes and behaviour requires new thinking and new programmes
from governments. This is a long-term approach and although one would
not exactly despair of having them, one cannot in these cost-conscious
days see any immediate prospects for dramatic change. I would say the
best hope lies in the education of children.
The second area for action is by local government, regional bodies
and for community action. It is argued by American commentators that
serious efforts to combat arson by Government, fire service and insurers
did not get under way in the US until local communities, appalled at the
effects of arson on their own neighbourhoods, demanded action and them-
selves showed the way. The prime examples of such action in the US are
the local Arson Task Forces which co-ordinate the efforts of local govern-
ment officials, and various other local interests in campaigns in the
particular area.
In Europe we have our own local agencies which can be applied to this
purpose. Action along these lines is occurring in the UK through our fire
liaison panels and, I believe, in Sweden. However, there are important
differences as between Europe and the US which could make the arson task
force impractical here.
The third area, which is more within the scope of this symposium, and
which has the benefit of offering a more speedy chance of improvement, is
what one can call the management action plan against arson.

Motives and targets for arson

In planning against arson, managements have first to establish as

best they can, just what the threat is. Arson can result from various
motives as the next slide shows:

Slide 3

Motivation for arson

- Vandalism
- Revenge/spite
- Profit
- Mental instability/pyromania
- Concealing another crime
- Violence/terrorism
 157

One can categorize arson in different ways and the line between one
kind of motivation and another is by no means hard. Oue could say that
the majority of arson cases are the result of mental instability.
In Europe it has generally been felt that most arson is associated
with vandalism and is most pronounced when there is a preponderance of
young people present. This is certainly the case with most of the fires
in schools in the UK. Often, also arson is associated with concealment of
another crime. The classic example is of teenagers breaking in to a
building at night to steal and as part of their foray setting fire to the
place to cover their tracks.
Recent research in the US indicates however that in the case of child
arsonists as with adult ones many more arson cases may be in the
revenge/spite category rather than vandalism.
From the management point of view it is more rewarding to consider
the prime targets of arsonists. However, a word of warning here. No
building is immune to attack although as the next slide shows, some
targets are more popular than others:

Slide 4

Targets for arsonists UK

Occupancy Total Malicious/ % of total

fires doubtful

Schools 1,827 605 33%

Entertainment 1,301 387 30%

Construction 1,293 304 24%

Hospitals 2,106 378 18%

Shops 4,336 706 16%

Agriculture 2,502 359 14%

Hotels, etc. 1,740 241 14%

In the case of large fires our experience in the UK is that two

categories above all others are specially vulnerable to arsonists:
Schools and warehousing premises.
The FPA receives details, from a major insurer, of all large fires in
schools insured by this company. Each month this company reports eight,
nine, ten major fires. Nearly all are believed to have been begun delib-
erately. The cost of these fires often exceeds a million pounds.
Schools and other public sector property are known to be specially
vulnerable and much more attention needs to be paid by the authorities
to achieving higher standards of security.
 158

The other major target for arson attack is warehousing and storage
premises. This category of fire now accounts for more than half of the
cost of major fires in the UK.
In referring to warehousing and storage I should point out that in
this category have to be included a great many different types of occupancy
- factories, retail distribution, wholesaling. Often we are now finding
that major fires in industrial and commercial buildings of all kinds are
associated with the storage aspect of that company's operation.
This, of course, reflects the changes that have occurred in industry
and commerce with concentrations of production and distribution in a
smaller number of premises of increasing size. The values concentrated in
storage areas are far higher than they were even a few years ago. The
problem is compounded in that any one company is now likely to be affected
by a fire in another company which it supplies or on which it depends for
its own supplies.

Practical steps towards arson control

Finally I will, in this paper, indicate some of the practical ways in

which the management of individual concerns can take action to reduce the
threat to them from arson attack and to control the cost of fires begun
deliberately.

Slides

DESIGN OF PREMISES

Much can be done at the design stage of buildings to make it more

difficult for arsonists to operate easily. Similar steps can be
taken to upgrade buildings with security in mind. Are there flat
roofs or projections which will help people gain entry?

5 - Give thought to the siting of vulnerable operations. It is not a

good idea to site a loading bay where it is so easily reached by
potential arsonists.

6 - Intruders really have to be kept out when the building is closed.

These walls and gates look adequate.

7 - But this wall is not.

8 - Attention must be paid to doors and windows with special reference

to locks, bolts and bars.
9 - But in taking account of security we must always bear in mind the
fire safety aspect also. Fire exits must be easy to open.

SECURITY EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS

We need to consider an appropriate package of measures suitable for

the premises concerned:

10 - An intruder alarm system,preferably one that is automatically

connected to a central station.
 159

11 - An automatic fire detection system, similarly connected to a

central station.

12 w Where possible and practical, an automatic sprinkler installation

that will control the fire whether begun by accident or deliberate
fires.

13 - Closed circuit television has obvious advantages in some situations.

14 - Arsonists love dark corners. Well designed security lighting can

help substantially reduce the risk of break-ins.

Never forget that all the fire and security equipment itself has
to be protected from intruders and arsonists and must be kept in
good working order.

ORGANIZATION OF SECURITY

15 - Security has to be considered as part of a total programme of fire

safety management. This slide reminds us of some of the parts of
that total programme. The legal and insurance requirements for the
building, means of escape, storage, plant, waste disposal, contractors
and training, with security as just one, albeit very important
chapter in the fire precautions manual.

16 - Fire raisers may come from withinas well as from outside. It is

important to check the references of all employees.

17 - It is even more important to keep a special watch on temporary staff

and on cleaners and contractors.

18 - Staff training should include reference to the danger to them and

their job from arson fires. Employees should be instructed to report
the presence of unauthorized strangers.

19 - Clearly the fewer entrances in use the better and all entrances
should be manned. There must be arrangements to identify visitors
and to ensure that they leave at the end of their visit.

20 - Security with keys is all important. They must not fall into the
wrong hands.

21 - Probably the single most important point with fire safety in general,
and security in particular, is to have a proper procedure for closing
down at night with a series of checks to ensure that security is
complete. In these checks, and indeed at other times of the day and
night, security patrols comprising your own staff or supplied by
outside security firms play a vital role.

POTENTIAL FUEL SOURCES

Arsonists welcome ready-to-hand fuel for their fires.

22 - Storage - a key factor in fire safety generally - is specially

important in regard to security. Particular attention should be paid
 160

to locking away flammable liquids. Storage in the open also requires

care and should never be placed in positions easily accessible from
surrounding roads.

23 - Refuse and waste is particularly useful from the arsonist's point of

view. This kind of situation is to be avoided. If refuse has to be
left overnight it should be away from where the arsonist can set
light to it.

COLLABORATION

Management should utilize the help which is readily available from

official sources, notably fire brigades and police. This help should
be sought not only after there has been a fire but beforehand, should
there by any suspicious happenings on the premises - not least of
course if you or your neighbour has suffered a series of small fires.
Getting in the police or fire brigade at this stage may well be
instrumental in preventing a disaster next time.

In summing up I would again underline to the participants in this

symposium the urgent need in all countries more accurately to assess the
danger from arson. Such assessment requires a greater commitment to
research into arson and the compilation of better fire and arson statistics
In conclusion, let me say that the European fire protection bodies view
this aspect of their work as being of such importance that we are in the
process of arranging a special seminar on the subject of arson in the
latter part of next year. We hope that it might take place in one of the
European Commission's halls in Brussels.
 161

THEME II - SIMILARITIES OF FIRE PROTECTION IN BUILDINGS

Part 1 - Chairman: J. WITTEVEEN, TNO, Delft

Rapporteur: R. CLAEYS, Rijksuniversiteit Gent

Introduction by the session chairman

The fundamentals of fire protection

Desiqn requirements for buildings

Requirements for building elements, materials and contents

Fire development modelling

Testing and classification of the resistance to fire of building

components

Safety concepts - European fire engineering

Concrete and masonry structures

Steel structures

The fire resistance of timber structures

The fire performance of timer-frame multiple-occupation buildings

- Existing examples

Part - Chairman: W. BECKER, BASF, Association of Fire testing

laboratories of European Industries IL, Ludwigshafen
Rapporteur: M. HOFMAN, BASF AG, Ludwigshafen

Report on a comparative study on reaction-to-fire tests in the EC

Toxic hazards in fire

Wood products

Textiles and flooring materials

Mineral boards

Mineral fibres

Plastic foams
 162

Fires in buildings: the behaviour of rigid plastic products

The contents and the buildings

Means of fire protection in buildings: sprinklers, CO-, halons

- Study of similarities

Smoke and heat extractors

Fire detection systems

 163

INTRODUCTION BV TllE SESSION CHAIRMAN

J. UITTEVEEN

Fires do behave similar in different countries. Although

encouraging when trying to reach for international harmonization of
fire protection in buildings, this statement is by far insufficient
to bring the task down to a practical and operational level. A more
detailed analysis of the similarities in fire protection is therefore
necessary. To this end, the following aspects should be considered:
- basic principles and legislation
- fire physics and human and structural response to fire
- methods of assessment
Apart from some general observations regarding the background
philosophy of fire protection in buildings, discussion in this part
of theme II will be focussed on the structural response of the struc-
ture, more particulary on the ways and means to evaluate this response.
For a discussion on the behaviour of building materials and building
contents under fire conditions, it is referred to part 2 of theme II.

As far as the basic principles are concerned, opinions do agree

quite well. It is generally felt that it is the duty of the state to
protect the citizens against unproportional personal risks due to
fire while also - to some extend - protection against monetary losses
which cannot be controlled by the persons involved, are seen as the
state's responsibility.

With respect to the practical implications of these general rules,

however, significant differences do exist between one country and
another. The traditional and often isolated development of the present
regulatory system in many countries, has certainly contributed to this
situation. A complicating factor is, that fire safety regulations are
mostly cramped into the national legislation. This makes the system
rigid and modifications are difficult and time consuming.

Compared with regulations in the field of building lay out,

installations etc., the situation with respect to the assessment of
structural behaviour is reasonably well surveyable. This is so since
during the last decades, intensive international cooperation does
exist amongst technical experts within ISO, the Conseil International
du Btiment (CIB) and within material orientated organizations such
as the Convention Europenne de la Construction Mtallique (ECCS),
the Comit International du Beton (CEB) and the Confederation Euro-
penne de l'Industrie du Bois (CB-Bois). The best known result of
this cooperation is probably ISO Standard 834 which provides a common
basis for the testing of fire exposed structural elements and which
 164

is accepted world wide.

More recently, internationally orientated recommendations for the
analytical determination of the behaviour of fire exposed structural
steelwork and concrete have been issued by CECM and CEB respectively.

Although, in a pure technical sense, opinions do not differ to

much, international exchange and acceptance of technical data is
often hampered on procedural grounds, e.g. when the details of the
applied testing methods are not identical.
Major discrepancies occur however, when evaluating the technical data
in terms of requirements. As' a illustration: The requirement for the
fire resistance of one and the same structural element in a similar
building, within the European Community, may vary in a range of, say,
30-90, or 60-120 minutes. It is felt that such extreme differences
are not justified, although some differences may be motivated since
local circumstances and other (non-structural) measures need not to
be identical in the various countries.
To decide to what extent the differences are justified is, in the
present situation, extremely difficult because the requirements are
often based on intuition and tradition rather than on more rational
and traceable considerations.

Obviously, the above mentioned circumstances hinder the attempts

to harmonize fire protection in buildings within the European
Community. At the same time they provide an indication of actions
necessary to improve the present situation.

An obvious action, which is currently under-a-way within DG III

of the European Commission, is the establishment of a detailed testing
instruction for the experimental determination of the fire resistance
of building components. This is thought to be an important step
foreward on the way to international acceptance of test results.
On a somewhat longer term it is essential to steadily increase our
knowledge regarding the factors which govern the structural response
to fire, including the fire process itself. Emphasis should be on the
development of formalized models which enable the analytical determina-
tion of fire resistance, as opposed to the experimental methods mainly
used today. As mentioned earlier on, major progress has already been
made in this respect.

At least as important however, is the establishment of appropriate

methods of assessment, which provide consistent and functional
requirements. To seek connection with modern, probability based safety
theories is at hand. Also in this respect international activities,
guided by Working Group 14 of 'CIB', are on their way.

It is noted that many of the above mentioned actions are initiated

and performed by technical experts. A successfull implementation of the
results necessitates an active participation of the other parties
involved such as building authorities, fire brigade and insurance. To
stimulate this kind of cooperation is seen as one of the important
tasks of the Commission of the European Communities when trying to
arrive at harmonization of fire protection in buildings.
 165

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF FIRE PROTECTION

Dietrich Steinhoff
Adviser to the Senator for Construction and Housing, Berlin

One of the greatest of human achievements has been the development of

man's ability to master fire and to exploit it for his own needs. Life
today would be impossible, even inconceivable, without fire. However
vital the importance of fire, though, it can be a deadly and devastating
hazard if it gets out of control. s Schiller put it:

"Celestial forces, when released,

are awesome as a raging beast;
invade our human privacy
as nature's daughters, wild and free."

The threat posed to man and the environment by fire, and by this I mean
the destructive kind of fire, is an experience known throughout the
world. People's homes have been burned down since the dawn of civili-
zation. Until the last century many towns and cities were completely
destroyed by flames; the great fire of Hamburg in the mid-19th century is
one of the most recent examples in Germany. Yet even in the 20th century
and indeed in the last few years, spectacular infernos have made people
all over the world acutely aware of the dangers associated with fire.

The need for fire protection in terms of both prevention and intervention
is a second characteristic which all countries have in common. Wherever
people live together in cities, towns or villages there will be a fire
brigade.

This is where the real similarities end as far as fire protection is

concerned. As we say in Germany, it is the details which cause problems -
not only the intricacies of people's behaviour and life-styles but also
technical, chemical and physical details. One's outlook on life plays as
important a part as natural laws. Here I have to exclude catastrophes
such as war and deliberate arson, however even though the latter is
happening with increasing frequency in Europe.

We should identify at this point what exactly is meant by fire protection.

Translator's note: the translator apologises to readers, as well as to

Schiller, for this very liberal translation of the German original.
 166

It consists of two distinct areas on which individual countries again

tend to aqree: fire-fighting and fire prevention.

Let us turn first to the seemingly straightforward area of fire-fighting.

I mentioned earlier that there is a fire brigade wherever people live
together in a community: a public fire service run by the state or the
community whose function is to fight fires in the interests of the
general public and to protect both the community and the individual.
Every community has laws which govern this activity. In small communities
in particular, the fire services tend to be run voluntarily; in larger
communities and towns they are professional services which may be either
ports of independent organizations or divisions of the police force or
even the army. There are, however, fundamental differences in the ways in
which the various fire services tackle fires, quite apart from the
different ways in which each of them uses the common element water. Some
brigades prefer internal intervention in which fire crews enter the
building, attempt to penetrate through to the source of the fire and
attack it there.

Others avoid entering the building and tackle the fire from the outside.
This is, of course, a gross over-simplification, but it gives and idea of
the underlying philosophy. The chosen fire-fighting strategy then dic-
tates the type of equipment and training provided for firemen. Fire-figh-
ting strategy also has repercussions for fire prevention measures.

The aim of fire prevention is to employ a wide range of structural and

operational measures to prevent fires from starting, to contain established
fires within the smallest possible compartment of the building, to ensure
that rescue is possible and, not least, to protect the neighbourhood.
Thus far there should be no disagreement between individual countries.

Attitudes to the protection of property may, however, vary. Some coun-

tries limit fire prevention legislation to measures designed for the
saving of lives, while others include the saving of property. This means
that fire prevention ireasures are dictated not only by the protection and
rescue of persons but also by the need to protect buildings and property
in their own right. In this respect the objectives of fire prevention
legislation coincide with those of property insurance against fire.

It should be recognised, however, that even the first group, which is

concerned only with saving lives, automatically includes a measure of
property protection within any regulations formulated for personal safety
reasons. To this extent there is more agreement than would meet the
eye.

I ought to make it clear at this point which areas are covered by fire
prevention. Here too there may be differences of degree in different
countries which I cannot list individually, but there is probably general
agreement on the material extent of fire prevention measures. First there
are requirements for building materials and components. Distinctions are
made everywhere between flammable and non-flammable building materials,
and flammable materials are further classified according to their degree
of flammability. Building components are categorized in terms of fire
resistance; certain materials are classified according to whether
they are used for building as such or as decoration or accessories, for
example textiles used for carpeting, curtains or upholstery. Interna-
tional harmonization is well advanced in this area and originated with
ISO Standard 834.
 167

All facilities needed to run a building also belong to this area: for
example, plumbing and drains, ventilation and electrical installations.
European Community directives are in existence for some of these: the
low-voltaqe directive, for example.

A second essential aspect of fire prevention is the height and layout of

buildings under construction. This includes the division of buildings
into fire compartments, i.e. compartmentation using walls which meet
special requirements for fire resistance. Also included under this
heading is the layout of escape routes, corridors, staircases, exits,
etc. Specific maximum distances are prescribed - for example, distances
within which a staircase must be accessible on any floor, the yardstick
being the distance the average adult is able to run through a smoke-
filled space while holding his or her breath, i.e. 25 to 35 m. The escape
route system within a building is designed in such a way that a person
making his or her own way out is in the safest possible position once he
or she has reached the stairwell.

The regulations for stairwells must therefore be stringent: staircases

must provide an easy way out without the need for further aids. Past
experience has shown that people in high-rise buildings often try to
escape upstairs and then have to be rescued from the roof by helicopter;
buildings of this kind should be designed to cope with this eventuality.

The third area of fire prevention is the siting of a building in relation

to its surroundings. To prevent fires from spreading from one building to
another specific distances have to be observed, and these are determined
by radiant heat and flying sparks. Buildings also have to be sited in such
a way that they are accessible to fire crews and also, in the case of
tall buildings, to hydraulic lift platforms and turntable ladders.
Special attention has to be paid to the building's accessibility in the
event of internal intervention by the fire brigade, in which case the
escape routes for occupants would also act as access routes for fire
crews and therefore need to provide adequate protection for firemen.

The fourth aspect of fire prevention is that of the equipment provided

within the building. The major item here is the portable extinguisher,
althouqh wall hydrants and fixed extinguishing apparatus also belong
under this heading. The best-known fixed extinguishers are sprinkler
installations which react automatically to an incipient fire and start
the fire-fighting process. There are also fire alarm systems which not
only alert the fire services but also warn the building's occupants.
Finally there are the signs and the emergency lighting systems which mark
out escape routes and fire exits. The Council Directive on the provision
of safety signs at places of work should be noted in this context. These
various installations do not serve their purpose by their very nature, as
do walls and ceilings, but depend on specific operating conditions and
therefore need to be tested regularly.

The fifth area of fire prevention consists of safety requirements for

fittings and furnishings such as furniture, curtains, carpets and also
decorations.
 168

Regulations for these are fairly uncommon and are restricted to buildings
in which occupants may be particularly at risk - for example, theatres,
department stores, large hotels and the like.

The last area of fire prevention is the behaviour of occupants: for

example, certain buildings lay down fire safety regulations and regula-
tions for conduct in the event of fire or other danger. Hotels are by far
the most frequent examples of this.

To complete this list one more provision must be mentioned which is

primarily one of fire prevention but verges on fire-fighting: the inter-
nal fire brigades which are usual in large industrial complexes but are
also required by law in certain circumstances. Internal or works fire
services also exist in other areas: for example, in department stores or
lower stocks. They are designed to meet the special needs of the organi-
zation or building to which they belong; they ensure that intervention
begins as early as possible but they cannot and should not be expected to
replace the public fire services.

If we are agreed so far on the wide range of considerations grouped under

the heading of fire protection, we can now turn to the legal enforcement
of fire protection in the public interest. We are not concerned here with
the civil liabilities of property owners and the measures they must take
to protect their property, or with road safety liabilities or the nume-
rous legal and administrative regulations and standards which may have an
indirect bearing on fire protection.

Here, too, all countries recognize the obligation of the state to protect
its citizens from danger, including that of fire. It is therefore a legal
requirement everywhere that buildings be constructed so as to minimize
danger not only to users or occupants of the building but also to the
surrounding areas. The regulations necessary to meet this general legal
commitment are governed by the type, size and height of the building. In
general, the larger the building and the greater the number of occupants
during normal use, the more stringent the regulations.

The general provisions are set out chiefly in statutory instruments while
the fine technical detail is often to be found in government administra-
tive regulations or else in technical manuals or the technical standards
of national standards or similar institutes.

All regulations draw distinctions between residential buildings and other

classes of building which may carry a particular risk. The second group
consists particularly of buildings accessible to the general public, such
as theatres, department stores and concert halls. Very tall buildings and
certain industrial or power station structures are likewise subject to
special rules because of the hazard levels they present. All specifi-
cations also distinguish between new and existing structures. It is
usually a straightforward matter to lay down regulations for new buil-
dings, since the latest technical developments can always be incorpo-
rated, but the regulations for existing buildings are more complicated.
Some countries are able to enforce only very limited modification of
existing buildings in line with new developments, often because consti-
tutional constraints rule out anything more radical. In a few countries
buildinqs are adapted only rarely and then only where a real hazard
exists.
 169

It would be exceeding my brief if I now attempted to itemize all the

requlations, standards, statutes and laws of individual countries on fire
prevention in the widest sense and on fire-fighting, be these at natio-
nal, regional or local level, or be they matters of public, insurance or
civil law. It would be virtually impossible anyway to produce a list of
all the regulations in force in this generic area throughout the Member
States of the European Community, since these are too numerous and in
many cases bound up in other areas of legislation. What does emerge from
all this, however, is a clear framework of fire prevention theory which
could form the starting point for a European harmonization programme. The
basic parameters are the height, surface area and purposes of a building,
as follows;

- the taller the building (from bungalow to tower block) the more strin-
gent the requirements
- the larger the surface area of the building (from summerhouse to
supermarket or warehouse) the more stringent the requirements
- the more hazardous the nature of occupancy (from residential to theatre
or hazardous industrial plant) the more stringent the requirements.

The stringency of regulations for the interiors of buildings should be

directly proportionate to the size of the section concerned: the tightest
rules would apply to components forming fire compartments and the most
lenient to simple partition walls.

In addition to the material specifications for fire protection, there are

one or two formal arrangements to be mentioned which can have a strong
influence on the harmonized approach: namely the legislative responsi-
bility governed by national constitutions.

All of the countries implicated here have a basic three-tier administra-

tive structure: central government, a regional level (province, department,
region, county, etc) and local government. In some countries central
government is responsible for fire protection legislation, while in
others this responsibility is devolved upon the regional or local
government administrations. Countries with decentralised responsibility
frequently experience difficulties with national coordination; some do
not even consider it necessary. Legislation is supplemented by technical
rules books of varying degrees of complexity, issued sometimes by govern-
ment offices and sometimes by national standards institutes. The multipli-
city of responsibilities, which may result to some extent in a multipli-
city of opinions on the subject, is undoubtedly a major stumbling-block
to international harmonization.

Official planning permission has to be obtained for building in all

countries, based on national, regional or local government legislation.
The form, content and scope of permits does, however, vary enormously
according to the deqree of complexity of national legislation and diffe-
ring attitudes to the need for government intervention. All licensing
procedures include preventive scrutinies by the official town planning
authorities - in other words, the external appearance of the proposed
building has to meet the relevant specifications.
 170

It may not always be apparent that these checking procedures also include
certain matters relevant to fire prevention - namely the location of. the
building on its site, the position of the site in relation to public
roads and hence the building's accessibility to fire brigades for fire-
fighting and rescue purposes.

Official sanction for the remaining aspects of fire prevention mentioned

in this paper, particularly the approval of building materials and
components, escape routes and fire compartments, takes very different
forms in different countries, ranging from comprehensive scrutinies of
all building plans to a total absence of any form of scrutiny - i.e. from
100 % to zero. Nevertheless, all countries agree that certain public
buildings require official approval of fire protection measures and all
enforce this rule for theatres, cinemas, department stores, hotels, tower
blocks and similar structures - i.e. buildings in which large numbers of
people would be at risk in the event of fire.

Another area which can have a bearing on fire protection is insurance. It

is possible to obtain fire insurance in almost any country and policies
are drawn up under civil law. On the other hand, banks and building
societies, for example, will not make credit available for building
unless a fire insurance policy has been taken out. Insurance companies
usually assess hazard levels on the basis of either central government
legislation or the public regulations generally in force. It is very
common, however, for premiums to be reduced substantially subject to
supplementary fire safety measures. Fixed automatic extinguisher systems
or special safety walls which will contain a fire are classic examples of
this. All requirements for insurance purposes are designed exclusively
for the protection of property and in some countries this conflicts with
central government legislation if the latter is designed exclusively for
the safety of persons.

Finally I should mention building maintenance and the monitoring of a

building's structural and operational condition.

In virtually any country the owner or manager of a building is held

responsible tor ensuring that it remains in good repair and particularly
that there are no safety hazards emanating from it. Any infringement of
these rules may result in prosecution. The owner's or manager's civil
liability also covers the fire protection aspect.

There is one class of building, however, for which the civil liability of
the owner or manager alone does not suffice for the purposes of public
safety and order. Essentially, and universally, this means buildings
accessible to the general public, such as theatres, department stores and
large hotels, as mentioned above. Regular official scrutinies as well as
spot checks on the condition of the building and the working order of
equipment are necessary for public safety reasons. Every country has its
own statutory basis for these operations and backs these up with the
necessary sanctions.

I have attempted to present a cohesive summary of the fundamentals of

fire protection and I would conclude by enphasizing the large measure of
agreement which already exists in this area: there can be no real contro-
versy, after all, about the nature of fire and the aim of fire protection,
 171

which is to save lives and put out the flames. There is much ccxrmon
ground even in the methods employed. It shoud be recognized, however, that
historical developments and local customs have resulted in many divergen
cies of detail, and it is these that throw up difficulties and barriers
to everyday practice. A great many organizations are active in this area:
worldwide organizations such as ISO, European ones such as CEN or UEAtc,
or the specialist committees which exist in many European organizations.
ITie fact that we have a common objective nevertheless offers the best
chance of a successful and harmonized approach, provided that we proceed
in easy stages and on a pragmatic basis and do allow too much theory to
cloud the issue.

f we try to reach agreement on the issues I have elaborated and use this
as the framework for future action, whether on large or small matters, we
shall come a lot closer to reaching our common objective. Let us begin
where we already have most ocwinon ground: with building materials and
test methods on the one hand, and with classes of building, such as
hotels, on the other. We still have a long way to go, but it will De
worth the effort.
 172

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDINGS

G. FERENCZY
Head of Socotec Export Division

Summary

When a building is designed, the following fire safety aspects must

be examined:
- isolation from neighbouring structures
- access for outside emergency services
- the fire resistance of the structures
- compartmentation
- internal means of emergency evacuation.
The aim of this paper is a comparative examination of the relevant
protective legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany, the United
Kingdom, France, Denmark and Ireland.
It is clear from the study that authorities in the relevant countries
pay considerable attention to all these aspects of safety, but that
the protective measures contained in legislation differ in many
respects even if on certain points, such as access for firemen, dividing
walls, the fire resistance of structures and compartmentation of
corridors, a certain level of homogeneity is apparent. These differen-
ces are basically the result of variations in the period over which the
legislation has been in force, or of technical and legal situations
which are not comparable.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 A number of measures that are vital for fire safety have to be
examined when a building is being designed. If this is not done, it may
prove very difficult or even impossible to carry them out once the buil-
ding has been constructed. Examples include the addition of stairs or the
partitioning off, on each floor, of a centrally located air space.
One of the aims of this paper is therefore to examine the principal
safety measures which can be incorporated at the design stage of buildings,
while another is to list the relevant requirements in the Member States of
the Community.
1.2 This paper is limited to measures affecting architecture and
construction - known as passive safety - and therefore excludes fire-control,
alarm and :smoke-clearance equipment, which will be discussed during another
part of this symposium.
Within this field, we will study:
- isolation from neighbouring buildings
- access for external emergency services
- the fire resistance of structures
 173

- compartmentation
- the buildings internal means of energency evacuation.
This paper will not discuss fire behaviour requirements for structural
materials, decoration and furnishings.
1.3 With reference to current legislation within the Community, we have
studied the documents listed in the annex. Unfortunately, we have not been
able to analyse them all when preparing this paper. He would particularly
like to point out that this study is based on examination of the
following regulations:
fror the Federal Republic of Germany
- Landesbauordnung fr das Land Schleswig-Holstein (LBO)
- Bremische Landesbauordnung (Brem LBO)
- Bayerische Bauordnung (Bay BO)
For the United Kingdom
- The Building Regulations 1976
- British Standard 5588 Part 3 (office blocks)
- Code of practice 3 Chapter IV Part 1 and 2 (housing and shops)
For France
- Nouvelles Rgles de Scurit Incendie dans les Etablissements recevant
du Public ("Journal Officiel" pamphlet No. 1477)
- Scurit Incendie dans les Immeubles de Grande Hauteur ( "Journal
Officiel" pamphlet No. 1536)
- Protection des btiments d'habitation contre l'Incendie (Arrt of
10 September 1970)
For Denmark
- Building Regulations 1982
For Ireland
- Fire Services Act 1981
- Fire Safety in Places of Public Assembly (discussion document published
in 1983)

2. ISOLATING BUILDINGS FROM ONE ANOTHER

The main ways in which a fire can reach neighbouring buildings are
through the dividing walls (in the case of adjoining buildings), from
facade to facade (where buildings face each other at some distance) and
across the roofs.
It will therefore be necessary to employ the following protective
measures:
- a certain level of fire resistance for dividing walls
- a minimum distance between buildings or, should this be insufficient,
particular constraints on the facades
- roofing posssing minimal combustion properties.
2.1 In France
a) Buildings open to the public and high-rise buildings (over 28m)
must be at least 8m fron the nearest building.
b) Below this distance, the facades nust, as a general rule, be resis-
tant to fire for 1 hour in the case of buildings open to the public.
For high-rise buildings, 2 hours of fire resistance is required for
both the facades and the roofs.
c) In the case of adjoining structures, the dividing wall must generally
have a fire resistance of 2 hours, but 3 to 4 hours are required if
there is a high risk of neighbouring buildings catching fire.
2.2 In the United Kingdom
The Building Regulations lay down complex protective regulations which
can be roughly summarized as follows:
 174

a) Where structures are less than lm apart, the facades or divi-

ding walls should have the same fire resistance as the 'elements
of structure', i.e. somewhere between half an hour and four hours.
b) Where they are more than lm apart, the facades are permitted to
have an increasing percentage of structural elements (particularly
doors and windows) which do not have the resistance required above.
c) The facade need have no fire resistance if the building is a mini-
mum distance from the neighbouring structure. This distance,
varying from 2 to 55m, depends on:
- the width and height of the facade
- the use of the building.
2.3 In Denmark
a) The general regulations covering all buildings require that all
facades less than 2,5m from other structures should be resistant
to fire for at least 2 hours.
b) In addition, if the flammability of the roofing and facade material
exceeds certain limits, the minimum separation distance is fixed
at 5 ad 10m xespectively.
2.4 In Ireland
The planned fire protection code includes regulations on fire resis-
tance for dividing walls and external walls.
2.5 In the Federal Republic of Germany
a) The facades of facing buildings should be:
- 1,5 to 5m apart (Schleswig-Holstein) or 3 to 5m (Bremen) in the
case of dead..vails,
- 6 to 8m apart where they include doors and windows, depending on
whether or not the facades are fire resistant or incombustible.
b) Where buildings are more than 8m in height (measured from the sill
of the highest window) in Schleswig-Holstein, or more than 2 or 3
floors (Bremen and Bavaria), the dividing walls between apartments
and between buildings should be fire resistant. In other cases, the
dividing walls between buildings should have at least the same fire
resistance as the structures.
c) The external surfaces should be of hard material which does not
transmit fire either by radiation or by wind blown f lames. '.Buildings
less than 8m in height (measured from the window sill) may have
soft external cladding if the building is 15m away from another
building with hard cladding or 24m from another building which also
has soft cladding.

3. ACCESS FOR OUTSIDE EMERGENCY SERVICES

If a fire occurs, outside help - usually the local fire brigade - must
be able to reach the building and to deploy its equipment. Access provisions
(streets, lanes, passages, open spaces, etc.) must therefore allow:
- vehicles to draw up and manoeuvre right next to the buildings
- the deployment of fire-fighting equipment (particularly fire hoses)
and rescue equipment (particularly ladders) along the full length of
the facades
Usually, local authorities study the arrangements case by case in the
light of the equipment available and the techniques employed.
Although other papers at this symposium are better suited to a dis-
cussion of this subject, it nevertheless seemed necessary to examine here
the implications for the design of buildings and their surrounds.
3.1 In France
a) As far as places open to the public are concerned, the regulations
provide very precise details of the number and nature of the following:
 175

- the access and manoeuvring roads for fire engines

- the facades which must be accessible from these roads depending on
. the number of occupants in the building
. the height of the building (less or more than 8ra)
. the use to which the building is put
. its interior design (compartmented or in zones).
For example, an educational establishment 15 m in height and able
to accommodate between 1500 and 2000 people must have two accessible
facades each being reached by an 8 m wide road allowing turntable
ladders to be employed (maximum gradient 10%, minimum width 10m,
clearance 3.5 m ) . If, however, the building is divided into zones,
these roads may be replaced by open areas measuring at least 8 m
and with a 3 m wide access route.
b) High-rise 'buildings with their own fire safety system must never-
theless be located less than 3 km from a main fire-brigade head-
quarters and the building's exits must be less than 30 m from road-
ways which fulfil the minimum requirements (3.50 m clearance, 3.5 m
width of roadway, maximum gradient 10% etc.).
c) Blocks of flats more than 28 m in height where the internal route-
ways are not specially protected (corridors and stairways) and
buildings more than 50 m in height must be accessible to 30 m
ladders and therefore have roadways of specified minimum dimensions
(3 m wide, 3.50 m clearance etc.).
3.2 In the United Kingdom
The only regulations governing fire-brigade access to housing and shops
are those contained in the "Code of practice".
a) First of all, just how close fire-engines must be able to get to a
building depends on the height of the building and its own fire-
fighting equipment (wet risers, dry risers or no standpipes at all).
This distance varies from 18 m to 46 m.
b) Further, the number of accessible facades of the building depends
on its height, volume and the extent to which it is equipped with
standpipes. ,
c) In addition, where the building exceeds 9 m in height and 7000 m
in volume but is not equipped with standpipes, it must be possible
to reach the facades with long ladders.
d) The fire-brigade access routes have the same dimensions in each
case (width and clearance 3.70 m, 10 t of bearing capacity etc.).
If ladders are used to gain access, these roads must be between
5 and 10 m away from the facade.
3.3 In Denmark
a) For all buildings, fire-brigade access routes must be less than
40 m away from an entrance to the building.
b) For buildings exceeding 10.80 m in height, a free zone 4 m wide,
and with a gradient of less than 5%, must be provided to allow
ladders to be manoeuvred along those facades containing the fire
exits.
c) Access ways must be 2,80 m wide and have an appropriate road
surface,
3.4 In Ireland
The planned protection code will define the requirements for fire-
brigade access to buildings and their surrounding area.
3.5 In the Federal Republic of Germany (Schleswig-Holstein)
a) In general, buildings must be on a public road - or a private one
with guaranteed access - running right up to the facades containing
the fire exits.
 176

b) In general, this roadway should be at least 1.25 m wide and with

2 m clearance.
c) Where the window sills on the highest accessible floor are more
than 8 m above ground level, these dimensions are 3 m and 3.50 m
respectively.
d) In this case a manoeuvring space for fireengines must also be
provided 3 to 9 m away from the base of the accessible facade.
e) If the building exceeds 18 m in height, this area should be at
least 6 m away from the facade.

4. FIRE RESISTANCE OF STRUCTURES

The structural elements of a building are the pillars, girders, walls
and all other construction elements which contribute to its stability. In
the event of fire, this stability must be maintained at least while the
building is being evacuated and firemen are bringing the blaze under control.
4.1 In France
a) As a general rule, fire resistance of 1/4 hour to 2 hours is re
quired depending on the type, size and height of the building. In
certain cases (low buildings for example), no fire resistance at
all is required whereas, by contrast, the required resistance may
in some cases be of the order of 3 or 4 hours (e.g. carparks
located under buildings).
b) It should be pointed out that French regulations view all floors
as structural elements that must have the same fire resistance as
bearing elements.
4.2 In the United Kingdom
a) The regulations require fire resistance of between 1/2 hour and 2
hours depending on the type and height of the buildings and the
extent to which they are compartmented.
b) As a general rule, basement structures are required to have a
higher fire resistance than the upper floors.
c) The required fire resistance may be as high as 4 hours for certain
buildings (e.g. shops, factories and warehouses exceeding 28 m in
height).
d) Floors other than those separating the ground floor from the
basement or those which form part of a compartment are not
required to have the same fire resistance as other structures in
the building.
4.3 In Denmark
a) Depending on the type, size and height of the building, the required
fire resistance ranges from 1/2 hour to 2 hours.
b) In general, floors are required to have the same fire resistance
as other structures in the building.
c) For buildings taller than 1 2 m , 1 hour of fire resistance is
required for floors more than 12 m from the ground, while lower
floors must be fire resistant for 2 hours.
4.4 In the Federal Republic of Germany
In buildings exceeding 2 or 3 floors (Bavaria and Bremen) or more
than 8 m in height as measured from the window sill (SchleswigHolstein),
loadbearing members are required to be fire resistant. In all other cases,
these members should, in general, at least be fireretardant.
4.5 In Ireland
Chapter of the planned code will define the required fire resistance
of structures in order to avoid any collapse of the building during eva
cuation or firefighting.
 177

5. INTERNAL COMPARTMENTATION OF BUILDINGS

Several types of compartmentation exist:
1 - Partitioning of buildings by fire resistant walls designed to stop
a fire spreading. These are similar to the waterproof bulkheads of
ships. In general, floors form the principal element of this
compartmentation.
2 - Compartmentation of buildings with a particularly high risk of fire.
3 - Permanent protection of exit routes inside the building (corridors,
stairs, landings) against penetration by fire.
4 - Compartmentation of ducting and air spaces linking several different
areas of the building. This is a rather complex problem in view of
the range of techniques involved (lifts, ducting for fluids, air-
shafts etc.).
5.1 In France
5.1.1 Compartmentation of building
a) In all buildings, floors should generally be fire resistant for
between 1/2 hour and 2 hours depending on the type and size of the
building.
b) For compartition in the vertical plane, there is a wider range of
requirements:
In places open to the public, the regulations allow for two alter
natives:
I Natural compartmentation provided by the functional partitioning
of the building. Here, the required fire resistance ranges from
1/4 hour to 1 hour.
II Division of the building into larger compartments, with a
minimum of two to each floor, formed by partitions which are
required to have a fire resistance of between 1/2 hour and 1 1/2
hours.
c) In highrise buildings, the regulations require that partitions
providing 2 hours of.fire resistance be used to form compartments
not exceeding 2500 m in size.
d) In blocks of flats, partitions are obligatory every 40 m and must
have at least 1 hour's fire resistance.
e) The regulations on compartmentation in buildings also include
measures aimed at preventing a fire spreading, along the facade,
between two vertically adjoining floors. For example, superposed
windows should be separated by fire resistant obstacles (e.g.
parapets, aprons, balconies, etc.) of which the overall length
should be between 0.80 m and 1.30 m.
5.1.2 Compartmentation of premises with a high fire risk
In all buildings, the partition walls of such premises are required
to have a fire resistance of, in most cases, 1 to 2 hours. Where premises
present an extreme fire risk (parking buildings, fuel stores, archives,
etc.) fire resistance of 4 hours or even 6 hours may be demanded.
5.1.3 Compartmentation of exit routes within the building
In all buildings, the walls enclosing the main corridors are required
to be resistant to fire for, in most cases, between 1/4 hour and 1 hour.
In addition, very long corridors should be split up every 25 to 30 m by
partitions that provide half an hour's fire resistance. Greater resistance
is required for the walls framing staircases, and should in general be the
same as that of the structures of the building itself.
5.1.4 Compartmentation of ducting
Ducts and shafts which cannot be partitioned off at eaoh floor level
 178

(lifts, waste disposal chutes, air conditioning etc.) are generally

lined by walls which are resistant to fire for between half an hour and
2 hours.
Piping ducts are partitioned in line with the wall using components
of the same fire resistance as the wall through which they pass.
5.1.5 Compartmentation of air spaces
The regulations usually require that air spaces behind false ceilings
and in roof voids be partitioned off every 25 to 30 m by screens that are
at least incombustible. Sometimes, in high-rise buildings, half an hour's
fire resistance is required. In addition, fire resistant partitions must
always reach from floor to floor.
5.2 In the Federal Republic of Germany
The provisions of the regulations examined apply only to compartmen-
tation of the building, of exit routes and of lift shafts.
5.2.1 Compartmentation of buildings
a) In very long buildings, fire resistant partitioning is necessary
every 40 m, or every 60 m if the building is less than 8 m in
height and all dividing walls are fire-resistant.
b) Similarly, on farms one fire resistant wall should separate
agricultural premises of more than 2000 m from the rest of the
building (100C0 m in Bavaria).
c) Floors must be fire resistant under the following circumstances:
- in buildings of more than 5 floors (2 floors in Bavaria) and
in buildings presenting a high fire risk.
- above basement level and above agricultural installations on farms.
d) Additionally, if the balconies or similar structures on the facade
do not block vertical propagation of the fire over a width of at
least 1.50 m, these facades must have a certain degree of incom-
bustibility as a factor of the 8 m threshold.
5.2.2 Compartmentation of exit routes inside the building
a) In buildings of more than two floors, the walls of corridors should
possess a certain level of fire resistance, and the corridors must
be partitioned off at intervals of no more than 30m.
b) The side walls of protected stairwells should be fire resistant.
5.2.3 Compartmentation of ducting
Lift and machinery wells should have fire-resistant walls.
5.3 In the United Kingdom
5.3.1 Compartmentation of buildings
All buildings should feature compartments with the following charac-
teristics:
- a maximum surface ranging from 1 000 to 3 000 m depending on the
type and height of the buillding; ,
- a maximum volume ranging from 5 500 to 28 000 m , also depending on
the type and height of the building.
The fire resistance of the surfaces defining these compartments (walls
and floors) should be the same as that of the building's structural elements.
Interior floors in these compartments need have no fire resistance except in
those buildings over 28 m in height where they are considered as compart-
ment floors.
5.3.2 I s o l a t i o n of h i g h - r i s k p r e n l s e s
The regulations list very few high-risk premises apart from those used
for waste storage and, in shops, the storage areas and kitchens. The
regulations nevertheless demand that these areas be compartmented using
partitions possessing the same fire resistance as that required for the
structures.
 179

5.3.3 Compartmentation of exit routes inside the building

Corridors require fireresistant walls only in certain cases (culde
sacs, corridors used by different proprietors) but stairwells are required
to have the same resistance as the structures.
In addition, there is a requirement that the different areas of a corridor
(e.g. culdesacs, staircase area) be partitioned off from each other.
5.3.4 Compartmentation of ducting
All ducting elements (lifts, air conditioning, liquids etc.) are
required to have the same fire resistance as the structure wherever they
link several compartments. In addition, the spaces between the ducting
and the surrounding shaft have to be partitioned off using fireresistant
materials.
5.3.5 Partitioning of air spaces
The regulations prescribe the use of screens, with a certain level of
fire resistance, at intervals of 8 to 20 m depending on the type of
building and the combustibility of the materials exposed in the cavities.
5.4 In Denmark
5.4.1 Compartmentation of buildings
a) Virtually all the basic cells of a building are required to cons
titute a compartment defined by surfaces (partitions and floors)
possessing one hour's fire resistance. This is, for example, the
case with every dwelling in a block of flats (with a maximum of
150 m ) , for every room in a hotel or hospital, for every conference
room, classroom, shopping centre unit, etc.
b) In addition to this basic compartmentation, partitioning possessing
one hour's fire resistance should be used to form cells having, in
general, a maximum surface of 600 m in the case of multistorey
buildings and 2 000 m in the case of singlestorey buildings.
5.4.2 Compartmentation of highrisk premises
There is no general coverage in the regulations of highrisk premises,
although the regulations do prescribe isolation measures, providing fire
resistance for between half and one hour, for lift machinery, waste stores,
boiler houses, ventilation areas (where ducting exceeds 1 500 m ) and
service areas in shopping centres (exceeding 150 m ) .
5.4.3 Compartmentation of exit routes inside the building
a) Generally, corridors should form basic compartments as described
above. In addition, they should be partitioned off every 50 m by
selfclosing doors.
b) Similarly, stairwells should be fire resistant for at least one hour.
5.4.4 Compartmentation of ducting
Lifts and waste disposal chutes should be protected by walls possessing
at least one hour's fire resistance.

6. MEANS OF EVACUATING OCCUPANTS

If a fire occurs, one major safety aim is the evacuation of all or
part of the building concerned. To make this possible, the building must
be equipped with interior routeways (comprising room exits, corridors,
stairs and outside exits) which have the following characteristics:
leading as fast as possible out to the open air
providing, where possible, two escape routes
being of sufficient number and size to cope with the number of
occupants
being well protected against fire, smoke and fumes.
6.1 In the Federal Republic of Germany
The regulations studied provide fairly limited information on the
capacity of the exit routes.
 180

a) Two evacuation routes should be available on each floor, of which

at least one should involve the use of a normal stairway while
the other may, if necessary, use emergency exits on the facade.
b) These routeways may not include either escalators or retractable
stairs.
c) No part of the building should be more than 35m from a fire
escape or an outside exit.
d) Basements should be provided with two independent exits for each
level, one of whih should provide direct access to an external
stairway.
e) The corridors should be sufficiently wide to cope with the number
of people that may need to use them.
f) They should be partitioned off at intervals of no more than 30m
by selfclosing doors.
g) The walls lining the corridors should be:
flame resistant in buildings exceeding two floors
fire resistant in buildings exceeding five floors.
h) The coating materials used in the corridors should be of limited
combustibility.
i) In general, stairways should be at least 1 m wide,
j) They should be built of incombustible materials in buildings ex
ceeding two floors and of fireresistant materials in buildings
exceeding five floors (2 in Bremen).
k) The stairwells of buildings exceeding five floors must have smoke
clearing facilities.
1) Fire exits in the facade are required to be no less than 0.90 m
1.20 m.
6 .2 In France
The regulations covering exits differ between places open to the
public, highrise buildings and residential buildings.
6.2.1 In the case of places open to the public where the applicable
regulations are most detailed fire is considered to require total eva
cuation of the building.
a) A calculation is made of the maximum population (public and staff)
in the different rooms and floors as well as in the whole of hhe
building. The maximum figures for the public are generally global
estimates while staff returns are provided by the head of the
establishment. The population figures are weighted in the case of
basement areas (more than 2 ra underground) and for floors where
handicapped people may be present (commencing at 10%).
b) A certain percentage of escalators and travelators may be included
in the exit routes but no lifts whatever.
c) The number of doors, corridors, stairways and exits from the
different parts of the building are determined on the basis of:
the number of people described above (a minimum of two exits
being always required where there are more than 20 people)
grouped in units of 500 people,
the maximum distances to be traversed in order to reach the
stairway on that floor (30 or 40 m) and the outside exits
(30 or 50 m ) ,
the permitted culdesacs (10 m) in the corridors.
d) The width of these exits is calculated on the basis of a routeway
unit of 0.60 m for each unit of 100 people (with a minimum of 0.80
m for the first unit and 1.40 m for the first two units).
 181

e) Where occupancy exceeds 50 people, the doors in question must open

in the direction of the evacuation route.
f) The corridors must be partitioned off into cells with a maximum
length of 25 to 30 m.
g) In all cases, it must be possible to clear smoke from corridors and
stairways.
h) Coating materials must be of limited combustibility.
6.2.2 In high-rise buildings divided into compartments not exceeding
2 500 m , the assumption is made that only the compartment containing the
fire need be evacuated.
a) Within each compartment, the number of corridors and stairways is
calculated on the basis of
- a minimum of two escape routes
- the permissible cul-de-sacs (10m) in the corridors
- the maximum distances between stairways (30m)
b) The minimum width of all exit routes is fixed at 1.40 m regardless
of the number of occupants.
c) Smoke clearance equipment is obligatory for the exit routes.
d) The walling of the corridors must be resistant to fire for one
hour and that of stairways for two hours.
e) The coatings must be of very limited combustibility.
6.2.3 In blocks of flats, the existing regulations are aimed entirely
at protecting communal exit routes (partitioning, smoke clearance etc.)
depending on the height of the building. There is no mention of the number
or dimensions of escape routes, or do the regulations discuss privately
occupied areas (the interior of dwellings, cellars etc.).
6.3 In the United Kingdom
Existing regulations on means of evacuation apply only to office
buildings, shops and blocks of flats.
6.3.1 For offices and shops the regulations are similar:
a) The population requiring evacuation is calculated for each part of
the building on the basis of occupation densities based on the kind
of use.
b) The exit routes, and particularly the stairways, should normally be
designed for the total evacuation of the building. If, however, the
building is compartmented - especially by floors - the stairways may
be designated for the evacuation of just two adjoining floors provided
that additional safety measures are taken.
c) Lifts, travelators or escalators may not be included in these exit
routes.
d) The number of doors, corridors and stairways is calculated on the
basis of:
- the general obligation to provide two escape routes (where more
than 50 people are involved, or more than three floors in the case
of stairways)
- the permissible cul-de-sacs (12 to 18 m)
- the maximus distances to be traversed in order to reach a stair-
way (30.5 or 45 m)
- the number of people described above (with the compartmentation
option).
e) The required width for access routes is determined on the basis of:
- the number of people as indicated above (compartmentation always
being a possible option)
- the requirement to plan for any possible inability to use one
staircase (in other words the entire population concerned must be
able to be evacuated along n-1 staircases).
 182

6.3.2 For blocks of flats, existing regulations cover the interior of

dwellings and the communal exit routes, and do not provide for the total
evacuation of the building in the event of fire. They prescribe:
a) Maximum lengths of cul-de-sacs between the door of a room and the
door of the apartment (7.5 m) and between apartment doors and
staircases (40 m ) .
b) The conditions under which a second evacuation of the apartments,
floors and stairways could be carried out.
c) The dimensions and protection of stairways.
d) The number of exits and their capacity in terms of the number
of occupants are, however, not stated in the regulations.
6.3.3 In general, use of combustible surfaces along exit routes is
restricted.
6.4 In Denmark
a) The regulations covering exits (doors, corridors, stairways) apply
to all types of buildings and are based on the concept of compart-
mentation. 9
b) Compartments exceeding 150 m are required to have at least two
exits leading to two different escape routes which may be no
longer than 25 m.
c) These exits have an obligatory minimum width (usually 1 m) and where
the compartment contains more than 50 people, the total width of the
exits from a compartment should be at least equal to 1 cm per person.
d) Additionally, compartments on upper storeys must also be equipped with
emergency exits (windows, doors etc.) that can be reached by fire-
men's ladders. There should be one such exit for every ten people.
e) Lifts and escalators are not included in exit routes passing between
floors.
f) The corridors should be partitioned off every 50 m.
g) There are restrictions on the use of combustible surfaces along these
exit routes.
h) In buildings accommodating more than 150 people, the doors must open
outwards.
i) The maximum distance between stairways is 50 m.
j) The steps are required to have a particular form (slope, height and
width of treads).
k) Safety stairs (with air locks, smoke clearance and 2 m clearance)
are required in buildings exceeding 22 m in height and in those
buildings where the fire exits cannot be reached from the fire
engine.
6.5 In Ireland
The Discussion document" requires the provision of a sufficient number
of exit routes and exits so that:
a) The evacuation of all the occupants is possible within a given time.
b) Only a limited distance has to be traversed to reach safety.
c) Occupants generally have the choice of two escape routes.
Incidentally, this document indicates that the Code will lay down
the shape and size of exit routes.
Having come to the end of this review - and I hope that you will
excuse its rather tedious nature - what conclusions can be drawn?

CONCLUSIONS
It should first be noted that these aspects of fire safety in buildings
are tackled in all the documents examined, which shows that in all the
countries concerned there is a fairly similar approach to the problem.
 183

As far as existing and planned protective regulations are concerned,

two major points may be made:
- They have been in force for a very wide range of periods. In the
Federal Republic of Germany and in Denmark, for example, they date
from 1982 and 1983 whereas in France the regulations have been
applied for at least 15 years. It follows from this that the degree
of detail will be very varied and they will not all share the same
technical maturity.
- They have emerged under different legal and technical conditions.
The degree to which they are compulsory differs from country to
country and there is a wide variation in the discretionary powers
accorded to local authorities. In addition, in certain countries
such as Denmark and France, they apply nationally whereas in the
Federal Republic of Germany each "Land" has its own regulations.
Moreover, in the majority of these countries the regulations form
a body of measures that are applicable to all types of buildings
while in France, for example, there are distinct regulations depending
on the nature of the building. Finally, architectural customs and
construction techniques vary from one country to another.
These distinctive features therefore limit the validity of any
comparison. Nevertheless, the following similarities can be noted:
- the requirements for fire-brigade access which are, of course,
based on the rescue equipment deployed;
- the increasing severity of safety measures if the top floor of
a building is beyond the reach of portable ladders (8 m in France
and in the Federal Republic of Germany, 10 m in Denmark) and a
second tightening of restrictions when one part of the building is
beyond the reach of very long truck-mounted ladders (28 m in France,
18 m in the UK);
- the fire resistance of dividing walls (one to two hours) and the fire
resistant qualities of roofing in order to provide protection from
a fire in a neighbouring building,
- the fire resistance of bearing structures in multi-storey buildings
(varying between half an hour and two hours in most cases) ;
- the partitioning off of corridors (30 to 50 m ) .
By contrast, a number of other important aspects share no similarity.
This is particularly the case for:
- the number and capacity of exit routes
- the compartmentation of buildings and high-risk premises
- the protection of facades to prevent fire travelling from neigh-
bouring buildings or between floors.
In spite of the areas of similarity discussed above, the protective
legislation still seems to be very diverse in the various countries studied.
Nevertheless, this does not rule out comparison of the general fire safety
situation in these countries, which should take other important aspects
into account such as smoke clearance, the behaviour of materials when
exposed to fire, fire detection and fire-fighting equipment ... which are
the subject of other papers.
 184

REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING ELEMENTS, MATERIALS AND CONTENTS

Erik PEDERSEN
Danish Fire Protection Association, Denmark

Introduction
It is often claimed by the building industry and by architects
that one of the major problems or trade barriers within the building
area is Fire Safety Requirements/Fire Regulations for buildings
within the EEC-countries. Meanwhile very few studies - if any - have
been carried out and published on the topic so far.
On the other hand it seems surprising, that the requirements for
Fire Safety in buildings should differ to such an extent and at the
same time provide nearly equal safety for the users of the buildings
and for protection of life and properties, recognizing, that the
physics for and the parameters related to fire development and fire
spread is more or less independent of boundaries between countries
and nationality.
The review of Fire Requirements for building materials, components
and structures presented in the following show, that even diffrencies
exist between the various national Fire Regulations, that the main
problem seems to be the different way of formulating and presenting
otherwise equal requirements.
It seems also that the major reason for the after all existing
diffrencies is related to local building traditions and available
materials (bricks, steel and timber) in the EEC -countries. Another
reason has been the lack of calibration of Fire Testing furnaces
and equipments during the time when Fire Safety Requirements changes
from proscribtion of acceptable dimensions for materials, components
and structures to requirements expressed as performance requirements
with references to more or less well defined testing methods and
testing furnaces. I guess that the difference between the traditional
ninety minutes requirements in Germany and the sixty minutes
requirements in some other countries can be explained by this and not
by some overall safety considerations.
1. Requirements to buildings
In the previous lectures today reviews both of fire safety re-
gulations enforced in the various EEC-countries and the requirements
concerning building design, including compartmentation, escape routes
and trade off between passive and active fire protection has been
reviewed.
In this paper I shall review the requirements concerning to
building elements, materials and contents.
As already mentioned one of the major obstructions in harmoni-
zation of fire safety requirements within the COMMON MARKET is the
variation in presentation of requirements. The draft EECproposal on
Basic Principles of Fire Protection of Buildings from 1978 will be
used as frame in the following.

2. Limiting Development of Fire in buildings

"a) In order to limit development of fire within the room where
 185

a fire has started, apart from active fire protection

devices, the main structural method of limiting fire spread
is to limit the use of materials which when ignite is
leading to early flash over".
The fire safety requirements dealing with the problem is the
"reaction to fire" - requirements for materials used for wall and
ceiling linnings and for insulating layers. A review of the various
fire regulations shows, that the basic principle and ranking in
general is very equal with most severe requirements for linnings in
escape routes and in assembly halls and some differentiation for
other types of occupancies. On figure 2 is given a review of require-
ments for surfaces in escape routes etc;
The major problem in this field is meanwhile related to the
testing methods.

3. Limiting spread of fire in building

a) To restrict firespread, the building should be sub-divided
into compartments of maximum dimensions, in such a way as to
limit the fire in accordance with the degree of hazard
involved.
b) Fire spread can also take place from one floor to another
through the windows and facades, hence the need to specify
certain fire characteristics for these facades including the
spacing of window openings.
As reviewed by G. Ferenzy in his paper on building design, divi-
sioning of buildings into fire compartments is a major element both
related to protection of life and of properties. The fire resistance
and the ability of building elements such as walls, ceilings, doors
etc. to fulfil the performance requirement concerning prevention of
fire spread is obtained through the fire resistance requirements to
compartment boundaries. A brief survey of requirements is shown in
figure 3.

4. Stability of buildings
"a) Buildings should be designed on the basis of their fire
load and expected fire hazard so as to resist collapse in a
fire incident, by setting degrees of fire resistance for
the various vertical and horizontal load bearing elements
of structure (Classification R)
Requirement to load bearing structures can be traced back to
before the century and include specifications for fire resistance
of load bearing structures, walls, beams, floors etc.
While requirements to surfaces and materials have a relative
short history, fire resistance tests and specification have had
almost about 80 years of development.
In figure A a review of requirements to load bearing structures
is showed. As for the requirements for compartment boundaries
variation occur from one country to another even if the basic
philosophy seems - long time ago - to have been equal.
It is not possible to identify the reason therefore, but it seems
that one of the possible reasons might be local building tradition
in combination with the actual performance of the national fire
testing institute.

Conclusion
The survey carried out for the Symposium seems for me to be a
 186

clear indication that a first step in harmonization of fire safety

requirements to buildings would be the establishment of a document which
includes the present requirements for the various types of buildings
and occupancies.
I don't believe that it would make any problems for the building
industry to live with variation in requirements from one country to
another - even inside the EEC, as long as the way-of testing is equal.
The major problem seems therefore to be in the field of test
matters for materials. "Reaction to fire" - test.
On the other hand there seems no real justification for not
harmonizing present requirements. A look on fire losses in the EEC-
countries at least shows, that the differences in level of
requirements are not reflected in fire cases.
As a conclusion for this short presentation of the review of
requirements to building elements and materials, I should finally -
also in order to prevent comments from audience - add that there is
no need to harmonize unless one achieves something.
The old EEC-proposal should be reviewed and developed and should
as a next step be developed as a EEC-Model Regulation far Fire Safety.
 187

FIRE DEVELOPMENT MODELLING

Thomas
Fire Research Station Borehamwood UK

Summary

The paper describes developments in modelling fire growth in compart

ments and discusses such matters as the role of energy release,
flashover, and the bearing these have on developing modifying and
harmonising reaction to fire tests.
Brief descriptions are given of the physical bases of fire
growth modelling viz, the calculation of air flow into a compartment,
the room filling process, thermal instability and modelling of
flame spread.
Recent developments in the application of computational fluid
dynamics to fire problems (field modelling) have yet to deal
rigorously with combustion but progress in this field is being made.
There is much international cooperation and developments in Europe
are following those in the US and Japan. There is scope for more
European cooperation between relatively small groups in different
countries.

1. INTRODUCTION
PART I. GENERA L
To some people working in the field of fire the word 'modelling'
makes them think of basic 'way out' research somewhat impractical and
directed at intellectual exercise rather than practical important
problems.
Figure 1 shows that this 'word' in the sense of reduced scale was
acceptable 7080 years ago and Figure 2 shows a model in the sense of
physical analogue (using liquids) at an exhibition 20 years ago. What is
new is that the quantitative analysis of these problems can now be made
so quickly that it is worth getting the basic inputs the geometry, the
material properties, the descriptions of the physics (and soon even the
chemistry) in detail for the numerical calculation of equations hitherto
unsolvable.
Until recently only 'simple' problems could be analysed quantitat
ively. There was always a demand for a simple 'rule of thumb' however
complex the problem! The result was that many people could rightly
believe that the fire problem is to be solved legally and administratively
or empirically rather than by science and engineering. They can go on for
some time believing this: there has been much growth in the legal
approach for controlling hazard and the availability of large 'build and
burn' facilities but it is not as fast as the movements on the technical
horizons.
There are many descriptions of the growth of fire in documents
addressed to practical application. For example, a recent British
Standard on 'The Development and Presentation of Fire Tests and their
Use in Hazard Assessment' ventures to describe briefly in one section
 188

entitled 'Theory' how fire behaves. Accompanying the description is a

temperature/time graph idealised from experiments with no change in its
slope at a point labelled 'flashover1 which is defined in the standard
by reference to the involvement of all fuel.
A catalogue of various fire processes relevant to this growth of fire
includes rate of heat release but the test referred to in this connection
does not measure this quantity. However developments in measurement by
oxygen depletion methods will make this possible.
In discussing the harmonisation of fire tests in the field of
reaction to fire, a phrase that broadly covers all the phenomena prior to
a fully developed fire, a draft document of the Commission of the
European Communities stated 'the reason why the field of reaction-to-fire
is difficult to harmonise is because a lot of problems have not been
resolved' and it argued that research in this field was a short term
priority matter because of the harmonisation problem.
Most countries inside and outside the Community have rules referring
to tests to control the use of those materials which are part of the
building itself. They do not have rules nor codes of practice based on
functional requirements nor design methods other than by specification. In
1958 the Fire Commission of CIB conducted a comparison between reaction-
to-fire tests. Materials were circulated between a few countries which
subjected materials to their own national test or in the case of the UK
to the test now known as the Fire Propagation test, then in its infancy.
One can see from Figure 3 that some tests are broadly similar to others
whilst some tests are very different. The US Spread of Flame test
appeared to be very good (as are most spread of flame tests) in disting-
uishing between poor materials and less good in distinguishing between the
better ones. However no pair of tests showed close correspondence in
classification. Some years later Professor Emmons of Harvard University
demonstrated that an extensive comparison undertaken by ISO showed
correlations between tests to appear little better than random^, (see
Figure 4) ISO recognised that it would be impossible to standardise on
one existing test partly because there was no evidence that any one test
was significantly better than others and partly because of the unwill-
ingness of all members to retest their materials leaving one member not
to have to bother. ISO therefore concentrated on tests that attempted
to isolate what its members agreed to be major features of fire growth.
These were ignitability, spread of flame, rate of heat release and smoke
obscuration (perhaps others will be added). The significance of rate
of heat release had been implicitly recognised in the UK, the Netherlands
and in Sweden, as early as the 1950's when there was an attempt to take
into account the effect of the energy output as well as how rapidly the
flames spread. Although no direct measurements were made of energy
release an indirect assessment was made by measuring the temperatures of
the combustion products of burning material and comparing them with those
when a standard* inert material was subjected to the test. However by
refraining from making a direct absolute measurement of energy one
produces answers that are numerically dependent on the design of the
equipment. Whilst many regulatory authorities argue this is not a problem
provided materials are 'correctly' ranked, it precludes engineering design
methods based on calculation and, in my view, excludes a technical
solution to harmonisation.
The results described by Emmons were a major factor in the devel-
opment of the fire research programme in the United States which
* A standard reference material has to be used because inert materials of
differing thermal properties respond differently.
 189

recognises that fire tests must be based on a proper understanding of the

physics and chemistry of the phenomena involved. A recent discussion about
a new laboratory in a European country outside the Community begins by
stating "the laboratory should be designed so as to allow investigation of
relevant physical laws" . The Commission needs to reaffirm its earlier
recognition of the importance of understanding what is happening in the
course of fire growth.
2. FIRE GROWTH AS A TRANSIENT PROBLEM
Our first purpose in studying the growth of fire is to provide a pro-
per background to and a proper basis for the development of fire tests and
a proper background to understanding the information given by fire tests
but the problem is not confined to fire tests. We are in the business of
saving life and property and very simply, safety from the effects of fire
depends on the time scale of fire growth compared with the time scale of
the awareness to it and the response of the protective measures be they an
automatic extinguishing system, or the public fire brigade. Time is the
essential factor and fire growth is a transient phenomenon and it is this
time scale that we need to understand to develop a systematic approach to
fire safety design ' .
Some important transient properties of fire in enclosures are listed
below. The numbers are indicative of degree rather I han of precision.
2.1 A large source of radiation from objects around 1000C will heat up
the surface of common solid combustible material to over 5-600C in less
than one minute.
2.2 The time scale is very dependent on the density of the material,
foams heat up much faster than rigid materials because they have a lower
density.
2.3 Hot gases from a large fire in a space say 3 or 4 metres high can
travel horizontally at several metres a second.
2.4 Only able-bodied people can walk comfortably at about 1 metre per
second.
2.5 The effects of a fire on one side of insulating material of thickness
about 1 cm can be felt on the other side within a few minutes.
2.6 An upholstered chair burning freely produces heat and smoke at a
rate which will fill a room 5 metres square down to about head height in
less than a minute.
2.7 In urban areas fire brigades reach half the fires in about 4 minutes.

3. THE RELEVANCE OF FLASHOVER

It is generally assumed with much justification for small, but less for
large.compartments that structural damage begins only after the growth of
the fire to flashover. The pre-flashover period is of paramount concern
to life safety. Indeed many deaths in dwellings occur well before flash-
over.
Flashover is primarily relevant to large public buildings where flash-
over in one partially enclosed space threatens the rest of the building.
This is because flashover usually leads to the burning area increasing
rapidly so that the rate of energy release increases0'-10. One kind of
flashover is attributed to a thermal instability or to the rapid ignition
of exposed materials when the level of radiation falling on them reaches
an appropriate level for ignition^^-. Flashover is not then just an
appearance of flame or a particular temperature but the passing of the
fire from one manner of physical behaviour (excess air) to a different
one (excess fuel). Much of the extra energy produced post flashover cannot
 190

be released inside the enclosure: the fire is ventilation controlled. Excess

fuel may leave in hot burning gases through doors or windows adding to the
hazard outside the room of origin. Structual damage will become much more
likely and the difficulties of fire control increase. The ignition of an
accumulation of unburnt gas(excess pyrolyzate) is another, dramatic, but
little studied form of flashover. 12
4. FIRE GROWTH MODELLING
Almost all of the research done on the growth of fire, especially that
concerned with making mathematical models of it assumes a situation ideal-
ised as in Figure 5.This simple 'room filling' concept is the basis of work
done on roof venting 13 and the evaluation of the time before conditions for
people become intolerable due to the smoke layer coming down to head lever.
The most important single quantity in making predictions of how this
system behaves is the rate at which energy is convected upwards. Most of
the energy is convection (perhaps one-third is radiated) so that we can
closely connect the growth of the hot gas layer with the rate of energy
release. This model is surprisingly robust and can be combined with a
thermal model to allow for the heat transfer from the gases to the ceiling,
from the ceiling to the walls, from the ceiling and walls to the fuel, etc
and sensitivity studies can be made to see which factors need to be known
with precision and those which can be tolerated without such precision15.
Recent reviews have been given by Friedman 15 Thomas 1 " and Pettersson1
The simple model is defective in a number of respects. Firstly, if
buildings are very large the heat lost to the ceiling may cause hot gases
to descend 18 at a distance from the fire, whereas radiation heating of the
lower walls tends to cause extra upward flow there 19 . If the rooms are
small a cross-section of the layer may not be large enough in relation to
the opening and the plume for the layer to be considered quiescent or
stagnant, a common approximation. The model should not be used for the
study of sensititive fire detectors since in the very early stages of a
fire the ambient conditions are not controlled by the fire but are contro-
lled by the earlier heating within the room.the air conditioning or the wind
outside. The first convective flow from the fire is strongly influenced
by these conditions. Only at some subsequent time does the fire dominate.
Nevertheless, this simple model has proved very powerful.
In writing down all the mathematical equations governing the pro-
cesses in this room there are some difficulties. These are mainly in
describing the coupling between the fuel and the fire, the radiation from
smoke and the chemical factors that limit the efficiency of combustion
and control the production of energy (and of small amounts of important
chemical species, for example carbon monoxide and other toxic products).
The importance of the coupling between the fire and the fuel is that
materials and items such as chairs start burning in the same way as they
would in the open but because they are inside a building they may later
burn in a vitiated atmosphere or receive extra heating from hot walls and
ceilings. This extra heating is radiative and so is non-linear with
respect to temperature and may be a cause of thermal instability.
It is difficult to predict the rate of spread of flame and the rate
of heat release from an object as complicated as a chair made of a
mixture of materials but experiments can be used to provide data on the
energy release for input into a model (see Figure 6 ) . The Harvard code'
allows for this and does include aspects of the effect of thermal feedback
on flame spread and decomposition rates.
Various forms of the Harvard Code are available in Europe through the
 191

generosity of our American colleagues. It is designed so that it can be

extended to cover flow of gases between compartments and therefore discuss
spread of fire throughout a building. The simpler Quintiere model is
designed to cover one single room and can therefore afford to be a little
more complex in some aspects although it is not so sophisticated in others.
The Quintiere model and the Hagglund model have much in common with the
simple stratified free flow model, already described but with the inclusion
of fuel fire coupling and internal heat exchange. The CSTB model2-^ has
some features in common with both that of the Quintiere and the Harvard
model and some special to itself.
Connecting a room fire and a building fire lead to a discussion of the
hot gases leaving the compartment either to the outside through the windows,
through a doorway or through some break in a partition. Obviously this
can occur at a very early stage if doors and windows are open and we are
then concerned to model the movement of hot gases, the physics of which are
sufficiently well understood for many models to be available, at least for
the spread along corridors. Where the flow is three dimensional, the
simple models mentioned may be inadequate. However, there exists a tool
for dealing with this problem and this is a 'field model'. The models
discussed earlier including the roof venting model are sometimes called
'zone' models because they essentially subdivide the fire into'zones', for
example the hot gas layer and the lower cold gas layer connected by a
plume. Such models do not discuss details within the zones and in general
are confined to discussing the input and the output from each zone and the
average conditions in it. A 'field' model on the other hand discusses
zones of much smaller size, ie. the details of the larger zones. In fact
field models24 purport to solve the basic differential equations of
turbulent flow in spaces of varying geometry. They can deal with energy
release in spaces of various geometries and this is sufficient for
analysing many smoke problems (see Figures 7 and 8 ) . Such models are
being developed to deal with problems of radiation and with combustion.
Work in this area holds great promise for predicting fire behaviour in
general and there is now some effort in the UK, The Netherlands, Germany
and the Nordic countries as well as France.
A second CIB workshop was held in 1983 in Boras to stimulate
European work which began rather later than it did in the USA and Japan.
By and large models are good at predicting whether flashover can
occur and are rapidly becoming good at predicting when it occurs ie
predicting transient behaviour after the ignition conditions have been
defined. Problems involving spread along extended surfaces are the
subject of active study.
The concept of flame spread has been used for a long time as a basis
for fire testing and there is a clear connection between flame spread and
ignition in the presence of a pilot flame. Flame spread is, in our sense,
a process of continuous ignition. The simple mathematics of heating of a
material up to a certain temperature at which it is deemed to ignite can
readily be extended to provide a basis for theory of flame spread. It is
the results of such theory which are incorporated into the Harvard model.
Quintiere2" has gone further and shown how the theory can be used in
conjunction with the results of spread of flame tests to develop a method
of obtaining parameters from the test data that can be used in calculations
involving flame spread in a room (see Part II). So far the models referred
to have all been deterministic. However inaccurate or incomplete, they are
meant to predict quantities, eg the temperature or velocity of gas at a
point at a particular fire. There are models that do not aim to do this.
 192

Called probabalistic or stochastic models they aim to predict, for example,

the probability that the temperature exceeds some value or the probability
that flames have reached the ceiling etc or as fire brigade statistics can
tell us the probability that the fire is confined to the room of origin.
There are various kinds of such iodei' ' 3 . Some design and hazard
assessment methods seek to use such probabilities as inputs in a fault
tree analysis and clearly the methodology has some features relevant to
insurance risk analysis. However the limitation to the use of the approach
is the availability and the collation of data.
5. MATERIALS AMD PROPERTIES
Insofar as we are dealing with reaction to fire we are aware that
there are many data about many different materials, some which char, some
which do not char, some which melt before they ignite, others which do
not; there are many varieties of behaviour. As yet most of the tests
only give data which are useful to the regulator or to the developer of
materials who can us e them in simple ranking procedure. The designer or
theoretician needs to have information of a different kind, he needs to
have numbers that have physical meaning and few tests can do this. It is
expected that the ISO Ignitability and Spread of Flame Tests can provide
information which can be used by modellers and CIB is recommending to
ISO that it recognises this requirement when developing or modifying fire
tests in the future. Obviously it would be wrong to design or modify fire
tests to make the modellers' requirements those with greatest priority
but there are instances where a simple modification may increase the
information from the tests, and there may be situations where a test can
be simplified for regulatory purposes even if a more complicated version
remains necessary for modelling.
The work of the researcher has already demonstrated the need for
certain information as yet not available from fire test, even the simple
fire triangle (see Fig 9) shows that it is useful to know how much energy
is required to liberate unit mass of flammable gases from a liquid
or solid fuel, yet no test has provided this information! Likewise every-
body recognises the importance of the product of thermal properties K C
(where AC is thermal conductivity, ft is density and C is specific heat)
but no test gives direct information about this; perhaps ignitability and
spread of flame tests can be used to obtain it. For future work, be they
experiments conducted in the laboratory or tests conducted in testing
houses, there is a need for a community data base. CIB has recommended
that one be established internationally but the efforts so far are
voluntary.
 193

PART II: FIRE GROWTH PROCESSES

Part II comments briefly on the main areas where quantitative

statements can be made about fire growth and indicates some of
the conclusions and applications of the theory of fire growth
in particular applications to design, and control of hazard.

Air flow,plumes and 'room filling'

The classic model of air flow through an opening into a fully
developed fire expresses the velocity as dependent on window height and is
derived from hydraulic weir theory. It has been widely used for post flash
over fires. The model as conventionally used is based on still air outside
the opening, hence as Harmathy^O points out, it might be inappropriate for
windy places such as the North Sea.
It is the basis of many smoke flow models for flow in corridors and
ducts.
For the fire growing prior to flashover the outflow is conventionally
described by equations similar to that for a fully developed postflashover
fire but the inflow is not. The restriction to flow is not then normally
the window but the entrainment into the flames and the plume above them.
Air is lifted up into the upper hot gas layer diluting the rising combustion
products (see Fig 5 ) . The evaluation of this entrainment is clearly impor
tant and is the subject of much study j especially the influence on it of
the nearby walls, corners and openings . For a first approximation for
distances well away from the source and from the walls. The mass of rising
gas at a height 'Z' in uniform surroundings from a source emitting Q units
thermal energy (convection) per unit time is

.-*pO-tLlr*%f.i5lt (1)
where T is absolute temperature of ambient gases
and a isaconstant.
The latest 'best estimate' of'a' is Zukoski's ( 0.21)
is the mean heat release per second.
m is the rate of increase of mass in the stratified hot gas layer.
If is identified as the height above the fire of the base of the hot
gas layer then the rate at which the layer descends depends on m (and hence
on itself). This leads in the simplest case to an expression for the time
X to descend to 'Z' from the initial value, the height of the rooms.

r. (V3 G)* Ci* (2)

where 'b' is a constant depending on the choice of 'a'.and A is floor area:
Once the base of the layer reaches the top of any opening we must cal
calculate somewhat differently. The advent of ready computation allows one
to effect easily the more realistic but complicated versions of this ex
pression allowing for
 194

31
(1) the effects of position of fire eg. centre, corner near wall
(2) finite areas of fire
(3) tendencies for nonuniformity in a room eg. the heating of the roof by
sunlight could prevent gases from a small fire reaching the ceiling.
(4) circulation in a room with an opening in one side can prevent plumes
rising vertically.
(5) rising and falling wall plumes '
Steckler et al have made extensive measurements in connection with
the above problems.
The value of a formula such as equation (2) is twofold the first is
to be a basis for prediction and the second is to be a framework for
experimental work designed to study the influence of the factors omitted.
Formulae of varying degrees of complexity derived from equation (1), or
developed in more detail from the same foundations, are now widely used in
calculations, including considerations of how much time is available *"or
escape.
The discerning reader will have noted that equation (2) predicts
(a) that it takes forever for to become zero; in practice 12 m is a
convenient end point
(b) that if is taken as 12 m, T i s little influenced by room height
if this is more than about 10 m.
(c) The important property of the fire is its energy release rate,Q, and
the important property of the compartment is its area A, not its height
H.

Fire Growth
We have seen above the one important property of a burning object is
the rate of energy release per unit time. Ordinarily this is time dependent
release. Techniques of measurement based on oxygen depletion now permit
estimates to be made of the heat release from burning objects better than
those previously based on mass loss measured on a weighing platform.
One could envisage knowing from experiment, or failing that from
estimates based on other data, what fraction 'f' is radiated and what
fraction (1f) is convected.
Such data allows us to compute the movement of a hot gas layer, and to
calculate the radiation flux falling on nearby objects. We can then cal
culate when they in turn ignite and contribute to the fire. Calculations
can be made of the growth and temperature in the hot gas layer and heat loss
by convection to the ceiling and the upper walls and by radiation. We can
make first approximation calculations for the effect of this 'feedback' on
to the fuel itself.
These effects and others are now incorporated to varying degrees of
detail in many two layer 'zone' models eg Quintiere2^ ,Hagglund2 , Hognon,
Curtat et a l 2 3 , the Harvard C o d e 2 0 and Tanaka's model33.
There are several areas where more physical and chemical data are
required either as inputs into models or as data to validate models. Some
of these are
(1) effective heats of pyrolysis to 'couple' the fire and the fuel
correctly
(2) studies of the effects of oxygen vitiation on burning
(3) studies of combustion in the hot gas layer
(4) studies of the radiation from the smoky hot gas layer.
Mention has already been made of an interesting result from relatively
simple modelling that includes a nonlinear response of the fuel to gas
temperature.
 195

34
Non linearity can result in responses such as in Figure 10. Recently
the hysteresis predicted by theory has been deomonstrated experimentally
by Hasemi . There are several Possible physical or chemical processes
that can cause flashover ie not all flashovers are the same. They are not
caused by a particular temperature being reached though one kind of flash-
over can be associated with a threshold level of radiation incident onto
flammable materials at a particular distance from the fire. Nevertheless
one can, for practical purposes often associate flashover with particular
temperature rises in the upper gas layer. Various values have been pro-
posed. 600C is such a value. Simple energy balances can therefore define
if a particular heat release rate can produce such a temperature and so
cause flashover.
The principal factors determining this twofold energy release rate are
(1) A / H - a measure of convective loss
(2) A - a measure of conduction loss
(3) other factors affecting the conduction loss through the walls.
Figure 11 shows various correlations^-^9 Again we note the impor-
tance of energy release rate.
To a first approximation we can relate temperatures in the upper part
of a given room to an energy release rate.
This can be measured by a test for an object such as a chair or pile
of goods (using oxygen depletion methods) and may even be calculated for
a flammable liquid. Data can be put together for a series of separated
objects as fire spreads from one to another. One needs of course to com-
pute heat loss and using information on ignitability of materials one can
in principle compute the progress of the fire. This is in principle a
straightforward procedure but there are problems to be solved in describing
the radiation from smoke layers, the propagation of flame through them, and
of course incorporating the contribution of fire spread on extended surfaces
and much effort is now being expended, mainly in the USA. Quintiere nas
had some success in exploiting modifications of one of the simplified cor-
36
relations to interpret some experimental temperature/time curves (see
Figure 12 a and b ) .
Attempts are now being made to incorporate spread on wall linings,
floor etc. into fire growth models.
A simple first approach ' is to divide the surfaces into elements of
area eg squares and allow for the radiation received by each element. If
it exceeds a predetermined threshold (ignition threshold) the area is deemed
to be burning,liberating heat.

Spread of flame tests give a record of distance of spread as a function

of time when flame is spreading from regions exposed to refined radiation
to regions of lower exposure.
Quintiere" has shown how such data can be interpreted to give data
which can be used in models but all standard tests are done in normal atmos-
pheres and research is needed to study the effects of vitiation.
It so happens that the procedures in data analysis to be adopted would
be different from, and hence would have to be additional to those custom-
arily used for regulatory purposes, but at least this type of fire test does
give data transferable to other situations.
The prediction from combinations of chemical and fluid dynamic models
of how much smoke is released by a particular burning object is rather fur-
ther away than the prediction of temperature rises, air speed, ignition
times etc. Where more than one material is involved the problems of def-
inition may become paramount. Reliance must still be placed on experiments
and tests and there is the need, already mentioned in other connections to
 196

ensure that experiments and tests measure what is required as an input

into calculation models.

CONCLUSION
The control of the hazards from growing fires are at present based
largely on empirical rules and on using tests which in general give clari
fications and indices rather than data for calculation purposes. The
effect of changes in materials, use and design cannot be predicted quan
titatively by these methods. This paper has given an outline of the
present state of art of modelling preflashover fires and, it is hoped,
will give confidence that useful progress is being and will continue to
be made. This progress has not been the result of any strong Community
commitment to a research strategy though an increasing number of insti
tutions realise the value in following the US lead. Up to this meeting
liaison within the Community has been mainly by bilateral contacts with
the USA or within CIB W14 which depends on voluntary efforts. There is
scope for more cooperation and coordination.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper forms part of the work of the Fire Hesearch Station,
Building Research Establishment, Department of the fc'nvironment. It is
contributed by permission of the Director, BRE.

REFERENCES
1. BKITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1983) Fire Tests on Building Structures
and Materials. Guide to the Principles & application of fire testing
British Standard 476 Part 10 1983 BSI London.
2. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (1979) "Protection of Buildings
Against Fire". Draft Research, Programme III/827/79.
3. JOINT FIRE RESEARCH ORGANISATION (1959). Fire Research 1958. Report
by the Director of Fire Research HMSO, London.
4. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS Standard method of test for
surface flammability of materials using a radiant energy source. E162
67 ASTM 1916. Race St Philadelphia PA 19103.
5. EMMONS H W (1968) Fire Research Abroad. Fire Research Abstracts and
reviews. National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council
Washington D.C 10 133.
6. THE NORWEGIAN FIRE RESEARCH LABORATORY(1982) New Laboratory Facilities.
Needs for studying Hydrocarbon fires in Offshore Modules. S1UTEF Report
No STF25A82006.
7. WAKAMATSU. (1984) Fire Research in Japan.Paper given at 'Fire 84'
Federation of British Fire Organisations International Conference
in Birmingham, UK May 1984.
8. NELSON E (1983) Credible engineering methodologies (as a solution
to bridging the fire safety technology gap). Paper given at the
Conference on Communications between the fire research community and
the owneroperators of buildings in Washington DC, 10 November 1903.
9. THOMAS . BULLEN M L. QUINTIERE J G and McCAFFREY BJ (1980)
Combustion and Flame 38 159171.
10. HASEMI Y (1979) Flashover Criteria of Compartment Fires. Building
Research Inst. Research Paper 83. Tokyo.
11. WATERMAN E (1972) Fire Technology 8 316325.
12. BEYLER C 'The Prediction of the Onset of Layer Burning in Compartment
Fires' To be published in Combustion Science Technology.
 197

13. T H O M S , HIlli'.LEY et al (19G3) Investigations into the Flow of Hot

Gases in roof venting. Joint Fire Research Organisation, Fire Research
Technical Paper Mo 7. HUSO, London, 1963.
14. ZUKOSKI E E (1078) Fire Materials 2 54.
15. FRIEDMAN R (1981)'Status of mathematical modelling of fires'. First
specialists meeting of the Combustion Institute, University of
Bordeaux LXXV.
16. THOMAS (1983) Fire Safety Journal 5 181190.
17. PETTERSSON 0 (1984) Building Research 4 Practice 12 3. 150.
18. COOPER L Y (1983) 'On the significance of a wall effect in enclosures
with growing fires'. NBSIR 832730, National Bureau of Standards,
Washington.
19. SUNDSTRM B and WICKSTROM U (1981) 'Fire: full scale tests'. Technical
Report SPRAPP 1981: 48, National Testing Institute, Boras.
20. HITLER E and , H W (1981) 'Computer fire code V. Home fire
project', Technical Keport No 45, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
21. QUINTIERE J G (1977) 'Growth of fire in building compartments'. ASTM
Symposium Fire Standards and Safety, held at National Bureau of
Standards, Gaithersburg, 56 A pril 1976. ASTM Special Technical
Publication STP614, Washington 131167.
22. HAGGLUND B (1983) 'A room fire simulation model'. Report C 20501D6,
National Defence Research Institute (F0A ), Stockholm.
23. H0GN0N B, CURTAT M & RILLING J (1981) First Specialists meeting of the
Combustion Institute. Univ. Bordeaux 665; and CURTAT M et al idem
671.
24. COX G and MARKATOS C( 1982)'Turbulent buoyant heat transfer in
enclosures containing a fire source'. Proceedings of the Seventh
International Heat Transfer Conference in Munich 6 373.
25. BA UM H R and REHH R G 'Calculations of Three Dimensional Buoyant
Plumes in Enclosures' To be published in Combustion Science 4
Technology.
26. QUINTIERE J G (1981) Fire Safety Journal 3 201214.
27. WILLIAMSON R (1981) Fire Safety Journal 3 243.
28. M0RISHTA Y (1978). Statistical analysis of fire spread processes in
houses, Building Res. Inst. Res. Pap., Tokyo, March.
29. RAHACHANDRAN G (1984) 'stochastic Modelling of Fire Growth', Paper
given at Symposium on Application of Fire Science to Fire Engineering
in Denver Colorado June 1984.
30. HARMATHY (1980/81) Fire Safety Journal 3 261.
31. 1 Y 'Some experimental aspects of Turbulent Diffusion Flames 4
Fire Plumes along a wall and in a corner'. To be published in
Combustion Science 4 Technology.
32. STECKLER D, QUINTIERE J G 4 RINKINEN W J (1982) 'Flow induced by
Fire in a Compartment' NBSIR 822520 National Bureau of Standards
Washington D.CSept 1982.
33. TANAKA (1980) ' A model of fire spread in small scale buildings'
Research Paper No 84, Building Research Institute, Tokyo.
34. THOMAS (1980/81) Fire Safety Journal 3 67.
35. HASEMI Y 4 T O K U N A G A 'On the Ventilation Conditions for the
Appearance of Thermal Instability Enclosure Fires' (To be published)
36. MCCAFFREY J, QUINTIERE J G and HAHKLEROAD M F (1981) Fire
Technology 17 98119.
37. BABRAUSKAS V (I960) Fire Technology 16 94.
 198

38. THOMAS (1981) Fire Materials 5 (3) 103.

39. HAGGLUND B, JANSON R and ONNERMARK B (1974) 'Fire development in
residential rooms after ignition from nuclear explosions'. Report C
20016D6 (A 3), National Defence Research Institute (FOA ), Stockholm.
40. QUINTIERE J G (1983) A Simple Correlation for predicting Temperatures
in a Room Fire. National Bureau of Standards Washington DC NBS1R,
832712.

Figure 1 Fire from opened smoke Figure 2 Model of roof venting

vents of model theatre a factory shown at the Rote Hahn
Exhibition in Cologne, 1961.

British Dutch
Commonwealth French
Fite Propagation
Fire Propagation Epiradiataur Teil NEN 1076
Test Ten
Teit Building Station
Tail Inde Clin
Ciati Ciati
A c D 1 Dl Ml Fl I m IZ
Cia Inde
A B C 0 32 24 16 B C
NI
^
31
Ml
. \
\
32 Test
Aultdlian
Commonwealth 24 fl i
a \
E apei imeni i l
Building S i m o n 16 %. I
* s^ I

8 t Dutch
Tett

h. \
...
1 \
T ; **
NEN 1076 m
"V jh":
US
National Bureau
100

200
IE
05
04 ' __j
s
of Standards
New Reaction 03
j J
!1 II i
Flame Speed 300
~
Indai
to Fire Tesi D2
I 1
1
400

,
0 1 " j

i
: 1

Figure 3a Correlation of tests Figure 3b Comparison between

of various countries to assess reaction to fire tests
propagation of fire on wall
linings (1958)
 :

I
;

11
1','t
r 1 f]
(1
|'
'
"*' .'
1 \ ' r' (Concentration of oxygenY 0iu
" 1 1 '~Jf1 ',1 ' ' ' | Temperature fise 0 u
"1 "
1
"'
I
^
;
1 "

J
I! ' I * '
1 1
* 1 ? " " ^*1 ' Concentration
1 NJJpjrj^oOKvgenYoji
' ' i
1 :
1 1
'' ' I
I 4 I 1 Figure 5 Ttio layer model
(after QuintLere)

Figjre 4 Ccnpariscn of test

rankings 1967

Figure 6 Qiergy cuput. An

essential characteristic frem Figure 7 Temperature perspective
burning material product

Fuel Fuel

Vapour Liquid
olid

Figure 8 Particle tracking simulation

of smoke/heat frcm fire plume in
corridor (Courtesy NBS ref 25) Figure 9 The fire triangle and
mass transfer branch
 200

I
O Oaia i Heggtund al 000
Thome
Batyeualu
McCaffrey alai

* "**.
00- t^'""*"''

s^**"
/
//
IO 4o So eo

Figure 10 Thermal instabilities Figure 11 Comparison of flashover

( = 600C) predictions (after
Quintiere)

Figure 12a Experiments in fire Figure 12b Experiments in fire

growth (after Quintiere) growth (after Quintiere)
 201

TESTING AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE RESISTANCE TO FIRE OF BUILDING COMPONENTS

dr. ir. P. VANDEVELDE

Laboratorium voor Aanwending der Brandstoffen en Warmte-Overdracht
Rijksuniversiteit Gent

Summary

- This contribution is a report of the study carried out on the request

of E.E.C. - DGIII in the field of harmonization of the resistance to
fire test and classification methods.
- Besides the report of the study and its main conclusions, it gives a
survey of the historical background, and of the activities of E.E.C.
- DGIII in this field.
- The publication of a new, much closer specified draft standard is an-
nounced, together with a proposal for further activities :
the extension of the method to other families of building elements
and the harmonization of extrapolation rules for test results.
- Some non-technical aspects related with the harmonization problem,
are highlighted such as international competition, the cost of harmo-
nization, safety and regulatory aspects.

This contribution is the report of a study carried out by Mr. Dekker from
T.N.O. (The Netherlands), Mr. Klingelhfer from M.P.A. - N.W. Dortmund
(Germany) and I on the request of the European Commission DGIII, to harmonize
the resistance to fire tests and classification methods.

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Although the first records of resistance to fire tests date back to the
end of the 18th century, the test method under its current form, with the
well-known temperature time curve, appeared in the early 20th century.
It was standardised for the first time in the U.S.A. in 1918 under the name
C19, precursor of the current ASTM A 119.
In several western countries, similar test methods were developed and stan-
dardised at the national level. Although based on the same technical safety
concept, the national standards were slightly different. In an ISO-context,
starting in 1962 efforts were made to arrive at an internationally standar-
dised test method. In 1968 ISO-recommendation R 834 and in 1975 ISO-standard
834 was published. However, this standard appeared to be a common denominator
of the national standard in the participating countries. The description of
the standard was restricted to basic principals and to those aspects of the
test method on which agreement was obtained.'
This means that most of the national standards correspond roughly with
 202

the ISO-standard without producing the same test results and classification.
It is known from practice that the same building-component can be classified
from 1/2 up to 4 hours according to the national standard used. With such
classification-differences, it is obvious that international exchange is as
good as impossible. Considered as a barrier for international exchange, the
problem of the resistance to fire of building components was tackled by DG
III/C3 of the European Commission. A solution was sought by drafting a new
standard to serve as a harmonised test method. This document is the well-
known doc. 1202 : "Testing and Classification of the Resistance to Fire of
Structural Building Components".
This document, based on the ISO standard 834, contains additional spe-
cifications which were not included in the ISO standard. It covers a series
of special conditions for some building components, such as some columns,
walls exposed at both sides, etc It defines, in order to meet the needs
of some national legislations, the notions of :
REI : stability + integrity + thermal isolation
RE : stability + integrity
R : stability
for building components satisfying respectively 3, 2 or only 1 of the crite-
ria. The document 1202, issued in 1977, failed to gain acceptance by the na-
tional authorities because it was considered unable to guarantee interlabo-
ratory reproducibility at international level.
The classical scenario to tackle this kind of problem would have been
to carry out a round robin test program with the laboratories of the Euro-
pean Community. A rough estimation of the cost of such exercise can be made
if one considers about five different types of building components (parti-
tions, walls, floors, columns, beams) to be tested in about fifteen european
laboratories. It means 75 resistance to fire tests for a, statisticaly spea-
king non representative sample. Moreover, a statement on the discrepancies
between the test results without an evaluation of their origin would not
bring us one step closer to the solution of the problem. To the credit of
Mr. Mourareau he tackled the problem in an original way, by creating a task
group of three people, familiar with fire-resistance tests. The task group
was commissioned to visit the different european laboratories to analyse the
problem.

2. THE MISSION OF THE TASK GROUP

The mission of the task group was to investigate and find out the rea-
sons for the potential differences in test results in applying the test
method of doc. 1202 by the different european laboratories.
A second task was to examine the conformity of the existing testing-
equipment in the different laboratories with the requirements resulting from
doc. 1202. The task group focused its attention on the following aspects of
the problem :
- the existing equipment in the laboratories and their capability to follow
the procedure defined in document 1202; this includes :
* the design of the furnaces and loading equipment;
* the measuring and control devices;
* the thermal capacity of the burners, etc...;
- the interpretation and understanding of document 1202 by the different
laboratories including :
* design of the specimen;
* realisation of the thermal and mechanical end conditions;
* the interpretations of the classification criteria;
* the know-how of the staff;
* the test reports with regard to the information provided.
 203

No comparison were made of heat transfer in the several furnaces because

the influence of these differences had been examined and reported earlier
by van Keulen in 1974, and more recently by Claes Holman and Pentti Loik-
kanen in a "Joint investigation of vertical furnaces in Nordic countries".
Although differences were observed, they do not explain the actual encoun-
tered differences in classification. The full report of our task group is
a voluminous document which was delivered to the sponsor.

3. THE ACTIVITIES OF THE TASK GROUP

Fifteen laboratories, listed by DGIII, together having 39 furnaces,

were included in the examination (table 1). Prior to the visit, an extended
questionnaire on the equipment, test procedure and test reports, was sent
out to all the laboratories and the answers were studied. The workgroup
then visited every laboratory for one day. During those visits, the answers
to the questionnaire were scrutinized and completed. An actual test was
carried out, the test results were examined in depth and the existing equip-
ment was investigated. The work was split up in two phases :
- A first stage involved only the three laboratories belonging to the work-
group. The outcome of the first stage was an interim report, discussed by
all the participating laboratories.
- The second stage, involving all 15 laboratories, was carried out on the
basis of a revised questionnaire.
During the exercise an additional short questionnaire on the calculation of
test loads was included. As result of these visits a full report, containing
both the answers to the questionnaire and the reports of the single visits,
with all the detailed information, was delivered to the sponsor. A summary
of the report will shortly be published by the EC-DGIII as : " Analysis of
fire test equipment in E.E.C, laboratories" and a revised version of doc.
1202 will be issued at the same time.

4. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE ROUND-UP

4.1. The main conclusion is that the existing doc. 1202 (and also ISO
R 834) was not detailed and precise enough to avoid different interpreta-
tion by different laboratories. Especially with respect to the design of
the specimen the standard is deficient. It is based on the principle :
"The test must be performed on a full-scale test-component which is identi-
cal with the buildig-component on which information is required, or on a
representative portion of that component". Obviously, the interpretation of
the concept of representative portion", was fundamentally different by dif-
ferent persons in different laboratories. This was quite apparent in the de-
sign of the mechanical boundary conditions of structural components, since
there is no specific condition laid down by the standard for using the ex-
pression "identical to the building-component" or "representative portion".
It is quite obvious that in the practical configuration for floors, columns
and beams, the situation can vary from fully restrained over partly restrai-
ned to free hinges. Also thermal dilatation can be free or prohibited. It is
evident that such different boundary conditions do have a strong influence
on the test results. Another striking example is the lack of preciseness in
the measurements used for classification and interpretation. E.g. the use of
additional fixed and/or roving thermocouples, for the maximum temperature
rise and the interpretation of glowing in the cotton pad technique have an
important influence on the classification of some building elements. It was
not surprising to find out that doc. 1202 could be differently interpreted
on many points. Indeed, we established that, in countries where several
 204

laboratories exist, the interpretation of the own national standard was

sometimes different on some essential points. In Germany, the 5 laboratories
have set up a coordination group, to solve these problems. The U.K. actual-
ly followed the same procedure with a similar commission.
4.2. It also appeared that doc. 1202 was not sufficiently well known
by the national laboratories and it is read and interpreted from one's own
experience. This particular phenomenon is more pervasive to the extent that
doc. 1202 lacks detailed information. "Know how" then becomes the most im-
portant element in its interpretation ! This is nothing more than normal;
but it leads us to the conclusion that the testing method cannot be detai-
led enough; and that even an "overspecification" is desirable if one wants
interlaboratory reproducibility.
4.3. Our visits to the laboratories also showed differences in the pre-
cision and in the accuracy obtained in the various labs. There exists some
"quality" differences. We found for example that in some laboratories, the
temperature measurements (with thermocouples) were not carried out correct-
ly. We witnessed rather deficient overpressure-measurements. Also the pre-
cision in applying the loads was sometimes insufficient. This qualitative
discrepancy may be explained by the training of the staff, the approach of
the individuals and their experience and mentality.
4.4. The available testing-equipment does not allow everywhere the
correct application of doc. 1202. The greatest difficulties here are both
the thermal and the mechanical boundary conditions for structural building-
components. For columns for example, the installation is such that the boun-
dary conditions are not well defined, so that the exact buckling-length is
unknown. The length of the unheated ends of the columns is unacceptably
long in numerous laboratories. This problem of the unheated ends of buil-
dong-components is very significant, especially for prestressed floors and
beams.
4.5. An important negative external factor on harmonization of resis-
tance to fire tests for loadbearing elements is the lack of an European
design code for load calculation. It appeared from the answer on our ques-
tionnaire that for steel members the differences are relatively small. They
become more important for concrete elements, and the loads are widely dis-
persed for timber elements.
4.6. The test reports, drawn up according to the national standards of
the participating laboratories, seemed very insufficient for international
exchange. The description of the test-item itself as well as that of the
thermal and mechanical boundary conditions are insufficient. This means al-
so that the way of drawing up a test report has to be harmonized.

CONCLUSION OF THE MISSION

Our experience from this mission led us to the conclusion that even if the
testing-equipment itself has an influence on the testing-results, this in-
fluence can be neglected when compared to the discrepancies in interpreta-
tion of doc. 1202 by the various laboratories. So doc. 1202 had to be re-
drafted, describing and detailing the testing-method and the evaluation-
criteria.

5. A NEW DRAFT

We started from the assumption that we would change as little as possi-

ble the contents of the document,because it was considered as an european
compromise on which consensus had been obtained. The changes made were :
* The lay-out was completely changed in order to make the document easier
to read and more accessible.
 205

* The text was much closer specified and detailed to eliminate all the dif-
ferences in interpretation we met during our visits; especially in the
fields of specimen design, boundary-conditions and criteria.
* The applicability of the test was limited, in order to separate tests in
the "research field" from standard tests.
* A mandatory content and form of the test reports is included.
The document we propose consists of three chapters.
Chapter 1 contains the general standard with the generally applicable pres-
criptions concerning :
1) the test equipment : the furnaces, the loading equipment, the measuring
instruments for the control of the furnace and the measurements on the
test specimen;
2) the test specimen:
3) the test procedure which includes :
- the furnace conditions
- the loading
- the measurements on the test specimen.
A) the evaluation criteria and the evaluation itself.
This chapter can be used for other building components than these actually
included in the standard.
Chapter 2 contains the particular prescriptions specific to each family of
building components :
- loadbearing partitions and walls;
- non-loadbearing partitions and walls;
- columns;
- floors;
- beams.
Here standard test conditions for other families of building elements such
as doors, suspended ceilings, etc... can easily be fit in.
Chapter 3 defines the lay-out and the minimum content of the test reports.
This final document was completed and forwarded to the Commission at the
end of 1982. Its publication in 4 languages can be expected within the next
weeks.

6. PROPOSAL FOR FUTURE ACTIVITIES

In order to remove the technical barriers for trade within the E.E.C.
in the field of resistance to fire two important fields of activities have
to be tackled in a near future :
1) The scope of doc. 1202 should be enlarged to other families of building
elements. Especially those building elements which are most likely to
be involved in international trade, are not yet included in the stan-
dard : doors, suspended ceilings, protective claddings for steel and
concrete, cable and pipe penetration systems, ventilation dampers, ven-
tilation ducts; glazings, etc... For some of them such as cable and pipe
penetrations, ventilation dampers and ducts,national standardization
procedures are on the way in different member countries. These activi-
ties are counter to harmonization at the european level. An immediate
action is advised to stop disharmonization in several fields. The Euro-
pean Commission can offer the platform for these activities.
2) The field of application of test results has to be defined and harmoni-
zed. In principal the results of fire resistance tests are only valid
for identical building elements and for the elements of which they are
a "representative portion". In practice however in the various countries
different, usually not-standardised, interpolation and extrapolation
rules become the common practice, due to the cost of tests and the prac-
 206

tical impossibility of testing all varieties of a building element.

For example, with protective claddings on steel and concrete well-defi-
ned procedures are followed in some countries which allow interpolation
and/or extrapolation rules based on volume relationships (table 2 ) .
The extrapolation systems are commonly based on a mandatory choice of
type specimen, and they are not covered in the standard describing the
test procedure. Differences in these procedures are as strong barriers
to trade, as differences in the main standard. Here also, there are
developments going on which hinder harmonization.

7. NON-TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE HARMONIZATION PROBLEM

During our mission and in our daily experience, we observed quite a

number of obstacles against the harmonization process, obstacles which are
outside the testing area. Here we mention two economic aspects of the pro-
blem : i.e. the influence on international competition and the cost of har-
monization. There are also safety and regulatory aspects.
1. International competition

- The necessity of good interlaboratory reproducibility itself is based on

the request for "fair" international competition between manufacturers.
In fact, the economic impact of systematic differences in testing results,
particularly in the severity of the test, strongly influences internatio-
nal competition. Systematic requirements for more stringent tests require
more sophisticated, and as a consequence, also more expensive building
components. This influences international competition.
- In today's economic circumstances, it seems that the point of view of
industry toward possible harmonization may likely be changed. In the
earlier 70's harmonization was looked upon as a possible extension of
one's own potential market. Nowadays, some are gradually arriving at a
position in which harmonization is looked upon as opening one's own more
or less protected market to foreign competition. This trend simply seems
to follow the economic and commercial protective trend which is quite ap-
parent today and which certainly stands in the way of a full harmonization.

2. Cost of harmonization

Every harmonization effort simply means, in a practical situation,

that almost all of the participating countries will be forced to amend
their own testing-methods as well as their degree of severity. Harmoniza-
tion, e.g. a change in the testing-methods, automatically means that the
industry will have to adapt its production. In principle, this means that
in the countries where the testing-method will increase in severity, the
products have to be improved in order to satisfy the standard. On the other
hand, where the test will become less severe, the products will be scaled
down in an effort to remain competitive. This involves a lot of financial
effort to cover the investigations and the tests as well as for the actual
modification of the production lines. This in many cases will prove to be
the most expensive part of the whole operation.

3. Safety-aspects

It is obvious that, apart from economic considerations, the safety-

strategy coupled to existing legislation also restrains fast and full har-
monization. This safety-strategy and more particularly the importance of
the compartmentation principle, does indicate several differences between
 207

the participating countries. An example of this could be the German approach

on the one hand, compared to the Anglo-French on the other. In the German
point of view a compartment is an absolute limit for fire-extension. One of
the consequences is that 180C is an absolute limit for temperature-rise.
Other consequences are the unconditional use of the REI classification and
the most stringent interpretation of the cotton pad technique. In France and
in Great-Britain on the contrary, the compartment limit is not applied as
stringently, which will give room to shutters and glazings for which only
the RE or even the R condition exists. In this approach, local temperature
rise on the tested building component is not so important and no roving nor
supplementary thermocouples on weak places are used, nor are flashes with
short duration coming through an opening taken into account.

4. Legislation

Legislation tries to achieve constructive fire-safety through a sum of

coherent measures complementary one another, and in which the fire-resistance
is an important element. This means that the testing-method and the regula-
tions are intrinsically bound; and of course any important change in one of
these elements, for instance the fire resistance test, will also entail an
important change in the regulations if one wants to maintain an equivalent
safety-standard. It goes without saying that the standards which were brought
about quite slowly and are the outcome of national experiences and compro-
mises, cannot be changed overnight just because of some modification in the
fire resistance testing methods. This also stands seriously in the way of a
rapid harmonization.

CONCLUSIONS

1. It goes without saying that the new draft is certainly not yet perfect.
All we can say is that it is the most complete and most accurately spe-
cified document available at this time. So the legislator has the dis-
posal of a document on which harmonization can be based.
2. A good basis is created by the new draft for extending the field of ap-
plication of the test method to building elements which are more subject
to trade than those included in the present draft. Here it is our task
to stop a fast growing disharmonization tendency by extending as soon as
possible the scope of the new draft.
3. For a European harmonization of fire resistance tests to become a reality
depends mainly on the political willingness to implement this kind of
harmonization. We really have great doubts whether this political will
does exist at present and whether it is able to overcome the non-techni-
cal aspects of the problem.
4. Pragmatic and easily achievable progress may be accomplished through bi-
lateral contacts between countries, or through mutual agreements between
laboratories over recognition of test results obtained according to this
document. This result is however very inadequate when compared with the
real goal of the efforts made.
TABLE 1
Number of W C F
furnaces Walls Columns Floors Beams
BELGIUM : R.U. Gent 3 + + + + (=F)

DENMARK : Dantest - Copenhagen 2 + - + + (=F)

FRANCE : C.S.T.B. - Paris 3 + + + + (=F)

C.T.I.CM. - Mzires-lez-Metz 3 (m) + + + + (=F)

GERMANY : B.A.M. - Berlin 3 + + + + (=F)

T.U. - Braunschweig 6 + ++ + +

M.P.A. - Dortmund 4 + - + +
O
F.M.P.A. - Stuttgart 3 + + + + (=F) oo
H.F. - Mnchen 1 + - - -
ITALY : Centro Studi ed Esperiensi del Ministero
dell1 Interno - Roma
Km) + + (=W) + (=W) + (=W)

THE NETHERLANDS : I.B.B.C - T.N.O. Delft 3 + - + +

U.K. F IRTO - Borehamwood 3 + + + + (=F)

TRADA - High Wicombe Km) + - + (=W) + (=W)

Warrington Research Center - Warrington 2 + - + + (=F)

Yarsley Technical Center - Redhall 1 + - - -

(m) multipurpose furnaces

 TABLE 2
Are calculation pro- Is the method Is it specified what Does this interpolation method provide a means for esti-
cedures for interpo- described in an basic tests are to mating the effect of the following changes of the element Remarks
lation & extrapola- official document 7 be carried out in on its fire resistance ? and
Country cion of results of order to obtain the futur
standard fire resis- necessary data for thickness load length grade of thermal developments
tance teses used for massivity
inter- & extrapolat. ? insulant level and sup- steel exposure
classification ? port con-

Extrapolation and Normally the inter- - 4 unloaded short

interpolation meth- polation and extra- columns
ods can be accepted, polation method is - 1 loaded beam tes-
although no official based on the (non ted in accordance
prescriptions are
available
official) document
"Bouwelementen uit
with NBN 713.020 yes yes no no no no /
Belgium
staal, aan brand
onderworpen-prak-
tische berekening
van de dikte der be-
sehemingerneterialen
CBLIA 1976

"Dantest metode fire resistance teet A new draft stan-

100.01/01" according to : dard "Forslag til
Denmark yes (27/07/81) and DS 1051.1 : yes yes yes yes yes no Nordtest-Hetode-
DS 412 part 1 f 6 - 2 loaded beams beskrivelse" 1984 VD
(1983) (only for - 2 unloaded short has been presen-
light insulations) ___columns ___ ted
"Mthode de Prvi- fire resistance tests
sion par le calcul according to " Annexe
du comportement au au DTU" and "Arrt
feu des structures du 21 avril 1983"
en acier"-DTU Jan. - at least 8 to 11 un-
Prance yes 1977 + Annexe - M- loaded short columns yes yes yes yes yes no /
thodologie de ca- - 1 to 2 loaded co-
ractrisation des lumns(if the product
produits de protec- is only destinated
tion - fv. 1982) for protecting co-
lumns) or 1 to 2
beams (for products
used for horizontal
and vertical ele-
ments

Greece no information / / / / / / / / /
Ireland no / / / / / / / / /
 TABLE 2 (cont.)

DIN4102-part 2 (1977) Fire resistance tests in future the

+ "Brandschutz im according to DIN4102 applied load
Bauwesen", book 22, part 2 on test columns
part 1 : "Erluterun- - for columne:2 to 9 will be slight-
gen Zum Abschnitt 7.6. Loaded columns ly excentric
"Prfung von Bekleid- - for beams;2 to 8 yes
Germany yes ungen in Verbindung loaded beams yes yes (DIM 102 no yes no
mit Stahltrgern" and part 4,
"Erluterungen zum Ab- appendix
schni 11 7.3. Prfung C)
von Bekleidungen in
Verbindung iniL SLalil-
sttzen "

it is expected
that the "Eu-
ropean Recom-
mendations for
the design of
Italy no / / / / / / / / steel structures
exposed to the
standard fire"
(ECCS) will be
accepted and
applicated in
Italy within 2 o
years

Extrapolation and Usually the German research is car-

interpolation me- method and the "Euro- ried out in or-
thods are accepted pean Recommandations der to develop a
Luxemburg although no official for the design of see Germany yes yes yes yes yes no more general cal
prescriptions are steel structures ex- culation method
available posed to the standard (research ECSC/
fire" are used REFAO-CAFIR
Extrapolation and The method is des- Fire resistance tests A new standard
interpolation me- cribed in an internal in accordance with "Rekenkundige
The Nether- thods are accepted TNO document NEN 38-84 bepaling van de
lands although no official - 1 loaded beam yes yes yes yes yes no brandwerendheid
prescriptions are - 9 short unloaded van staalkon-
available columns strukties", very
similar to the
European Recom-
mendations for
the design of
steel structures
..."will be is-
sued very soon
TABLE 2 (cont.)

The decision of ac- A generally used me- Pire resistance tests - An important
cepting interpolation thod is given in the according to BS 476 change in the
and extrapolation or publication "Fire Part 8 : Building Regu-
not, has to be made Protection for - 1 loaded column (if lations is ex-
by the building Structural Steel in the protection is pected
authorities Buildings" Part A used for columns) - The "European
- 2 loaded beams Recommenda-
- 6 unloaded short tion* for the
beams design of
- 4 unloaded short steel struc-
columns tures exposed
to the stand-
ard fire" is
being taken
account of,
in codes of
practice on
the design of
steel
 212

BIBLIOGRAPHY

* BABRAUSKAS & WILLIAMSON : Fire Technology

"The historical basis of Fire Resistance Testing"
* CLAES HOLMAN/PENTTI LOIKKANEN (1981)
"Joint investigation of vertical furnaces in Nordic countries"
* DECKER, KLINGELHOFER, VANDEVELDE (1981)
"Analysis of fire test equipment in E.E.C. Laboratories"
* DECKER, KLINGELHOFER, VANDEVELDE (1982)
"Draft for revision of doc. 1202"
* van KEULEN (1974)
"Comparison of heat transfer in several wall furnaces"
* C.E.C. - III/1202/77
"Preliminary Draft of a Commission Directive on the approximation of the
provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in the
Member States relating to the classification, by testing, of the resis-
tance to fire, of structural building components."
 213

SAFETY CONCEPTS/EUROPEAN FIRE ENGINEERING

M. KERSKEN-BRADLEY

Sunniary

In its first part this contribution deals with models used for the ver-
ification of an adequate structural fire resistance referring to heat
exposure and the structural response. According to the CIB design guide
for Structural Fire Safety three methods of assessment are presented.
It is shown that these three methods do not reflect competing scientif-
ic concepts, but rather represent consecutive steps of accuracy in mod-
elling.
The second part deals with models for risk assessment, again
briefly outlining three methods which, however, differ considerably
with regard to their background. The first is the Structural Fire Safe-
ty Concept, as suggested in the CIB design guide; the second is the
Swiss Risk Evaluation Method and the third is a system approach based
an logic tree analysis. An attempt is made to compare these three meth-
ods with regard to some common features.

1. INTRODUCTION

Structural fire safety as an engineering design task calls for safe

and economic design solutions and comprises the following aspects:
1. The basic design of a building with regard to structural fire protection
including arrangement of the building, accessability, rescue routes,
campartmentation and arrangement of fire barriers, choice of building
materials.
2. Structural detailing including choice of an appropriate structural sys-
tem, detailing of components, supports, joints.
3. Verification of an adequate structural fire resistance using models for
assessing the heat exposure of the structure in a compartment fire and
models for assessing the structural response - "verification models".
4. Guidance an decisions with regard to the adequacy of structural provi-
sions based on models for assessing the fire risks and the resulting
interaction between structural provisions and risk considerations -
"risk models".
This contribution is confined to a brief outline of the state of the
art regarding the two latter aspects, mainly referring to practical appli-
cation rather than to scientific investigations.

2. VERIFICATION M3DEI
2.1 Survey
Heat exposure models specify the design situation to be considered in
terms of a fire affecting
- the structure as a whole or
- only a limited part of the structure, e.g. a defined fire compartment
and the corresponding thermal actions represented by temperature-time curves
for the entire fire process or a limited part of it.
 214

Structural models specify the structural system to be considered which

may be
- the structure as a whole or
- subassemblies or individual members with corresponding support and re-
straint conditions
as well as the relevant material properties and mechanical loads.
Verification is performed by checking the resulting structural response
with regard to prescribed performance criteria relating to
- the load bearing capacity (strength, stability, ductility)
- the separating function (thermal insulation, integrity to fire penetration).
Within Europe, and actually world-wide, three approaches may be distin-
guished which mainly refer to different heat exposure models /1,2/. However,
it can easily be shown that these three approaches actually represent con-
secutive steps of improved modelling rather than different scientific con-
cepts.

2.2 Standard Fire Exposure

- Assessment Method 1 -
Hie traditional approach refers to a heat exposure model represented
by a standard temperature-time curve, generally the national variant of
ISO 834. This curve describes a monotonically increasing temperature in
time. Structural requirements are expressed by a duration of exposure to
this temperature-time curve during which structural elements have to ful-
fill specified performance criteria. Blis defines the required fire resist-
ance.
Within the traditional approach, the required fire resistance is gener-
ally stipulated stringently in building codes or regulations. Differing
physical conditions governing the heat exposure of the structure in the case
of fire are not accounted for explicitly, but only in conjunction with risk
considerations by a fairly rough rating of buildings (cf. also sec. 3.1):
requ. t f ~ f (occupancy, building height, building
component function, ) (1)
With regard to the structural model, verification was originally con-
fined to an experimental evaluation of the fire resistance or by reference
to approved catalogues:
t, (component test) - requ. t, (component) (2)
Gradually, an analytical verification is accepted as an alternative to
testing the load bearing capacity and for sane cases the thermal insulation
fi,A/. This allows an assessment of components and subassemblies with arbi-
trary restraint conditions or even the entire structure, which is well be-
yond the possibilities of the original rating of individual components by
testing. In analytical evaluation and , subsequently, also in experimental
evaluation (e.g. / 5 / ) , allowance is made for the actual degree of mechanical
loading instead of assuming the maximum admissible design load. These fea-
tures indicate a considerable improvement of the structural model which in
sane cases may be in excess of the accuracy of the heat exposure model and
may possibly be well beyond the intentions of the original rating of compo-
nents:
t,(structure) vs. requ. tf(component) (3)
A first step towards improving the heat exposure model is by intro-
ducing code requirements, which explicitly allow for a dependency between
the required fire resistance and the fire loads within the fire compartment
considered (e.g. The Netherlands):
requ. t,~f( , fire load density, ...) (4)
 215

2.3 Equivalent Time of Fire Exposure

- Assessment Method 2 -
Introducing not only the fire loads but also other relevant factors
affecting the heat exposure of the structure in the case of fire, as are
ventilation conditions, thermal properties of the structure enclosing the
compartment and possibly the combustion behaviour, leads to the model of an
equivalent time of fire exposure:
t ~ f(physical conditions) (5)
e.g. in the form used in /6/ and also suggested in /1,2/
t = q w c (m) [min] (6)
where q fire load density [MJ/m2 ]
w ventilation factor
c conversion factor [min m 2 /MJ]
m combustion factor - if considered.
Itiis model relates the effect of the expected (natural) compartment
fire to the effect of a standard fire exposure. In its broadest sense, the
equivalent time of fire exposure may be interpreted as a comparative meas-
ure for rating the expected fire severity in a compartment with regard to
relevant physical conditions. In this sense, the equivalent time of fire
exposure is independent of the type of construction and material and of the
specific component and performance criteria of concern:
t ~ (measure of fire severity) (7)
Consideration of appropriate safety factors (cf. sec. 3.2) renders the
required fire resistance of the structure and its structural components to
be provided by design, which can easily be compared with traditional re-
quirements (cf. sec. 2.2). Verification can be performed by an analytical
verification of the fire resistance or by reference to test results or
established catalogues. Hence, the information and experience from many
years of fire resistance tests can be utilized.
requ. t f ~ f (fire severity, safety factors) (8)
This model is used e.g. in Germany, F.R., for an assessment of indus-
trial buildings /6/. Similar models are used in the CSSR or are promoted in
Canada /7/.
By introducing categories of fire severity for fire compartments, this
model may be used not only as an alternative to current (traditional) code
requirements, but as a basis for deriving physically based code regni fo-
ments.
A scientific improvement of the model could be achieved by introducing
a dependency between the equivalent time of fire duration and the thermal
and structural properties of the various structural members considered in
the fire compartment. Instead of a general measure for rating the fire se-
verity to be expected in a fire compartment, the equivalent time of fire
exposure could then be interpreted as an actual temperature action effect,
expressed in the standard time domain
t(temperature action effect) (9)

2.4 Compartment Fire Exposure

- Assessment Method 3 -
Basically, accounting for the same factors as the equivalent time of
fire exposure, but relating them via heat and mass balance equations, ren-
ders the temperature-time curve of the expected (natural) compartment fire.
From this curve the temperature action effects in the structure are calcu-
lated. Verification of the load bearing capacity criterion is performed as
for a normal structural design by an analytical evaluation of the resistance
capacity (R) as a function of time, and comparison with the relevant mechan-
ical load effects (S) for an accidental design situation - including appro-
 216

priate safety factors (cf. sec. 3.2)

min R(t) ^ S (t) (10)
with a corresponding formulation for insulation criteria, if possible. The
model is not applicable if integrity criteria are decisive. For structures
which may be sensitive to the rate of heating and for fire loads associated
with a high heating rate, the greater accuracy of this model may be essential.
For caimon data sets of physical characteristics, temperature-time curves
can be prepared as design aids, thus, considerably reducing the calculation
effort.
Ihis model is used e.g. in Sweden /8,9/, but also world-wide for check-
ing simplified heat exposure models.

2.5 Limitations
The heat exposure models currently used for design refer to the fire
compartment as a basic unit and assume a full fire involvement of the com-
partment (flash-over) with a ventilation controlled combustion and a uni-
form temperature distribution. The validity of these assumptions may be
questioned for extremely concentrated fire loads, very large fire compart-
ments and for extreme ventilation conditions including wind and cross-ven-
tilation.
These limitations should not impede the use of advanced models as com-
pared to an exclusively empirical assessment, but they should be considered
in the general design and detailing of the structure.

3. RISK MODELS
3.1 Survey
The traditional approach accounts for risk considerations by the afore-
mentioned rating of structural members according to their function and of
buildings according to their occupancy and height in view of possible fire
hazards (cf. rel. (1)). As an empirical approach, there is no clear distinc-
tion between physical conditions and risk considerations. As a generally
valid prescription, it is a priori conservative and may lead to uneconomic
designs in certain application.
An essential step towards a clearer risk differentiation is accom-
plished if a reduced fire resistance - e.g. by one class - is accepted if
sprinkler systems are employed. This is not an unusual arrangement in many
countries, at least as concerns an individual assessment of projects.
requ. t,~f(..., sprinkler system, ...) (11)
This step is essential, because it introduces the notion of fire risk not
only with regard to possible hazards, but also with regard to the frequency
of fires.

3.2 Structural Fire Safety Concept

3.2.1 Object
The aforementioned arrangement, i.e. reducing the required fire resis-
tance by e.g. one class if sprinkler systems are installed, is generally
based on an empiriral risk assessment. An attempt to quantify the reduction
of structural fire risks in view of non-structural protection measures, is
by introducing a probability based design concept /1,2,10/. This concept
considers the following features
i. the frequency of fire occurrences, severe enough to cause structural
damage (p ) depending on
. the occupancy and size of the fire compartment
. the efficacy and long-term reliability of measures for detecting
and fighting fires
ii. safety requirements in terms of tolerable life time failure probabil-
 217

ities for structures (pf), reflecting the safety considerations of the

community in view of potential hazards due to structural failure,
thus depending on
. the use of the building, its location and size
. the size and location of a fire compartment within the building
. the function of the various structural canponents
which to a great extent correspond to those features also consid
ered in an empirical assessment, but are tentatively quantified in
terms of probabilities.
In addition
iii. the uncertainties in the risk model and verification model including
the randomness of physical and mechanical variables
are explicitly accounted for.
Probabilistic analysis renders tolerable conditional failure probabil
ities (or failure rate):

Pf ,a '
applying to the conditional event "if a severe fire occurs", considering the
probability for this event. On the basis of equ. (12), safety factors t~for
the verification of an adequate fire resistance are derived. Por an assess
ment based on the equivalent time of fire exposure (cf. sec. 2.3), this ren
ders
requ. t f = t e t t n (13)
where V accounts for potential structural hazards and the
uncertainty in the assessment
if accounts for a reduced fire frequency due to special
detecting and fighting provisions.
In a corresponding manner safety factors may be allocated to equ. (10). In
the appendix of /2/ the following factors a r e tentatively suggested:

No. fire detecting and fighting provisions

O
1 average standard public fire brigade 0.8
2 adequately maintained sprinkler system 0.6
3 acknowledged private fire brigade 0.7...0,9
4 adequately maintained detection and
alarm systems 0.8...1,0
*) sl
considering all factors, a lower limit for j should be observed,
tentatively specified as " 0,4
Table 2.1 Differentiation factors for fire detecting and fighting
provisions

3.2.2 Discussion
Whilst the dependency of structural fire requirements on potential
structural hazards is straightforward, the dependency on nonstructural mea
sures (governing the frequency of severe fires) is not yet generally ac
knowledged as design parameter. The major argument brought forth refers to
the reliability of these measures in the sense that, if e.g. a sprinkler
fails to suppress an initial fire, then a reduced fire resistance of the
structure will exhibit a considerable hazard, especially for the fire bri
 218

gade. This argunent is correct, provided the condition "if" is pursued co

nsistently:
Imagine 100.000 building fires p.a. within a certain geographical re
gion; assuming that no building is equipped with sprinklers, maybe 10.000
fires will develop fo fires, severe enough to damage the load bearing or
partitioning structure mainly due to the time elapsed before manual fire
fighting commences. That means that in 10.000 fire incidents structural
failure is a potential hazard. Depending on the required fire resistance
of the structure stipulated in codes, structural failure will occur in N.
out of 10.0000 cases, implying an accepted failure rate (failure prob
ability of Nj/10.000 and imposing N 1 risk situations on fire fighters.
And now imagine the same geographical region with 100.000 building
fires p.a., but imagine that all buildings are equipped with sprinkler sy
stems. Assuming a certain degree of reliability for these systems, maybe
2000 fires are not suppressed by the sprinkler system alone and may de
velop to fires, severe ennough to damage the load bearing and partitioning
structure if not controlled by the fire brigade. Not considering the re
maining possibility of a timely manual suppression of fires, this means
that, in 2000 fire incidents, structural failure is a potential hazard.
Depending on the fire resistance accepted for these buildings, structural
failure will occur in N2 out of 2000 cases, implying a failure rate (fai
lure probability) of N2/2OOO and imposing N 2 risk situations on fire figh
ters.
If Nj risk situations are accepted by fire fighters for buildings wi
thout sprinklers, the same number should be acceptable for buildings with
sprinklers: = Nj = N2. Hence, the acceptable failure rate of the struc
ture is approximately five times higher for buildings with sprinklers as
compared to buildings without:
N/10.000 versus N/2000
This shows clearly that a considerably lower fire resistance should be ac
ceptable, if sprinklers are installed. It should be noted that in this ga
me of numbers, no successful fire brigade action in the wake of sprinkler
failure is assumed, implying no operations within the building. If limited
inside operations are considered, in far less than 2000 fire incidents st
ructural failure will be a potential hazard.
Another argument brought forth regarding the consideration of pro
tection measures governing fire frequencies, is the poor data base for ev
aluating these frequencies. This does not hold for sprinklers, but may ap
ply to other measures which, at present, can only be judged in relation to
sprinklers. There are also seme difficulties associated with the assess
ment of the frequency of fire occurrences as a function of e.g. the size
and occupancy of the compartment. But, on the other hand, calibrationto
design results which are boradly agreed, will help avoiding excessively
wrong estimates. Finally, it should be noted that the data base surely wi
ll be extended in the future, so that improved information can be gradu
ally adopted.

3.3 Swiss Fire Risk Evaluation Method

3.3.1 Object
The Structural Fire Safety Concept described in section 3.2 is lim
ited to risks associated with structural failure. A much broader approach
is taken in the Swiss Evaluation Method /ll/, derived from an insurance
rating procedure.
Herein a normalized measure of fire risk (R) is calculated which may
be traced back to an assessment of the increase or decrease of the ex
pected losses (E, ) versus an average loss ( ^ ) depending on the specific
features (X ) or an individual project
 219

_ 9EL (14a)
^^^i^JT
3EL
R "qXXiX^gjlIXiFA (14b)
where the factors . describe the relative influence of the feature X. on
the measure of risk. combines those factors relating to the potential
fire risk as are
the amount and type of fire loads including their combustion behaviour,
toxiticity and smoke development
the influence of height and size of the building and spatiousness of
the compartment.
represents all factors relating to the possible inadequacy of standard
fire protection measures as are manual extinguishers, water supply and hy
drants, etc. S combines those factors relating to special fire protection
measures with regard to detection, alarm and force of fire brigades as well
as automatic extinguishing systems. F comprises factors f. relating to the
fire resistance of the structure and the size of subccmpartments. A, final
ly denotes the relative influence of the occupancy in terms of fire fre
quencies .
This measure of risk (R) is then compared with a tolerable risk,
specified as R = 1,3 and which is pondered by the number of people endan
gered in the case of fire (p _,)
n,L
SR (15)
U = 1 ' 3 ni,E

3.3.2 Discussion
Due to the very different background of this method, a comparison with
the Structural Fire Safety Concept is not straightforward.
An attempt for a comparison is made in the following, which may be in
excess of the intentions of those who developed the Risk Evaluation Method,
but nevertheless gives some interesting insights.
The factor f. denotes the influence of the fire resistance of the load
bearing structure and is specified by
t, * F30
t* = F30/F60
t* F90
and may be written as
f1 = 1 + tf/300 1,3 (16)
It is interesting to note that fire resistances exceeding F90 are not ac
counted for as a further risk reducing feature. Equ. (16) allows a tenta
tive comparison with the Structural Fire Safety Concept applied to assess
ment method 2 (cf. equ. (13)):

requ. t f = 300 ( gf 1,0) 90 (17)

rendering a ^value for secial fire protection measures as

P/S _ n R N,...
(18)
*n - {(
Sprinkler systems alone are rated as S = 1,2 (1,75...2,0) wherein the
value 1,2 rates the detection effect, resulting in if 0,42 as an upper
bound (disregarding the limit of F90) as compared witR tf" = 0.6 in
 220

section 3.2. In this context, however, it should be mentioned that applica

tion of this method in Switzerland is presently intended only in conjunction
with minimum requirements for the fire resistance which, however, are lower
than traditionally required.
Another interesting aspect is the rating of the fire load density.
in equ. (14b) or (17) comprises the rating factor q taking values frcm
0.6 to 2.5 depending on the fire load density q (in MJ/m J ), which may be re
lated via
q = 1 + 0,29 In^ 2.5 (19)
Hence, requ. t, is a function of ln(q) instead of q thus suggesting a weaker
rating than in assessment method 2 or 3.
With regard to questions of validity and data base, the Swiss Fire Risk
Evaluation Method has the advantage of not claiming to be a scientifically
based method, but only a ccnronly agreed empirical ponderation procedure.
Hence, the question of validity is superfluous. However, by reference to
equ. (14), a scientific basis for this method may be developed.

3.4 Logic Tree Analysis

3.4.1 Object
Within fire risk assessment, logic tree analysis is an important tool
which may be used on various levels of sophistication in modelling.
Logic tree analysis is concerned with an investigation of the possible
extent of fire development within the roan of origin and the spread of smoke
and flames beyond successive fire barriers, considering the various features
governing these processes.
The most common presentation is by reference to the sequence of events
leading to a certain hazard, which may be
a physical phenomena, e.g. full fire involvement of a building /12/
possible consequences from physical phencmena, e.g. a multiple
fatality fire /13/
rendering socalled event trees or fault trees. Alternatively, the sequence
of strategies for preventing a certain hazard may be pursued, rendering so
called decision trees /14/.
An analysis may be
i. qualitative (nonnumerical) as an aid for ensuring that all hazards
are identified and no essential event sequence is emitted when
specifying the fire protection system of a building
ii. supplemented by an empirical judgement for the likelihood of event
sequences including the efficacy of protection measures
iii. or supplemented by an assessment of probabilities for event sequences
including the reliability of protection measures, which may be per
formed
. on the basis of subjective judgement or
. on the basis of statistical data, physical models and
probabilistic analysis.
With regard to physical phencmena related to fire development and
spread, an assessment of probabilities for event sequences can be presented
by probability curves /12,15/, based on H.E. Nelson's Fire Safety Design
Methology. Such curves, also denoted als Lcurves, may describe, e.g.
the probability for a certain portion of the rocm of fire origin to be
seized by fire, considering the possibility of selftermination, manual
suppression, automatic suppression. This renders curves which decrease
with increasing portion of the rocm considered, approaching the probabil
ity for a full fire involvement of the rocm
 221

the probability for a barrier to sustain exposure to fire with increasing

time of exposure
the probability for successive barriers to be surpassed by smoke or
flames, decreasing with the number of barriers and approaching the prob
ability for a full fire involvement of the building.
It is then suggested /12,15/ to compare these curves with tolerable
levels reflecting the safety considerations of the community.

3.3.2 Discussion
In a qualitative presentation, logic tree analysis corresponds to the
ccnmon sense approach for dealing with complex problems. Applied in a for
malized manner, it is an essential tool for avoiding weak points in the
fire protection system. It is highly recommended to develop simple methods
of assessment and presentation, similar to those procedures under develop
ment in the United States, but considering the European fire protection
tradition.
With regard to structural fire safety, fault tree analysis e.g. for
multiple fatality disasters, clearly identifies the contribution of the
fire resistance of the structure to the possibility of avoiding this hazard:
the contribution is often negligible (cf. also /1/, Appendix 3 ) .
It should be noted that the Structural Fire Safety Concept also uses
the idea of simplified event sequences /1,16/ for determining the probabil
ity of a full fire involvement of the fire compartment (cf. in sec. 3.2).
Hereby the probability for the events: "fire occurrence, failure of manual
and automatic suppression" are considered, rendering the tolerable condi
tional probability for the event "structural failure".
The very extensive use of logic trees, corresponding networks and
evaluation charts suggested in /12/, mainly refers to a subjective judge
ment of probabilities at present. However, gradually improved statistical
data, physical models and probabilistic models may be introduced. It,
nevertheless, may be interesting to note that the probability for a success
ful automatic suppresion is specified as 0.8...0,98 and suppression by the
public fire brigade is rated by probabilities 0.1...0.4; the corresponding
probabilities in /2/, providing the basis for table 2.1 are 0.98 for
sprinkler systems and 0.9 for the fire brigade respectively, which is
either too optimistic or reflects a considerably higher standard of
European fire brigades.

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Verification models as well as risk models applied for the assessment of
an individual project are often questioned with regard to the problems
associated with a change of occupancy. This applies both, to an alteration
of physical conditions and risk considerations. This aspect definitely de
serves attention and may be considered by the following provisions:
structural components constituting fire compartments (fire walls, floors)
should be designed irrespective of favourable physical conditions and
special fire protection measures due to the anticipated occupancy
if an alteration of occupancy is rather probable, the inputdata should
be chosen in a conservative manner
in case of a significant change of occupancy or in case of structural
alterations, reassessment is required; this aspect should be brought to
the attention of the client.
This drawback, however, should not impede the application and develop
ment of methods for ensuring optimum fire protection systems for buildings,
optimal with regard to safety and economy.
 222

REFERENCES

/V CIB W14 Workshop Report 'Structural Fire Safety', January 1983;

Fire Safety Journal Vol. 6 (1983)
/2/ d B W14 Design Guide 'Structural Fire Safety', to be published
1984/1985
/3/ ECCS, European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures
Technical Ccnmittee 3: Fire Safety of Streel Structures, July (1981)
/4/ CEB, Design of Concrete Structures for Fire Resistance, Appendix to
the CEB/FIP Model Code, Bulletin d'Information No. 145, Paris (1982)
/5/ DIN 4102 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen, Beuth Verlag,
Berlin (1981)
/6/ DIN 18230, Brandschutz im Industriebau, Vornorm, 1982, Beuth Verlag,
Berlin
PI MEHAFFEY, J.R., HARMATHY, T.Z., Assessment of Fire Resistance Re-
quirements, Fire Technol., 17 (4) (1980)
/8/ National Swedish Board of Physical Planning and Building; Fire
Engineering, Design; Comments on SBN, No. 1, 1976
/9/ MAGNUSSON, S.E., PETTERSSON, O., Rational Design Methology for Fire
Exposed Load Bearing Structures, Fire Safety J., 3 (1981)
/10/ DIN, NABau, Grundlagen zur Festlegung von Sicherheitsanforderungen im
baulichen Brandschutz, Beuth Verlag, Berlin (1979)
/11/ SIA Recommendation: Brandrisikobewertung, issued by SIA, VKF and BVD,
Draft April 1983
/12/ FITZGERALD, R.W., Building Fire Safety Evaluation, Worcester Poly-
technic Institute, Center for Fire Safety Studies, Workbook 1984
/13/ RASBASH, D.J., Analytical Approach to Fire Safety, Fire Surveyor 9
(4) (1980) 20-33
/14/ NFPA Decision Tree, Committee on Systems Concepts, 1974
/15/ Interim Guide for Goal Oriented Systems Approach to Building Fire
Safety, Appendix D, Building Fire Safety Criteria of General Services
Agency, General Service Administration, Washington, DC
/16/ BURROS, R.H., Probability of Failure of Buildings from Fire,
J. Structural Division, ASCE, 101 (1975) 1947-60.
 223

CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES

Prof. Dr.-ing. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Karl KORDINA

Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz
Technische Universitt Braunschweig

Summary

The measures to ensure an adequate structural fire protection shall

be harmonized on an international or at least European level; but
difficulties arise mainly from the independant development of nation-
al concepts based on the experience of many years. A general safety
level which may be provided by these concepts cannot be defined. Each
alteration of requirements may lead to consequences which cannot al-
ways be perceived.
The present state of structural fire protection requirements in
a number of countries being members of the European Community is elu-
cidated by examples: 3- , 6- and 10-storey residential buildings. The
required fire resistance of structural members being part of these
building categories is listed and the main characteristics of some
concrete and masonry elements which are taken to meet the require-
ments are shown.
By the example of a reinforced concrete column, the difficulties
of harmonizing the judgement of fire resistance of structural elements
are demonstrated.
It is gathered from the considerations that international harmo-
nization must start from adjusting the judgement of the behaviour of
structural elements 'inder presumed fire exposure; from this basis the
requirements set up yj the authorities could be scrutinized and possi-
bly harmonized. Some barriers in the trade between European countries
would be removed by the first step, already.

Introduction

The efforts done during many years in order to harmonize the measures
for ensuring an adequate structural fire protection on an international or
at least an European level, are hindered by a lot of difficulties, up to
now, as soon as practical adoption is concerned.
This fact is regrettable, especially on the background of inter-Euro-
pean trade, but one should try to find out the reasons for it. They are of
more than a formal character only. Each of the member countries of the
European Community has developed its own fire protection concept based on
the experience of many years of independant being. With respect to struc-
tural building elements, most countries prevalently formulate grades of
 224

fixe resistance on the basis of the behaviour of specimens, corresponding

to these elements, under a standardized time depending temperature devel
opment, and the building codes and regulations then require different
grades of elements according to the circumstances of the actual structure.
Fire protection concepts have grown empirically, particulars have
been altered and improved where it seemd necessary, and different groups
may have initiated and mainly influenced the development. P.e. in France
the insurance companies were dominant whilst in Germany the authorities,
assisted by the fire brigades (being part of the government, themselves)
formulated the frame of requirements. A general safety level which may
have been reached by these concepts can scarcely be defined in a scientific
way. It may be different in different kinds of buildings depending on the
specific circumstances, on the fire load side as well as on the building
characteristics side. Nevertheless, the fire protection concepts are ac
cepted by the public though, depending on the standpoint of the critic,
the provided safety may sometimes be regarded as too stringent with re
spect to the costs of the protection measures or too low in case of a
spectacular disaster which may have happened recently. But in general the
concepts do work.
Due to the already mentioned, empirically developed and therefore un
definable safety level on the one hand, and the sometimes complicated rela
tions by which recommendations affecting fire protection problems are in
terlocked on the other hand, each alteration in the range of requirements
of protection measures leads to consequences which can not always be per
ceived, on the national scope. The tendency of the officials to come to
supranational compromises is therefore only poor, and difficulties arise
even when specialists are discussing the various problems.

General Requirements

In order to gain an illustrative material supported impression of the

present state of fire protection requirements and how they are fulfilled,
some specialists working together in the CEB General Task Group No. 4
"Fire Design of Concrete Structures" have been asked about fire protection
in 3 , 6 and 10storey residential buildings in their countries as far
as masonry and concrete elements are concerned. It turned out that even a
comparison was somewhat difficult.
It must be stated that some of the codes from which the information
resulted and which thus are the basis of the following considerations, are
under redrafting or alteration at the time being. In Belgium as well as
in Great Britain the general design codes for concrete structures which
will include substantial chapters on fire resistance are under revision,
and a new Dutch structural code has been elaborated.
All examples, especially the numbers given in them should be looked
at, under this reservation.
The fire protection requirements raised in Belgium, France, Germany,
Great Britain and the Netherlands, expressed in minutes which an element
would have to withstand the ISO 834 // standard fire, are put together in
Table 1.
It may be seen from Table 1 that the different national concepts di
verge strongly but each of them shows its own consistency, starting from
low or no requirements for buildings with only few stories, going up to
higher requirements for buildings with more stories.
The characteristics of the structural elements which are taken to
meet the requirements do not follow the same scheme; that means, the high
est required grading does not necessarily request the most solid structural
 225

elements, and vice versa.

Table 1
Required Time of Fire Resistance (min) for
Structural Elements in Residential Buildings
3storey 6storey 10storey
120
Belgium no wallstarsecond
60 portilionng 60
requirements
lborsusuolly.90

France 30 60 90

Germany 30 90 90

Great Britain 60 60 90

90 120 120
Netherlands thermal insulation end integrity of walls 60
floors not being part of main load bearing str :60

Masonry structures

Little information is available on masonry structures. Germany seems

to be the only country where characteristics for masonry columns with re
spect to their fire resistance have been formulated, and therefore no com
parative synopsis on masonry columns can be presented here.
Table 2 provides the main characteristics of masonry walls used for
the fire protection requirements in our examples.

Table 2
rarocteristics of Mas onry Walls in Resic ential Buildings
Cl
3 storey 6 storey 10storey
Requiem Thickness ^equirem Thickness 3eqijirem Thickness
[mm] [mm] [min] [mm] [min] [mm]
90uNoodd 120withotastef,
60 l20wHhptast*f, 120 unloaded
limled load HOloaded

no no no
F 30 specifications 60 specification 90 specificaticns
115lMltd 115 llmilrd
load load
D 30 115 90
115wHhplastw.
90
115 Witti piasi.
lull load
M l load

GB 60 215 60 215 90 215

60/ no no no
NL ' 9 0 specif icot ions
60 ; 120 specifications 60/120 specifications

Concerning masonry walls, France and the Netherlands do not specify

characteristics, and looking at the specifications given in the codes of
 226

Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom necessarily leads to the supposi
tion that some of them must be rather old and that there may have been no
need to revise them. P.e. it is somewhat surprising for a German reader
that in the UK, walls of less than 21 cm thickness must not be used for
fire protection purposes even in 3storey buildings. This fact reflects an
extremely high possibly unknown safety level in this particular case.
In our context it does not seem worthwhile to pay more attention in
similarity or discrepancy of fire resisting masonry structures in our coun
tries; the more interesting item are the concrete structural elements.

Main Characteristics of Concrete Structural Elements

Tables 3 5 show the main characteristics of those concrete elements

which fulfil the national fire protection requirements for 3 , 6 and 10
storey residential buildings. The minimum dimensions as well as the ar

Table 3 Characteristics of Concrete Elements in Residential Buildings, 3storey

Requ. Walls 91 Columns Beams' ROOTS * a Floors * F l o o r s | 1
Smpty supportet t n f y supporte coni mo *

I] JSP JE.
Fus two way lf

Resist
h tfs^^p*
Imul
a c ' ' o'
V ' 11
J rc '
4bl
||mm d |o|c b/d 1 a 1 c b Iole h lac h |a|c h |a|c

no
lequir no require meni

ISOfCOfo requ
no appiccile il no no
F 30 100 requir reinforcement 120 25 60 requir 60 requir
not speellied
iot latanrioar.

no no no no no
D 30 120 requir 150/150 requtr
0 25 60 requir 80 requir 0 requir

no no no no no
GB 60 75 25 200720.
requir requir
25 100 requit 100 requir 100 requir

no specifications, _
60/
NL /90
judgement following leste
or oilier evaluations

Table 4 Characteristics of Concrete Elements in Residential Buildings, 6storey

Requ Beams " F l o o r s *~

Fire
Resist
vnrJy s u p p f W
ffl
.! ! + !

ldi
hd
4
M - <+ !

[mm] b/d a c

O 000

cOVKO^a requ
applicable il
r um forcement
not W>*n rtrj

no s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , __
judgement following tests
or o t h e r evaluations
 227

Table 5 Characteristics of Concrete Elements in Residential Buildings,10storey

fiequ uns Columns Beams " * Floors ' F l o o r s " " Floors 171
Fir Wft, 9jrortd w r y e j p c w r w CWilir"j<
Resisi
lrwil J:
4a
Jb4 +b4
ift
o c
h ....
a c
;

" '
|lmm] d | a | c b/d a C b a C h a C h a C h a C
120 150 35
BOOM 35 CO 0 0 0 50 150 35 150 35
Irere unloaded wlhptasler

opc^icob4e rf
F 90 130 30 rsinlof cement 200 55 90 36 90 20 nol specified
tottcfcOTntoocc

150 55 no
D 90 10 25 2AO/2C 5 100 35 100 requir 100 15
00 35

no no ) no no
GB 90 WO 25 25725C
requir requir 35 125 requir 125 requir 125 requir

no specifications, "~
60/
ML /iro
judgement F o l t o w n j l e s t s
or o l h e r e v a l u a t i o n s

rangement of reinforcement of walls, columns, simply supported beams and

slabs, continuous and towway slabs have been listed as far as it has been
possible.
It becomes clear that there are wide discrepancies in the official
feeling what concrete elements should look like in order to be sufficient
ly fireresistant in the three building categories of our examples. This
comes true, independant from the type of element or the number of stories
in the buildings. Due to the lack of general specifications it was impos
sible to include the Netherlands in the comparison.

Concrete Beams and Columns

Another survey is provided by Tables 6 and 7 where simply supported

beams on the one hand and columns on the other, each of 90 min fire resis
tance are compared. Again, the Netherlands had to be excluded. But the
last line shows the International recomnendations given in the preliminary
draft of the appendix "Design of Concrete Structures for Fire Resistance"
/2/ to the CEBFIP Madel Code.
As concerns simply supported beams (Table 6 ) , France and Germany as
well as CEB relate their specifications to the beam width and the neces
sary concrete cover of the tensile reinforcement whilst Belgium (though
only information on 60 and 120 min fire resistance was available) fixes
minimum concrete crosssections plus necessary concrete cover of the steel.
The United Kingdom does not demand any characteristic of the concrete
crosssection at all and restricts the specifications to sufficient con
crete cover of the steel.
If we look at the characteristics of reinforced concrete columns
(Table 7) it proves that the required minimum dimensions of the crosssec
tion are in good accordance except in Belgium; no conformity can be found
with respect to the concrete cover of the longitudinal reinforcement. It
must be realized that the given nunfcers for France refer to the socalled
"regies sinples" which may be applied if the reinforcement is not taken
into account in the "cold" stage. If the "rgles simples" shall not or
cannot be used the fire resistance of columns has to be calculated.
In Tables 3 7 only the main characteristics can be shown, a number
of additional designing and detailing requirements have to be followed
 228

which cannot be dealt with here.

Table 6 Table 7

Characteristics of R einforced Concrete Charijcteristics of Reinforced Concrete

Simply Supp. Beams Colurrins ^ I
Fire R esistance
90min
-VT*
a^lSifl=4:C _ i _
Fire Resistance
90 min
1
" ^1b\
l
MzH^J-

-l-b4-
b c b/d a c
tmml !mml [mm| R e m a r k s |mm| [mm] (mm Remarks
2
b-h=80000mm 20 60 m m 200/200 35 max height

b - h = O 0 0 0 0 50 120 m m 200/300 25 380m

no appbtte if
F 200 55 F 240/20) ! rdorceme* not
u*enrtoccDLii

150 55 240/240 45
0 D
400 35 300/300 35

no
GB no requirements 35 GB 250/250 fq^vfi^nl!

NL no specifications NL no specificolions

CEB- 150 55 CEB- 240/240 45

FIP 00 35 FIP 300/300 35

However, an example may illustrate the numerous difficulties which

arise from these additional requirements in case of harmonizing codes.
Different opinions of the various countries can be derived from their
codes, concerning sufficient ductility which may become important with hy
perstatic structures especially with continuous slabs. It has become
wellknown that the rotation capacity in the intermediate support regions,
where the tensile reinforcement is remaining still cool, may determine the
load bearing behaviour of these structures in fire.
In France, the advantages allowed for continuous slabs by the code
can only be utilized if the upper reinforcement over the supports consists
of mild steel which moreover, must not be welded, thus offering optimum
deformability.
When the German Standard was under preparation it was considered, to
require for oneway slabs, a certain minimum amount of upper reinforce
ment independant from the kind of steel in order to avoid one single wide
tension crack over the relevant support which might indicate premature
rupture. But discussions resulted in the decision that this additional re
quirement should be dropped because in the vast majority of the cases,
possibilities of additional advantageous stressredistribution will be
available, and thus no significant diminution of safety will result from
doing so.
The draft of the appendix to the CEBFIP Model Code requires a mini
mum amount of negative reinforcement 0,5% of the concrete crosssection
in those cases where
high quality steel with good bond but low ductility is used (p.e. some
kinds of wire mesh) and
slabs are concerned which rectangular to their spandirection extend
over a large area without any intermediate support and thus do not have
 229

any possibility of additional stressredistribution.

The different statements are based on good arguments, and it may be
understood by this example how difficult it is to make progress in the in
ternational expert groups, even with items which are not conspicuous when
people are thinking about European Codes.

Problems of Test Procedures and other Evaluations

In view of the large field of discrepancies and confusion, I felt

obliged to do some steps deeper into the problems.
The difficulties which arise if results of fire resistance tests done
in different laboratories, moreover in different countries, shall be com
pared are wellknown. ISO TC 92 and the European Community are dealing
with these inportant items. Document 1202 /3/, elaborated on behalf of the
EC, may be mentioned as an outcome of the efforts. It includes uniform
recommendations for "Testing and Classification of the Resistance to Fire
of Structural Building Components". Thus at this place, influences of the
thermal and geometrical conditions of the furnaces, the more or less well
defined conditions of the specimens and their builtin conditions hinged
supports, rotational end restraint, elongation restraint during the
test shall not be discussed again.
A section of the text of ISO Standard 834
"For load bearing elements of structures, the test specimen exposed to
the standardized gas temperaturetime relation shall not fail during the
required time of exposure to fire under a loading which, in the critical
regions of the element, produces stresses of the same magnitude as would
be produced normally in the fullsize element when subjected to the
design load"
includes a lot of possibilities of misunderstanding or nonuniformity which
may be elucidated by another example:
A column with the characteristics given if Figure 1 may be part of a
castinsitu building as sketched in Figure 2, which is stiffened by a
rigid core and where the regarded column cannot be subjected to significant
moments. Under the given circumstances the column is a short one, the per
centage of reinforcement of which is 2,8%. The concrete compressive
strength derived from 3 cubes (20 20 20 cm) tested at an age of 28 days
may be 40 N/mmJ. From that, the design concrete strength which is the basic
data for the calculation can be found (see Table 8 ) , using the different
codes /4 7/.

3D
column
3D tobe"*

f
3jD

40

Figure 1 : Column crosssection Figure 2: Load bearing system

 230

Table 8 Concrete Data

average reduced
compressive characteristic characteristic partial design
strength strength strength safety fact. strength
'mc 'kc 'kred Vc 'dc=,k red/y

|N/mm'| (wmm'l IN/mm 2 ! |N/mm?|

F """$.2 26.5 24,2 1.5 16,1

D ""Vo 35,0 23,0 t.o 23,0

:ube
GB 40,0 32.5 21, 1.5 14,5
WM
CEBFIP 55.9 2,9 24.6 1.5 16,4

The cxjrresponding data plus additional information on the modulus of

elasticity and ultimate strain for hot rolled reinforcing steel of a nomi
nal yield strength of 420 N/irm2 which shall be used in our example may be
taken from Table 9.

Table 9 Steel Data

nominal character partial design modulus ullimale

yield sir. yield str. satety fact. yield str of elast strain

'y. >ks Vs fcvfys/ Es 1
|N/mm*] [N/mm2] |N/mmf |l0 5 N/mm!l '..|
F 420 420 1,15 365 2.0 10

D 420 420 1,00 420 2.1 5

not
GB 420 420 1,15 /1,36"' 365 / 30s" 2.0 specified
CEB
420 420 1.15 365 2,0 10
FIP
) ( I r t i value for load bearing capacity of c r a s i s e c t i o n .
second vofue for food bearing capacity of system

Further points given for the calculation, as concerns the effective

length of the column and the load eccentricity to be assumed are listed in
Table 10.
System D ata
Table 10
effective c
system reduction column load
height factor length eccentr.
lo left ea
|m| [ml [mm|

F 3,0 0.70 2,10 10

D 3,0 1,00 3,00 0

GB 3,0 0,75 2,25 0

CEB 3,0 0,85 2,55 20

FIP

The load bearing capacity (ultimate load) in the "cold" state of the
system, shown in the foregoing Table 10, has been evaluated by a computer
program taking into account second order theory, whilst the load bearing
capacity of the crosssection has been checked using the following formu
las:
 231

France:
0,85
= L . A f +A
0,9 c red de
s
f
ds , where 1 + 0,2 (^) =
Germany:

= A f, +A f,
c de s ds
Great B r i t a i n :

= 0,4 A c fkc + 0,67 A

ks
CEBFIP:

+ A
de ds
The calculation results determining the ultimate lead bearing capaci
ty of the column have been put together in Table 11. The high values given
for Germany compared to those of the other codes result from the partial
safety factors and taken as unity, and the total safety coefficient
staying on the load side.

Table 11 Ultimate Column Loads

ultimate ultimate
system crosssection relevant
load load load
|kN|
M Ml
F 1241 1190 1190
evaluation"! 1964 1964
D not required
GB 1399 1 181 1 181
cee 1071 1 203 1 071
FIP
a) for the actual slenderness

The service loads which can be derived from the preceding ultimate
design loads depend on the composition of permanent (dead) and variable
(imposed) loads G and Q where again discrepancies can be observed looking
at the various codes, and therefore again a choice had to be done:
permanent plus one single variable load working,
ratio of permanent/variable load either 0,5/0,5 or 0,7/0,3.
Thus finally, the service loads which would lead to that specific
ning of our example can be found as follows (see Table 12).
The difference between the lowest and the highest load value is 19%
related to the lower one.
The design procedure for a reinforced concrete short column under nor
mal ("cold") conditions has been shown such in detail in order to make
clear that the numerous influencing parameters diverge strongly in the dif
ferent codes (see Tables 8 12). From that, it should be evident that the
results given here are valid for the chosen example, only. Other differ
ences may appear with other presumptions, and the more if slender columns
are concerned.
The load combinations to be taken if the fire resistance of a struc
tural element shall be determined are the same in Germany and the UK, that
 232

is the sum of all the permanent and variable service loads, whilst in
France, loads resulting from wind and snow may be reduced to 80%. Even dis
regarding the latter remark, the strong dependance of service loads and
they are supposed to represent the "design loads" of ISO 834 precedingly
cited on the relation between the amount of permanent over variable loads,
must lead to considerable difficulties. These difficulties do not concern
judgement by testing only, but they appear as well when calculation methods
or tabulated values for fire resistant concrete elements shall be developed
on an international level.

Table 12 Service Column LoadS

partial partial
safety fact, safety fact. service load G<0
for perma for variable in case of G/Q
nent loads loads 0,5/0,5 0,7/0,3
\ Ml [KN]
F 1,35 1,50 835 853

D 2,10' 2.10' 935 935

GB 1,40 1,60 787 809

CEB 1,35 1,50 752 768
FIP
) global safety coefficient

Final Remarks

As far as I understood, the aim of this Session is to highlight the

similarities in practical use of the national fire protection concepts
more than the discrepancies. This contribution does not seem to be suit
able to support this aim. On the contrary, it may be taken as an introduc
tion into the problems which arise during the work of all international
experts' groups.
It seems evident that international harmonization must start from ad
justing the judgement of the behaviour of structural elements under pre
sumed fire exposure. This implies uniformity or at least clear compara
bility of design for the "cold" state. Thus a basis would be provided from
which the requirements set up by the authorities concerning time of fire
resistance, could be scrutinized and possibly harmonized. However, the
first step would be the most important one to cancel some of the trade
obstructions between the neighbouring European countries.
Last not least it may be mentioned as a hopeful fact that the draft
appendix "Fire" to the CEBFIP Model Code already serves as a basis for
revising national codes, now in progress in Belgium and Great Britain.

REFERENCES

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)(1978). Interna

tional Standard 834 Fire Resistance Tests Elements of Building
Construction
Comit EuroInternational du Bton (CEB) (1981) . Bulletin d'Informa
tion No. 145 Design of Concrete Structures for Fire Resistance. Pre
liminary draft of an appendix to the CEBFIP Model Code
European Community. Document 1202 Testing and Classification of the
Resistance to Fire of Structural Building Components. Publication in
preparation
 233

Document Technique Unifi (1982). Rgles Techniques de conception e t de

Calcul des ouvrages e t c o n s t r u c t i o n en bton arm s u i v a n t l a mthode
des t a t s - l i m i t e s
Deutsches I n s t i t u t fr Normung (1978). DIN 1045 - Beton und Stahlbeton;
Bemessung und Ausfhrung
B r i t i s h Standard I n s t i t u t i o n (BSI) (1972). CP 110: P a r t 1: 1972 - The
S t r u c t u r a l Use of Concrete; P a r t 1 : Design, M a t e r i a l s and Workmanship
Comit E u r o - I n t e r n a t i o n a l du Bton (B) (1978). B u l l e t i n d'Information
No. 124/125-E - Common Unified Rules for D i f f e r e n t Types of Construc-
t i o n and M a t e r i a l ; Model Code for Concrete S t r u c t u r e s .

Supplement

I have been informed t h a t some inaccuracy has c r e p t i n t o t h e t a b l e s given i n

my c o n t r i b u t i o n : With r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for s t r u c t u r a l members
a t t a c h e d t o f i r e r e s i s t a n c e c l a s s e s , Belgium and t h e Netherlands a r e i n t h e
same p o s i t i o n : There a r e no c o n s t r u c t i v e p r e s c r i p t i o n s fixed i n a code;
fulfilment of t h e r e q u i r e d f i r e r e s i s t a n c e of a s t r u c t u r a l member has t o be
judged on t h e b a s i s of t e s t r e s u l t s .
 234

STEEL STRUCTURES

M. LAW
Ove Arup Partnership, London, (UK)

Summary

It is shown that steel structures can be designed to give adequate

safety for both life and property. The behaviour of steel in fire is
summarised and methods of protection, where necessary, are described.
The circumstances in which steel may be used without protection are
outlined. Ways in which structural fire protection requirements
might be determined and complied with in the future are discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Fire behaviour

A fire in a building will go through one or more of the following

stages, depending on when the fire is controlled or extinguished:

1) Growth: It is at this stage that fire detectors and alarms are

designed to operate and people in the vicinity of the outbreak have the
opportunity to escape.

2) Full development: when the room or compartment becomes fully

involved in fire, the oxygen content is low and any people who have not
already escaped are unlikely to survive.

3) Decay: which occurs when the fire is either brought under control or
burns out.

The maximum rates of heating, the maximum structural damage and the
greatest risk of fire spread occur during the second stage; the
structural fire protection is designed to withstand the fully developed
fire.

The temperature and duration of a fully developed building fire in

practice depends'on the amount and type of fuel (fire load), the
ventilation and the effectiveness of fire fighting. Methods of
calculating the temperature-time curve in a compartment, assuming a total
burn-out of the fuel, have been developed as part of a design procedure
for the fire protection of steel structures (1). For regulatory purposes
however, a standard fire is assumed and the standard fire resistance test
is used to rank elements of construction in order of performance.
Calculation methods have also been developed for the design of steel
elements exposed to the standard fire (2).

Most of the life loss caused by fire involves few people in any one
incident and these losses occur mainly in dwellings. The level of fire
risk to an individual person is fortunately low compared with other risks
(3). For example, the fatal accident rate per person per 10 hours
 235

exposure in the home is estimated to be 3 for all types of accidents

compared with 0.1 for fire accidents.

It is the heat and combustion products of the building contents which

have accounted for most deaths and injuries in fires and the numbers of
casualties "overcome by gas or smoke" has been increasing. This increase
is considered to be related to the greater use of plastic materials in
furnishings, fittings and finishes which have different burning
characteristics compared with wood.

It is rare that a death by fire in a modern building can be

attributed to structural failure. Nor is it possible to identify any one
structural material as more or less likely to lead to death or injury by
fire, provided the elements of construction have been designed to meet the
fire resistance requirements of the regulations.

The provision of fire resistant compartments, which reduces the

chance of fire spread within and between buildings, makes a valuable
contribution to reducing property loss. Studies of fire incidents in
industrial buildings (which suffer the major financial losses) indicate
that the loss or damage of the contents makes up the main cost of the
fire. The causes of fire spread are not directly related to structural
failure but include such features as combustible materials on wall and
roof surfaces, delay in detection, lack of compartmentation, and poor
details of junctions of compartments (4).

Experience indicates that steel structures can be designed to give

the standards of safety for both life and property which are required by
modern society.

2. BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIRE

The behaviour of an element of construction exposed to fire can be

viewed in two ways: the reaction to fire of the material itself and the
structural performance of the element. Since steel is non-combustible, no
assessment is needed of its reaction to fire. The structural performance
is essentially controlled by the change in mechanical properties and the
deformation experienced during the fire.

As with other structural materials, the mechanical properties

(tensile strength, yield strength and Young's modulus) decrease
with temperature, the relationships being established by research. Mild
steel, provided it has not exceeded a temperature of about 900C, recovers
most of its strength on cooling. The changes in mechanical and physical
properties with temperature have been codified for design purposes (2).

The heated steel element will fail when the yield stress decreases to
the value of the working stress. (This can alter with the formation of
plastic hinges). The steel temperature at this moment is defined as the
critical temperature. It depends essentially on the loading, the degree
of restraint, the end conditions, and the type of steel. It is therefore
a mistake to define a single value, 540C for example, for the critical
temperature of steel.
 236

Before the element attains its critical temperature, it can deform

under the effects of expansion and reduction of Young's modulus caused by
increase of temperature and/or temperature gradients in the section. In
fires, larger deflections can be accepted than at normal temperatures, at
least 1/30 of span.

Because of its high thermal conductivity, uniform temperatures are

attained rapidly in many steel sections. For a given rate of heating, a
heavy section will heat up more slowly than a light one; the massivity of
the section (volume in relation to exposed surface area) has a significant
effect on its performance in fire.

If the critical condition is to be avoided then some form of

protection is usually needed. However where failure does not adversely
affect the safety of life or property no protection may be required.

3. FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL

Properly designed steel construction can give adequate fire

resistance and in many situations subsequent repair, particularly for mild
steel, is a simple operation. In certain circumstances very little fire
resistance may be needed, either because the potential fire exposure can
be demonstrated to be low or because the steel can be sacrificed in the
event of fire without prejudice to the safety of the public or the value
of the contents.

3.1 No requirement for fire resistance

Steel may be used without protection when its failure would not
prejudice public safety. The obvious examples are roof structures and
single storey buildings with adequate means of escape. Certain elements
such as wind bracing may also be sacrificed without seriously affecting
the stability of the building.

3.2 No need for fire resistance

When the fire exposure is expected to be low it is unlikely that the

steel will reach its critical temperature. A well established example is
a car park (5). Other buildings with low fire exposure include sports
stadiums and the concourses of transport terminals. Elements placed
outside the building, and thus free to cool to the ambient air, may not
reach critical temperatures (6) and design manuals are available from
which safe positions can be determined (7) (8).

In relation to property loss the value of the steel structure may be

small compared to the value of the contents, the purpose of the structure
being to provide a secure environmental enclosure. Fire protection of
this enclosure would not prevent the contents, once they are involved in
fire, from being consumed; however contents protection can be provided by
an automatic detection and extinction system, such as a sprinkler
installation.

3.3 When protection is needed

The usual objective is to ensure that the steel does not reach its
 237

critical temperature within the fire resistance period imposed by

regulations. Regulations take into account experience of building fires
and, in a somewhat arbitrary way, the nature, height and use of the
building. The periods of fire resistance specified range from a half hour
to two hours, or even four hours for certain locations deemed to be
particularly dangerous. When protection is needed the following measures
may be possible:

cladding the element with an insulating material. Such materials can

be intumescent paint, plaster, mineral fibre, cement, concrete. They
can be applied alone or mixed, and sprayed, trowelled or in the form
of boards.

placing screens (false ceilings, partitions) between the element and

the fire.

cooling the element with water.

designing a composite steel/concrete element.

4. METHODS OF PROTECTION

4.1 Cladding the steel (2)

If a steel sectionwithout cladding is exposed to the standard fire

then its temperature s (C)varies with the exposure time t(min) and the
section factor F/V (m as follows (9)

t = 0.54 ( B 50)(F/V)" 0 " 6 (1)

id for t = 1080 min

d = 400600C
s
F/V 10300 m" 1

F is the exposed surface area (ma) and V the volume (m3) of the
section. Thus for a section factor of 150 (m ) , which is a common size,
& would be 500C after 13 min.
s
It is clear that for practical purposes most steel sections will need
protection if they are to provide the required fire resistance. If the
section is clad with an insulating material of thickness d (m) and thermal
conductivity^ (W/mC) then (9)

t = 40 (140) (A 77 (r/v)"0.77
t = 40 (B 140) f Dv\ '77 (2)
O
valid for t 30 240 min

d = 0.050.30 mf_
Ji wc
 238

Equation (2) can be used for lightweight insulating materials. With

a simple modification it can be used for insulating materials with a
significant mass in relation to the steel. Moisture evaporation can also
be taken into account.

In practice the value of /\ will depend on the temperature and other

physical changes in the material. It is usually possible to deduce an
effective value of ^ from results of fire resistance tests and methods
of achieving this have been developed in several countries.

Methods are available for defining the critical steel temperature

according to the type of element and the stresses imposed (2).

There are many types of cladding material which have given

satisfactory protection to steel both in standard tests and in real
building fires. The choice of a material depends on economic and
aesthetic considerations, the environmental conditions, the likelihood of
mechanical damage and so on.

4.2 Screening the steel

Suspended ceilings below steel beams are a common method of screen

protection; they offer a number of advantages. However, their performance
in practice is sensitive to the method of assembly and they can suffer
damage if the voids are accessible for electric cables and other services.
While a general calculation method is not yet available, some
interpolation and extrapolation of test results is possible.

Similar considerations apply to wall partitions used to screen steel

columns.

4.3 Water cooling of steel

Cooling of steel structures by water spray or drenchers has been used

in air-craft hangars and for industrial storage tanks but has not
generally been used for the protection of building elements.

For building elements, the heat-absorbing capacity of water can be

exploited by filling hollow structural sections and, given a constant
supply, the cooling effect on the steel can be extended indefinitely.
With its high latent heat, the cooling is particularly marked when water
is converted to stream. There are a variety of systems in use, some
circulating the water and others not (10). A guide to water cooling has
been published (11).

4.4 Composite steel and concrete elements

A ribbed steel deck with a concrete topping is a popular form of

floor. The steel acts as permanent formwork and at normal temperatures can
be designed to act compositely with the concrete. Under fire exposure it
can be assumed that, provided the floor design at normal temperatures is
correct, the floor will have half hour stability without further
protection. For larger exposure times the steel deck makes little
structural contribution and should either be protected or - the more
popular choice - some reinforcement of the concrete should be provided.
Design manuals for both normal weight and lightweight concrete decks are
 239

available (12) (13).

Composite steel and concrete columns take a number of forms. Hollow

sections filled with concrete can be expected to provide half hour
stability without further protection. For higher periods of fire
resistance the concrete core is normally reinforced, and empirical charts
are available for design purposes. Other composite columns can be
I-sections encased in concrete and I-sections with concrete between the
flanges. These can also be used as beams.

A technical note on the fire resistance of composite columns is in

preparation (14).

5. ATTITUDES TO FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL

As part of a study into priorities for research into steel and fire
(15) a questionnaire was circulated to a number of steel information
centres in different countries in Western Europe. A selection of the
replies is given in Table I

TABLE I

Answers from 9 countries in relation to steel structures and national

requirements.

Question

Sometimes

Are calculation methods

accepted for

a) the standard fire

b) compartment fires

2. Are there agreed values of

fire load 2

3. Is there an agreed critical 5

steel temperature

Can the initial temperature

be calculated

Are there buildings with

unprotected external steel

Can single storey buildings

in unprotected steel

Can roofs be in unprotected

steel
 240

8. Can car parks be in unprotected

steel 4 2 3

9. Would you like better

information from tests 8 1

10. Is there an acceptable

criteria for failure of
beams and slabs in tests 4 5

The comments and observations from the Centres revealed a number of

problems, particularly a lack of knowledge of fire protection on the part
of the building authorities and lack of a clearly stated performance
requirement in the building regulations - What are they trying to achieve
and how do the fire resistance periods relate to real fires?

6. NEW APPROACH TO FIRE SAFETY

Fire safety objectives can be summarised as follows:

Reducing the risk of injury and death of people.

Reducing the risk of damage to and loss of the contents of

buildings.

Reducing the risk of damage to and loss of the structure and

finishes of buildings.

The importance of these objectives varies with the circumstances; for

example the life risk in a warehouse is low and the value of the
containing structure is likely to be small compared with the value of the
contents. The choice of measures adopted to meet the objectives also
varies with the circumstances. Structural fire protection is one of a
number of fire safety measures which can be adopted. The other measures
include fire prevention - designed to reduce the risk of a fire occurring
- and fire protection, both active and passive, designed to mitigate the
effects of a fire once it starts.

During recent decades it has become clear that the traditional

approach, which relies on structural fire protection, is not enough on its
own. With the higher standards of living in the developed countries come
demands by the consumer for higher standards of personal safety. The
changes in furnishings, the increased numbers of high-rise buildings, have
directed the attention of the public authorities to life safety
provisions, in particular to automatic detection and extinction systems,
smoke control systems, control of furnishings and efforts to improve fire
prevention.

These changes in approach to the design of fire safety have at least

three major implications for building structures:

first, if life safety is assured by other measures, in what

circumstances should structural fire protection also be provided?

second, if measures are installed which reduce the chance of a large

 241

fire occurring, can the present levels of structural fire protection

be reduced or eliminated?

third, what is being spent on fire protection? Which combination of

measures will give the optimum return on investment in terms of life
and property saved?

If questions such as these are to be answered fully (whether by

engineers or politicians) the risks, the benefits, the potential fire
exposure, and the effectiveness of the safety measures must be quantified.
Even if these factors cannot all be quantified as yet, it is still
important that the questions be asked. At the very least it might sort
out some of the difficulties and anomalies mentioned in section 5.

Within the European Community it is possible to have a unified

approach at a technical level. We should aim to have a unified approach
at the administrative level. For a start, fire resistance test reports
from one country should be accepted in the other countries, with the
proviso, of course, that the test conditions are clearly defined. The
difference between the way fire exposed elements behave in buildings and
in the standard fire resistance test is probably much greater than the
difference between the way they behave in the various test houses.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Design methods for the fire safety of steel structures and composite
steel and concrete structures have been developed and published in design
manuals which can be used by practising engineers of all nationalities.
At a technical level there are no problems in accepting experience
obtained in other countries. The steel designers would like to see the
same acceptance at the administrative level, since practical experience of
building fires shows that the similarities far outweigh any differences.

REFERENCES

1. PETTERSSON, O., MAGNUSSON, S. and THOR, J. (1976). "Fire Engineering

Design of Steel Structures", Publication 50, Swedish Institute of
Steel Construction.
2. "European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures.
Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Load Bearing Elements and
Structural Assemblies Exposed to the Standard Fire". European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork. Elsevier, 1983.
3. THOMAS, P.H. (1977). Proceedings of the Seventh Triennial CIB
Congress. Construction Research International.
4. THOR, J. and SEDIN, G. (1977). "Some results of industrial fires in
Sweden". Publication No. 56, Swedish Institute of Steel
Construction.
5. BUTCHER, E.G. et al. (1968). "Fire and car-park buildings". Fire
note No. 10, HMSO, London.
6. LAW, Margaret (1978) "Fire safety of external building elements - the
design approach". Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Second Quarter, pp 59-74.
7. American Iron and Steel Institute (1979). "Fire-safe structural
steel. A design guide". Washington D.C.
 242

8. LAW, Margaret and O'BRIEN, T. (1981). "Fire safety of bare external

structural steel". Constado, Croydon.
9. Fire Design Manual, European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of
Steel Structures. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork.
Publication no. 30. To be published.
10. LAW, Margaret and O'BRIEN, T. (1975). "Exposed steelwork". Building
with Steel. No. 19, Constrado.
11. BOND, G.V.L (1975). "Water cooled hollow columns". Constrado,
Croydon.
12. Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Composite Concrete Slabs with
Profield Steel Sheet Exposed to the Standard Fire. European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Publication No. 32, 1984.
13. NEWMAN, G.M. and WALKER, H.B. (1983). Steel framed multi-storey
buildings. Design recommendations for composite floors and beams
using steel decks. Section 2. Fire resistance. Constrado, Croydon.
14. Technical Note: Fire resistance of composite columns. European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork. In preparation.
15. BEHETS, J. and LAW, M. (1980). Study of research into the behaviour
of structural steel elements exposed to fire. Report to the European
Coal and Steel Community. CBLIA, Brussels and Ove Arup & Partners,
London.
 243

THE FIRE RESISTANCE OF TIMBER STRUCTURES

E. Sauvage
Timber Industry Technical Centre

Abstract

This paper describes the factors governing the reaction of timber to

fire, and the consequent construction rules offering maximum fire resist-
ance in structures. In addition, it is shown now the performance of a
particular element can be improved to meet any given standard.

0 . IWrRODUCTION

Timber is the only m a t e r i a l used in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n industry t o build

elements whose performance in the event of f i r e needs t o be considered
from the p o i n t s of view of both r e s i s t a n c e t o f i r e and r e a c t i o n t o
fire.

This paper considers only t h e question of r e s i s t a n c e t o f i r e , s i n c e

r e a c t i o n t o f i r e i s being d e a l t with by another p a n e l .

Timber s t r u c t u r a l elements must frequently be examined from the point of

view not of a s i n g l e load-bearing o r s e p a r a t i o n function, but both a t the
same time.

1. DESTRUCTION OF TIMBER BY FIRE

In the case of timber s t r u c t u r e s , t h e a c t i o n of f i r e r e s u l t s in t h e

combustion of the ligneous m a t t e r , which continues u n t i l t h e p o i n t a t
which the c r o s s s e c t i o n of the weakest element i s no longer adequate for
i t t o continue t o f u l f i l i t s function.

The duration of f i r e r e s i s t a n c e t h e r e f o r e depends on the amount of

surplus ligneous matter t o be destroyed by combustion before t h e f i r e
a t t a c k s the r e s i d u a l minimum t h i c k n e s s required t o perform t h e required
function.

Wood b u m s a t a f a i r l y c o n s t a n t r a t e from i t s i g n i t i o n temperature of

some 275 t o 3CO'C up to the temperature l a i d down in f i r e r e s i s t a n c e
standards - about 1 200 ' C .

The r a t e of combustion depends t o a l a r g e extent on the mass of the

timber per u n i t volume. Resinous woods with a volumetric mass of 400 t o
500 kg/m , such as red p i n e , s p r u c e , Douglas f i r and Oregon p i n e , bum
a t a minimum r a t e around o.6 mVmin, and never f a s t e r than 1.1 mm/min.

The denser deciduous woods, on the o t h e r hand, burn much more slowly : in
the case of oak, whose mass ranges from 600 t o 800 kg/m , t h e combustion
r a t e ranges from o . 3 mm/min minimum t o 0.6 mm/min maximum.

These figures have to be regarded as o r d e r s of magnitude only, s i n c e

f a c t o r s o t h e r s than mass per u n i t volume also a f f e c t the r a t e of combus-
t i o n , p r i n c i p a l l y shape, dimensions and p o s i t i o n .
 244

I t should be noted that flame-retarding treatment of wood has virtually

no effect on the rate of combustion : i t s only practical effect is to
delay the appearance of flames at the wood's surface, and reduce the
speed at which they proiaagate. In other words, treatment affects the
reaction of wood to f i r e , but has l i t t l e or no effect on i t s resistance.
2. EFFECTS OF POSITION IN THE EVENT OF FIRE

Methodical research carried out mainly in Germany and the United Kingdom
has established that the combustion rate of a timber element is influenced
by its position. The figures given above, for example, are those for
tests carried out on posts and beams.

The lowest rates are those observed for posts, a slightly faster rate
being observed for the lateral and upper surfaces of beams, and the most
rapid combustion relates to the lower surface of beams.

In certain cases account must be taten of the very rapid initial carboniza-
tion of arrises, which slows down gradually until the angle becomes
rounded.

3. ENHANCEMENT OF FIRE RESISTANCE

If timber of an adequate cross-section cannot be used, or in the case of

a "lightweight" structure, the requisite fire resistance can be achieved
by protecting the timber with a heat shield. The effect of such a shield
is to retard the appearance of combustion. A heat shield consists of a
cladding of either mineral (e.g. plaster) or combustible material (e.g.
timber-based panels). Timbers of the same species have much the same
rate of combustion whether they are in the form of solid wood or of
plywood panels, plywood being no more than a structural variant of solid
wood.

The combustion rate of chipboard varies directly with its mass per unit
volume, which ranges from 400 to 800 kg/m . The most widely-used panels
have a density of 600 kg/m , and burn at a rate around 1 mm/min, i.e.
faster than timber of the same density.

If it is considered necessary, the effect of the heat shield can be

augmented by backing with an appropriate heat insulation material.

Such augmented systems are particularly recommended for partition elements.

4 . TOE INFLUENCE OF STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES

It is essential in conclusion to draw attention to the need to develop

types of assembly which are as resistant as the individual elements
used.

However, the problem is so complex that even the briefest outline would
be beyond the scope of this talk.
 245

THE FIRE PERFORMANCE OF TIMER-FRAME

MULTIPLE-OCCUPATION BUILDINGS

EXISTING EXAMPLES

Commander M. AYMARD
Director of Fire and Emergency Services,
Hautes-Alpes Department, France

ABSTRACT

Timber construction methods are traditional in the Alps on account

of the local abundance of the materials, but hitherto such methods
have generally been used only for private dwellings built on no more
than one or two floors, for which buildings regulations fire resis-
tance requirements are not excessively strict.

However, the problem of the fire performance of the structure does

arise when similar methods are used to construct multi-occupier
dwellings.

Simple solutions have been found to the problems of fire safety

presented by the building as a whole.

Two such buildings have already been constructed in the southern

French Alps, and a third is being planned.

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDINGS

The first of two projects consists of eight dwellings plus communal
facilities on the first, second and third floors of each of three separate
blocks, with cellars and garages on the ground floor. The distinguishing
feature of this project is the communal facilities which are used socially
by the families living in the building.

The second consists of 16 dwellings on the upper ground, first, second

and third floors of two blocks, with garages on the lower ground floor.

The buildings are constructed on concrete rafts.

 246

H. 7,90

FIGURE I

The construction method used is half-timbering, using a wooden framework

(hybrid douglas fir) just as in a private house, but scaled up to the
size of the building. The interval between timbers is 30 cm.

The floor structure is constructed from local pine or spruce, with an

interval between joists of 60 cm.

Exterior walls are constructed as follows, reading through the sandwich

from the interior to the exterior:
- a 10 mm plaster facing panel
- a 12 mm chipboard panel, bracing the structure
- the 112 mm timber frame
- a perpendicular 40 mm lattice
- cavities are filled with 145 mm of glass fibre in two layers
of 100 mm and 45 mm
- waterproof felt
- a facing of 23 mm of larch in one project, and melanin in the other.

Interior load-bearing walls are constructed as follows:

- a 10 mm plaster facing panel
- a 12 mm chipboard panel
- the 112 mm framework
- two plaster facing panels, of 13 and 10 mm.

The horizontal separations are constructed as follows, from bottom to

top:
 247

- two rail-mounted lap-jointed plaster panels, of 13 and 10 mm

- joists 220 X 47 urn, filled with 100 nm glass fibre
- 22 mm chipboard
- a layer of insulation
- 16 mm of chipboard, on which is laid the adhesive floor covering.

2. SAFETY TARGETS

Under French law, multi-occupier housing is classified according to the

height of the floor of the topmost dwelling above the ground to which
fire and emergency service vehicles can obtain access.

These builings belong to the second group, that is, the height of the
lowest floor of the topmost flat is less than 8 metres above ground to
which fire and emergency service vehicles can obtain access. That height
limit does not apply to the mezzanine floors of the top-floor flats,
which are in fact over 8 metres above ground level.

This classification assumes the following levels of fire-resistance in

the various structural elements:
- vertical load-bearing elements: 30 mins. fire stability
- floors: 30 mins. fire-barrier
- stairwell walls: 30 mins. flame barrier
- landings and staircases: 1 hour fire stability

These levels correspond to the times during which the elements meet the
requirements of a standard heat programme with the following heat/elapsed
time parameters:

- 925C after 1 hour

- 1030C after 2 hours.
3. THE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

As the reader might infer from the description of the works, the safety
targets were achieved by cumulating the various possible solutions.
- Heat shields: protecting the timber framework and its joints by placing
suitable materials on their inside suface.
- Oversizing of the timber framework: oversizing is generally practised
for a number of technical reasons, and timber is used of a section
considerably larger than that which would be used if the constructor's
only concern was avoiding the collapse of the building. Such oversizing
allows structures to meet fire stability standards.
- Use of insulating materials to fill voids in the timber structure - in
this instance, class MO glass fibre, which forms a barrier and restricts
the spread of fire to the timber frame.

In these cases the greatest effect was obtained by the heat insulation of
the framework.

The necessary fire stability was obtained as follows:

 248

for exterior walls 10 ram plaster facing panels (12 mins) plus 12 mm
chipboard panels (17 mins) give a total of 29 minutes; the additional
minute is provided by oversizing the framework, the reduction of the
section being 0,7 mm.

1 - wooden skirting board 11 100 mm glass fibre

2 - flexible watertight seal 12 moisture barrier
3 - floor covering 13 145 nm glass fibre (100 +
4 - 50 mm VERMAS PHA insulation 45 mm, in two layers)
5 - resilient material 14 12 mm chipboard
6 - 19 ran chipboard 15 polyane moisture barrier
7 - 22 mm chipboard 16 10 mm plasterboard
8 - ceiling suspension 17 timber frame
9 - flooring joist 18 rain-proof felting
10 - 10 mm and 13 mm plasterboard 19 larch facing

FIGURE II
 249

The staircase framework is constructed from timber 36 mm 12 mm sections,

with the underside faced with special 15 mm rail-mounted plaster facing
panels plus 12 mm chipboard panels.
- for interior load-bearing walls double plaster panels of 10 mm and 13
mm, providing 12 and 15 minutes respectively, totalling 27 minutes.
The balance of 3 minutes is likewise covered by the oversizing of the
structure, the section being reduced by 2 mm in that time.

The same applied to the horizontal separations, where two rail-mounted

plaster facing panels (10 mm and 13 mm) together with 22 mm chipboard
and a 10 mm layer of glass fibre wool provides the required 30 minutes'
fire break.

Fire stability of the staircases and landings for one hour was achieved
by oversizing the stringer and protecting its underside with special 15
mm rail-mounted plaster facing panels (30 minutes), together with 12 mm
chipboard (17 minutes) and rockwool.

The advantage of the rockwool is that it reduces to one quarter the

fire's penetration of the timber frame compared to that under normal
circumstances. Fire penetration during the 13 minutes needed to complete
the hour is estimated at 3 mm.

To prevent fire attacking both faces of the stairs at once, risers and
treads were specified in the same material.

All the times given are those of materials manufactured in France,

tested in approved laboratories.

Particular attention was paid to the joints and angles, and to all the
points at which walls meet and which represent the potentially weakest
points in the heat shield.

All interstices at joints were stuffed with fibre glass, to deal with
the risk of thermal and acoustic "bridges".

The joining of the plaster facing panels on the ceilings and walls was
monitored very closely, and all sealing work was carried out one coat
at a time.
 250

fibre
glass

VS/SSSS/SAS/SS/SSSSSSS/

'Vfi p l a s t e r panel 10 nmi

plaster panel 13 mm

plaster panel 10 mm

chipboard panel 12 mm

fibre glass

FIGURE III

Amongst other security measures the following should be noted:

- vertical air spaces in the outer walls are divided into sections by the
insertion of a metal strip on a level with each floor.

facing C/PI CTBX

12 mm air space
12 mm chipboard panel

Prgyplac 10 mm

metal strip

fibre glass

FIGURE IV
 251

- ducts are divided vertically into sections by plaster fillings;

- forced air ventilation ducts are lined with special plaster facing
panels and glass fibre, and non-return traps fitted to duct outlets;
- electrical sockets are of a type which is especially resistant to being
ripped out of the wall.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Ihese simple solutions, coupled with scrupulous monitoring of the progress

of works, have enabled the building as a whole to meet fire safety
regulations, provided it stands alone.

A further problem which remains to be solved is the significant calorific

potential inherent in the building itself.

The faades contain from 15 to 26 kg of timber (including chipboard) per

m , and the floors some 40 kg/m ; the whole representing an additional
calorific potential of some 950 000 megajoules.

Such potential would represent a serious risk if entire estates of such

buildings were constructed, because of the danger of fire spreading from
one building to another.

Such risks can only be dealt with satisfactorily by applying strict rules
isolating buildings, by keeping the buildings at a distance one from
another, or by constructing fire-proof screens between them.
 252

REPORT ON A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON REACTION-TO-FIRE TESTS IN THE EC

G. BIACHERE
Auxirbat, Paris

Sutmary

Thirty tests calling into action the same basic properties are being
carried out in the EEC to characterize the same fire risks created by
building materials.
They are semi-natural tests on reduced scales (except for roofing
tests).
Five kinds of risks are considered : ignition, propagation, contri-
bution to fire, density and toxicity of smoke.
The materials tested are submitted to the thermal stress of radiant
panels or flames of a burner or of the material itself.
The sample sizes, their orientation, their conditioning and supports
differ.
The tests are at the origin of a national chain : Test - classifi-
cation - regulation.
To remedy to this diversity of tests which have danmageable conse-
quences on industry, correlations have been sought but they don't
exist.
The use of mathematical modlisation of the development of fire is
able to improve the situation. But not immediately, and probably at
the price of transformation of the national classifications and regu-
lations .
At the demand of the Commission of the European Communities, a study
has shown that it is possible in a majority of cases to forecast the
response of a material in national tests using observations made in
other countries' tests, making it possible to sell a product through-
out Europe without going through all the national tests.
A correlative idea is to define semi natural tests, more specific of
each risk than the actual ones and to use them to forecast convinc-
ingly the behaviour in every national test : the way of the recurse
to "elementary tests".

NOTE
The ideas described below were developed during research carried out for
the EC on the possibility of using the results of tests in other countries
as the basis for granting permission for a material to be used for a
specific purpose in a given country.
Because we are limited by the length of this report, we can describe only
a few of the ideas without going into great detail. A full description is
given in the report for the EC.
 253

Approximately 30 different tests are in use in the ten Member States

of the EC to assess the fire risk of building materials. There are even
more potential variations as the same test may be used in different ways
(affecting the support element, the environment and duration of hygro-
thermic conditioning, etc.).
All of the tests with one exception* are basically semi-natural
tests, in which every effort is made to simulate the circumstances of a
real fire. They are scaled down in an attempt to reduce costs, and are
designed to provide a direct assessment of the risk involved in using a
material.
The tests are of the "synthetic" or "integrating" type, in which
results depend on a whole range of basic properties. They do not measure
those properties, but record the time, distance and temperature values
which are regarded as significant in the development of a real fire.
Tests of this sort have considerable disadvantages arising mainly
frcm three factors :
there is no law of similarity in combustion behaviour;
there are too many variables in fires (geometry, air supply, position
of break-out of fire) to define a single standard type with any val-
idity;
the new building materials being used and changes in the types of
building are creating new problems which could not be anticipated
when existing tests were designed.
Over the years it was realized that existing tests were indadequate,
as were the material classifications based on the tests and the regu-
lations drawn up from the classifications, with the result that the regu-
lations were changed and new tests added to the old to serve as the basis
for the classifications. The old tests are still the main ones used far
material (cost of laboratory equipment, availability of reports and know-
ledge of the materials), and perhaps also sentimental, reasons.
The major groups of risks which the tests are intended to assess
are : ignition**, propagation, combustion-promoting factors, smoke density
and toxicity of combustion products. Not all countries examine the last
two risks.
Each risk is assessed by specific tests, or from specific information
obtained during a test in which other aspects are also examined (e.g. the
piradiateur test in France).
It should be noted that the names given to the tests are sometimes
misleading : a propagation test may be called a flammability test, or a
test on combustion-promoting factors a propagation test.

TESTS TO ASSESS THE RISK OF I3HTICM

These tests measure the amount of time taken by the material to

ignite from the moment when it undergoes heat stress.

The measurement of gross calorific value with a bomb calorimeter,

used in France to assess combustion elements; such assessments are
questionable, however.

This word covers the onset of combustion whether or not flame is

present.
 254

Heat stress may be obtained from the following sources :

- a source of radiant heat, e.g. a panel :
on a test piece at a 45 angle (piradiateur test in France)
on a vertical test piece at irregular points : (test in Denmark to
determine ignition temperature);
radiant heat and a pilot flame source : under a test piece at a
30 angle (electric burner test in France);
- a vertical flame
on a test piece at a 45 angle (flammability test in the UK) :
on the cut edge of a vertical test piece (alcohol flame test in
France);
a gas burner at a 45 angle directed against a vertical test piece
(small burner test in Germany);
a gas burner and the flux from the combustion of an ignited tablet of
the same material (flamtiability test in Denmark);
a burning crib placed on the test piece in an air draught (test in
Denmark on carpets and floor coverings).
The ignition time of the material essentially depends on the follow-
ing basic values : the coefficient of radiant heat absorption (radiative
emissivity), the thermal conductivity coefficient, the apparent density,
the specific heat capacity, the pyrolysis heat (in other words the heat
required for the pyrolytic decomposition of the material), the pyrolysis
rate and the constant flame temperature of volatile pyrolysis products.
In tests using radiant sources the flux rates are sometimes specifi-
cally fixed (e.g. piradiateur). They are never fixed for ignition by
flame where fuel and burner are specified, to guarantee reprcductibility.
It should be noted that it is difficult to assess the flux rate to
which a material is subject to the presence of a burner flame and of the
flame from an adjacent ignited test piece. But the dangers involved in
assessing this test are clear.
The intensity and duration of the radiant flux caused by ignition
vary greatly from one test to another, according to whether it is a
specific test on a highly flammable material :
e.g.: alcohol flame for 45 sec. (British test)
or : small burner for 15 sec. (small burner test in Germany)
or whether it is a basic behaviour test, during which the ignition
time is recorded :
flux of 3 W/cm2 for 20 min. (piradiateur test in France).

TESTS TO ASSESS THE RISK OF PROPAGATION

These tests measure the distance at which the flame stops spreading,
and in some cases the speed of propagation. In order to observe propaga-
tion ignition must first have taken place. The source of ignition may be
only briefly active, propagation then ensuing independently.
On the other hand the ignition source may remain active during all or
part of the test; this is assisted propagation. In every case assistance
is reduced when the flame propagates.
The flat surface on which propagation is observed may be vertical,
sloping horizontally or horizontal depending on whether or not it is
intended to simulate a real fire.
Test pieces are almost always elongated rectangles; depending on
whether the long side of the test piece is horizontal, the fire propagates
sideways from the flame front or in the direction of the flames.
The latter case is more "integrating" and natural, but we know less
about the physical values involved.
 255

In the former case, propagation sideways from the flame front, the
secondary flux overlaps with the lateral flux frcm the flame front. The
weaker the lateral flux, the more the propagation test resembles an
ignition test with variable flux along the test piece. It is relatively
easy to compare data obtained frcm tests of this sort.
In assisted propagation tests using a radiant panel, the angle
between the panel and the test piece is 30, 45 or 90, producing differ
ent flux diminution curves along the test piece, but this does not appear
to be a very important factor.
The various propagation tests are as follows :

Unassisted propagation
In all the unassisted propagation tests propagation occurs in the
direction of the flames, with the exception of the combustion speed tests
in England and the flame propagation speed test in France.
they differ from each other in the method and duration of ignition
(always short), which is induced by flame or a similar electrical device,
such as the French electric burner, and by the attack used :
on the cut edge (Italian test, German and French burner tests,
British flammability test on a PVC sample),
on a vertical surface, or a surface sloping over the flames (UK flam
mability test on a small test piece sloping over an alcohol flame,
Italian burner test, German burner test, French piradiateur test).

Assisted propagation
All of the assisted propagation tests use lateral propagation with
the exception of the German Brandschacht (combustion tube) test.
The test piece is vertical in the British largescale (23 90 cm)
flame propagation test on the surface of materials, in the radiant panel
test in France and in the ignition and flame propagation test in Denmark,
and horizontal in the German radiant panel test on floor coverings.
In the Italian test the test piece is vertical, or else horizontal
and attacked from above or below.
In the combustion tube test in Germany propagation on a vertical test
piece is assisted by sloping banks of burners, the flames on each test
piece and the reciprocal effect between the test pieces.
Another characteristic of every propagation test is that the strength
of attack varies according to the material being tested. A very strong
attack is used when it is intended to demonstrate that the material reacts
very well to fire; for example a flux of 4.15 W/cm 2 for 10 min. (the basic
level used in the assisted propagation test in the United Kingdom), or of
around 5 W/cm 2 for 10 min. (the basic level used in the assisted propaga
tion test in the FRG).
A moderate attack is used when assessing propagation which is known
to be rapid, down to ignition alone in unassisted propagation, e.g. appli
cation of Bunsen burner for 30 sec. (French test of flame propagation
speed).

TESTS TO ASSESS CXJMBUSTIGNPROHJTPC FACTORS

The combustionpromoting agents obviously depend on the conditions in

which the fire and the test take place.
The gross calorific value of combustible materials determined in the
test using a bomb calorimeter under pure oxygen pressure (ISO 1182) is
higher than the amount of heat which the material would generate in a
fire. So countries using that test proceed as follows : The gross calor
 256

ific value of the material is measured along with the residual calorific
value of the same material after combustion (e.g. in the KleinprUfstand in
Germany).
The difference between these two gives the calorific value released
during combustion. In France, however, because materials with a low GCV
also have a low residual calorific value, the residual value is not
measured and the difference is not calculated.
The tests devised to assess to what extent a material prenotes com-
bustion fall into two groups.
There is the ISO non-fLanmability test which is used in Belgium,
Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands and Greece, and there are related tests
which vary in similarity to the ISO test, and which are used in the UK and
Germany.
The ISO test measures the heat produced in a sample burning under
intense radiant heat (6.75 W/crn^) in the vacuum inside a ring oven to
assess materials with only minor combustion-promoting properties (1 000
cal/gr or less).
There are also rough ra Inri metric tests which measure temperature and
the flow rate of gases in and out of the chamber in which the propagation
(and ignition) tests are being carried out. These tests include the French
piradiateur test where the flow rate is controlled by an artificial
draught and the temperature is measured, the German Brandschacht test
where the flow rate is set by an artificial draught and where the tempera-
ture is measured, the Danish fire propagation test which measures flow
rates (by calibration) and temperatures, and the British test known as the
fire propagation test on products in a natural air flow.

TEST TO ASSESS THE OPACITY AMD TOXICITY OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

The growing use of plastics in construction has heightened the risks

caused by the opacity and toxicity of combustion products. Few countries,
however, are giving these risks any attention. There are plans to include
an opacity test in the German Brandschacht test, and to carry out opacity
and toxicity tests on products from a pyrolysis oven, likewise in Germany.
An opacity test has been included in the Netherlands flash-over-test.
Because opacity depends so much on combustion conditions, it is dif-
ficult to assess it using tests.
Toxicity tests based on the mortality rate in rats are very expens-
ive. The obvious solution would be to draw up a common test standard (ISO,
for example) which would be accepted by the various countries as the basis
for regulations.

OTHER TESTS

These tests involve determining the softening point of plastics (UK

test) in connection with the behaviour of lighting; they also relate to
the formation of drops of burning material (French test) in view of the
danger that the fire will spread to the floor, and the danger for firemen.

DIFFERENCES IN TEST PREPARATION

First there are differences in conditions.

We have recorded ten different atmospheres, some of which vary by
only one degree or one percent in the permitted temperature and humidity
tolerance rates.
 257

However, ISO 554 ("atmosphere conditions") lays down atmosphere

standards.
Variations in conditions have considerable effects on test results.
There are also differences in the test piece support materials.
In some countries these are specified :
5 mm asbestos cement board (Italy)
6 mm asbestos cement board (FKG)
8 - 10 mm siliceous limestone slab (FRG - permitted variant)
10 mm siliceous limestone slab (Denmark).
In other countries support materials considered realistic are
accepted, but the practice adopted by laboratories or in recommendations
have more or less standardized the situation :
6 mm asbestos cement board (France, Netherlands)
6 mm asbestos-free mineral board (Netherlands, floor coverings)
25 or 50 mm concrete slab (Belgium; floor coverings)
25 mm concrete slab or 12-15 mm plaster board (Belgium, wall
coverings).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland the support materials most often
used are a 12.7 plaster board and a 12.7 or 6 mm asbestos cement board.
Because of its diffusive qualities the support material has a considerable
effect which nay affect the classification of the materials.
Lastly to prevent falsification of results and to simulate real-life
conditions, a number of countries wash samples - samples of floor
coverings in Belgium, and in every case in Italy. The two countries do
not, however, define washing in the same way.

ROOFING TESTS

There are specific tests for roofing, and unlike the tests described
above, they are semi-natural full scale-tests and involve one or more of
the following elements :
burning crib on roofing alone (German test);
burning crib and air draught (Danish test);
burning crib, air draught and radiant heat (French test);
radiant heat and moving flame (UK test).
Thus the range of tests used in the Member States of the Community
to assess the fire hazards of building materials is wide and, historical
reasons apart, largely unjustifiably so.
It should be remembered, without dwelling on the matter here, that
these tests are the basis for the classifications used in the regulations
governing manufacturers.
Because of the countless different types of fires, the small number
of fires which actually spread, the lack of scientific data on such fires
and, obviously, on the large numbers of fires which are extinguished
immediately by the occupants of the building, no attempt has been made, or
is likely to be made, to define statistically in absolute terms or by
international comparison, the preventive effectiveness of each country's
test/classification/regulation system.*

Research into the correlation between the classifications and full-

ear small-scale laboratory-staged fires showed, on the other hand,
that within a given geometry there was no correlation between the
classifications and the flash over phenomenon.
 258

This explains why each country thinks its own system is suitable. But
it should also show them that it would be no loss of face to change the
way things stand at present.
The wide range of tests means that a manufacturer who wishes to sell
his product in several countries must have several series of tests carried
out. Such tests are not prohibitively expensively, admittedly, but they
take time and it is all a great inconvenience which, as we have seen is
difficult to justify.
But worse than that, if their products are to be given the right
classifications for access to profitable markets, manufacturers have to
change products to be sent to more than one country, which is prejudicial
to productivity.
For this reason, and because the whole situation is so senseless,
efforts have long been made to reduce these drawbacks.
I believe that the earliest efforts were concerned with correlating
the classifications of the various countries; it soon became obvious that
there is no such correlation.
One solution which springs to mind inmediately is to adopt
standardized tests. However, up to now neither the ISO nor the EEC have
achieved this. The adoption of standardized tests would necessarily
involve standardizing classifications and, of course, regulations, which
makes this solution even more complicated and difficult to implement, at
least for the present.
A further possible solution would be to use modelling techniques in
devising the tests. For practical reasons it is impossible to carry out
enough full-scale tests in natural conditions to be able to ensure that
materials with certain properties which have been assessed in given tests
(or measured, in the case of inherent properties) and which have been used
within certain geometric constraints, do not create inadmissible hazards.*
But a large number of these tests can be carried out in simulated
conditions, provided that these simulated conditions are accurate (this is
checked against a small number of tests in real conditions), that
calculations do not take too much time, and that the necessary inputs are
available. Not all, or even most, of these inputs will be data on inherent
properties, but "integrated" data, such as the ignition time under a given
flux etc.
A chain linking measurement of inherent properties or integrated
tests with subsequent classification and regulation could then be put
forward with a sufficiently convincing scientific basis to persuade each
country to use it instead of its own national system, the anomalies and
inadequacies of which could then be brought out by the same simulations.**
But this would take a very long time. Pending eventual
standardization can we not somehow reduce the drawbacks caused by the wide
variety of tests?

Inadmissible hazards are those rejected by the user's safety

requirements; every effort is being made to define them; cf.
Collection of model Conmission regulation provisions Ch. 2 "Fire
Safety" being prepared at the EEC in Geneva.

The same simulations may also be used to study directly the hazards
involved in projects of some importance.
 259

Mr Mourareau, who is dealing with these problems at the EEC, has

proposed that the results obtained in a test in one country might be used
to obtain approval for a specific use in another country. It should be
noted that this is not another attempt to correlate classifications which,
as we know, is impossible. And, although the distinction may appear rather
subtle, it does not involve deciding on classifications in one country on
the basis of results obtained in tests proper to another country. It may
be that while approval can be given for one use, it cannot be given for
all uses available under a particular classification.
Of course it is only useful to obtain approval which is not
over-restrictive. What would be the point of showing that a material which
is very difficult to ignite can be used where a material with only average
ignition-resistant properties would be adequate?
On the other hand it is interesting to note, for example, that
coverings which did not combust when six test pieces were subjected to the
Italian wall-position propagation test appear to be acceptable in France
as interior wall coverings in places where classification M2 is required.
Without going into detail it should be noted that this proposal is
based on a comparison of the fluxes to which the samples are subjected in
the two tests, backed up by a number of actual results.
The authors of this document were requested by the EEC to carry out
research designed to produce proposals of this sort. In the early stages
only 5 countries were studied : Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy and the
United Kingdom. The research was then extended to cover all the EEC
countries; this second phase will not be completed until [fovember of this
year.
The early stages of the research dealt with the following :
- listing the basic properties of the materials which play an active
part in fires,
- describing and analysing regulatory tests in the
various countries,
describing regulatory provisions and assessing the types of use
(types of buildings, use of premises, etc.) which are of some
importance in international trade,
- studying variations in test conditions.
The research mainly concentrates on the approval given in one country
on the basis of information provided by tests in another country for floor
coverings, interior wall coverings, ceilings, external wall coverings,
materials used for permanent fittings in construction, and service ducts,
roofing and coverings.
In the case of the first six countries approval was immediately
proposed in 50% of the cases, on the basis of arguments such as that
described earlier. It was also estimated that approval could probably have
been proposed for a further 25% of the cases had certain checks been made
which were ruled out by the deadlines and conditions of the research.
These are satisfactory results, even given that the combustibility tests
used in the six countries fall into only three groups (in addition to the
190), and that in all the tests propagation is started and/or assisted by
radiant heat and not by flame.
It should be noted that approval for a specific use is sometimes
proposed on the basis of the results of a test which is not designed for
that use in the country in which it is carried out. Where that is the case
the manufacturer would have to request a second test in his own country.
The conclusions from the initial stages of the research have been
submitted to a number of respected experts : Dr. W. Becker (FRG); Dr. U.
Flisi (Italy), Mr B. Hognon (France), and Mr P. Vandeveide (Belgium).
 260

Although we cannot claim that the experts went along with the detailed
results of the research, we can say that they found it an interesting
project.
In the second stage Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and
the FRG were added to the five original countries. Although the research
is not yet complete, we have the impression that the numbers of proposals
for approval will be slightly less than in the first phase, because in the
tests used the source of thermal stress was flame rather than a radiant
panel, the flame often being that of the material tested. Itowever, by
measuring the heat flux created by burners (in the Brandschacht) a link
can be drawn between the two groups of tests.
It must be noted at this point that it would be very useful to
measure thermal stress in tests in which it is not measured at present as
a means of comparing test results and for helping laboratories and
regulatory bodies in the various countries to understand each other.
Before putting forward our final idea, we should be more specific
about the scope of the proposals made in our research for the EEC.
What these proposals mean is that it would be possible for one
country to approve materials on the basis of the results obtained in
practical tests in another country. It is up to the scientists to confirm
that possibility, but only the governments can make it a reality.
Ihe idea on which we should like to end this report is as follows.
If it is possible, to a certain extent, to use the results of one
test to predict the results of another, would it not be more useful to
carry out "ad hoc" tests providing results which would enable us to
predict the results of the majority of the tests carried out in the EC?
Let us explain . the point. We do not mean measuring inherent
properties, but simpler and to a certain extent elementary "integrating"
or "synthetic" tests. They might include a test to determine the radiant
flux produced by ignition, without any sort of propagation effect, which
is not too difficult to design; a propagation test using the material's
own flame, or rather a measurement of the flux created by the material's
own flame, which is also fairly easy to design; pyrogravimetric and
pyrocalorimetric tests, which are perhaps the most difficult to devise.
Using the results from tests such as these, and by making the same
sort of deductions as in the research carried out for the EC, it would
seem possible to define national classifications, albeit perhaps at the
expense of certain specific complementary tests, such as on the softening
and dripping of materials, etc., and consequently to apply national
regulations unchanged.
If we might suggest a simile, piecing together national tests from
these elementary tests is a little like piecing together all the various
atoms from the protons and neutrons which go to make them up
That is why we are proposing to call this solution to the diversity
of tests in Europe "reverting to elementary tests".
 261

TOXIC HAZARDS IN FIRE

C. Herpol, Senior Scientist, Laboratory,

State University of Ghent, Belgium

Abstract
After a brief introduction there follows an evaluation of toxicological
hazards to which man is exposed in fires, based on systematic studies
of autopsy results. The test methods are then described. The results
of the research carried out in Europe and elsewhere are described
under three separate headings: analytical research, biological research
and research on primates. The present situation concerning standardiza-
tion and legislation in this field, particularly in the European
countries, is then discussed. Finally, a brief outline is given of the
activities of the ISO, which has been studying this problem since
1976. This part of the paper also includes views on future research
prospects and on the possibility of establishing international standar-
dized methods for testing the toxicity of products of the pyrolysis
and combustion of materials used in the construction, decoration and
furnishing of buildings.

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent decades increasing attention has been paid to the problem of

the toxicity of smoke and fumes from fires, both by the public, alarmed
by various major disasters and by the authorities and the various circles
with a special interest in fire hazards.

We must remember, of course, that the toxicity of effluent gases is only

one of the numerous aspects of the reaction to fire of materials used in
the construction and furnishing of buildings; nevertheless, it is natural
that we should be particularly concerned with this aspect, in view of the
direct effects which toxic gases can have on human beings.

2. EVALUATION OF THE HAZARDS

The significance of the toxic hazards in fires has long been recognized,
partly as a result of the statistics concerning fire victims. However, it
is only relatively recently that more detailed studies have been made
which enable the precise effects on man to be evaluated.

In the United Kingdom, for example, a systematic study of the results of

almost 300 autopsies of fire victims was carried out between 1976 and
1982 (1). Major burns were present in 80 of the cases, but it is not
possible to state with certainty that these were the cause of death since
they may have occurred after the death of the victim. Pathological studies
show that damage to the respiratory system (congestion, 02dema, haemorrha-
ging) is also very common. Almost all the victims (over 90%) had inhaled
 262

fumes, and deposits of soot were found in the airways. Just over half the
victims has a carboxyhaemoglobin-in-blood level of over 50%, which is
regarded as fatal in itself. In addition, carbon monoxide (CO) was
present in 37% of the remaining cases or contributed to death together
with other factors such as a pre-existing cardio-vascular diseases,
alcohol abuse and other causes still to be determined. Hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), which is formed in many fires from materials containing nitrogen
in combination with carbon, is another toxic gas which was firmly estab-
lished as having contributed towards death in 20% of the cases.

This study and other similar studies, such as that carried out in Maryland,
USA (2), have shown that the majority of victims die because the effect
of the smoke and fumes released by the fire prevents them from fleeing
and thus avoiding direct contact with the high temperatures and flames.

The accounts given by firemen and survivors provide another useful source
of information. The smoke and fumes are frequently reported as being
blinding, irritating, suffocating, etc. The systematic and scientific
study of human behaviour in fires is still in its infancy (3) but can
already teach us a great deal, for example concerning prevention through
educating the general public.

3. TEST METHODS

Devising relevant test methods for studying the toxicity of gases and
vapours given off during the pyrolysis and combustion of materials poses
enormous problems. This is due to the complexity of the atmospheres
generated in the course of a fire.

Chemical analysis of the effluent gases by modern analysis methods is the

first approach which springs to mind. However, such analyses have very
quickly shown that even in well-defined circumstances the thermal decom-
position of materials, even relatively simple ones such as polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), can give rise to dozens of volatile products, some more
toxic than others (4). The fact is that the materials involved in real
fires are multiple and varied, some natural, some synthetic, some treated
to become fire retardant. Furthermore, the composition of the atmosphere
is continually changing depending on factors such as temperature and
ventilation conditions throughout the course of the fire. In addition,
although toxicologists have established the maximum tolerable concen-
trations in air for most toxic gases, there are very few indications
concerning the possible cumulative effects when several such gases are
present at the same time.

The limited usefulness of chemical analysis for evaluating the toxic

hazards of fire atmospheres was recognized fairly quickly, and a new
method had to be sought. This led to the development of biological
methods, in which tests are carried out on laboratory animals to evaluate
the overall response to all the toxic substances present and to the
synergies or antagonisms which may exist in such complex mixtures.

These methods fall into two main categories:

 263

- "Static" methods, in which the products of thermal decomposition are

generated in the test chamber in which the laboratory animals are
exposed to their effects (5) (Fig.l). In general the sample is quickly
burned up, after which the animals remain in the fumes produced for the
exposure period. The temperature within the chamber can rise to levels
which are dangerous in themselves, and the oxygen level may drop
dangerously.
- "Dynamic" methods, in which the smoke and fumes are produced outside
the test chamber and are then transferred to it, generally by means of
a stream of air (6) (Fig. 2 ) . This enables fresh fumes to be delivered
throughout the exposure period. On the debit side, certain constituents
of the smoke and fumes may be lost by condensation on the walls of the
tubes.

Whatever system is chosen, the value of the results yielded by each

method - and dozens of methods have been developed throughout the world
(7) - is limited to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the fire
conditions which the thermal model is able to reproduce.

4. RESEARCH

Nowadays a great of toxicological information is available, and this has

been acquired both by chemical analysis and by biological research.

4.1. Analytical research

Very sophisticated chemical analyses by means of gas chromatography and

mass spectromety (GC/MS) have yielded a considerable amount of infor-
mation on the nature and the quantities of toxic products likely to be
present in a fire atmosphere. This technique makes it possible to compare
the atmospheres produced in the models with the atmospheres sampled
during large-scale trials involving identical materials. Dubbed the
"fingerprint" technique, it enables the relevance of the models to be
established in relation to the various phases into which the course of a
real fire can be subdivided, from ignition to extinction (8) (Fig. 3 ) . In
Europe, activity in this field is confined mainly to the United Kingdom
(9), where the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876 places severe restrictions
on the use of laboratory animals for such research.

Most toxic products identified in fire atmospheres belong to one of two

categories:

- Narcotics, such as CO, HCN, benzene, acetone, etc., which when present
in sufficiently high concentrations, are capable of rendering an
exposed person unconscious. At lower concentration they can act on the
nervous and cardio-vascular systems and reduce mental and motor functi-
ons to the point where escape becomes impossible.
- Irritants, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) or acrolein, which can
prevent escape by affecting the eyes and the upper airways, but can
also damaqe the lungs and cause the subsequent death of victims who
have survived the immediate exposure.

4.2. Biological research

 264

In Europe, the main countries in which biological research has been

carried out are (in alphabetical order): Belgium (6), Federal Republic of
Germany (11), France (10) and the United Kingdom (12). Most of this
research has been carried out on rodents (mice, rats, rabbits), but more
recently primates have also been used.

Of all the effects, which can be used as criteria, death has often been
chosen because it is relatively simple to establish (6). Another cri-
terion currently in use is measurement of motor activity. This involves
the use either of cages in which the vibrations of the cage produced by
the movement of the animal can be recorded graphically (13), or of
rotating cages, in which the animal is obliged to keep moving in order to
keep its balance (14). Using these methods, it is thus possible to
determine the moment when the animal collapses and becomes incapable of
moving productively. Researchers at the University of Utah/USA (15) have
developed a method based on the principle of the conditioned reflex, the
rat being trained to avoid an electric shock by withdrawing its paw at
the signal (light or sound) which precedes the shock. The rat is then
exposed to fumes, and the time at which it loses the capacity to respond
correctly is recorded. A similar method uses a cage divided into two
parts, the floors of which can be electrified separately (16). The degree
of respiratory depression is another criterion used (17), a reflex
reduction in the rate of ventilation being a characteristic response to
irritation of the upper airways. Certain methods involve measurement of
physiological parameters of varying degrees of sophistication such as the
electrocardiogram (ECG), the electro-encephalogram (EEG), measurement of
nerve conduction velocity, measurement of arterial blood pressure, blood
analyses (COHb, etc,) (10, 12). Most methods nowadays also recommend that
the animals which survive exposure should be monitored for at least two
weeks for loss of weight, clinical symptoms, etc. The animals are then
killed for anatomo-pathological study. In fact toxicologists recommend a
global assessment since biological systems cannot be adequately represented
by a single numerical value. Practically all methods also involve chemical
analyses in order to supplement the biological measurements and provide a
more complete picture of the toxic effects observed in the animals. The
extent of these analyses varies from case to case.

Whatever criteria are used, various types of information can be collected.

The simplest consists of comparing materials under well-defined test
conditions in order to evaluate the relative toxicity of their products
of pyrolysis of combustion. Of course, the only materials which can be
directly compared in this way are those which have an identical function
in buildings or the contents of the buildings, for example insulating
materials, floor coverings, upholstery, etc.

By varying the test temperature it is possible to determine the "critical"

temperature which releases the most dangerous smoke and fumes for a given
material (18).

In closely-controlled test conditions it is also possible to compare

materials by determining the LC50, i.e. the concentration sufficient to
kill 50% of the animals exposed, a standard toxicological criterion. Of
 265

course, in combustion toxicology it is not possible to express the

precise doses in mq of products absorbed by kg weight of animal, as is
the case in normal toxicology. Here, the concentration is expressed
either in weiqht or in loss of weight of the sample in relation to the
volume of air available. There are two possible ways of changing the
concentration:

- by varying the weiqht of the sample while keeping the quantity of air
constant, which changes the area/volume ratio and the qualitative and
quantitative composition of the atmospheres;
- by varying the dilution by air of the gases produced by the combustion
of samples of constant weight, which is easy to do in the dynamic type of
method and is more correct from the toxicological point of view since
dilution avoids any qualitative change in the atmospheres and maintains
the relative proportions of the components.

Using other criteria it is also possible to determine the RC50, i.e. the
concentration which produces a 50% reduction in the rate of respiration.
However, numerous tests need to be done in order to be able to calculate
statistically these "50-concentrations" on the basis of the concentration/
effects curves obtained in experiments (19) (Fig. 4 ) . Fig. 4 shows the
relationship between concentration and effect (in this case the percentage
of deaths) for 8 materials. It is thus possible to compare the toxicity
of materials with that of a reference material, in this case for example
fir wood, and to establish categories for materials which are either more
or less toxic than wood, as the author of the article in question has
done. The suitability of wood as a reference material is debatable,
however, since in our temperate climates it is not a homogeneous material.
The LC50s calculated on the basis of these data of course apply only to a
precise exposure period.

The importance of the time factor in fires, where premises have to be

evacuated in a relatively short space of time, has led certain authors to
propose the calculation of an index of relative toxicity which penalizes
materials whose fumes cause rapid death (20). Other authors base their
results on the time/effect relationship for a given concentration, from
which it is possible to calculate the LT50, i.e. the time taken for a
specific concentration to kill 50% of animals exposed (21).

A more recent idea has been to combine the two aspects which determine
the quantity or dose of smoke and fumes which can be absorbed, i.e. the
concentration and the duration of exposure (22). Concentration/duration
of exposure curves for a certain effect, e.g. 50% mortality, can then be
charted for the smoke and fumes of different materials (Fig. 5 ) . As this
graph shows, the extension of the asymptote along the duration-of-exposure
axis fixes the concentration threshold (the power of intoxication, or the
minimum concentration required to induce the effect selected as the
criterion), and the extension of the asymptote along the concentration
axis fixes the minimum duration of exposure required, or the speed of
intoxication. Although any given toxic product, for example CO, has only
one concentration/duration-of-exposure curve, the materials which give
off this toxic product on combustion have different curves, modified both
horizontally and vertically. This is due to the differences in the speed
 266

of production of the toxic products during combustion of the materials.

One might be tempted to conclude that the concentration/durationofexpo
sure curves are characteristic both for the material and for the method
used for its thermal decomposition. Unfortunately, Haber's law (concentra
tion duration of exposure = a constant) applies only within certain
limits, and although the effect is probably cumulative for certain toxic
substances (C O) it is not the same for others (certain irritants) where a
certain degree of tolerance has been found. Moreover, the number of tests
needed in order to obtain the concentration/durationofexposure curves
would make such an approach impracticable for routine tests.

Given the dozens of different methods for generating atmospheres, as well

as the multitude of possible biological approaches which we have just
been discussing, the literature offers an enormous number of results and
data, which have the great disadvantage of not being intercomparable. It
is not surprising, therefore, that in order to try to achieve some degree
of harmonization a working Group on Toxic Hazards in Fire (WG 12) was
created in 1967 within the ISO's technical committee "Fire tests on
building materials, components and structures" (TC 92). We shall come
back to this later.

4.3. Research on primates

The research carried out in the United Kingdom on primates (Macaca

fascicularis) has shed new light on the basic intoxication pathways which
lead to motor incapacity during the initial phase of a fire (12).

In conditions approved by the Home Office Inspector, monkeys were exposed

individually to test atmospheres consisting, in sublethal doses, either
of mixtures to study the effects of hypoxia (10 15% oxygen in nitrogen),
hypercapnia {5% carbon dioxide in air) or CO (10008000 ppm in air),or of
products of the thermal decomposition of materials currently in use.
Exposure lasted until the first signs of harmful physiological effects
appeared, the maximum duration of exposure being 30 minutes. Two types of
measurement were carried out:

1. vital functions: respiration, EC G, blood analysis (C OHb, HC N, etc.)

2. neural and neuromuscular function: EEG, cortical response to noise
signals, measurements of the conduction velocity of peripheral nerves.

The results show that although,as one might expect, differences in

temperature and oxygen level significantly affect the composition of the
atmospheres generated by various materials, the effects on the monkeys,
despite the chemical complexity of the effluent gases, were relatively
simple. Moreover, the toxicity of each of the atmospheres was always
dominated either by the narcotic effects of the C O or HC N or by the
combined effect of irritant products. The pattern of intoxication produced
by the pyrolysis products of polyacrylonitrile, for example, is virtually
identical to that produced by diluting in air a concentration of HC N
equivalent to that found in pyrolitic atmospheres.

The authors classify the atmospheres they studied in three separate

groups:

1. those containing narcotic concentrations of C O;

 267

2. those containing narcotic concentrations of HCN;

3. those which are irritating and contain lew concentrations of CO and
HCN.
Although the results do not fully eliminate the possibility that other
products present nay contribute to the effects, it seems unlikely that
such a contribution could be significant. There may be evidence of
additive or synergic effects in certain cases, but these are minimal. In
addition, although the production of "supertoxic" products may be a rare
phenomenon, it cannot be ruled out. The presence of such substances has in
fact already been demonstrated, for example the bicyclic ester of phosp
horic acid detected in the smoke and fumes produced by a fire retardant
Polyurethane foam (23).

Nevertheless, research carried out on primates in the United Kingdom

and also the USA (16) constitutes a significant step forward. These
studies, together with the known data concerning man, have demonstrated
that the rat is a valid model for studying the effects of narcotic gases
(CO or HCN). The concentration/durationofexposure curves are becoming
widely known for these two substances (16). This will have implications
for the future prospects, which will be discussed later in this paper.

5. STANDARDIZATION AND LEGISLATION

So far, very few countries have either specified or standardized methods

for testing toxicity or have introduced legislation in this field. In the
European Community, two countries which have done so are France and the
Federal Republic of Germany.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, only construction materials awarded

an A1 and A2 classification (noncombustible) in DIN test 4102, part 1,
need to undergo a smoke toxicity test in accordance with DIN standard
53436, this latter comprises 3 parts:

The first part, which has been standardized since April 1981, describes
the apparatus used for generating atmospheres as well as the method for
determining the test temperature.
The second part is a preliminary standard which describes the test
procedure and its application to various types of materials.
The third part is a draft standard which describes the biological model
and recommends a method for determining the relative acute respiratory
toxicity of atmospheres generated in the fire model.

The method described is of the dynamic type. In principle, all animals

must survive tests at 300 and 400C, which restricts the tests to
combustion without flames. At the end of the test the animals' COHb level
must not exceed 35% and there must be no other toxicological objections
(clinical observations are carried out in the days following exposure).

In France there is a Ministerial Decree dating from January 1977 which

governs the use of certain materials and synthetic products in public
buildings (25). In contrast to the Federal Republic of Germany, the
materials concerned here are flammable materials in accordance with the
following French Standards (NF) tests: NF 92501, NF 92507 and
 268

NF M 03-005. The Decree applies both to actual building materials and

the contents of buildings (furnishings). Materials which do not rate
the classification MO (non-combustible) or Ml (non-flammable) may not
be used unless the total quantities of nitrogen and chlorine contained,
and liable to be released in the form of HOI or HC1, are below, respecti-
vely, 5 and 25g per cubic metre of the premises. The calculations are
based on the quantities of nitrogen and chlorine contained in the materials,
and on the assumption that these entire quantities will be converted into
HCN and HCl. The Decree does not concern itself with the toxicity of CO,
nor with traditional materials.

Outside the European Community, standardized methods for testing smoke

toxicity exist in Japan and the Soviet Union.

In Japan certain fire-resistant materials must undergo a biological

test in accordance with Order No 1231 of the Ministry of Public Works
(26). This Order has been in force since April 1977.

In the Soviet Union, smoke toxicity is determined by a method described

in Annex 21 to Soviet Standard (GOST) 12.1.017-80 (27). Combustion
takes place at 600 and 850 C, and rodents are exposed to the smoke
and fumes for 5 minutes. The LC50s are determined and the levels of
certain fire gases (Co, CO_, HCl, HCN, etc.) measured.

Apart from these national measures, evaluation of the toxicity of

certain effluent gases by means of chemical analysis is recommended
in certain fields such as electrotechnology and aeronautics.

Since April 1978 there has existed in France a test method (UTE/C
20-454) for analysing and measuring the concentration of noxious gases
produced by the pyrolysis or combustion of synthetic materials used in
electrical engineering (28). This document (UTE/C 20-454) is purely
experimental and does not constitute a specification. The combustion
apparatus is similar to that used in the German DIN 53436. The method is
deliberately confined to the most frequently encountered gases. The
document does not lay down acceptable limit values, leaving this to the
toxicologists.

In the case of aeronautics, the specifications for the materials used

are drawn up by the airline companies or aircraft manufacturers. Industrie
Airbus, for example, measures toxicity with smoke density in a modified
NBS (National Bureau of Standards - USA) chamber (27).

Coming back to the European Community, a document published in 1982

(29) explains the reluctance of United Kingdom experts regarding the
standardization of toxicity tests. Three major arguments are put forward:

1. The relationship between the atmospheres generated in fire models

and those encountered in real fires is virtually unknown.
2. The methods considered involve the use of laboratory animals, which is
expensive and which restricts testing to those specialist laboratories
with the necessary licences (Cruelty to Animals Act).
3. The present state of knowledge is not sufficient to enable the
test results to be incorporated into an overall analysis of fire
risk.
 269

Opinions differ in the United Kinqdom concerning the need for standardized
toxicity tests and their usefulness in helping to save human lives. At
the moment, test methods are confined to research and product development.
The British document contains recommendations for the design of tests for
measuring the toxicity of combustion products, in case the need for such
tests should arise. It advocates a step-by-step approach involving the
use of analytical methods to pre-select in the initial stages, so as to
keep the use of laboratory animals to an absolute minimum.

Althouqh most Member States of the European Community have no direct

specifications concerning the toxicity of smoke and fumes, the potential
hazards are nevertheless recognized almost everywhere. In Belgium, for
example, the industrial standard NBN S 21-201 on fire protection in
buildings (30) refers to "tolerable physiological action" and to noxious
products the concentration of which must not exceed that which a normal
individual can tolerate without suffering irreversible damage and without
being rendered incapable of moving on his own. The intention is clearly
to draw attention both to the potential dangers and to the lack of
knowledge concerning "tolerable" physiological actions and test methods
for assessing them. Similar expressions appear in texts published by
other countries, for example the Netherlands.

Although there may be very few standards and laws directly concerned with
smoke toxicity, other measures which exist are indirectly related: for
example, compartmentation requirements designed to restrict the spread of
fires, and requirements concerning protection for emergency exits. Such
measures, however, are outside the scope of this paper.

6. WORK OF THE ISO AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

As already mentioned, WG 12 "Toxic Hazards in Fire" was set up by the

ISO's TC 92 in 1976. We have been privileged to participate in the work
of this WG since the outset. The meetings have been a forum for exchanges
of views - sometimes heated - between experts from the various countries,
but they have also been - and this is important - a forum for mutual
exchanqes of unpublished information on the progress of current research.
From this point of view they have been extremely valuable.

In 1976 various countries were engaged in research, and there were

already a number of different test methods. The aim of all the research
was of course to obtain a better basic knowledge of the toxic hazards in
fire. Nevertheless, most of it was based on the idea of establishing a
relative classification of materials.

Conscious of the limitations of the test methods and of the lack of basic
knowledge in this field, most experts were reluctant to establish a
standardized test method. They thought it was too early, fearing that the
toxicity results might be used incompetently.

The first step was the drafting and publication of a technical report in
1979 (31). The report makes it clear that the Working Group's remit is
not confined to building materials, which should strictly be the case in
TC 92. The statistics on fire victims showed that it was the contents of
buildings (furniture and furnishings, etc.) which constituted the main
 270

toxic hazard (32). The report concentrates on the state of advancement of

various methods for measuring smoke toxicity, reviewing some 15 methods.
It recommends that priority be given to developing a method for identify-
ing those materials which produce an uncommon toxic atmosphere when
exposed to heat. The definition of such "supertoxicity", however, remains
open to discussion, the experts having been unable to reach agreement on
this point.

Two methods were then selected for a more thorough study:

- a dynamic method, method DIN 53436 (24);

- a static method, the NBS method known as Pott's Pot (7).

In 1981 TC 92 was reorganized, WG 12 being converted into a sub-committee

(SC 3) with four Working Groups:

WG 1: to draw up the criteria for the fire model;

WG 2: to draw up a list of analytical methods;
WG 3: to draw up the criteria for the animal model;
WG 4: to draft a document advising how to use the results of toxicity
tests.

The work of the new WPs is currently in progress and technical documents
to replace the previous one are being drawn up. These take account both of
the progress made in research and the current thinking of the experts in
this field. As we have seen, important new findings have been made in
recent years, thanks in part to the "fingerprint" technique and research
on primates.

Using the analytical method, the atmospheres generated in the two methods
selected for study by the ISO have been compared with the atmospheres
encountered in real fires. The results show that, under normal operating
conditions, each of these methods produces atmospheres which correspond
to different fire circumstances: the DIN method mainly produces the types
of atmosphere which one would expect to find in a fully developed fire,
whereas the NBS method tends to reproduce the atmospheres encountered in
well-ventilated fires (33). It follows that any fire model which is a
potential candidate for standardization must be extremely versatile, and
this is generally felt to be one of the advantages of the DIN method. It
may also be that more than one method will be needed to reproduce the
various atmospheres which are liable to be encountered in real fires. In
addition, we will need to identify the significant circumstances, i.e.
those liable to produce victims. Certain authors (34) have proposed
studying the characteristics of typical fatal fire scenarios in order to
establish criteria for the fire model; however, the specialist statistics
offer very little in the way of useful data for this. Nevertheless, WG 1
is at present endeavoring to establish a list of criteria which the model
or models must satisfy.

We have seen elsewhere that the effects of narcotic gases (CO and HCN)
are beginning to be well known. It may become possible to predict their
effects on the basis of analysing how quickly these gases are produced in
fire smoke and fumes. Not so much is known about the combined action of
these two substances, but research is in progress. Still less is known
 271

about the effects of irritant gases, but here again research is in

proqress (16). The researchers claim that as a result it may eventually
become feasible to predict the toxicological effects of narcotic and
irritant products by analysing how quickly they are produced. It will
then no longer be necessary to use laboratory animals for routine tests,
although biological tests would of course remain necessary for evaluating
toxic products which act in different ways (e.g. neurotoxins). While we
are not yet at that staqe, there are grounds for believing that with our
present knowledge it would be possible, with regard to CO and HCN, to
preselect materials by chemical analysis of the smoke and fumes which
they produce in well-defined circumstances. If it is possible to predict
that the levels of CO or HCN produced, and the speed at which these
levels are reached, will be such as to make the atmosphere intolerable,
it is pointless submitting laboratory animals to it. If it is not poss-
ible to make such a prediction, a biological test must be carried out to
make sure that there are no other toxic agents present. This in itself
would reduce the number of animals needed for evaluating toxicity, and as
our knowledge increases it is to be hoped that the number can be reduced
still further. These ideas reflect the concern of the researchers them-
selves to avoid the sometimes unnecessary suffering which would result
from the systematic use of biological tests for monitoring materials, in
a field where the use of laboratory animals is otherwise generally
accepted for research purposes. WG 3 is attempting to establish the
criteria for the animal model. These criteria depend essentially on what
degree of intoxication is considered to be significant. In addition,
although the problem of accurately forecasting the effects on human
beings from the results obtained with laboratory animals has long seemed
to impose an isurmountable limitation on any test method, recent research
has shown that the rat is a valid model for narcotic gases (CO and HCN).
As yet there is less evidence that this is the case for irritant gases,
but research on this subject is in progress.

Today, virtually all the experts in SC 3 are aware of the fact that
toxicity is only one aspect of the total fire hazard. Other aspects range
from the general behaviour of materials in fire (flammability, flame
spread, etc.) to the probability that human beings might be involved. For
this reason most of the experts consider that toxicological findings
should not be used in isolation but should be incorporated into an
analysis of the overall hazard. They can in no way be used as an indepen-
dent criterion. Despite agreeing on this, the experts still disagree on
whether it is advisable, with the present state of our knowledge, to
propose a toxicological test method as a draft international standard.
There are two opposing points of view:

1. The first says that a draft standard ought to be proposed, whatever

the state of advancement of research on procedures for analysing the
overall hazard. If the standardized test methods are accompanied by
notes concerning their limitations, the standardization office cannot
take responsibility for any incompetent use of the results.
2. The second says that research ought to be continued in order to
perfect test methods so that the results can be presented in a form
suitable for incorporation into a realistic analysis of the overall
hazard. The experts who support this point of view recognize that
there is an urgent need for something to be done, but believe that it
is better not to run the risk of seeing results used incompetently,
 272

which could be detrimental both to safety and to the industry.

Despite these basic differences there is agreement that the work of the
various WGs should be continued with a view to producing a draft standard,
which the proponents of the first point of view think need not be far
away, and which those of the second see emerging at some vague time in
the future.

The major problem of integrating the data into a global analysis of the
hazard is not new and is not confined to the toxicological aspect of
fires. All the tests concerning the behavioural characteristics of
materials in fires have run into the same problem. Various researchers
have proposed various formulae, while each remains aware of the limita-
tions of their particular approach (35, 36).

It has been said that it would be sufficient to take measures to ensure

that fires could not occur, but this seems to be sheer utopianism,
particularly in the case of private dwellings, which is where fires claim
most victims. It is equally Utopian to believe that measures to prevent
the spread of fire and death or injury to persons could be applied to
cover every single situation.

7. CONCLUSIONS

Smoke toxicity is an important aspect of the overall behaviour of mate-

rials in fire, but it cannot be dissociated from the other aspects.

In recent years there have been major advances in the understanding of

processes of intoxication by smoke and fume inhalation. As a result, it
may in future be possible to preselect materials by analytic means, thus
reducing the need for tests on laboratory animals. This is important for
several countries where the use of laboratory animals is subject to
strict control.

At the present stage of our knowledge we believe that toxicity tests, no

matter which, must remain primarily a research and guidance tool. It is
therefore too early to standardize one or even several test methods,
which could only be restrictive and impede the progress of research.

The integration of the data yielded by the various fire-reaction tests

into a realistic analysis of the overall hazard in fires is a difficult
problem, and one which requires our full attention.

REFERENCES

1. ANDERSON R.A. et al. (1983) Fire deaths in the United Kingdom 1976-82.
Fire and Mat. 7^(2): 67-72.
2. BIRKY M.M. et al. (1979) Fire fatality study. Fire and Mat. 3(4): 211-
217.
3. CANTER D.V. (Editor) (1980) Fires and human behaviour. John Wiley and
Sons (338pp).
4. WOOLLEY W.D. (1971) Decomposition products of PVC for studies of fires.
Br. Polym. J. 3/ 186-193.
 273

5. POTTS W.J. and LEDERER T.S. (1977) A method for comparative testing of
smoke toxicity. J. Comb. Toxicol. 4_: 114-162.
6. HERPOL C. (1983) Comparative study of the toxicity of combustion pro-
ducts from flame retardant and untreated materials. Fire and Mat. 7^(4) :
193-201.
7. KAPLAN H.L. et al. (1983) Combustion toxicology. Principles and test
methods. Technomic Publishing Co., Inc.. (174pp).
8. BECKER W. (1980) Brandschutztechnische Anforderungen an Baustoffe. In:
Beitrge vorgelegt vom Verband Kunstofferzeugende Industrie e.V. p. 13-
17.
9. WOOLLEY W.D. et al. (1979) Chemical aspects of combustion toxicology of
fires. Fire and Mat. 3_(2) : 110-120.
10. JOUANY J.M. et al. (1977) Etude de la toxicit des produits de combus-
tion et de pyrolyse de matriaux utiliss dans le btiment. II. Archi-
ves des maladies professionnelles, de mdecine du travail et de scu-
rit sociale (Paris) 38(9): 751-772.
11. KLIMISCH H.J. et al. (1980) Comparative measurements of the toxicity
to laboratory animals of products of thermal decomposition generated
by the method of DIN 53436. J. Comb. Toxicol. 2= 209-230.
12. PURSER D.A. and WOOLLEY W.D. (1983) Biological studies of combustion
atmospheres. J. Fire sci. \_: 118-144.
13. KISHITANI K. and NAKAMURA K. (1976) Study on toxicities of combustion
products of building materials at initial stage of fire. Second Joint
Meeting U.S. Japan Panel on Fire Research and Safety UJNR, Tokyo, Oc-
tober 19-22 (31pp).
14. GAUME et al. (1981) Initial test on the combined ECG/Ti animal systems
using carbon monoxide exposure. J. Comb. Toxicol. 8_: 125-134.
15. EINHORN I.N. (1975) Physiological and toxicological aspects of smoke
produced during the combustion of polymeric materials. Environm.
Health Persp. U_: 163-189.
16. KAPLAN H.L. and HARTZELL G.E. (1983) Methodology for assessment of in-
capacitating effects of narcotic fire gases. Document ISO/TC 92/SC 3/
WG 3/N 27.
17. BARROW C.S. et al. (1976) Sensory irritation evoked by thermal decom-
position of poly (vinyl chloride). Fire and Mat. 1_(4) : 147-153.
18. HERPOL C. (1976) Biological evaluation of the toxicity of products of
pyrolysis and combustion of materials. Fire and Mat. M l ) : 29-35.
19. ANDERSON R.C. and ALARIE Y.C. (1978) Approaches to the evaluation of
the toxicity of decomposition products of polymeric materials under
thermal stress. J. Comb. Toxicol. 5_: 214-221.
20. HERPOL C. and VANDEVELDE P. (1978) Calculation of a toxicity index for
materials, based on a biological evaluation method. Fire and Mat. 2_(1) :
7-10.
21. HILADO C. and HUTTLINGER P.A. (1981) Comparison of time to death, sur-
vival time and LT50. J. Comb. Toxicol. 8_: 33-36.
22. PACKHAM S.C. and HARTZELL G.E. (1981) Fundamentals of combustion to-
xicology in fire hazard assessment. J. of Test, and Eval. 9_: 341-347.
23. PETAJAN J.H. et al. (1975) Extreme toxicity from combustion products
of a fire retardant polyurethane foam. Science 187: 742-744.
24. DIN 53436 (1981) Erzeugung thermischer Zerzetzungsprodukte von Werk-
stoffen unter Luftzufuhr und ihre toxikologische Prfung. Teil 1;
Teil 2; Teil 3. Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V., Postfach 1107,
D-1000 Berlin 30.
25. Rglementation de l'utilisation de certains matriaux et produits dans
les tablissements recevant du public. Journal Officiel de la Rpubli-
que Franaise du 10/1/1976 (p. 317-318) et du 20/1/1977 (p. 390-392).
 274

26. TSUCHIYA Y. (1977) New Japanese standard test for combustion gas toxi-
city. J. Comb. Toxicol. : 5-7.
27. TROITZSCH J. (1982) Brandverhalten von Kunststoffen. Carl Hanser Ver-
lag. Mnchen, Wien. (590pp) ref pp 237 et 343
28. Document UTE/C 20-454 de l'Union Technique de l'Electricit (12, Place
des Etats-Unis, F-75783 Paris Cedex 16, France) 25/4/1978.
29. Document PD 6503:1982. Report and recommandations on the development of
tests for measuring the toxicity of combustion products. Britisch Stan-
dards Institution. Maylands Avenue, Hemel Hempstead HP2 4SQ, U.K.
30. Document NBN S 21-201. Protection contre l'incendie dans les btiments.
Terminologie. Institut Belge de Normalisation. Avenue de la Brananonne,
29, B-1040 Bruxelles. 1980.
31. Document ISO/TR 6543-1979. The development of tests for measuring toxic
hazards in fire. International Organisation for Standardisation.
32. CHANDLER S.E. and BALDWIN R. (1976) Furniture and furnishings in the
home. Some fire statistics. Fire and Mat. 1_(2) : 76-82.
33. WOOLLEY W.D. et al. (1982) Note .on DIN 53436 and NBS (Pott's Pot) fire
models, supplement to report "Basic aspects of combustion toxicology".
Document ISO/TC 92/SC 3/WG 1/N 2.
34. HERPOL C. and VANDEVELDE P. (1982) Use of toxicity test results and
confrontation of some toxicity test methods with fire scenarios. Fire
Safety J. 4_: 271-280.
35. ANDERSON R.C. and ALARIE Y.C. (1978) An attempt to translate toxicity
of polymer thermal decomposition products into a toxicological hazard
index and discussion on the approaches selected. J. Comb. Toxicol. 5_:
476-484.
36. HERPOL C. and VANDEVELDE P. (1981) Note on the non-existence of corre-
lation between toxicity and other reaction to fire characteristics of
materials. J. Comb. Toxicol. 8: 135-142.

Fig. 1 : Example of static method: (1) oven; (2) cage for animals;
(3) glass wall; (4) stainless steel wall; (5) opening with
stopper.
(ref. 5)
 275

=_J>
_2_ ^

Fig. Example of dynamic method: (1) quartz t u b e ; (2) mobile t u b u l a r

oven; (3) quartz b a s i n ; ( 4 ) flow-meters; ( 5 ) distribution chamber; ( 6 ) animal

Ignition "Flash Over" Time

F i g . 3 ; The various phases of a r e a l f i r e . (ref. 8)

 276

lOXlClt'
4J
H u
OJ
Supertoxic More t o x i c As t o x i c Less toxic
Negligi) le
S U
100
PIFE /PUF FOPE J Pur/ASB
rcW /
0
/ / / //
/ II /

/H
60
/

...I. .J
10
/ , 0 F IR

20 / , /

01 10 wo oo uooo
Weight of sample (grams)

Fig. 4: Examples of concentration/effect relationships (mice exposed for

30 minutes, followed by 10 minutes' recuperation).
PUF/ASB = flexible polyurethane foam between asbetos plates;
FGPE = fibreglassreinforced polyester; D.FIR = fir wood;
PUF = flexible polyurethane foam;
PVCA = polyvinyl chloridehomopolymer;
GM 57 = phenolformaldehyde foam;
SW FOAM = ureaformaldehyde foam;
PTFE = polytetrafluoroethylene,
(ref. 19)

41

4J Q)
(41
41
OJ
U
H O
O JZ
cr 4J

u c
)
B *->
H Xi
O V ^V^^^^ Material B
T
^^^ Material A
i
A

CONCENTRATION (DOSE)
i J

Fig. 5: Concentration/durationofexposure curves. A and B represent

the concentration thresholds for materials A and B respectively,
while k. and B. represent the durationofexposure thresholds.
(ref. 22)
 277

WOOD PRODUCTS
G.S. HALL
Head of Technology, TRADA (Timber Research &. Development Association)

Summary

In an attempt to avoid the almost insurmountable problems of inter-

pretation posed by differently constituted building regulations and
uncorrelated national, reaction-to-fire test methods, an attempt
has been made to summarise the combined effect that regulations
and tests have on the use of non-structural wood-based materials as
internal linings, fitments and joinery in different types of
building. The help of collaborators in the various European
countries was sought to interpret their national requirements in terms
of what was permissible with wood-based products in their untreated
state or when treated with commercially practical levels of fire
retardant. The approach appears to have merit but requires refine-
ments such as more precise definitions of material types, building
types and functional areas (e.g. escape routes) within buildings if
in depth assessment is to be carried out. The paper summarises the
main findings of the enquiries and draws tentative conclusions which
in turn, point to the need for further work and more detailed analysis.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast the ways in which
the use of timber and wood-based materials is permitted ot restricted
in the various countries of the European Community by regulations which
relate to the fire behaviour of materials. A separate paper deals with
structural timber components and the performance of wood-based materials
when exposed to fully developed fires. My task relates to the fire
behaviour of these materials during the early stages of fire development,
that is with the so-called "reaction-to-fire" properties of these
materials and products.

2. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

I am not aware of any published analysis of either the building

regulatory requirements of the various countries or of typical end uses
of building materials. Undoubtedly a great deal of relevant information
exists, mainly in the confidential files of those industrial manufacturers
who trade between the Community countries but this is likely to be
inaccessible even if the effort were available to seek it. A purposeful
analysis of building codes, their interpretation and implementation on
a national or regional basis was certainly beyond the scope of the
preparation of this paper. What was attempted, within the relatively
short time and limited effort available, is a general overview appraisal.
The approach used is certainly capable of refinement and perhaps merits
consideration for conducting a more detailed analysis in the light of
some of the difficulties which will emerge from the discussion.
Two facts simplify the task of analysing the limitations on the
use of wood-based materials in this context.
 278

The first is that fire, as a phenomenon does not recognise national or

provincial boundaries. Given the same circumstances, a fire will develop
in the same way in Denmark as in Greece. Therefore the threat and hazard
against which the various rules are guarding the inhabitants of the
different countries are the same. This does not mean that they are
interpreted similarly but the danger from the developing fire is essen-
tially the same throughout the Community, although perhaps with slight
variations resulting from climate, living patterns, traditions of building
design, etc.
The second convenient fact is that, within limits appropriate to
this investigation, the 'reaction-to-fire1 performance of timber and
wood-based materials derived from it is fairly constant and predictable.
This assertion applies to the basic product in its 'normal' form. It is,
of course, easy to modify its reaction-to-fire behaviour by decorative
or protective treatments applied either as part of the manufacturing
process, subsequent to manufacture but before installation or when in
place in the building. Here lies the greatest difficulty in making
comprehensive an analysis of this kind because, short of rendering the
material/product non-combustible, it is possible to modify the 'reaction-
to-fire' properties of wood-based materials to almost any degree by
adjusting the amount of flame retardant added and/or varying the thick-
ness of the surface coating.
Given adequate time, effort, enthusiasm and linguistic and
analytical ability, it would be possible to collect together all the
building codes and their local variants and to interpret these in terms
of those uses in buildings in which various categories of wood-based
materials were permitted, prohibited or restricted. The criteria would
be either on the basis of defined and specified materials, e.g. wood-
-
chipboard of density greater than 450 kg m -', or specific exclusions
because only non-combustible materials are permitted, or on the basis
of performance in nationally standardised or locally adopted test methods.
The last is the more common and gives rise to the greatest difficulty in
drawing comparisons between the varying requirements of countries and
regions. This is particularly the case with products which have been
manufactured or treated to improve their reaction-to-fire properties over
those of standard products.
A brief survey conducted by TBADA some years ago identified some
twenty-six different reaction-to-fire tests standardised in countries
of the Community and undoubtedly a more rigorous search conducted today
would uncover even more. This is in spite of the activities of
ISO TC92 in the field of developing international 'reaction-tofire'
tests for widespread adoption.
Most of these national standard tests are very impure in that the
results are strongly influenced by the details of the procedures and the
apparatus in which the test is carried out. It follows that there is
only the broadest correlation between the results obtained in the different
tests and although it may be useful to a manufacturer exporting to several
countries to know how his products perform in the various tests, such
comparisons do not hold good for a broad population. Several comparisons
of various standard test methods have been done or are currently underway
using a range of selected generic wood-based materials such as plywood
and hardboard. However, these were felt not to be suitable for the
present purposes and in particular, they did not help with the problem
of products incorporating/treated with fire retardants.
 279

Reactiontofire properties of building materials and the tests designed

to evaluate them relate to the early stages of fire development and
certainly to the period prior to the involvement of structural elements.
The course of early development of an accidental building fire can be as
diverse as the number of fires involved but it is usual, in order to
simplify understanding, to identify stages which relate to ignition,
growth, thermal feed-back and development to fLashover. The smoke-
producing characteristics of building materials involved may also be taken
into account in these various stages.
Detailed fire statistics gathered in the UK indicate that most fires
in buildings start and develop in the building contents rather than the
building structure, linings, or fitments and that such components only
become involved (if at all), at a later stage of development of the fire.
However, most countries appear to find it difficult if not impossible,
to control effectively the reaction-to-fire properties of contents in such
a way as to reduce the hazard at source. As a second best approach, and
having building codes available to regulate what products are used and
how they are used in the building fabric, most regulatory authorities
address themselves only to controlling the design and materials used in
the building fabric itself. Such regulations vary with the type of
building, its size, location, etc. as well as with the particular authority
involved. Also, in addition to the variety of test methods available to
the various regulatory authorities by which to define acceptable limits,
the legal/political basis for the regulations differs from country to
country. These are some of the reasons why diversity may be found in the
use of wood-based materials in buildings. A further complication is that
neither building codes nor test standards are static but are constantly
being altered in an attempt to adapt to changing needs.

3. METHODS ADOPTED

In order to attempt to obtain an overview, it was necessary to identify

those forms in which wood-based materials are commonly used in buildings
as well as typical types of buildings and locations within buildings
for which code requirement might be expected to vary. Obviously the
interpretation would have to be simplified. For example, in the
United Kingdom there are four building codes, for (i) England and Wales
(ii) Scotland (iii) Northern Ireland and (iv) the Innder London GLC
area, respectively and the TRADA publication interpreting the England
and Wales regulations in terms of permissible uses of timber and woodbased
materials alone runs to some 46 pages of detailed analysis and tables.
The types of wood-based materials which were identified for the
purposes of this comparison are listed on the right hand side of Figure 1.
Most of the entries are self-explanatory but certain types warrant a
brief explanation. Wafer/flakeboard refers to a type of wood chipboard
in which the wood particles are very large in relation to their thickness.
The constituent flakes may be either hardwood or softwood, are orientated
flat in relation to the plane of the board but otherwise at random and
are bonded usually with a phenolic resin adhesive. Oriented strand board
is similar but is composed of long, thin strands rather than flakes, is
usually softwood, the strands are orientated to give a 3 or 5 layer board
similar to plywood and a melamine-urea formaldehyde adhesive is the
usual bonding agent. Within the family of fibre building boards, medium
density fibreboard is the unusual member in that it is produced by a dry
 280

fibre process and uses a binding agent to keep the fibres together rather
than relying mainly on fibretofibre bonding as do the other types of
fibre building board. Veneered noncombustible boards were included
as a category because, although not strictly a woodbased board, such
products are sometimes used where a high fire performance board is needed
combined with the decorative appeal of real wood. Such boards are not
themselves classifiable as noncombustible but come very close to
providing the same fire performance in real terms. Similarly, it is
debatable whether wood cement boards should be considered as woodbased
board since the wood content may be as little as 20$ by weight but they
have been included because their inherent reactiontofire properties
differ from those of the mainly cellulosic boards.
The building types forming the main headings of the other axis of
the matrix in Figure 1 are based loosley on the classification used in
the UK building codes but are not comprehensive and do not contain detail
such as building location or heights which might affect regulations.
Within each of the building types, typical uses of woodbased products
have been identified in relation to possibly differing restrictions on
their use. A ll these uses wall linings, interior trim, etc. are
internal, essentially nonstructural uses which represent those parts
of the building fabric or items associated with it which might well be
influenced by a developing fire and interact with it to reduce or
accelerate its rate of development and hence its chances of getting out
of control and requiring structural containment.
Naturally, in devising the form of this matrix my thinking was
coloured by experience of the UK building regulations but it was felt to
be a logical basis for interpreting and summarising the regulatios. in
other European countries. It created difficulties for some respondents
and is certainly capable of enlargement and refinement if it is felt worth
while to devote more time and effort to this project than was available,
to the author.
The form of matrix was developed during the process of completing
it for the UK. In order to keep the amount of work asked of
collaborators to a minimum and to simplify interpretation of the replies,
only three types of answer for each entry was requested. A n was to be
used to indicate that the particular type of woodbased material was
acceptable for use in its natural state, ie. without fire retardant
treatment. By implication this also means that decorated with convention
al materials which have no significant effect on a material's reactionto
fire properties. A t the opposite end of the scale is the response that
in no way is the material in question permissible. This might be
because of a requirement for noncombustibility, a specific exclusion of
woodbased materials or because treatments with flame retardant
chemicals necessary to bring its reactiontofire performance up to the
level required of that component by the regulations is not commercially
realistic.
The intermediate category was defined as "capable of being treated
to the necessary level of performance" in order to avoid the need to
consider the various reactiontofire test methods in the countries
under consideration. The covering letter requesting the information
from collaborators made it clear that "commercially available" treatments
were being considered and not laboratory or special oneoff treatments.
 281

A blank matrix, a copy of that reproduced as Figure 1 and a covering

letter explaining the aims and procedures was sent to a representative
in each of the European Community countries (except UK and Republic of
Ireland with whose regulations the author was familiar), as well as
to the Scandinavian countries, Austria and Switzerland in order to
expand the European picture. Replies were received in time to be
incorporated in this paper from collaborators in 8 and their help is
gratefully acknowledged. A list of respondents is appended to this
paper. The section that follows is an attempt to summarise these
responses and to make recommendations for future actions.

k. DWELLING HOUSES AND LOW-RISE FLATS

The requirements for this type of building appear to be the most

consistent, with there being no restrictions on the use of any of the
categories of wood-based sheet materials in their natural state in the
majority of countries. In Denmark, fibre insulating hoards require
flame retardant treatment if they are to be used as wall or ceiling
linings and there are minimum density limits for the acceptability of
plywood, wood chipboards and fibre building boards. The requirements
in Sweden in respect of fibre insulating board are similar. In the UK,
fibre insulating board is not permitted in any building situation unless
flame retardant treated and all other woodbased boards require such
treatment to be permitted for use as wall linings (except for a small
area ration). Since the building regulations in the Republic of Ireland
do not permit the upgrading of materials by flame retardants but are
otherwise very similar to those of the UK, wood-based hoards are largely
excluded from this use in this country. In Germany, all wood-based
materials must be of thickness greater than 2 mm below which they are
prohibited in all buildings. Aside from this, the only other restriction
is in staircases where only veneered noncombustible boards and wood
cement board would be acceptable in their normal state.

5. FLATS AND APARTMENTS GREATER THAN FOUR STOREYS

As might he anticipated from the multiple occupancy nature and

larger, more complex form of buildings of this type, the reaction-tofire
restrictions are generally greater and more diverse than for dwelling
houses. In none of the countries surveyed, except Belgium, are there
significant restrictions on the use of wood products for floorboarding,
interior trim, doors, windows or fitted furniture in rooms used for
normal purposes. In Belgium, stipulations for the fire resistance of
doors effectively excludes timber from such components and similar
requirements are in force in Denmark for certain types of fire door.
In the Netherlands, timberbased floorboarding is acceptable for floors
between different compartments if such floors are noncombustible but
not as part of a combustible construction.
The limitations imposed as far as wall linings and ceiling linings
are concerned vary quite widely between countries. In Italy and
Switzerland for instance, the requirements are as for dwelling houses,
ie, there are no restrictions imposed on the use of any wood based
materials identified in their natural state. In most other countries,
the pattern is similar with restrictions on the use of untreated materials
as wall or ceiling linings, but these restrictions vary in detail.
 282

In Denmark, fibre building boards are excluded and other wood-based

materials require treatment. In Norway, combustible linings are
excluded- but wood cement board is acceptable, whilst in Sweden beams,
which must be non-loadbearing, require an upgrading treatment as do all
wood-based boards used as room linings. In the Netherlands, untreated
linings are acceptable for normal rooms.
One of the simplifications introduced which led to some difficulty
in filling in the matrix relates to the fact that in buildings of this
and subsequent types, no distinction was made between rooms used for
"normal" purposes and those used for public assembly, circulation and
escape. Definitions of what types of rooms actually constitute these
or similar categories are likely to cause a great deal of confusion.
However, with hindsight, but with the risk of alienating my collaborators,
a distinction should have been made between normal rooms and escape rooms/
routes in all building categories except dwelling houses. It is
possible to interpret what the entries would have been from several of
the replies.
In the Netherlands, it is possible to use untreated wood-based
materials even in escape routes if their density and/or test
performance is high enough. Otherwise, treatment is required to bring
them up to the required performance level. Whether veneered non-combust
ible boards would be accepted would depend on the actual performance of
the composite product. In Germany, not only is it necessary to treat
woodbased materials with fire retardants in order to make them
acceptable as linings in escape routes and rooms of "intensified risk"
but also, floor boarding and fitted furniture must also be so treated.
Timber etc. is excluded by German regulations from other than doors and
windows in areas of such buildings considered to be rooms of extreme
risk, including staircases and stair wells. These more onerous require-
ments apply to all buildings of greater than two storeys except for
factories, which are not prescribed in codes. Similar exclusions
apply in Belgium to wall, ceiling and floor linings of technical rooms,
parking areas, liftshafts, machine rooms and similar. Treated
materials are permissible in staircases, windows and escape routes.
In the UK, restrictions apply in both normal rooms and escape routes,
etc. such that upgrading . reatanent is required if wood-based materials
are to be used as wall and ceiling linings. Since such treatments
are not acceptable at present in the Republic of Ireland one must assume
that timber products are excluded from such uses.

6. OTHER TYPES OF BUILDINGS

In most of the countries for which information was given, the

building codes concentrate on the two categories of buildings already
considered and requirements for other building types are not covered at
all, e.g. factories in Germany, or are treated the same way as flats and
apartments, e.g. UK, Denmark, Sweden. There are certain difficulties
of interpretation/summarising the requirements. For instance, in
Denmark the limits for flats in eight storeys rather than four.
Italy is somewhat unusual in that it treats "cinemas/theatres, etc."
as a distinct category probably at least in part due to several disastrous
fires which have occurred in such buildings recently. Offices, if open
to the public, shops, if large, e.g. department stores, sports halls,
 283

schools, and in most respects, factories, have their requirements aligned

with cinemas. These requirements are simply stated as a requirement
that wood-based materials are acceptable in their natural state except
as wall and ceiling linings in which case they must be treated to bring
them up to the required test standard. Woodcement board and veneered
noncombustible boards are acceptable in their natural form.
The response from Norway confirmed the exclusion of woodbased
materials from use as wall and ceiling linings in these other categories
of buildings in common with the requirements for flats but stressed that
in all these other cases, for one and in some cases, two storey buildings,
the requirements could be as for dwelling houses if certain detailed
provisions were complied with.

7. GENERAL DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As might be anticipated, the picture which emerges is complicated

even in relation to a (by some reactiontofire test methods at least),
relatively uniform population of building materials. Even with the
very simplified assessment used here, it is readily apparent that large
differences exist between what is permitted in one European country
and the next. It is not intended to draw up a league table, even if
such a thing were possible. What will be attempted in this section, is
a brief summary of the situation in each of the countries responding.
It should be n o m e in mind that this section, and indeed the whole paper,
has been compiled not from first hand knowledge of national, regional
and municipal regulations in the various countries, and there exists the
very real possibility that misunderstanding and misinterpretation may
have occured. If it has, hopefully presentation and publication will
stimulate enough interest for corrections to be suggested.
In the UK, there are restrictions only for wall and ceiling linings
(and exposed beams and columns where these form part of walls or ceilings).
In other situations, wood-based materials can be used in their natural
state but when used as linings, even in dwelling houses (except
ceilings), treatment is necessary to achieve an acceptable level of
reaction-to-fire performance. There is a limited relaxation of this
requirement in that small areas of untreated wall linings are permitted,
presumably to allow wood-based materials to be used as a decorative
feature. Requirements in the Republic of Ireland parallel those in
the UK but with the additional restriction, very far-reaching in its
consequences, of prohibiting the use of fire retardant upgrading of the
basic materials.
In Norway, where as in other Scandinavian countries, wood is a long-
established and traditional building material, the only restrictions are
on wall and ceiling linings of buildings other than dwelling houses.
However, the information given, points to the exclusion of wood-based
linings in other buildings above two storeys in height. In neighbouring
Sweden, the situation is reported as being similar, except that treat-
ments are available commercially, which are able to upgrade all the
wood-based materials identified to acceptable levels. In addition,
fibre insulating board requires treatment in many situations. In
Denmark, fibre insulating board is excluded from wall and ceiling
linings by virtue of density limits placed on woodbased boards by the
regulations. Again, only linings are regulated and all wood-based
 284

products with the exception of fibreboards, are acceptable if upgraded

by treatment. In parallel with Norway, low rise buildings of most
types are treated similarly to dwelling houses. The response from
Denmark brings out a very important aspect which was not solicited
by the original enquiry.This is that the Danish building regulations
impose restrictions regarding minimum thicknesses, density, method of
fastening, etc. It is notknownto what extent similar restrictions
are imposed by the regulations of other European countries since the only
other mention was in respect of minimum thickness from Germany.
The respondents from the Netherlands pointed out that each
municipality has its own building code but stated, that in most cases,
these were identical to the model code. The requirements are function-
ally based in relation to national test methods, the effect of which is
to make possible the use of natural wood-based materials, particularly
those of high density/fire performance in a wide variety of circumstances,
including linings in escape routes. When treated appropriately, almost
universal use would appear to be possible.
Belgium presents a rather different situation with there being
relatively few restrictions based on reaction-to-fire performance.
However, ceiling linings of wood-based materials in factories are
prohibited as are exposed beams and columns of wood in cinemas and
theatres. In many other circumstances of use, including doors but
excluding windows and fitted furniture, the special requirements of fire
resistance restrict or preclude the use of wood-based products. The
exceptions are dwelling houses and sports halls where there are not
national requirements and wall, ceiling and floor linings in flats,
apartments and offices (both less than and greater than four storeys)
where exclusion from ceiling linings of fibre building boards and
treatment of many other board types are required.
German regulations make no specific reference to wood or woodbased
products, stating all their requirements in performance terms. No
restrictions of wood-based materials or requirements for treatment apply
in normal rooms but all room linings and fitted furniture in escape
routes and similar risk areas, require the materials to be treated. In
higher risk areas still, e.g. staircases, timber is effectively excluded
from such uses although not restricted in doors and windows.
Dwelling houses, flats/apartments, offices, and shops in Switzerland
are reported to have no restrictions in normal rooms and no requirements
for treatment of any of the wood-based materials listed. However,
there are restrictions enforced in respect of these materials when used
in escape routes and staircases but no details were presented.
The Italian respondent prefaces his contribution by pointing out
that Provincial differences occur because no national fire regulations
are yet in force. In very general terms, these regulations make
distinction between dwellings of all types on the one hand for which
there are no restrictions, and all other building types on the other
hand where wall and ceiling linings require treatment to be acceptable.

8. CONCLUSIONS

Although done on a very simple basis, it appears that an analysis of what

is and is not permissible in buildings of different types in the
different European countries, followed up by an evaluation of the
reason for such requirements or restrictions, has advantages over trying
to interpret building codes in test performance terms and then trying
 285

to correlate the result of test methods for different classes of

building materials.
If a more detailed appraisal of the current European building
regulations situation is required in respect of room etc. linings, then
a more detailed identification of building types and demarkation within
such buildings or areas defined in the various regulations as being
at different levels of fire risk will be required. It is also probably
worth making a distinction between the different forms or levels of
treatment which are available to upgrade the basic product. In the
responses received to my enquiry, there was practically no information
given on the extent and type of regional or local differences in
building codes (or their interpretation) although the existence of
such variations was mentioned.
Such a refined and more detailed procedure would, of course,
involve more effort than could be reasonably expected of volunteer
respondents. Indeed, it would almost certainly involve a number of
people of different expertise in each country/region. To stand much
chance of getting an adequate response, it would probably need to involve
face-to-face contact between researcher and interviewee, in much the same
way as the survey of fire resistance testing was carried out. To
obtain a suitable information base on which to build harmonisation
activity in this field, such an exercise should be performed.
The present limited exercise has shown up large differences in
the way national regulations work to control/restrict the use of wood-
based components in nonstructural uses in the interior of buildings.
The reasons can only be surmised, but almost certainly include
historical, political and commercial factors as well as the response
of regulatory authorities to major fire disasters. It seems most
unlikely that the differences reflect national differences in attitude
to the acceptability of fire deaths or injuries but the extent to which
fire damage to property figures in the equation, may be a significant
factor worthy of investigation.
The findings of the brief investigation reported here tend to
c onfinn the generally understood view that there are wide variations
within the requirements posed throughout Europe. On the basis that
fire hazard is much the same in one country as in another, the logical
justification for perpetuating such a situation is impossible for me
to see.

LIST OF RESPON DEN TS

Belgium Vandervelde Rijksuniversiteit, Gent
Denmark E Poulsen Statens Byggeforshninginstitut,
Itrsholz
Germany, F.R. Topf Institut fr Holzforschung, Munich
Italy Pasanisi Council of Forest Industries of
British Columbia, Rome
Netherlands Zorgman T.N.O., Delft
Norway 0 Ramstad Norwegian Building Research
Institute, Oslo
Sweden Ostman Traeteknik Centrum, Stockholm
Switzerland Roos/ Lignum, Zurich
J Fischer
COUNTR/REGION/CITY BUILDING REGULA TIONS

based products p e r m i t t e d by n a t i o n a l / l o c a l b u i l d i n g
woodbase<
I r e g u l a t i e ne on tlie b a s i s of t h e i r r e n c t i o n t o f i r e performance?

DWELLING IIO'JSES/ FLATS/APAHTHENTS OFFICES Q SHOPS CINEMAS/ SPOUTS HA LLS SCHOOLS FACTORIES
(low r i s e f l a t s ) >{M Storeys THEATRES E T C .

h IE
te ta te 3

f
te 3 BB 3 t* t* t* 3
e* a a te B te B
c
BE
c



1
a
e
I *> i

e 1 25
E
C
c c
c c
a c

c
E


1
3 3

i
c
te
e

> 1 M
m
5 i te
e .a * | t

Q

3
a
at
o ja 3

C
i
a. s>
a
te
e
9
O.
6*
Q
I 3
C

*



e
c
Q u
E
Q 2 c > s
b.
c
u 5
B
c
B
Q

SOLID TIHBEH Eh

panelling/boarding

exposed beams,
columns, e t c .

PLYWOOD

hardwood
softwood
oo
Wood chipboard
Os
Wafer/flakeboard
Oriented strandboard

Hardboard

Pibre i n s u l a t i n g /
oftboard

Medium d e n s i t y
fibreboard

Veneered non-
combustible boards

Wood-cement board
I
-
I 1
PLEASE FILL IN THE BOXES WITH p e r m i s s i b l e in i t s n a t u r a l s t a t e
capable of being t r e a t e d t o the necessary l e v e l of performoni
excluded under a l l circumstances because I t i s combustible
or because some o t h e r m a t e r i a l i s s p e c i f i e d

GSH/MMG 31 J u l y 194
FIGURE 1
 287

TEXTILES AND FLOORING MATERIALS

L. BENISEK
International Wool Secretariat, Development Centre, Ilkley,
West Yorkshire, England

Summary

National flammabil ity test methods for floor-, wall- and ceiling-
coverings, applicable within the EEC countries, are summarised.
There are many similarities between the national test methods and
harmonised testing procedures are possible, particularly for floor-
and wall-coverings. These are proposed in detail, e.g. Tablet and
NBS Flooring Radiant Panel tests for floor-coverings and a small
scale vertical and radiant panel tests for wall-coverings. These
tests determine ease of ignition and spread of flame properties
of a material. Other flammabil ity parameters, such as heat release,
smoke emission and toxicity of combustion products are also considered
to assess the overall flammability hazard of a material. Realistic
and fair test methods for building contents, such as upholstered
seating and curtains, are also suggested, based on ISO draft test
methods. Harmonisation of flammability test methods within the
EEC is of utmost importance to facilitate interstate trade, to avoid
unnecessary trade barriers, and to decrease testing costs. Comitextil
is active in the field of harmonisation of fair and realistic flamm-
ability test methods for textiles, to promote trade within the EEC
and to eliminate existing unnecessary trade barriers.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Commission of the European Communities submitted to the Council

on 17th January, 1984 a proposed recommendation on fire safety in hotels,
based on national standards. (1). For floor-, wall- and ceiling coverings
these are summarised in Table I. The purpose of this paper is to assess
the different national flammability test methods and evaluate the poss-
ibility of harmonisation of test methods within EEC.

2. PRESENT NATIONAL TEST METHODS

The national test methods can be divided into tests simulating a

small ignition source-flame from a burner or a large source of radiant
heat and/or flames. These are summarised in Table I.
Tests based on small ignition sources
DIN 54332/DIN66081 (2,3) - the surface of a vertically oriented speci-
men s exposed t a f 1 ame from a burner. Depending on the burning time
and spread of flame, materials are classified into three classes (Ta,
Tb, T c ) , according to DIN 66081.
CSE RF 2,75 (4) - This Italian standard is very similar to DIN 54332.
Tests based on larger sources of ignition
BS 476 Part 6 : 1981 (5) - this test measures the amount and rate of heat
evolved trom vertically oriented specimen, exposed to pilot flames
and radiant heat in an enclosed chamber. The performance is expressed
as a numerical index.
 288

TABLE I

Most Important Flammability Tests for Floor-, Wall- and Ceiling-

Coverings in the EEC

Test Method/Standard Product Country

1. BS 476 Part 6, 1981 C,W B, GB, GR, IRL

2. BS 476 Part 7, 1971 C,W B, GB, GR, IRL

3. C.S.E. RF 2,75 F,W I

4. C.S.E. RF 3,77 C.F.W I
5. DIN 4102 Part 1
Brandschacht Test C.W D,L
DIN 54332/DIN 66081 F D,L
NBS Flooring Radiant Panel F D,L
6. NEN 3883 C,F,W NL
7. NFP 92-501 C,F,W B,F
8. NFP 92-503 C.W F
9. NFP 92-506 C,F,W F
10. Nordtest NT Fire 007 F DK

C - Ceiling covering
F - Floor covering
W - Wall covering
 289

BS 476 art 7, 1971 (6) a vertically oriented specimen, perpendicular to

a vertically oriented radiant panel, is exposed to a maximum radiant in
tensity of about 4W/cm2 and a pilot flame at the hottest part of the speci
men. According to spread of flame materials are classified into four
classes.
CSE RF 3,77 (7) this Italian standard is based on a vertically oriented
radiant panel producing a heat flux of 6.2 W/cm2. The specimen can be
exposed to the radiant heat and a pilot flame in a floor, wall or ceiling
position visavis the panel. Rate of spread of flame, damaged length
and afterflaming time are measured.
DIN 4102 Part 1 (8) wall and ceiling coverings are evaluated in the
Brandschacht test". Four vertically oriented specimens, each perpendicular
T EHi other Fe subjected to flames from a multijet burner under an
upward air flow of 10m3/minute in a chamber. Depending on the spread
of flame and temperature of the combustion products materiafeare classified
into two classes.
Floorcoverings are evaluated in the NBS Flooring Radiant Panel test (ASTM
E64878 (9) The specimen positioned on the floor of a test chamber is
exposed to radiant heat from a radiant panel, inclined at 30 to the speci
men, and a pilot flame. The imposed radiant heat distribution along the
100cm length of the specimen is from a maximum of 1.0 W/cm? to a minimum of
0.1 W/cm2. The distance burned to "flame out" is converted to W/cnr and re
ported as critical radiant flux.
NEN 3883 (10) this Dutch standard is similar to B.S. 476 Part 6 and 7 (5,
W.
NFP 92501 (11) (Epiradiateur) the specimen, thicker than 5mm, inclined at
an angle of 45 , exposed surface facing downwards, is subjected to a radiant
heat of 3W/cm2 in a chamber. According to time for ignition, flame length
and heat release materials are classified into four classes (M1M4).
NFP 92503 (12) (Brleur Electrique) specimens of thickness 5mm at
W angle from tEe" horizontal, exposed surface facing downwards, are
subjected to a radiant heat and a pilot flame at regular time intervals.
Depending on afterflaming time, char length and width and melting be
haviour, materials are classified into four classes (M1M4).
NFP 92506 (13) this is a radiant panel test similar to BS 476 Part
TJW-
Nordtest NT Fire 007 (14) a specimen, inclined at an angle of 30 from
the horizontal, is subjected to a burning wooden crib (42g), at the lower
end of the specimen, and air draught of 2m/s. The spread of flame and
smoke intensity are measured.
This short summary indicates that there are similarities in the various
national standards and the following harmonisation may be suggested.

3. POSSIBLE HARMONISATION OF TEST METHODS WITHIN THE EEC

Floorcoverings
Comitextil(Coordination C ommittee for the Textile Industries within
the EEC ) proposes the use of the Tablet test (ISO 6925, BS 6307) (15,16)
simulating a small ignition source, to identify floorcoverings presenting
an unacceptable fire hazard. Materials which satisfy the performance
requirement, spread of flame not more than e.g. 7cm from the tablet in
any direction, are suitable for normal risk areas, e.g. bedrooms, offices
in public and highrise buildings, and are readily commercially available
 290

in all EEC countries.

For high risk areas, e.g. corridors and exitways in public and high
rise buildings, the NBS Flooring Radiant Panel test, described previously,
(ASTM E64878) (9) is proposed. This test was validated by large scale
corridor fires and was able to identify floorcoverings which were involved
in real fires, as the first material to ignite and to spread flame,
Critical Radiant Flux "0.1 W/cm2 (17)
Carpets re commercially available, made from different fibres,
which meet the most stringent performance requirement of a critical radiant
flux >0.45 W/cm2 (Fig. 1) (18). This exceeds the values for wooden floor
ings (17).
THE CRITICAL RADIANT FLUX VALUES OF CARPETS OF CONTRACT QUALITY ANALYSED
BY PILE FIB RE TYPE B
(N S FLOORING RADIANT PANEL TEST)

1 1
t GRE TER T M * N
' 0 11fl MtHi h 1 1 LESs
"k \
OS

0.7
0.6
0

V L

0 3 USA
)'10RUANY
S 05
< o*

L, 'T,"
o
t 0.3 o
cc t
o
o: cc
WOOL WOOLJNVLON OTHEH 'tllj
0 I

PILE FIB RE TYPE

Fig. 1 Critical Radiant Flux Values for a series of commercial contract

carpets, as evaluated in the NBS Flooring Radiant Panel (18).

For a realistic and fair assessment of the burning behaviour of carpets

in this test it is essential to evaluate carpets with underlays, if these
are to be used (18). The results in Fig. 2 indicate that underlays can
significantly affect the critical radiant flux value of a carpet, because
of the heat insulating effect of the underlay.

(N.B.S. Flooring Radiant Panel Test)

Fig. 2 Effect of a carpet underlay, felt with 16mm thickness, on the

critical radiant flux of nylon and wool carpets, as evaluated in the
NBS Flooring Radiant Panel test (18).
 291

Another important requirement for the NBS Flooring Radiant Panel

test is to measure spread of flame (critical radiant flux) at "flame
out" and not after 30 minutes, as recently proposed (19). Fig. 3 indicates
that after 30 minutes burn time the carpets evaluated produced a higher
radiant flux than the critical radiant flux at flame-out (20). These
differences are not specific to a particular fibre, as all common fibres
used in commercial carpets were involved, but are related to specific
carpet constructions. Carpets of suitable construction are commercially
available which meet the most stringent performance requirement of a
critical radiant flux >0.45 W/cm? with an underlay (18). The proposed
measurement of spread of flame/radiant flux after 30 minutes burn time
could give a totally misleading information about the burning behaviour
of carpets and imply a non-existent safety level. At the same time this
procedure could fail to identify carpets which exhibit a significant
and dangerous spread of flame.

Fig. 3 Radiant flux after 30 minutes and Critical Radiant Flux at

flame-out for various carpets evaluated in the NBS Flooring Radiant Panel
(19).

Wall-coverings
" To simulate small ignition sources a test similar to DIN 54332 (2)
and/or CSE RF 2,75 (4) might be useful. IS0/TC38/SC19/WG5 (Burning
behaviour of floor-, wall- and ceiling- coverings) is subjecting a similar
test to an inter-laboratory evaluation. This test method would be suitable
for wall- coverings in relatively small rooms, e.g. hotel bedrooms, offices
in high-rise buildings.

For higher risk areas, e.g. corridors, exitways, large public rooms,
the specimen should be vertically oriented and subjected to an external
radiant heat source, allowing the measurement of spread of flame and/or
heat release, such as in BS 476 Part 6 and 7 (5,6), NEN 3883 (10), CSE
RF 3,77 (7) and NFP92-506 (13). Vandeveide showed there was a rather
good correlation between the results of these slightly different spread
of flame tests (21). Also, these similar standards are already applicable
in six EEC countries (B, GB, GR, I, IRL, NL).
 292

Ceiling-coverings
For a realistic simulation the specimen should be evaluated in a
ceiling position. Only Italian Standard CSE RF 3,77 (7) fulfills this
requirement. The use of test methods based on vertically oriented speci-
mens would require correlation with large scale fires to validate the
laboratory test(s).

4. OTHER FLAMMABILITY PARAMETERS

The test methods described measure predominantly ease of ignition

and spread of flame. It is also important to evaluate other flammability
parameters, such as heat release, smoke emission, toxicity of combustion
products, etc. of building materials and contents, to allow the overall
flammability hazard assessment of a material. IS0/TC92/SC1 (Reaction
to fire) and SC3 (Toxic hazards in fire) are involved in this area but
it will be some time before realistic and fair test methods are finalised.
For the evaluation of smoke emission the most commonly used test
method is the NBS Smoke Density Chamber (ASTM E662-79) (22). This test
method, however, is not suitable for thermoplastic materials, which melt
away from the vertical heat source, thus producing less smoke than if
they were exposed to the specified heat flux throughout the test. Smoke
emission results for some common textile fibres are summarised in Fig.
4 (23).
SMOKE EMISSION ANO TOXICITY INDEX OF
SOME TEXTILE FIBRES

20-

Fig. 4 Smoke emission and toxicity index of various fibres, evaluated

in the NBS Smoke Density Chamber (23).

Two methods, analytical and biological, have been used to assess the
toxicity of combustion products. The main problem area is to devise
realistic fire nodels which simulate the most relevant fire scenarios,
 293

as the toxicity of combustion products of most materials depends on the

rate of decomposition, temperature and heat flux exposure. The toxicity
index of some common textile fibres, based on analytical measurements
in the NBS Smoke Density Chamber is summarised in Fig. 4 (23).

5. BUILDING CONTENTS

Building contents can also be a source of fire and it is important

to have flammability tests for upholstered seating and curtains.

ISO/TCI36/SC1/WG4 (Ignitability of furniture) is drafting an ISO

test method for upholstered seating, based on a cigarette and simulated
match ignition sources. The test method is based on B.S. 5852 : Part
1 : 1979 (24) - an assembly of upholstery materials is arranged to re-
present, in stylized form, the join between the seat and back surfaces of a
chair, subjected to two sources of ignition, simulating smokers' materials,
the most common ignition source for this furniture, according to fire
statistics. The performance of the upholstered seating will depend on
the burning behaviour of the seat cover as well as of the chair filling,
e.g. foam. B.S. 5852 : Part 1 : 1979 (24) is applicable in the U.K.
according to The Upholstered Furniture (Safety) Regulations 1980 (25).
Two draft ISO standards are available to evaluate the burning be-
haviour of curtains exposed to a small ignition source - ISO/DIS 6940
(26) and ISO/DIS 6941 (27).
In both tests the specimen is vertically oriented and is subjected
to a flame from a burner either on its surface or on its edge. ISO/DIS
6940 (26) measures the ease of ignition by determining the time necessary
to achieve ignition from the specified burner. ISO/DIS 6941 (27) measures
spread of flame on the specimen by applying the specified flame from
a burner for a defined time period.

6. CONCLUSIONS

This review paper indicates that harmonisation of flammability test

methods within the EEC for textile floor- and wall- coverings, as well
as for upholstered seating and curtains as building contents, is technically
and economically viable. These test methods should be applicable only
for the contract market - public and high-rise buildings.
This harmonisation is of utmost urgency to facilitate interstate
trade within the EEC and to avoid unnecessary trade barriers. This should
also significantly decrease testing costs and time, unnecessarily expensive
and long at the present time, because most EEC countries have a different
flammability test method and performance requirement.
Comitextil is active in the field of harmonisation of fair and real-
istic flammability test methods for textiles to promote trade within
the EEC and to eliminate existing unnecessary trade barriers.

7. REFERENCES

(1) Proposal for a Council recommendation on fire safety in existing

hotels, Official Journal of the European Communities, 21.2 1984, No.
C49/7 - No. C49/16.
(2) n DIN 54332 - Bestimmung des Brennverhaltens von textilen Fussboden-
belagen
(3) DIN 66081 - Kennwerte fur das Brennverhalten textilen Erzeugnisse,
Textile Fussbodenbelage.
 294

(4) CSERF 2,75 - Reazione al fuoco dei materiali che possono essere
investiti da una piccola fiamma su una sola faccia.
(5) B.S. 476 : Part 6 : 1981, Fire tests on building materials and struc-
tures, method of test for fire propagation for products.
(6) B.S.476 : Part 7 : 1971, Fire tests on building materials and struc-
tures, Surface spread of flame tests for materials.
(7) CSE RF/3/77, Reazione al fuoco dei materiali sottoposti alla azione
di una fiamma d'innesco in presenza di calore radianti.
(8) DIN 4102 Teil 1, Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen.
(9) ASTM E 648-78, Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of
Floor- Covering Systems using a Radiant Heat Energy Source.
(10) NEN 3883, Bepaling van der bijdrage tot de brandvoortplanting en
de mate van rookontwikkeling biybrand van bouwmaterialen.
(11) NFP 92-501, Btiment, Essais de reaction au feu des matriaux,
essai par rayonnerrent applicable aux matriaux rigides ou rendus tels
(matriaux de revtement) de toute paisseur et aux matriaux souples
d'paisseur superieure a 5mm.
(12) NFP 92-503, Btiment, Essais de reaction au feu des matriaux.
Essai au brleur lectrique applicable aux matriaux souples d'une
paisseur inferieure ou egale, 5 mm. (Essai complementaire).
(13) NFP 92-506, Btiment, Essais de reaction au feu des matriaux.
Essai au panneau radiant pour revtements de sol (Essai complementaire)
(14) Nordtest NT Fire 007, Floorings : Resistivity to spreading fire
and smoke development.
(15) ISO 6925 - 1982, Textile floor coverings - Burning behaviour -
Tablet test at ambient temperature.
(16) B.S. 6307 : 1982, Determination of the effects of a small source
of ignition on textile floor coverings (methenamine tablet test).
(17) I.A. Benjamin and C.H. Adams, Proposed Criteria for use of the
Critical Radiant Flux Test Method, NBS IR 75-950.
(18) L. Benisek and W.A.Phillips, Tex. Res. J. 53, 36 (1983).
(19) A. Rook, Textil Praxis International 1984, No. 1, 44
(20) L. Benisek and R. Woollin, Melliand Text il berichte 65, 417 (1984)
(21) P. Vandeveide, Fire and Materials _5, 77 (1981).
(22) ASTM E 662-79, Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid

(23) H.J. Campbell, Canadian Tex. J. 92, No. 2, 42.(1975).

(24) B.S. 5852 : Part 1 : 1979, Fire tests for furniture, Part 1, Methods
posites for seating.
(25) Statutory Instruments 1980 No. 725, Consumer Protection, The Up-
holstered Furniture (Safety) Regulations 1980.
(26) IS0/DIS 6940, Textile fabrics - Burning Behaviour - Determination
of ease of ignition of vertically oriented specimens.
(27) IS0/DIS 6941, Textile fabrics - Burning behaviour - Measurement
of flame spread properties of vertically oriented specimens.
 295

MINERAL BOARDS
G. Neuhauser
Gebr. Knauf Westdeutsche Gipswerke

Summary
The fire hazard classification of calcium silicate boards,
gypsum plasterboards, vermi cul i te boards, and perl i te boards
in the EC and adjacent countries are described and the
problems in view of a future European harmonization discus-
sed. The boards consist mainly of inorganic material. They
contain minor amounts of organic additives of less than 10 %,
except some types of perlite boards. The fire classification
of calcium silicate boards and vermiculite boards is quite
uniform within the EC states. The lower classifications of
gypsum plasterboards in France (M 2) and of perlite boards in
Germany (B 2) do not correspond to those in the other European
countries. As a result of harmonization the mineral boards
with low organic content reported here should be classified
in one classe of non-combustible and quasi non-combustible
materials. Surface finishes and laminates can affect the
reaction to fire. Some aspects to fire hazard assessment and
classification of painted, coated, and laminated mineral
boards are discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION
The following four groups of mineral boards are discussed:
(a) Calcium silicate boards
(b) Gypsum boards
(c) Vermiculite boards
(d) Perlite boards.
The boards consist predominantly of mineral, inorganic materials.
They contain a minor proportion of combustible, organic substances
ranging from per milles up to 30 % by weight, which can affect the
behaviour in fire. The boards cover the range from the "classical"
non-combustible to the truly combustible building materials.
The mineral materials in both the calcium silicate boards and
the gypsum boards are also the binders. The cohesive bond of the
vermiculite boards and perlite boards is achieved by means of organic
resins or inorganic binding agents or mixtures of them.
 296

2. FIRE HAZARD CLASSIFICATION OF HINERAL BOARDS

2.1 Calcium silicate boards
Calcium silicate results from the chemical reaction between
quartz and (hydrated) lime. In order to trigger and to stimulate
the reaction the raw boards are treated by water vapour under
pressure in an autoclave. The boards contain mineral light-weight
aggregates, such as mica, vermiculite or perlite, and fibres
(cellulosic fibres, mineral fibres). Calcium silicate boards have
gained importance in recent years due to the discussions on
the use of asbestos. The restrictions opened the market to
asbestos-free products. Calcium silicate boards are, for instance,
substitutes for asbestos cement boards in shipbuilding. They are
also used in building construction for fire protection purposes.
Typical applications are claddings to structural steelwork, pipe
and duct covers, ceiling, roof, and wall lining panels, cavity
barriers, external claddings, and fire-door constructions. Medium
density boards are used in industrial plants and equipment, for
insulation of ovens, dryers, and tanks, for oven shelves and
interleaves etc. Low density boards can be applied as a thermal
insulating material for roofs and external walls. The variety
of application requires different types. The densities vary from
180 kg/m3 to 1.300 kg/m 3 . The content of organic material, mainly
cellulosic fibres, ranges approximately from 0 to 10 %.
Despite the variety of types, the fire hazard classification
is quite uniform (Table I ) . The distinction between non-combustible
and combustible building materials is important in some countries,
for instance in the UK and Germany. In other countries, e. g.
the Netherlands and Denmark, non-combustibility is of minor im-
portance. Nevertheless, Table I shows the assessment to this
criterion. The classification to ISO 1182 and IMO (1) is also
listed. The evaluation was done according to the previous standard
of 1979 (2) because the now revised edition does not specify
criteria for evaluation (3). The classification of calcium sili-
cate boards to ISO and IMO is particularly justified because some
selected materials served as references for interlaboratory tests.
The majority of the calcium silicate boards are non-combustible.
Boards with higher amounts of cellulose fibres (10 %) do not meet
the requirements of non-combustibility. They are combustible in
the UK but qualify for class 0 to the building regulations. The
failure in the furnace test is due to the temperature rise of the
central thermocouple. The results depend on the organic content
and the density.
No restrictions exist, of course, for non-combustible calcium
silicate boards and, in most EC countries, for the combustible ones.
In the UK, the building codes contain a few regulations which might
inhibit the use of the combustible boards of class 0 in special
elements o f > l hour fire resistance (e. g. stairways in houses of >
4 storeys, suspended ceilings with surface exposed to cavity). These
limitations are only of theoretical value with reference to the wide
spectrum of calcium silicate boards. A harmonization within the EC
would not pose problems.
 297

2.2 Gypsum boards

Gypsum blocks and ceiling tiles are not discussed here. They
are purely inorganic and a priori noncombustible.
Among the rigid mineral boards, reported here, gypsum plaster
board is the oldest building material, most applied in internal
building construction and standardized in many countries (4). Gypsum
plasterboards consist of a gypsum core encased in, and firmly bonded
to, strong durable paper liners. Their thicknesses range from 9.5 to
25 mm, and their densities vary between 750 and 1.000 kg/m 3 . The
whole organic content ranging from 3 to 7,5 % by weight according
to the thickness is concentrated at the surfaces.
Gypsum products are very suitable for fire protection due to
their chemical composition. Gypsum is calcium sulphate dihydrate
(CaSO..2H 2 0). When exposed to fire the combined water is released
gradually. The evaporation requires heat. The temperature at the
unexposed side is kept constant for a certain period depending
on the thickness of the board. Gypsum plasterboard which are applied
to fire resistant assemblies contain glass fibres and other
additives in the gypsum core. They improve the core cohesion and
the integrity performance of the boards. With regard to reaction
to fire tests, no differences exist between these boards and the
normal wallboards.
Gypsum plasterboards may be used to provide dry lining
finishes to masonry walls, to ceilings, and to steel and timber
framed partitions, or as claddings to structural steel columns and
beams. Prefabricated floor elements can be manufactured from spe
cial gypsum panels.
Gypsum plasterboards are noncombustible building materials
of class A 2 DIN 4102 (5) by a test certificate. Without test
certificate their classification is 1 (6). Thin boards of 9.5
or 10 mm are only noncombustible when they are lined to a so called
massif mineral base. The failing criterion for thin boards is the
test on toxicity of combustion products. Gypsum plasterboard are
combustible to IMO and previous ISO tests because of sustained
flaming and, perhaps, the temperature rise of the surface thermo
couple. The recently issued ISO 1182 is not applicable to gypsum
boards in view of clause 2 (3).
In the UK, gypsum plasterboards meet the requirements of
class 0 because they have a class 1 surface (7) and the indices of
performance (8) do not exceed 12 and 6, respectively. Up to the
present they are still combustible. Nevertheless, the building
authorities were aware of the fact that this classification does
not deal with all aspects of the fire protection performance of
these boards. In various Building Regulations, gypsum plaster
boards can be taken to be noncombustible for many purposes where
noncombustible materials are required. A further approach was made
which enables gypsum plasterboard to be acknowledged as "notionally
noncombustible". Recently, the situation has changed. When the
new Building Regulations come into operation, gypsum plasterboard
will be accepted as noncombustible material because of the
following reasons. Considering BS 476: Part 11 (9) its core
satisfies the criteria of BS 476: Part 4 (10), and the combustible
paper liners do not exceed 0.5 mm in thickness. It is expected
that the new Building Regulations will be published toward end
of this year.
 298

In most European countries, gypsum plasterboards although

combustible to national or ISO standards, are classified in the
highest fire hazard category. The restrictions are of minor im-
portance for their application.
In France, the classification of gypsum plasterboard is in-
ferior compared to other European countries because of the
flammability and the flame propagation indices specified in the
criteria for the evaluation of the radiation test. In the mean-
time, boards having specially treated paper liners are manufactured
which meet the requirement for class M 1. But this does not solve
the problems, in principle. According to the M 2 classification
the application of plasterboards is inhibited in high-rise and
public buildings. An earlier prohibition concerning their appli-
cation as a cladding to service shaft walls and partitions in
dwellings has been canceled. The authorities are well aware of the
problem plasterboard and class M2. But the discussions with CSTB
have not yet yielded a satisfactory solution.
The classification in France (13) is not corresponding to
other countries of the EC. Many years of experience in fire pro-
tection performance justify the request for the acceptance of
gypsum plasterboards as a non-combustible or, at least, a
"notionally non-combustible" material. This is a realistic demand
with regard to their approval in the UK and Germany. It should
be noted that gypsum plasterboard was the prototype for the
establishment of class A2 - DIN 4102 in Germany about 15 years
ago.
Efforts have been made to substitute the organic paper liner
by an inorganic material. A recent development is a gypsum board
lined by a glass fibre mat (14). This board is non-combustible to
DIN 4102 (class Al), ISO 1182, and IMO.
2.3 Vermi cu lite boards
Vermiculite boards are manufactured from exfoliated vermi-
cul ite and bonding agents. The exfoliation is performed by trea-
ting the raw vermiculite ore in a furnace at temperatures of
300 C due to the evaporation of enclosed water. The binder can
be inorganic water-glass and/or organic urea-, melamine-, or
phenol-formaldehyde resins. Pure inorganic boards are not discus-
sed. They are obviously non-combustible.
Large size vermiculite boards are used as wall and ceiling
panels, as claddings to structural steelwork and to ducts, for
cavity barriers, for non-combustible furniture, and for ship-
building where they also have replaced asbestos cement boards.
The amount of organic binders and the density vary (Table III).
The manufacturers' aim is to place non-combustible boards on the
particular market. Generally, three types exist. Table III re-
flects to this variety. The topmost type is the marine panel which
is non-combustible to IMO, ISO, and all other European standards.
The second type is particularly designed for users in Germany
and in the adjacent countries. They satisfy the criteria for class
Al. The boards with the highest amount of organic material are
classified as non-combustible A2.
 299

Vermiculite boards of high and low density have been subjected

to the ISO and IMO interi aboratory tests (15, 16). The critical
criterion is the temperature rise at the central thermocouple,
similar to calcium silicate boards. A harmonization within the EC
would be simple.
2.4 Perl i te boards
Perl i te is a natural volcanic glass, an aluminium silicate
which contains enclosed water. The lightweight aggregate known
as expanded perl i te is produced when perl i te ore is processed
by rapid expansion in a furnace at high temperatures. The boards
are manufactured from expanded perlite, fibres and2 binders. The
density is quite uniform between 150 and 230 kg/m . They are
applied as insulating material for roofs, parking decks and gara-
ges, for asphalt-floors, and as an insulating lining to ceilings
and external walls in garages.
Perlite boards contain the highest amount of organic material.
Table IV lists three types due to the classification in Germany.
In other European countries, the B2-type is classified in a higher
category. The Bl-type contains flame retardant agents so that it
can satisfy the criteria of the Bl-test. A non-combustible type
of class A2 was developped particularly for Germany. The cellulosic
fibres are replaced by mineral fibres. They are applied for spe-
cial purposes where non-combustible materials are required or re-
quested (e.g. lining to ceilings in garages, roofs in high-rise
buildings). In the usual application as a thermal insulation layer
on roofs it is sufficient to use a class B2 material. Large scale
test showed that the fire resistance performance of Bl-, B2-,
and Al-type on roofs with metal decks is not very different.
The unfavourable classification of perlite boards of the
B2-type impedes a European harmonization although it is obvious
that both the B2- and the Bl-type are combustible.
An evident discrepancy in the fire hazard classification of
the B2-perlite boards in Germany and the gypsum plasterboards in
France is emphasized:
gypsum plasterboard A2(D) - M2(F)
perlite board B2(D) - M1(F)
3. MINERAL BOARDS AND THE COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION
ON FIRE SAFETY IN HOTELS
A proposal for a Council Recommendation on fire safety in
existing hotels was published on 12 January 1984 (17). The pro-
posal sets out minimum requirements for fire safety with respect
inter alia to escape routes (Table V ) . The requirements on buil-
ding material classification are based on national provisions.
As expected the mineral board meet the minimum requirements, with
one exception. According to the French provisions gypsum plaster-
boards are prohibited for being used as ceiling coverings.
 300

4. SURFACE FINISHES ON MINERAL BOARDS

Many mineral boards receive a surface finish or treatment.

This can be done either in the factory, by secondary operation,
e.g. by adhesively fixing metal foils, vinyl films, plastic cove-
rings, or wood veneers, or at the constructional site by applying
paint, wallpaper, or other decorative facings. Four procedures exist
in the EC countries for classifying building materials with surface
finish:
(a) The finish is neglected
(b) The facing sheet as well as the base board are tested
and classified separately
(c) The completely finished building material is tested and
classified
(d) The contribution of the finish to the behaviour in fire
is calculated prior to classification.
In Germany procedure (c) is applied. The predecorated or
secondary treated building board is subjected to a complete test
programme required for classification. This may be reduced or
simplified when facts are known which make certain tests unneces-
sary. Gypsum plasterboard with PVC film facings can be classified
into class Bl if the manufacturer applies for a test certificate
at Institut fr Bautechnik. For most applications, class B2 is
satisfactory. This is certified by a test report of an authorized
testing institute. Test certificates exist for vermiculite boards
with wood veneer and specified plastic film facings. The decora-
tion is applied on the Al or the marine type. Vermiculite boards
of class A2 with kraft paper firmly bonded to both surfaces are
building materials of class Bl.
Up to now, the same regulation is effective for building
materials with finishes applied at the constructional site. The
test certificates contained the following remark: "The proof on
non-combustibility is not granted to the building material when
it receives a surface finish such as paint, wallpaper or other
coverings." The plasterboard manufacturers have tests made on pla-
sterboards with paints and wallpaper. Emulsion paints, alkyd resin
varnish, and certain wallpapers yielded positive results; the
non-combustibility was maintained. The positive results have been
included into the test certificates. Tests on other painted or
otherwise treated mineral boards followed. Now the positive state-
ment with regard to paint is found in the test certificates of all
gypsum plasterboards, and some vermiculite and calcium silicate
boards. Henceforth, test certificates will only make positive
statements with regard to surface finishes (18). Negative state-
ments will not be mentioned anymore.
In Denmark, the contribution of the surface finish is assessed
by evaluating the properties, the specifications, and the type of
the facing material. Test reports from other European countries may
be considered for the assessment. This procedure is according to
(b) or (d). Paint is disregarded (a). When a classification of a
new or unknown laminated material is requested the Danish Building
Regulations demand a classification into class 1 or class 2 cove-
rings (19). Prior to this classification the material has to be
 301

subjected to a fire classification of building materials (20) and,

additionally, to a fire resistance test (21).
The authorities in France proceed to (c) and (d). Paragraph 87
and Annex 21 (13) make precise statements on paints and thin deco-
rations on building materials of classes MO, Ml and M2, respecti-
vely. With regard to paints, distinctions are made between bright
and matt paints. The maximum weight of the wet paint is evaluated
from the calorific potential. Calcium silicate boards with thin
dispersion paints (400 g/m 2 ) remain in class MO. The heavier the
paint the lower is the classification (Ml or M 2 ) . Gypsum plaster-
boards of both class M2 or Ml do not change their classification
when painted with 500 g/m2 dispersion paint or 350 g/m2 varnish.
A possible degradation of a surface finished building material
may be avoided if tests on the boards with the specified surface
finish yield better results than the calculated classification.
Gypsum plasterboards with PVC and other plastic facings have to
be tested, in any case. The result can be either no change or, in
some cases, a devaluation to class M3. On the other hand, a pla-
sterboard plastered on the face, or backed with aluminium foil,
is promoted to class Ml.
In the UK, many tests have been carried out to study the
effect of paint on various substrates. In general, dispersion
paints and flame-retardant paints on plasterboards retain or im-
prove their initial performance. Therefore, this type of paints
can be applied without any restriction, also in special areas
where class 0 performance is required. Usually, the Building Regu-
lation are not considered to apply to paintwork on the construc-
tional site (22). Plasterboards with thin PVC sheeting or films
retain class 1 performance in the flame spread test (23). Heavier
vinyl coverings can qualify for class 2. This PVC films have a
negligible effect in the fire propagation test. It is possible to
select treatments and finishes on plasterboards for any classifi-
cation needed. Plasterboards with a PVC film on the face and an
aluminium foil on the back are classified in class 0.
Table VI shows a selection of surface finished and treated
plasterboards with regard to their fire hazard classification.
Plaster coating, paints, and metal films on mineral boards
should not pose serious problems for a European harmonization. It
should be agreed, that these surface finishes do not deteriorate
the fire performance of the substrates. A harmonization of mine-
ral boards with vinyl or other plastic facings is difficult, at
present. It should be postponed until a consensus has been reached
upon the basic building materials.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The "notionally" non-combustible mineral boards with minor
organic constituents should be put in the same category with the
"truly" non-combustible building materials, in view of both fire
hazard classification and untrestricted application. A model could
be the regulations in Germany where A2 is equivalent to Al or, to
some extent, those in the United Kingdom with regard to class 0.
The aim is also achieved in countries where the distinction between
non-combustible and combustible is unsignificant.
 302

The noncombustibility test to ISO 1182(3) is not sufficient

for classifying the behaviour in fire of the mineral boards. One
reason is that it applies only to homogeneous materials. It is
strongly recommended that the title "noncombustibility test"
should be changed to that of BS 476: Part 11: "Method for asses
sing the heat emission from building materials." Moreover, the
question should be considered whether the expression "noncombu
stible" is still opportune or not.
The efforts and the work of ISO/TC 92 should be supported
and promoted. A harmonization of test methods, at medium and
longterms, within the EC is unconceivable without considering
the work of TC 92.
All reaction to fire tests are small scale laboratory tests.
Long practical experiences with specific building materials and
their performance in real fires should be strongly considered.
Attention should be also paid to experiences coming from outside
EC, e.g. experiences on the performance of gypsum plasterboards
in North America with regard to fires in highrise buildings.
Criteria for classification should be based on results which have
been obtained from the reaction of fire tests on model building
materials.
If the application of a building material is inhibited due
to failing in a test there should be the opportunitiy for proving
its applicability by large scale fire tests which simulate the
practice.

REFERENCES

(1) IMO Resolution A 472 (XII): Recommendation on test method for

qualifying marine construction as noncombustible.
(2) International Standard ISO 1182 (1979): Fire test Building
materials Noncombustibility test.
(3) International Standard ISO 1182 (1983): Fire test Building
materials Noncombustibility test.
(4) Specification for gypsum plasterboard, types, requirements,
testing: ISO 6308 (1980), BS 1230 (1970), DIN 18180 (1978),
N0RM 3410 (1976), NF 72302 (1978).
(5) DIN 4102 Teil 1: Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen;
Baustoffe; Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prfungen, Mai 1981.
(6) DIN 4102 Teil 4: Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen;
Zusammenstellung und Anwendung klassifizierter Baustoffe,
Bauteile und Sonderbauteile, Mrz 1981.
(7) British Standard 476: Part 7: 1968. Fire tests on building ma
terials and structures. Surface spread of flame test for
materials.
(8) British Standard 476: Part 6: 1968. Fire tests on building
materials and structures. Fire propagation test for materials.
(9) British Standard 476: Part 11: 1982. Fire tests on building
materials and structures. Methods for assessing the heat emis
sion from building materials.
 303

(10) B r i t i s h Standard 476: Part 4: 1970. Fire tests on building

materials and structure. Noncombustibility test for materials.
(11) D anish Standard D S 1057.1 (1981): Fire c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of b u i l
ding materials, Noncombusti b i l t y .
(12) Nederlandse Norm NEN 3881 (1975): Bepaling van de onbrand
baarheid van bouwmaterialen.
(13) Journal Officiel de la Rpublique Franaise, 1er December 1983:
Classification des matriaux de construction et d'amnagement
selon leur raction au feu et dfinition des mthodes d'essais.
(14) G. NEUHAUSER, Das Stuckgewerbe 37, 1417 (1984); Element +
Fertigbau 21 (2), 2528 (1984)
(15) B. SUNDSTRM, Technical Report SPRAPP 1981: 10, Noncombusti
bility according to IMCO Res. A 270 (VIII), Interlaboratory
test program initiated by IMCO
(16) Document ISO/TC 92/SC 1/WG 6 44 (1983), Results on the
IMCOnoncombustibility test for comparison with the ISO/DIS
1182 test (1982).
(17) Proposal for a Council Recommendation on fire safety in exi
sting hotels, 12 January 1984, COM (83) 751 final.
(18) Prfgrundstze fr prfzeichenpflichtige nichtbrennbare
(Klasse A) Baustoffe, Mitteilung des Instituts fr Bautechnik,
Heft 3 (1984).
(19) Danish Standard 1065.2 (1982): Fire classification: C overings.
Class 1 and class 2 coverings.
(20) D anish Standard 1065.1 (1982): Fire c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Building
materials. Class A and class materials.
(21) Danish Standard 1060.1 (1982): Fire classification. C overings.
Resistance to fire.
(22) L.A. O'NEILL, Fire and Materials 8, 1719 (1984)
(23) R.W. FISHER and B.F.w. ROGOWSKI, HMSO 1976, Results of surface
spread of flame tests on building products
(24) R.W. FISHER and B.F.W. ROGOWSKI, HMSO 1976, Results of fire
propagation tests on building products.
 Table li
Table 1 Fire hazard classification of gypsum plasterboard
Fire hazard classification of calcium silicate boards

content of
thickness density combusti classifi
content of organic country
density combusti classifi mm kg/m' bility" cation
organic country material
kg/m 2 bility " cation
material 17.)
(V.) ISO c combustible

ISO, IMO ne ron combustible

D,L ne A 2*
c combustible A ne A
D,L ne A1,A2 CH qnc Vlq.3
1801300 from <1 F MO F M2(M1)
to 10 GB, GR ne,c 0 9,525 7501000 37,5 GB, (GR) e ne o
0 P.
IRL ne, c 0 IRL c 0
NL nc,c 1 I e (D
DK nc,(c) A DK e A
1 ne, e (0,1) NL c 1,12
nc,c MO1 e l<
A ne A 4 10 800940 67,5 D ne A2 3 '
CH nc,qnc Vl.3,Vlq3
e B1

ne . . . noncombustible
qnc. quasi noncombustible " see Table, footnote 1
c. . combustible "noninflammable and c l a s s i surface
restricted application
Table HI
Table IV
F re hazard c ess f cat CP of verm cu te boards
Fire hazard classification of perlite boards

content of
thickness density combusti c l a s s i f i content of
organic country density combusti
mm kg/m 3 bility' cation organic country classification
3 bility "
material kg/m
material
C/.)

1022 620740 23 IMO, ISO ne roiv ntiV C

150190 30 D c B2
DK ne A F Ml
GB ne 0 GB,GR c 0
F MO IRL c 0
o
B c A1
1250 400950 5 D, ne A1
ne A 150190 30 D, A c B1
ne VI 3 CH qnc, c Vlq3,V3
CH
F MO NL c 1

840 320950 610 Q ne A2

200230 5 D nc A2
ne A
A nc A
CH qnc VI q 3
(ISO) (c) (combustible)
F MO

see Table I, footnote 1 see Table I, footnote 1

 306

Table V : Escape routes in hotels: minimum requirements for the tire

classification of materials

(a) (b) (c) (d) (f)

B D DK F IRL 1 L NL GB GR

Floor M3(c) Bl Fire M3 1 U

or or retar
coverings 3(f) A dant

Wall M 2(c) A 1 M2 0* 1 A 2 0* 0*
or (f) (a) (f)
hangings 2(f)

Ceiling
Coverings M1(c] A 1 Ml 0+ 1 A 1 0+ *
False or (f) (a) (f)
ceilings Kf)

+ Except in the case of small decorative surfaces

 307

Table VI
Classification of coated and decorated gypsum plasterboards

without coating/decoration
country surface
finish plaster point metal foil PVC f i l m

Denmark A,1 (A,1) A,1 A,\ I

France M2 M1 M2!l M1 M2,M3

Germany A 2 A2 A 2" - B1,B2
United Kingdom 0 0 0 " 0 0,(1,2)

' evolution by authorities according circumstances

2
maximum limit
dispersion paints
 308

MINERAL FIBRES

J.-P. LEROY
CRIR
ISOVER SAINT-GOBAIN, FRANCE
Centre de Recherches Industrielles, Rantigny

Summary

Insulating materials made of mineral fibres without cladding are safe

from the point of view of fire protection. Although consisting partly
of minerals {glass fibre or rockwool, which are non-flammable) and
partly of organic materials (a binding agent, normally a thermoset
phenol which is by nature flammable), the proportion of organic to
mineral components is such that the basic product - mineral fibres
plus binding agent - is in most cases non-flammable. This is borne
out by a large number of flammability tests on insulating material
of mineral fibre without cladding according to the standards applied
in France, Germany, the United Kingdom and by the ISO. The permissible
limits for the amount of binding agents in the insulating material are
deduced from the test results.
Cladding is used as reinforcement and to improve the appearance of the
product etc. and may also considerably improve the fire resistance of
the insulating material, although some cladding materials impair such
resistance. Some examples are given of recently introduced cladding
materials which are highly fire-resistant.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The energy crisis and the ever-rising cost of domestic heating
(fuel oil, gas, electricity etc.) have made home insulation an absolute
necessity over the past 10 years.
Insulating material of rockwool, comprising glass fibre or rockwool,
are extensively ued for roof lining or inside the walls or beneath the
floors of dwellings. These are traditionally used in new buildings and in
the renovation of older buildings .
The basic products - mineral fibre insulating products without cladding -
may be considered to provide very good protection against fire. Although
these products generally have two components (mineral - glass fibre or rock-
wool, naturally non-flammable, and organic binder, generally phenolic and
thermosetting, naturally flammable), the organic/mineral ratio of the
components is selected so that the basic product - mineral fibres plus binder
- is in most cases non-flammable.
 309

Table I

Methods of measuring fire behaviour in three EEC countries

^^**~^^C0UNTRY
FRANCE GERMANY UNITED KINGDOM
TEST ^^^

NF.M.03005 DIN.41021 BS.4764

"Bomb calori N.C. if: NC Class 0
meter" Bl "Fire if: T 50C
NONFLAMMA
N.C. MO shaft" and t 10 s
BILITY
if: for or:
Q v 600 kcal/kg "Small fur BS.4766
nace" i< 6; I <12
t 20 s BS.47612
Cl: A2 Class 1
Cl: Al if t
t
= 0 s

FLAMMABILITY NF.P.92501 DIN.41021 BS.4765

"Radiant heat "Fire shaft" "Small burner"
test" B1 : Low X High flammabilitj
Classification: Flammability Low flammahi1 i ty
Ml : Flammable, "Small burner'
nonflamma B2: Normal BS.4766
FLAME SPREAD
ble flammabi i and I
to lity BS.4767
M4: Highly B3: High 4 classes
flammable flammabi
lity

FUME DENSITY NF.X.10702 DIN.41021 BS. 51111

Leve1s : DIN.53437 E
01,02,03 ASTM.D;2843 For plastics and
(For classes rubber
Al and A2)

FUME TOXICITY French "Jour DIN.41021

nal Officiel" DIN.53436 E
of 20/1/76 (A1.A2 Rats!
and NF.X.70100
 310

This interesting characteristic is accompanied by a fairly high mecha-

nical resistance to fires which have already broken out. In the case of
glass fibres, mechanical properties will not begin to be lost until around
550-600C, while in the case of rockwool, loss does not occur until around
700 to 900C (start of viscous phase).
1.2 In this brief outline we shall confine ourselves to considering the
results of the official flammability tests in the three largest Community
countries - France, Germany and the United Kingdom. Table I on page 2 out-
lines the flammability tests and the criteria applied. We assume that the
actual testing methods are known, since they are all covered by conventional
standards which are available in each country.
We shall only briefly consider the method using the small vertical
tubular furnace as applied by the United Kingdom and the ISO.
We shall now examine in turn a) for France and Germany and b) for the
United Kingdom and in accordance with ISO/TC 92, the results of flammability
tests on mineral wools' without cladding, glass fibre and rockwool over as
wide a range of apparent volumetric masses ( ) as possible, with the most
usual organic binder contents (L) expressed as a percentage or, better, in
kg/m . However, we shall indicate the upper limits of and L for uncladded
mineral wools actually available on the market.

2. NON-FLAMMABILITY OF MINERAL WOOLS WITHOUT CLADDING

2.1 France and Germany
2.1.1 In France^building materials thicker than 5 mm are first subjec-
ted to the 3 W/cm radiant heat test with pilot flames, known as the
"Epiradiateur chamber" test.
If there is no combustion, the material is classed as Ml, and its non-
flammability can then be tested by "bomb calorimeter", after which it must
be assigned a calorific value which is lower than 600 kcal/kg.
The same applies to all glass fibres, which are classed as M0, and
rockwool. The only exceptions are certain products with a high volumetric
mass (around 100 kg/m ) and, in particular, a binder content of at least
10 kg/m for the density in question, in this case glass fibre. Rockwool
is classed as M0 with higher densities and sometimes greater binder contents
(around 12.3 kg/m ).
The results are given in Fig. 1 below, in which the areas of use of
glass fibre and rockwool are treated separately. The results correspond to
the experimental results available to us.
The graph plots apparent density of mineral wool against binder content
(kg/m ) for two types of rockwool product, one with a low binder content
(these have a low calorific value) and the other with a high binder content
owing to mechanical requirements (these consequently have a higher calorific
value).
To sum up, in France, an insulating material without cladding, whether
glass fibre or rockwool, is non-flammable class MO in all the following
cases:
3 3
Density of insulating material (kg/m ) Binder content (kg/m )
200 <12

Rockwool 1 100 <10

Glass fibre [ 5 0 < 5
10 <1
 311

V i r t u a l l y a l l unclaJded g l a s s f i b r e or rockwool m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e on
t h e m a r k e t meet t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

FRANCE-CALORIMETER METHOD
NF M.03005
Uncladded p r o d u c t s

(Kg/m3)
I_ /
/
/
/ F de R = rockwool
/
F de V = glass fibre
150 - / ! NC = non-combustible
/ ' J L
or non-flammable
= binder
1 ^ / /
100
! *< //f\
50

L | Kg/m3l
0 '1 M I Inni 11
0,5 1 2 5 10 20 30

2.1.2 In Germany, mineral wools are classed as non-flammable after a

lengthy series of tests - the "Brandschacht (fire shaft) test"; a test using
a small, vertical tubular furnace, and finally the bomb calorimeter with the
threshold at 1.000 kcal/kg.
The non-flammability tests on identical glass fibre and rockwool mater-
ials are in practice more stringent in Germany than in France.
Table II below bears this out. The requirements of the class "non-
flammable Al" (no flames at all during the tubular furnace test), are parti-
cularly stringent. Class "non-flammable A2" is very similar in its require-
ments to the French legislation, calling for the same maximum permissible
binder contents for comparable densities of insulation material.
In practice all mineral insulation material without cladding, whether
of glass fibre or rockwool, marketed in Germany is non-flammable Al or A2,
depending on the binder content.
 312

Table I I
Nonflammability according to DIN 41021:
F i r e s h a f t , small v e r t i c a l furnace and calorimeter method

Mineral fibres Gi ss fibre Rockwool

without cladding Clas s To xicity

(product density: Binder content

3 1
3 I 3
(kg/m ) l kg/m % |kg/m
1

10 < 0.5 501 < 1

Nonflammable Al < 5 % 60 ' < 3 < 2% 100' < 2 These limits
100 ' <. 5 200' <4
1 are within

the toxicity
IO1 < 1 50, < 2.5
Nonflammable A2 s;io% 60 < 6 <5% 100| <5 limits
A2 100. <10 200i <10

F
L Not easily Bl >10% > 57.
A flammable (lirait unknown) (limit unknown)

Normal B2 Such products do no exist.

M
flammability
A
High B3 Such products are prohibited in
L flammability the building industry
E

2.2 United Kingdom (England and Wales) and ISO/TC 92 tests

2.2.1 United Kingdom
The main flaramability test uses the small, vertical tubular furnace
with a diffuser in the shape or a truncated cone as described in part 4
of BS 476, a longestablished device designed in 1932 for materials used
in the building of warehouses. It provides the basis for the present ISO
1182 furnace used in many countries.
The furnace described in part 4 of BS 476 incorporates a testpiece
of square crosssection and two thermocouples one for the wall of the
furnace (T ) and one for the centre of the testpiece (T ) .
The criteria for temperature increase above the temperature of the
wall of the empty furnace before testing are as follows:

< 50C
T < 50C

Flame duration must be less than 10 seconds.

 313

Test-piece
thermocouple

Surface thermo
couple (ISO) Test-piece support
Test-piece Furnace
thermocouple

Electrical
resistance
Refractory
tube

fig. Ibis Non-flammability furnace (BS and ISO)

The United Kingdom has provided us with the results of measurements

obtained in 125 complete flammability tests on different mineral glass fibre
wools without cladding (625 individual measurements).
The results are presented in the form of^graphs where the parameter is
plotted as a function of binder content (kg/m ) , the parameters being
furnace; centre; flame duration and density of the insulation material.
Figures 2,3,4 and 5 below give the shaded areas for non-combustible
(NC) and combustible (C) representative of the 125 tests. Where the fields
overlap the upper limit of the NC values and the lower limit of the C values
are given.
 314

UK-BS 476/4
GLASS FIBRE WITHOUT CLADDING

A T F ("cl

L(Kg/m3) L (Kg/m3)

Figure 6 gives the same results but in a more condensed form:

categories of similar densities of mineral wool were established on the
basis of the 125 tests. In this presentation the statistical 'weight' of
each representative point is significant since it may reflect a large
number of individual test results - a minimum of 5, sometimes 2 0 , or even
70.
The numerous results obtained indicate that all uncladded glass fibre
insulation material as described,in part 4 of BS 476 are non-flammable for
binder values (L) up to 1.2 kg/m . They are flammable for values in excess,
of 1.9 kg/m and for densities of insulation material of less than 50 kg/m
It is clear that the UK legislation is more stringent than the French
but comparable to the German as far as level Al is concerned.
 315

UK-BS 476/4

(Kg/m3) GLASS FIBRE WITHOUT CLADDING

(625 results)

50
+

40
++
C
+

30

NC
4 Y
20

1,5 1,9 L(Kg/m3)

10 ' I I I

fig. 6

2.2.2 With reference to ISO/TC 92, i.e. the standard applied

internationally
Apart from the question of the criteria for assessing non-flammabi-
lity, and since the furnaces described in ISO 1182 (1979) and BS 476, part
4 are virtually identical (apart from the circular cross-section test-piece
used in the ISO test and the use of a surface thermocouple) it was consi-
dered advantageous to use the UK results described above, to transpose
them in accordance with the criteria laid down in ISO 1182 (1979)
( 4 T < 5 0 C ; t, 20 seconds) and to supplement them with other results on
glass fibre insulation material without cladding.
The results are presented thus in the following graphs (see Figs. 7,
8, 9 and 10).
 316

ISO 1182 (79)

GLASS FIBRE WITHOUT CLA DDING

,,) 1,1.1

1,7 2,6
1,7 2
50 _

L (Kg/m3)
L <Kg<m3)

IKg/m 3 !

50
1,7 2j6
40

30

20

10
L
3
L (Kg /m ) f 17 2,6 "<""3'
1 2 3
fig. 10

The graphs apply to products of average density. In many cases density

was calculated on the basis of more than five separate tests and Fig. 11
covers approximately 750 individual results.
These results were interpreted in the same way both for ISO 1182 (1979)
and for the UK test, BS 476/4.
It will be noted that the extent of overlap of nonflammable and fla
mmable is in this case 1.7, to 2.6 kg/m as measured on the basis of the 125
tests and 1.7 to 3.1 kg/m for a wider range of mineral wool densities.
The maximum binder content to ensure nonflammability of uncladded glass
wool (1.7 kg/rn) is 0.5 kg/m higher in the case of ISO 1182 (1979) than for
BSI 476/4.
In practical terms, over 90% of the uncladded glass wool production
has a volumetric mass of less than 35 kg/m and a binder content of less
than 2.5 kg/m . It is therefore in general nonflammable.
 317

ISO 1182 /79)

(Kg/m 3
GLASS WOOL WITHOUT CLADDING
(750 r e s u l t s )

+
100 _

17 3,1
-
C
+
+
50 _ - -i
- +
V +
1.
+ L (Kg/m3)

10 1 1 I I Iu n i I
0,5 1 2 5 10 20
f i g . 11

A number of test results obtained in accordance with ISO 1182

(1979) in France, Germany and the United Kingdom on rockwool insulation
material without cladding have been used to draw up a graph (Fig. 12)
similar to the previous one. Fig. 12 indicates that the upper limit of,
non-flammability is determined by a maximum binder c ontent of<3.8 kg/ra .
All rockwool fibres are non-flammable where the binder content is
less than<2.5 kg/m (the lower limit of flammability).
These limits are somewhat higher than for glass fibre without
cladding (2,5 kg/m c ompared with 1.7). Here again, using the criterium
of<2.5 kg/m as the maximum binder c ontent regardless of the value of
most rockwool products c ommerc ially available in the construction sec tor
are non-flammable.
 318

ISO 1182 ( 7 9 )

3 ROCKWOOL WITHOUT CLADDING

(Kg/m )

+

+
150
+C
+

100
NC
+

50
- 2,5 3,8
I
L(Kg/m3)

i
|
0 Mil
0,5 1 2 5 10 20
fig. 12

2.3 Summary and prospects with regard to nonflammability

Note! In general, it may be stated that the categories established
above on the basis of binder content for France, Germany
and the United Kingdom result in values which are not
binding since they are influenced by volumetric mass, the
quality of the fibre and the type of binder.
However much the concept of nonflammability may be subjective and
dependent upon agreement, the fact that tests reports provide confirmation
of the accepted fact that glass fibre and rockwool without cladding do
not represent a fire hazard makes it a very important consideration
from the point of view of the manufacturers of mineral wools.
Until such time as test ISO 1182 (1983) is improved by the measure
ment of oxygen consumption or by the development of a reliable test for
heat output, we shall consider mineral insulation material to be non
flammable if the following binder contents are observed:
 319

Table III GLASS FIBRE ROCKWOOL

Maximum binder content Vol.mass Binder Vol.mass Binder content

to ensure non of content of
flammability of mineral insulation insulation
fibre insulating
material L L

kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m

16 0.6

UNITED KINGDOM <50 1.2

160 1.9
BS 476, Part 4

ISO 1182 (1979) <50 il.7

<100 1.7 <200 <2.5
NONFLAMMABLE 10 0.5 50 < 1
Al 60 S 3 100 <2
GERMANY 100 5 200 <4
NON FLAMMABLE 10 1 50 <2.5
A2 60 <6 100 <5
100 10 200 <10
NONFLAMMABLE 10 < 1 10 <1
MO 50 <5 50 <5
FRANCE 100 <10 200 <10

3. MINERAL WOOLS WITH CLADDING

Glass fibre and rockwool insulating material are often used in
housing construction not in the raw state but with cladding or lining,
normally with an adhesive medium. Depending on the application, the
cladding can serve as a vapour screen, as reinforcement or to improve
its appearance, or as additional acoustic insulation, etc. The lining
normally faces towards a possible fire. The fire safety characteristics
of the lining and of the adhesive medium determine the overall fire
safety of the insulation material with cladding.
If a tarred kraft paper lining is used, the MO classification of
the glass fibre insulation material is reduced to the least safe French
classification, M4.
A PVC lining would result in a drop to M2.
 320

Table IV
"Fire behaviour" classification according to DIN 4102 of mineral
wools with cladding as determined by the nature of the adhesive media
and linings.
1
MATERIALS WITH CLADDING UNCLADDED MATERIAI
CLASS ADHESIVE MATERIAL LINING CLASS

Al Mineral Al
(sodium silicate) Aluminium ( compulsory)

A2 Mineral Aluminium or A2
glass fibre sheeting

A2 Organic.
(520g/mZ) Aluminium or A2

(Special meditan in glass fibre sheeting

dispersion)

Bl Mineral or special Aluminium A2

media in dispersion (thickness: 7im)
(20g/in ) + kraft paper

B2 Mineral or special Special low flammability A2

media in dispersion paper e.g. Lamellnappe

B2 Mattress stitched with rayon thread with lining White

of special low flammability corrugated paper fibre

The most effective linings are of kraft-aluminium (Ml) or, better

still aluminium with a mineral adhesive agent, in which case the class
fibre insulation material is classed as MO or even Al (the uncladded
material is itself MO or A l ) .
Table IV outlines the various possibilities successfully investiga-
ted in Germany. The "fire shaft" test is very exacting for cladded products.
Aluminium linings with mineral adhesive media are a recent innovation pro-
viding maximum fire safety.

4. CONCLUSION
We have tried, within the narrow frame of reference of this report, to
present clearly and convincingly the fire safety characteristics of
uncladded glass fibre and rockwool insulation materials in accordance with
the various standardized tests. Provided that maximum binder contents are
not exceeded, all insulation materials of uncladded mineral wools are non-
flammable, i.e. very safe.
They remain safe when lined with claddings of the type "aluminium
with mineral adhesive agent" and even "fire-resistant PVC". In any case,
the organic components of whatever cladding is used are present in small
quantities, and the danger of fumes being produced or of their being toxic
is very slight.
 321

In conclusion, the manufacturers of mineral wool greatly need effec-

tive fire behaviour tests, i.e. tests which provide a realistic apparaisal
of fire hazards, and which are reproducible and precise and can be applied
unrestrictedly throughout the European Community; indeed, there is no
reason why they should not be applicable world-wide. There is a particu-
larly urgent need for tests to determine non-flammability, heat output
ad fume opacity.
It is to be hoped that events like this symposium will foster
progress in this direction.
 322

PLASTIC FOAMS

J. TROITZSCH

Consultant
Dr. Troitzsch Brandschutz Service, Wiesbaden (D)

Summary

Plastic foams and plastic foam systems generally meet the fire
protection requirements laid down in the individual EEC countries
for building materials and prefabricated sections. The fire protec-
tion requirements laid down in the national building regulations of
the EEC Member States for flammable building materials and the
individual test methods to ensure that they are complied with vary
greatly from country to country. However, the national systems of
preventive fire protection for buildings, which are the product of
requirements and classifications on the basis of the test methods,
cover comparable risks. All the Member States adhere to the philo-
sophy of restricting fire risk and fire propagation by making it
compulsory for flammable building materials and prefabricated
sections intended for certain uses to have a high flammability
threshold. Thus there is no urgent need at present for the requi-
rements and test methods for flammable building materials and
prefabricated sections made of plastic foam to be harmonized at
European Community level.

Taking the three fire-protected foams polystyrene, polyurethane and

phenolic resin as examples, a comparison is drawn between the
individual national fire protection classifications both for the
building material alone and for its use in composite structures.

1. INTRODUCTION

Considerable progress has been made in the Member States of the EEC with
regulations on preventive structural fire protection for building mate-
rials and prefabricated sections and the associated classifications and
test methods (Greece could not be taken into account because of insuffi-
cient information). One aspect which they all have in common is that they
adopt the approach of taking appropriate measures to minimize the risk of
a fire breaking out and developing into a full-scale blaze, so that
people have sufficient opportunity to escape and the fire service can
tackle the fire effectively.

A particularly important practice in fire protection is the use of

flammable building materials and prefabricated sections in a manner
adapted to the risk involved. For high safety requirements the building
regulations of all the EEC countries stipulate at least the use of
buildinq materials with a high flammability threshold. Fire-protected
flammable buildinq materials, both on their own and as components of
prefabricated sections and composite structures, meet these requirements.
 323

This also applies in principle to the foams listed below and to the
upgraded heat insulation systems which contain them.

2. FOAMS: COMPARISON OF REQUIREMENTS AND TEST METHODS

TN THE EEC MEMBER STATES

Riqid foams made of EPS, PUR and phenolic resin are, as flammable bui 1 -
dinq materials, subject to the national regulations of the individual EEC
countries on preventive fire protection and to the associated tests. The
following test methods are used (1):

- Kleinbrenner test (D, I)

- Brandschacht test (D)
- Schlyter test or Danish panel test (DK)
- Box test (DK)
- Epiradiateur test (B, F)
- Fire propagation test (GB)
- Surface spread of flame test (B, GB, NL)
- ISO spread of flame test ( I )
- Vlamoverslag test (NL)

The three kinds of foam obtain the best classifications in the above tests
when they are bonded to a non-flammable support, with the following
exception.

In order to achieve the best Danish classification for flammable building

materials (Class A ) , the materials in question must pass the Schlyter
test or the Danish panel test and the box test. But EPS, as a thermo-
plastic foam, cannot be subjected to the box test because it drips, so
that it cannot be classified. For cladding materials, to which the
upgraded heat insulation systems described below belong as external
claddinq, to obtain the best classification (Class 1 ) , they must be
tested for a limited duration (10 minutes) for resistance to fire accor-
ding to the standard exotherm curve (DS 1060.1). The material is rated
Class 1 if the requirements of building materials Class A are met and if
the cladding prevents flammable material behind it from igniting for at
least 10 minutes when subjected to fire on one or both sides.

Since flammable building materials are required to meet strict fire

protection requirements, all EEC countries base their safety regulations
on the exclusive use of building materials with low flammability (2).
This term is used to describe building materials which are not ignited by
medium and low-intensity ignition sources but only by high-intensity
iqnition sources. Moreover, even when the initial fire has reached an
advanced stage, the spread of flames is still only slow.

It is very difficult to compare the individual national test methods

since they vary greatly as regards the type and intensity of the ignition
source (radiant heater, open flame), geometrical layout of ignition
source and test object, ventilation, the size of the apparatus and
whether it is large enough to test prefabricated sections, etc. The
classifications awarded on the basis of the test results also vary from
country to country.
 324

Taken together, however, the widely varying national regulations and

classifications and the test methods required for them do result in
comparable safety levels when regarded as a combination. This is particu-
larly the case for systems as used in practice. As an example of such
systems, upqraded heat insulation systems used for cladding external
walls are described below.

3. COMPARISON OF FIRE PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS IN THE EEC COUNTRIES FOR

UPGRADED HEAT INSULATION SYSTEMS BASED ON RIGID FOAMS

Upqraded heat insulation systems for external cladding are widely used in
the Federal Republic of Germany, and interest in them is also increasing
in the other countries of the European Community. They consist of syn-
thetic resin rendering, glass cloth reinforcement and rigid foam, with
the foam side being bonded to the external wall.

For increased fire protection, external cladding with flammable compo-

nents is subject to various national requirements with certain classifi-
cations based on the results of fire tests. These are listed in Table 1,
which also shows the suitability of EPS, PUR and PF rigid foam heat
insulation systems for the individual requirements.Table 1 shows that the
heiqht and purpose of the building are the main criteria for all require-
ments. The underlying assessment of risk is similar for all the various
fire-protection requirements. In all the countries the best classification
is required for flammable building materials or prefabricated sections
(in this case in composite structures), with the exception of France,
where only Class M.2 is required instead of Class M.l.

All three types of rigid foam comply with the various national require-
ments. In Denmark and the Netherlands external cladding must meet addi-
tional requirements regarding fire resistance (10 minutes according to
the standard exotherm curve). In these cases, therefore, authorization
depends on the thickness of a non-flammable lining (e.g. plaster board).
If the fire resistance requirements are met, the various rigid foams may
be used. In Denmark, however, the situation regarding EPS is controver-
sial, since it cannot be tested by the box-test, which means that it
cannot be given a Class A rating, without which it cannot be placed in
Class 1.

All in all, the risks involved in the use of the foam systems being
examined are similary assessed in all EEC countries. Whether tested alone
or in composite structures, they are classified according to all the
fire-testing methods as flammable building materials with low flammabi-
lity and thus comply with the requirements for a high safety level.

If the requirements and test methods for flammable building materials

and prefabricated sections were to be harmonized at EEC level, standard
building regulations and test methods would have to be introduced, which
would require a substantial amount of time and money. As regards the
use in buildings of the rigid foams dealt with here, the level of
safety and the practicability of national regulations and test methods
are satisfactory. Thus, from a cost-benefit point of view, there seems to
be no urgent need at present for any harmonization at EEC level.
 325

LITERATURE
(1) J. TROITZSCH. International plastics flammability handbook. Carl
Hanser Verlag, Munich, 1983.
(2) W. BECKER. Brandverhalten von Baustoffen aus Kunststoffen Wege zur
einheitlichen Bewertung im Gebiet der Europischen Gemeinschaft.
Kunststoffe 69(1979)9, pp. 549553.

Table 1 : Foam systems used to clad external w a l l s , e.g.

upgraded heat insulating systems

System suitab ility

Coun Requirements Class Test based on
try EPS PUR PF

High or medium
heightbuilding Al F and GB + + +

D Building up to
22 m max. Bl DIN 4102 + + +
Part 1

DK Building up to DS 16. 1 + +
22 m max. (+ DS 1058.1 *** *** ***
1 1058.3)

BuiIding used by |NF 92 501 + + +

F public M2
BuiIding lb m BS 476
GB 0 Pt 6 et Pt 7 + + +

GR No data

I Varies according 1 CSE RF 1/75/A + + +

to aera or 2/75/A and
3/77

IRL See GB + + +

L Based on neigh
bouring countries
B.D.F + + +

NL High buiIding
2 NEN 3883 + + +

* System consisting of rendering glass cloth/foam

Foam side bonded to masonry
** Cannot be tested by D S 1058.2
* * * D epending on thickness of nonflammable l i n i n g
 326

FIRES IN BUILDINGS: THE BEHAVIOUR OF RIGID PLASTIC PRODUCTS

Umberto FLISI
Montepolimeri C S . I . v Viale Lombardia, 20
20021 BOLLATE (Mi) Italy

Summary

The applications of plastic materials in buildings, are briefly

reviewed and mention is also made of composites, which are going
to cover in future a major part of these applications. Their fire
behaviour is examined for what concerns the initial stage of fire,
considering such aspects as ignition, spread of flame, heat release
and smoke evolution. From this investigation it is deduced that
the performance of plastics is similar to that of other organic
materials traditionally used in buildings and that some of them,
either plain or treated with flame retardants, rank in the best
classes of fire reaction. Their use does not entail any particular
hazard when it is done in the proper way and according to the
existing building codes and fire regulations.

1. INTRODUCTION
The use of plastics in buildings has been steadily increasing in
the last two decades mainly for reasons of practicity, comfort, con-
venience and energy saving. They are valuable, often indispensable,
auxiliaries to other materials, versatile materials for non-structural
applications and can make possible new and ingenious structural and
semi-structural forms, when employed as composites.
Their volume in a typical dwelling is now equalling or even
exceeding the whole amount of other organic materials, such as wood,
textiles, paints, paper and similar matter.
Their applications range in a very wide spectrum, as it can be
seen in Table 1, which includes not only rigid plastics but also
foams, elastomers, synthetic fibres and composites. Some applications,
such as pipes and conduits, window frames, roof waterproofing, thermal
insulation, are very well established from many years, others are
under development.
In the development of new applications there is an increasing
tendency to use composites (1), especially when strength and stiffness
are required. Such composites include several inorganic materials, like
concrete, metals, glass, asbestos, graphite, in a very large spectrum
of compositions. Although there is no chemical reaction among the
constituents and they retain their own characteristics, their joint
or synergistic behaviour exceeds and differs from the properties of the
individual constituents, and this is often the case for fire behaviour.
 327

Therefore the knowledge of fire properties of single plastics is

not significant for the behaviour of composites or other combinations.
This is one of the main reasons because the fire properties of
plastics, as of other materials, are generally determined on pieces of
the building components they are part of, rather than on single consti-
tuents. Such a criterion is actually adopted for fire testing in many
european countries.

2. FIRE BEHAVIOUR OF PLASTICS

When considering their response to heat and consequently to fire,
plastics must be divided in two categories : thermoplastics and thermo-
sets.
The first ones soften or melt on heating and start to flow genera-
ting the phenomenon called dripping, whereas the thermosetting plastics,
thanks to their three-dimensional crosslinked molecular structure, tend
to cure further and to char on the surface, thus preventing ignition.
Also flowing and dripping of thermoplastics may prevent ignition, if
they doing so subtract themselves from the ignition source before cat-
ching fire.
Among thermoplastics, the most commonly used in buildings are:
vinyl polymers (PVC, PVDC and PVCC), styrene polymers (PS, ABS), poly-
olefins (PE, P P ) , polyacrylates (PMMA), polycarbonate.
Among thermosets, unsaturated polyester is by far the most common
material in building, while phenolic, urea and melamine resins are
largely used as auxiliaries in resin-bonded woods (particle board, ply-
wood, laminated timber) and fiber panels for thermal insulation, apart
from their use in decorative laminates. Some use is also made of epoxies
in flooring and pipe coatings.
Rigid types of polyurethanes must also be mentioned in the family
of thermosetting plastics, but their use in building is mostly covered
by foams, which are not included in the topics of this paper.
Of these two classes of polymers, thermoplastics deserve particular
attention for their characteristics and for their actual and potential
applications.
As a matter of fact thermosets have not many difficulties in meeting
fire protection requirements; some of them as the melamine resins are even
added to other plastics in order to reduce their combustibility.
All the matter concerning the flammability of plastics, especially
in the building sector, has been extensively treated in many publications,
the most complete and recent of which is the book written by Dr. Troitzsch
(2), to which there is practically nothing to add at the moment.
For the purpose of this Conference, only some aspects of the fire
behaviour are considered here in a very concise manner, making compari-
sons when possible between plastics and other materials much more familiar
to the building industry.
These aspects concern ignition, flame spread, heat release and smoke
evolution, which cannot be considered material properties, as they depend
not only on the physical and chemical characteristics of the plastic but
also on many othpr variables such as the shape, geometry and orientation
of the finished article, the applied ignition source and ventilation.
2.1 Ignition
Almost any material can be made to ignite given enough heat, enough
oxygen and enough time.
Ease of ignition is therefore dependent on these three parameters and
must be determined under well defined conditions.
 328

Data are available in literature of ignition temperatures according to

ASTM D-1929, which can be considered a rough indication of the depen-
dence of ease of ignition on heat.
These data have been published many times (2,3) and show that synthetic
materials, as it can be seen in Table 2, have ignition temperatures
generally higher than those of natural materials.
The dependence of ignitability on oxygen supply may be expressed
by the Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI), i.e. by the minimum level of oxygen
required to sustain ignition and combustion. Also for this parameter
there is a very rich literature (3) and some data are reported in Table
3.
The influence of heating time can be deduced by the results of the USF
Ignitability Test, giving the ignition time at different heat fluxes.
The longer the time of ignition, the better is of course the material
performance.
These ignition times are reported versus the heat flux for some
materials in fig. 1. Actually the heat flux range considered by this
test is too much shifted towards the high figures, being the normal
values of actual fires comprised between 3 and 7 W/cm .
Summing up the data of Tables 2 and 3 and of fig. 1, it can be said,
that for what concerns ease of ignition plastics don't perform worse
than natural organic materials traditionnally used in buildings.
2.2. Spread of flame
The flame spread of plastics has been described in several papers
and a comprehensive literature is cited in the book of Dr. Troitzsch (2).
Many national and international regulations or norms entail a flame
spread test and plenty of data are available for different materials,
but not many are useful for a comparison between synthetic and natural
products, because all the test methods are different each other or
because the precise nature of tested samples is not specified.
Some data are given in table 4, referring to the flame spread index
obtained by the ASTM E 84 tunnel test (4), some others in Figure 2, where
the distance reached by the flame front is plotted versus elapsed time,
under the conditions of the Italian test method CSE - RF3 (5,6).
These data of Table 4 and Figure 2 have a partial validity because the
test methods involved represent only two of the many possible testing
conditions and sample orientations existing for the determination of
flame spread, nevertheless they give an idea of the behaviour of plastics
used in buildings, which is more or less the same as that of other
organic materials.
2.3. Heat release
This is the fire reaction parameter less defined as for testing,
even if various test methods have been proposed, mainly in USA.
For this reason the heat of combustion will be considered here as an
indication of the behaviour of plastics. Some data are reported in
Table 5, where it can be seen that for some plastics, mainly polyolefins
and to a lesser degree styrenics, the heat of combustion is more than
double of that of traditional materials.
This drawback, which may limit the amount of plastics permitted for
certain uses, may be easily overcome with flame retardants or by
making blends with other materials.
2.4. Smoke evolution
This is the topic for which plastics are mostly blamed in fire
accidents, both for obscuration and toxicity.
Toxicity is dealt with in another paper of this conference, therefore
only smoke density will be dealt with here.
 329

Table 1 - APPLICATIONS OF PLASTICS IN BUILDING

Application

1 External walls

1.1 E x t e r n a l l e a f : s i d i n g and c l a d d i n g , PVC (both compact and s t r u c t u r a l foam), ABS , GRP,

v e n t i l a t e d al rapacea,conorete forawork PMMA. L i g h t w e i g h t concrete (EP S ).
1*2 I n s u l a t i n g or a l d d l e layer Foaaed p l a s t i c s : PS , PU, PE, PVC, Urea_formaldehy_
de. Phenolic.
COmposites based on expanded c l a y or g l a s s , bound
w i t h P o l y u r e t h a n e a , P o l y e s t e r s or P h e n o l I c s
1.3 Vapour b a r r i e r s F i l a s o f PVC, PE, PP.
1.4 Internal leaf: wall covering, aatch PVC, ABS , GRP, PMMA.
b o a r d i n g , panels w i t h fittings

1.5 B r e a s t s , balconies PMMA, extruded PVC, GRP, S t r u c t u r a l foams.

1.6 Window and door frames PVC, PU(structural foams),
1.7 T r a n s l u c e n t sheets aelastlne laalnates
PC, PMMA, GPP, C e l l u l o s i c a .
2. Partitions
2.1 S ingle layer PVC (compact and s t r u c t u r a l f o a m ] , .
2 . 2 I n s u l a t i n g or middle layer See p o i n t 1.2
2 . 3 S urface l a y e r s , l i n i n g . Matchboard!ng PVC, ABS , GRP, PMMA; P h e n o l i c , Urea and a e l a a l n e
d e c o r a t i v e laminates resins

3. Ceilings

3 . 1 Coverings PVC, expended PS and PU, l i g h t w e i g h t c o n c r e t e .

3 . 2 Middle l a y e r (spacers between beams) EPS, PVC.
3.3 Insulating materials EPS, expanded PE and PU.
3*4 S uspended c e i l i n g s PVC, ABS , PMMA.
3.3 Lighting fixtures PMMA, PC, PVC, PS , C e l l u l o s i c a .

4* F l o o r i n g PVC, E l a s t o m e r s , Epoxy, S y n t h e t i c fibers,

Polyurethane foam ( r u g u n d e r l a y ) .
Concrete-plastics mixes.

5. Roofing
5 . 1 C o v e r i n g , Waterproofing PVC, GRP, P l a s t l o l z s d PVC, E l a s t o a e r .
5.2 Insulation EPS, PU.
5 . 3 G l u i n g and s k y l i g h t s PC, PMMA, GRP.
5 . 4 Dormers GRP ( p r e f a b r i c a t e d ) .
3 . 5 S u t t e r and e x t e r n a l downspout PVC, GRP.

6 . Equipment
6 . 1 I n t e r n a l r a i n and waste c o n d u i t PVC, HOPE, PP, GRP.
6 . 2 S a n i t a r y equipment GRP, PMMA, A B S .
Conduits PVC, GRP.
6.3 Ventilation
I n t u i s t i on EP5, expanded PU and XPE.
6 . 4 Pipe Insulation Expanded F , PU and e l a s t o a e r ; EPS .
6.5 Liquid f u e l pipes Elastoaer.
 330

Table 2 - IGNITION TEMPERATURES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

by ASTM D 1929

Material Flash-ignition Self-ignition

C C

Polymethylmethacrylate 280-300 45O-462

Polyethylene 341-357 349
Polystyrene 345-36O 488-496
Polyvinylchloride 391 454
Polyamide (nylon) 421 424
Polyester,glass fibre 346-399 483-488
Melamine laminate 475-500 623-645
Wool 200
Cotton 23O-266 2 54
White pine,shavings 228-264 260
Douglas fir 26O

Table 3 - OXYGEN INDEX OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

Material Th ickness Oxygen Index

mm

Polyethylene 3 18
Polystyrene 3 18
Polymethylmethacrylate 3 17,4
Nylon 6 3 23
Polyvinylchloride 3 45
Polyester 3 21
Cotton fabric 20,1
Pine 22,4
Wool fabric 23,8
 331

Table 4 - FLAME SPREAD OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

by ASTM E 84

Material Flame spread index

Red oak, untreated 100

Red oak, treated 2 5 to SO
Molded plastics 10 to 200
Reinforced plastics 15 to 160

Table 5 HBATS OF COMBUSTION OF PLASTICS AND

NATURAL PRODUCTS

Material Heat of combustion

kj/k

Polyethylene 46 500
Polypropylene 46 000
Polyisobutylene 47 000
Polystyrene 42 000
ABS 36 000
Polyvinylchloride 20 000
Polymethylmethacrylate 26 000
Polyamide (6 or 66) 32 000
Poyeeter resin 18 000
Natural rubber 45 000
Cotton 17 000
Cellulose 17 500
 332

c
o
300
300
IS

1

200 200

100 100
chipboard \

red oak * ^ v ^ \
douglaa ^ * ^ O s *
fir ^S^,

10 10 10
Haat flux (W/c. )

Figure 1 Time to ignition of different materials.

Figure 2 Flame spread of various materials according

to the Italian test method CSERF 3/1977.
 333

Several methods have been developed for testing smoke density of

materials (see reference 2 Chap. 9 ) , but the most widely diffused one
is the NBS smoke chamber, of which many data are available in literature.
A sample of these data is given in table 6, where some values o,f
the Maximum Specific Optical Density, taken from the literature (3), are
reported for various materials under flaming and non-flaming conditions.
In the same table, time to Ds = 16 means the time to reach 25% of the
specific optical density and is inversely proportional to the smoke
evolution rate.
It can be seen that plastics tend to give off more smoke than
wood especially in the flaming conditions, but it must also be
remembered that such a tendency can be effectively reduced by adding
smoke suppressants when severe fire performance is required.
Contrary to thermoplastics, thermosetting resins, with the exception
of unsaturated polyester resins crosslinked with polystyrene, emit
minimal amounts of smoke, thanks to their natural tendency to char.
As a partial conclusion to this chapter it can be said that, with
all the limitations due to the testing procedure, the data reported
in the previous tables and figures, from ignitability to smoke evolution,
show a behaviour of plastics entirely aligned with that of other organic
materials used from milleniums in the building industry. Even if they
don't reflect the behaviour in real fire situations, these data are
significant for the comparison of materials tested in the same conditions.
2.5. Classification according to national fire tests
The fire reaction parameters examined in the previous paragraphs
are not individually considered in the various national norms and
standards but are generally included in more complex testing procedures
from which a classification of materials is derived.
Many data have been published of fire test results on building products
(7,8) but their analysis is somehow difficult for several reasons:
1) in many cases the materials are indicated with their commercial
names
2) in most cases the tested product is a composite, which is the
norm in building industry
3) in most cases the materials have been mixed with additives and
it is difficult to recognize the plain plastics from the flame
retardant types.
Even with these uncertainties it can be said that plastics used
in building rank in the best positions in most European countries. PVC
for instance is classified M.-M in France (7), B, in Germany (9), Class
1 for surface spread of flame in United Kingdom (8), Class 1 in Italy;
also plastic laminates (phenolic, urea and melamine) rank in the best
positions and so does polycarbonate.
Reinforced polyester and acrylic resins must be added with flame retar-
dants to get good classification, which is actually reached by most
plastics when a good treatment is made.
Therefore plastics can be used in building as safely as other
materials, provided that their behaviour is well known and their appli-
cation is proper, according to manufacturers' instructions and in
compliance with building codes and fire regulations.

3. USE OF PLASTICS AND FIRE STATISTICS

The use of plastics in buildings has been constantly increasing, as
it has been said in the introduction, in the last decades and now
accounts for 25Z of their total consumption in Europe.
 334

Table 6 - SMOKE DENSITY FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS

NBS smoke chamber

Material Thickness Max. Specific Time to D = 16

mm Optical Dens. minutes
fla. fla. fla. fla.

Polyethylene 3 468 150 5,5 4,0

3 739 375 3,8 1,1
Polypropylene 4,5 456 100 2,3 1,7
6,3 780 119 3,0 4,2
Polyvinylchloride 3 270 525 2,1 0,5
6,3 490 530 1,6 0,5
Polystyrene 6,3 372 660 7,3 1,3
Polymethyl_ 5,8 156 107 9,2 2,6
methacrylate 4,6 203 383 6,0 1,9
Polycarbonate 3 20 214 - -
6,3 48 324 10,9 2,0
Polyester, glass 3 420 720 - -
reinforced 3 780 780 2,7 0,6
Red oak 6,3 395 76 4,1 8,0
12,7 372 118 3,8 11,2
Douglas fir 6,3 380 156 2,1 4,6
Paperboard - 359 68 1,3 4,2
 335

.ridne u.

1965. 1972 1976

67 74 78
Death
B'hlon
Parson
f

30

20

R. PI
10

o < D >> c 0 c H! >. li >>

o ( c C DO 3 c b C c 0
PT) c
ri cg IO b m C IO
( *
b HM io W IO
io 0 c 0 s CC u tg c h b b il
. tn =>H b ^ 0) 00 3 0 b

b. u; ZN 10 t)
< +>
5
J
en is

Figure 3 International Fire Death Rate I n d i c e s ,

 336

In the USA it has increased by more than 900% since the mid 1950's,
reaching a volume of more than three billior tons/year.Correspondingly,
in the same period the fire death rate dropped from 63,5 per million of
population in 1960 to 25,9 in 1981.
This trend to decrease is common in all industrialized countries, as it
can be seen in Figure 3, and is the expected result of 20 years of
research and fire safety improvements. One could reasonably wish the
fire death rate were lower than it is today and strong efforts are
being made by industry and in particular by plastics manufacturers to
reach this goal, by doing research and continuously improving their
products but fire safety demands also concentration on proven measures
to reduce fire losses: smoke alarms and other detection devices, sprink
lers and similar suppression systems, code enforcement and a populace
educated about fire hazards and evacuation procedures.

4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion it can be said that plastics show a fire behaviour
not much dissimilar from that of other organic materials used in
buildings., at least for what concerns the initial stage of fire, i.e.
ignition, spread of flame, heat release.
Their number is very large and new types appear almost daily, hence
their behaviour cannot be generalized: some of them burn quite easily
and some resist even open flame.
The industry has spent much of its time and resources on research and
development to improve the fire safety characteristics of plastics and
their use does not entail any unusual hazard, if they are employed in
the proper way and according to the existing building codes and fire
regulations.

REFERENCE

1) A.G.H. Dietz. Plastics in Buildings:Past, Present and Future.

Proceedings of the ICP/RILEM/IBK International Symposium, Prague
June 1981, page 689.
2) J. Troitzsch. International Plastics Flammability Handbook Hanser,
Munich 1983 '
3) C.J. Hilado. Flammability Handbook for Thermal Insulation.
Technomic, Lancaster (PA ), USA 1983
4) C.F. Cullis, M.M. Hirschler. The Combustion of Organic Polymers.
Clarendom Press, Oxford 1981
5) Italian Ministry of Interior Decree 26.06.1984 Gazzetta Ufficiale,
Supplemento ordinario al " 234 del 25.08.84
6) U. Flisi Fire Testing and Regulations in Italyi Interflam 82
Guildford March 1982 Conference Workbook page 11
7) Socotec Repertoires Matriaux Classes au Feu Socotec Paris 1981
8) Fire Protection Association Fire Test Results on Building Products
London
9) W. Becker Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen Ed. G. Schreyer. Hanser,
Munich 1972, page 940
 337

THE CONTENTS AND THE BUILDINGS

J. FISHBEIN and H. CREYF

EUROPUR
European Association of Flexible
Polyurethan Foam Blocks Manufacturers

Summary

The polyurethane industry presents a whole range of flexible polyure-

thane foams which, each in its application, offer an adequate fire
behaviour. Different pu-foams exist which are resistible to a whole
range of ignition sources, going from protection against cigarettes
to sources up to 7 kg of wood.
In order to appreciate the costs involved, a risk analysis is to be
done. In this analysis one has to take into account the composite be-
haviour and the influence from the environment.

1. INTRODUCTION

During a conference on Fires in Buildings it is quite normal that most

of the attention is directed towards the fire behaviour of building mate-
rials. However, it is generally known from experience and from statistical
evidence that the content of a building is of extreme importance for redu-
cing the fire hazard.
One of the products which is desired very much for its comfort in the
interior of buildings is polyurethane foam. Since the beginning of the use
of these foams in furniture, bedding, etc... various industrial laboratories
have tried to improve the reaction to fire of polyurethane foams.
This lecture has the intention to present the most important and recent
advances in the technology of polyurethane foams and in their applications,
as far as the ignitiability, spread of flame, smoke and toxic gas evolution
of foams and composites containing foams, are concerned.
The approach can best be presented by the following four steps :
1. Improvement of the ignition resistance of polyurethane foams ;
2. The study of polyurethane foams as they are in furniture, in other words
a study of composite behaviour ;
3. Research and development of the fire behaviour of the applied foams in
their real environment ;
4. Additional basic research on the field of smoke and toxic gas evolution
relating to the mentioned items.

2. IMPROVEMENT OF THE IGNITION RESISTANCE OF POLYURETHANE FOAMS

Since the origin of polyurethanes, a worldwide research has been car-

ried out to improve the fire resistance of polyurethane foams. The different
paths followed may be resumed as follows :
a) addition of halogenated materials, eventually in synergism with other
chemicals :
 338

b) use of fire retardants with active groups ;

c) modification of molecular structure ;
d) additions of aluminium hydrate by post-treatment or in a one shot opera-
tion.
Although the addition of halogenated materials is the oldest route,
this type of approach is still actual because it protects the foam when re-
latively low ignition sources are to be met. This is the case with many
foams used in different market sectors like in the electronic industry
house hold, etc... Each sector has its own requirements.
However, in some cases, the volatility of the additives did not ensure
the protection wanted as a function of time. Therefore the additives were
built in through raw materials with active groups. This approach was re-
proached a possible negative aspect, namely that in some cases an additio-
nal smoke formation was observed. However, one cannot always assume that
under any condition a fire occuring with this material will produce more
smoke than a non ignition resistant grade.
Most work in the last decade has concentrated on modifying polyurethane
foams in a more fundamental way, namely by modifying the molecule itself, so
that the polymer melts or decomposes below the ignition temperature. At the
same time the density had to be enchanced. Although this led to higher foam
costs, the physical properties of these foams were excellent leading to
higher comfort properties (resilience, gas-factor,...). These family of
foams is called High-Resilient foams (HR-foams) and they belong to the top
class of the polyurethane foams.
The many possible different chemical ways to obtain these polymer modi-
fications are :
Toluene diisocyanate
Polymer polyols plus Alkanolamine crosslinking agent.
High molecular weight ethylene-oxide tipped polyol plus
special crosslinking agent.
Modified Toluene diisocyanate
Toluene diisocyanate containing trimerised TDI in solution.
Toluene diisocyanate modified with low molecular weight diol
or triol, heated to give allophanates.
These isocyanates are usually formulated with high molecular
weight ethylene oxide tipped polyols and alkanolamine cross-
linking agents.
Diphenyl methane diisocyanate (MDI)
Polymeric MDI, usually used in various combinations with
toluene diisocyanate.
Modified polymeric MDI.
These isocyanates are usually formulated with high molecular
weight ethylene oxide tipped polyols.
However, from a practical point of view, one has to take care that the
followed route shows advantages as well as to the fire behaviour as to the
desired physical properties (elongation, fatigue and resistance to humid
ageing). One also has to take care that the foam combines an improved re-
sistance to open flame ignition with a good performace towards a cigarette.
While almost all naked polyurethane foams are indeed resistant to cigarette
smouldering, different foams behave in a different way with a variety of
covering materials. One of the drawbacks of some of the high resilient de-
velopments has been exactly a lack of development of this feature. However,
many other developments yield an excellent performance both against small
open flame ignition sources and smouldering cigarettes.
 339

The most recent developments remain the so called aluminium hydrate

(plus other synergists) impregnated foams. During the last years, these
foams have proven to be really resistant to big attacks up to e.g. 180 g
of burning newspaper. The philosophy behind this development is to bring
a real protection to the user when there is a real fire danger.
In this way a. the foam will not be the cause of the fire, even with bigger
ignition sources than those which are readily encountered in our daily life.
b. the foam and toxic gases produced are very much limited due
to the fact that the fire is quickly stopped and that per volume unit less
polyurethane material is present.
The aluminium hydrate impregnated foams can be devided in two catego
ries. One being foam layers which are coated after production as a post
treatment. These layers with varying thickness, generally not thicker than
some 50 mm, can pickup very high quantities of fire retardant products.
They are generally used as an interliner, around a HR or traditional foam
core. The use of an interliner does not diminish the comfort of the mat
tress or seat in any way.

///////// foam core

interliner
^^cover
They represent a very effective flame barrier, as well be illustrated
later, and find already applications in collectivities like hotels, hospi
tals, resthouses, etc. However, when vandalism is to be feared, other solu
tions have to be considered.
A first possibility is the use of amultilayer mattress of the previous
ly described material, which can withstand fire attacks of as much as 7 kg
of wood. These supersafe mattresses find nowadays applications in prisons
and psychiatric institutions.
Another possiblity in the case when vandalism way be involved is the
use of so called "one shot aluminium hydrate impregnated foam". Here the
fire retardant products are introduced in the foam mass during the produc
tion. However, for physical reasons not as high a filler concentration as
in the posttreated foam can be introduced. As a consequence mattresses,
seats and furniture can be produced which are in the mass very effectively
protected, against a high source fire attack. The main application areas for
the use if these polyurethane foams are e.g. public transport, cinemas and
other public places.
In order to illustrate the effectiveness of both techniques, two mat
tresses were submitted to the so called "Michigan rollup test". One mat
tress consisted of a HR polyurehtane foam core, foreseen with a 1 cm thick
interliner of the mentioned foam. The other mattress was a "one shot impreg
nated foam".
In the "Michigan rollup test", a mattress is rolled up and in the
central hole 180 g of stuffed newspaper is put. The mattress is held at a
degree of 75 and the paper is lit (see figure).
 340

8 double sheets of
stuffed newspaper
(180gr.)

rolled up mattress
(90 190 12 cm)

The "Michigan rollup test"

The test is known to be severe because :

a) 180 g of newspaper (8 big doublesheets) is a high energy source ;
b) due to "tunnel effect", fresh air is permanently aspirated ;
c) a mattress is a big possible prey for the fire.
The appreciation of the test is for the biggest part visual : smoke de
velopment, flash time, total burning time, formation of carbon layer, etc...
are appreciated. Also the weight loss of the mattress is controlled.
When the paper is totally consumed, the fire stops, and the mattress is
left practically intact. A thin carbon layer is formed in the neighbourhood
of the flames. The weight loss is less than 5 %.

The mechanism of fire retardancy can be resumed as follows :

.

" " . * . .

?
o ." " "
*"**
uOt_ * *

* . . " .
__

1. Under an influence of a high
temperature source, watervapour is
given off from the foam. Asa
consequence, the surface tempera
ture of the foam is reduced and the
oxygen supply to the sample is
hindered, resulting in an non burning
of the foam.
2. When the heat source temperature 3. By an ultimate increase of the heat
enhances, other active products (FR) source, foam carbonizes com
are liberated, preventing fire pletely and forms a cellular layer of
extension. residual mineral products which in
their turn protect the foam.
 341

3. COMPOSITE BEHAVIOUR

The fire resistance of the foam itself, although very important, is

not the only factor which determines the reaction to fire of upholstery
furniture. Other factors, like chair design and cover are also very impor-
tant. Scientific studies have shown that the cover can be three times more
important than the foam core as to ignitiability spread of flame and escape
time. These are very practical parameters indeed as well as to allow the
victims to get out of the places, as to allow rescue teams to do their job.

4. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ENVIRMONMENT

Having established the possibilities of improvement on the scale of

the foam itself and having shown the importance of the composite in which
the foam is used, it is equally very important to stress the influence of
the particular environment in which this composite is used.
Experimental work carried out by British Rubber Manufacturers Associa-
tion at the Fire Testing Laboratories of I.C.I, attempted to monitor the
behaviour of cushions with various filling materials and covers in the pre-
sence of polythene and paper wrapping material and in the presence or ab-
sence of chipboard, both standardand PVC faced, around the cushions.
The first series of experiments attempted to evaluate the role of the fil-
ling materials such as polyurethane foam, coir and rubberised coir, very
little difference was evident either in spread of flame, smoke and toxic
bas evolution. Very much more significant results were obtained when compa-
ring the burning cushions and wrapping materials in the presence and ab-
sence of the chipboard.

5. ADDITIONAL BASIC RESEARCH

Besides the continuous efforts made by the polyurethane industry to

improve the fire behaviour of their foams, also other institutions carry
out basic and applied research in this field. An example is the basic re-
search carried out by Queen Mary College, London, U.K.
This team found that the addition of certain acids the smoke and toxic
gas production of polyurethane foams is drastically reduced and/or delayed.
The combination of these and other findings, together with the earlier men-
tioned techniques, are items for future research.

6. COSTS INVOLVED

Although it is our aim to discuss rather the technical aspect, it is

clear that one has to pay to obtain more safety. This is very difficult to
compare prices on an international level. However, some relative idea can
be given. Supposing the ordinary standard mattress costs 100 units. Chang-
ing only the cover in a fire retardant one involves some 10 % extra. Further
changing the standard core to a HR material means an increase of +_ 30 %
versus the first status. Adding an interliner around a HR core would re-
quire doubling the costs of the ordinary standard material.
It is obvious that the first task to be done is an analysis of the risks
involved. Than the risk-level can be matched with one of the ignition re-
sistant grades mentioned above. It is very important to know that for every
risk area, an appropriate foam exists which can minimize the fire risks.
 342

MEANS OF FIRE PROTECTION IN BUILDINGS

SPRINKLERS, C02, HALONS
STUDY OF SIMILARITIES

H. BINEAU
Technical Director
Centre National de Prvention et de Protection (France)

Summary

Automatic extinguishers, whether they use water (sprinklers) or

a gas (C02, halon 1301 or halon 1211)as the extinguishing agent,
are designed to detect the start of a fire and to extinguish or
contain it. Unlike sprinkler equipment, which generally protects
a whole building, equipment using gas protects one or several
specific places or items of machinery. Gas installations may be
of several types, with 'deluge' effect or localized, centralized
or modular protection etc. In most Member States, such equipment
is subject to rules or standards drawn up generally by insurance
companies and covering all 01? some of the following aspects:
- the installation of the equipment
- the components
- approval of firms installing the equipment
- acceptance and periodic checks.
There are similarities between countries as regards the existence
or absence of such rules and their technical content and, bodies
such as the European Insurance Committee (EIC) or the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) encourage the work of harmo-
nization.
However, further efforts need to be made, particularly as regards
the mutual recognition of approval bodies for the means of protec-
tion.

Water and gas automatic extinguishers have very different uses

depending on the nature of the extinguishing agent and on how the fire
detection element operates. Where the material on fire is not incompa-
tible with one of the extinguishing agents, the two types of extinguisher
can be remarkably complementary.
Sprinklers are historically the older of the two, and are designed
to detect the start of a fire by the heat-induced triggering of a head,
to emit an alarm system, and to sprinkle water to extinguish or contain
the fire long enough to enable people to deal which it. Sprinklers
generally protect the whole of a building.
The generic title 'autonatic gas extinguishers' (C02 or halon)
covers systems of varied complexity, from a small bottle of extinguishing
agent with a nozzle and a fuse-operated triggering mechanism, to equipment
 343

containing several tonnes of extinguishing agent protecting several

rooms with fire detection facilities, directional waives, and devices
to turn off air conditioning and close doors and shutters.
Automatic gas extinguishers provide automatic fire detection
(and sound an alarm) and emit a defined quantity of extinguishing
agent within a specific time, in a specific volume or over a specific
surface. Other functions may be necessary to ensure the safety of staff
or to seal the premises.
Automatic gas extinguishers offer partial protection against an out-
break of fire only on the scale of the premises thus protected covering
one or several rooms in the case of 'deluge' or ambient protection systems,
and covering dangerous machinery or a part of the premises (e.g. a paint-
spraying booth)in the case of 'pinpoint' or localized equipment. 'Deluge'
systems are designed to extinguish any fire beginning in a room by filling
the whole volume of the room completely with the extinguishing agent
at the desired concentration. For a given time, called the impregnation
time, the concentration must remain above the minimum level. Localized
devices are designed to protect a dangerous machine or a non-enclosed
space where there is a particular danger of fire. During emission the
protected surface or protected space are swept by the extinguishing
agent.
All types of detectors may be used (smoke, flame, heat) and those
providing optimum detection lag should be selected as a function of the
risk.
Automatic gas extinguishers can be classified in various ways.
Firstly by extinguishing agent: C02 acts by smothering and the
two halons act by inhibition.
While the three gases have practically the same field of use as
an extinguishing agent, halon 1301 is hardly ever used for localized
protection and halon 1211 is hardly ever used for 'deluge' treatment.
For halon equipment a distinction is made between centralized and
modular equipment. In the former, the extinguishing agent is stored
i reservoirs located outside the protected rooms. The reservoirs are
connected up to a main linked to the diffusers by a network of pipes.
In the latter, the extinguishing agent is stored in independent reser-
voirs inside the protected premises, the pipes between the reservoirs
and the diffusers being as short as possible.
For C02 equipment, a distinction is made between high and low
pressure equipment. In the former, the C02 is stored in liquid form
at room temperature in pressure resistant (50 bar) bottles.
In the latter the C02 is stored in a reservoir at a temperature
of - 20C (pressure 19 to 21 bar). This is of interest to firms which
use large quantities of C02 in other areas or, where the C02 is used
for fire protection only, which can store quantities of about 2 to 4
tonnes upwards.
For centralized equipment, a further distinction can be made between
systems protecting only a single room or a single machine and those
where, from a single stock of extinguishing agent, directional values
direct the agent towards the room 'deluge' treatment or machine
(localized protection) where a fire has been detected.
For users, an automatic water or gas extinguisher is a means of
protection designed to extinguish or contain a possible disaster in the
protected rooms. It must be absolutely efficient and reliable within the
operating conditions laid down. It must remain operational for many
years in rooms which are in use and therefore subject to the disturbances
 344

and changes which form part of the life of the establishment. Unfortuna-
tely it is not possible to test systems completely and regularly, but
to ensure an optimum state of readiness, the bodies laying down the
requirements in the various countries (generally the insurance companies)
use various means or methods:
- rules governing installations in general, placing certain design
and operation constraints on those installing the equipment;
- rules or standards covering the components and constituent parts
of the equipment as a basis for the approval or quality certifi-
cation procedure based generally on laboratory tests, and, in some
cases, checks at the factory stage; ;
- approval of the firm responsible for installation and maintenance;
- acceptance of each installation, which involves checks by the in-
surance companies or by quality-control body approved by them
for that purpose, to ensure that the equipment complies with the
rules;
- finally, periodic checks (not to be confused with periodic main-
tenance) carried out either by the firm which installed the
equipment or by an approved quality-control body.
Some Member States apply these procedures more than others and, within
a single country, the degree of application depends on the type of
device (sprinklers, automatic C02 and halon extinguishers).
In order to analyse the similarities, we sent a questionnaire to
the competent bodies in the various countries. The replies obtained
are summarized in the three tables given in the following pages:
 AUTOMATIC WATER EXTINGUISHERS SPRINKLERS

COMPONENTS SYSTEMS A
A PPROV L OF FIRMS
INSTALLING EQUIP
MENT

Rules, standard Approval Rulest standard Acceptance Periodic checks

Germany VDS rules DIN standard Halfyearly VDS VDS

(^CEAISO) VDS VUS rules VDS

Belgium Rules laid down by ANPI Rules laid down by ANPI Halfyearly ANPI No
insurance companies on the basis insurance companies
(*^CEA) of VDSFOC (CEA) IBN standard
FM approval

Denmark SKAFOR rules SKAFOR D S standard Annually by SKAFOR SKAFOR

SKAFOR rules
(*vFOC)
OJ
APSAIRD rules APSAIRD lalfyearly carried APSAIRD J>
France SKAFOR rules APSAIRD
AFNOR standard ( CEA ) A FNOR Dut by the fitter
planned standard planned ar quality controller
approved by APSAIRD

Italy In part by the CII and CII rules ('CEA) Insurance The firm which installed CII and
Ministry of the on the basis companies the equipment Halfyearly
the Interior on the of FOC, UL, and fire
basis of ISO and CEA FM approval brigades
rules

Netherlands Rules laid down by Insurance Insurance company Insurance Insurance companies Insurance
insurance companies companies on rules (^CEAFOC) companies \C twomonthly intervals companies
(~CEAFOC) the basis of
ULVDSFOC
approval

United Kingdom FOC rules ( ^ S O ) FOC on the basis FOC rules Insurance FOC
of FIRTO tests companies and
local 'authorities
 AUTOMATIC C02 CHTINGUISHERS

COMPONENTS SYSTEMS APPROVAL OF

FIRMS INSTA-
LLING EQUIPMENTS

Rules, standards Approval Rules, standards Acceptance P e r i o d i c checks

Germany VDS r u l e s planned VDS VDS r u l e s (^CEA) VDS VDS - a n n u a l l y VDS

Belgium No r u l e s No ANPI r u l e s (~ISO-NFPA) ANPI ANPI - a n n u a l l y No

Denmark No r u l e s No No r u l e s - NFPA code No

often r e q u i r e d by
i n s u r a n c e companies

France APSAIRD r u l e s APSAIRD based APSAIRD r u l e s Sometimes by By the firm which APSAIRD
on STELF t e s t s APSAIRD i n s t a l l e d the
equipment or a
quality controller
approved by APSAIRD
Half-yearly

Italy No r u l e s No Insurance company Sometimes by By the firm which No

r u l e s being p r e p a r e d i n s u r a n c e com- i n s t a l l e d the
(~CEA-ISO) p a n i e s and equipment. Half-
fire-brigade yearly

Netherlands Insurance company Insurance Insurance company Insurance com- By the firm which
and labour i n s p e c - companies based r u l e s (^CEA) panies and i n s t a l l e d the e q u i p -
t o r a t e r u l e s ( CEA- on European and labour i ns pe c - ment. Annually
NFPA) US l a b o r a t o r y torate
tests

United Kingdom No r u l e s No B5 s t a n d a r d By Che company No

which i n s t a l l e d
the equipment.
Half-yearly
 AUTOMATIC HALON LXTINCUISHURS

COMPONENTS SYSTEMS APPROVAL

Rules, standards Approval Rules, standards

1
Acceptance Periodic of firms installing
checks equipment
Germany No rules VDS DIN standard (halon VDS VDS, annua VDS
1211 and 1301)
VDS rules planned
(for halon 1301,
'deluge' treatment)
( ISONFPA)

Belgium No rules based on rules (halon ANPI ANPI, annua No

FOCVDS approval 1301, fdelupe') lly
(~ ISONFPA)

Denmark No ru1e s No No rules NFPA code No

often required by
insurance companies

France APSAIRD rules APSAIRD based on APSAIRD rules AFNOR Sometimes by Firms insta APSAIRD J
AFNOR standard STELF tests standard (halon 1301) APSAIRD lling the
(halon 1301) (~ISO) equipment
(ISO) and quality
controllers
approved by
APSAIRD,
halfyearly

Italy No rules No Rules being pre Sometimes by No

pared for halon insurance
1301 C^CBAISO) companies and
fire brigades

Netherlands Insurance companies Insurance companies Insurance companies Insurance com Firm which No
rules (halon 12)1 based on VDSUL rules (halon 1211 panies and instai Is the
and 1301) tests and 1301) Labour inspect plant, annually
(^ISONFPA) (~CEA ISONFPA) orate

United Kingdom No rules No BS standard (halon

1301) proposed
standard (halon 1211)
 348

On a purely technical level, the installation regulations for sprink-

lers and automatic gas extinguishers, and the rules or standards governing
the components, do not vary greatly from one country to another being based
on recommendations of the European Insurance Committee, the NFPA codes
and/or work currently underway in the ISO. However, it should not be for-
gotten that, while the rules and procedures governing sprinklers form a
whole, since the detection aspect is inseparable from the extinction aspect,
the same is not true of gas, C0_ and halon extinguishers. The related
automatic fire protection systems must first of all comply with the relevant
national provisions. The additional specifications contained in the installa-
tion rules for extinguishing systems mainly include dual detection to avoid
faulty triggering of the system, time-delay systems to permit staff to be
evacuated, acoustic and visual alarm signals and the operation of some
automatic devices to shut down the air conditioning and close doors and
outlets so that, for 'deluge' systems, the required concentration is main-
tained during the specified time. Again, for automatic gas extinguishers,
the national regulations governing the protection of persons may give rise
to some differences regarding the field of use or the authorization for auto-
matic operation.
Despite this, steps could be taken with a view to standardization and
mutual recognition of certifying bodies in the various Member States could
be envisaged, at least for the components of the equipment. Obviously this
would result in savings for companies manufacturing and installing the
equipment, and consequently also for users. However, it is not sufficient
for the approved laboratories to use the same test methods with equivalent
apparatus and draw up similar reports. The "quality control" requirements
of the manufactured equipment must also be homogeneous and equivalent checks
carried out in each country.

BODIES FROM WHICH ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

MAY BE OBTAINED

GERMANY VDS VERBAND DER SACHVERSICHERER e.v.

Postfach 10 20 24, 5000 Kln 1
Tel. (02 21) 77 66 0

BELGIUM ANPI ASSOCIATION NATIONALE POUR LA

PROTECTION CONTRE L'INCENDIE.
BP IA, B-1348 OTTIGNIES LLN
Tel. 010 41 87 12

DENMARK DANSK BRANDVAERNS KOMITE

DATAVEJ 48, 3460 BIRKEROD
Tel. 02 82 00 99

FRANCE CNPP CENTRE NATIONAL DE PREVENTION

ET DE PROTECTION
5 Rue Daunou, 75002 - Paris
Tel. (1) 261 57 61

ITALY CONCORDATO ITALIANO INCENDIO -

RISHI INDUSTRIALI
Corso Vittorio Emanuele, 1
20122 - Milano
Tel. 861 749 - 875 336
 349

NETHERLANDS TBBS TECHNISH BUREAU TER BEVORDERING

VAN SCHA DEPREVENTIE
Eemnesserweg 56, 3740 AB Baarn
Postbus 54
Tel. 02 154 16 441

UNITED KINGDOM FOC FIRE OFFICES' COMMITTEE

Aldermary House, Queen Street
London EC4N ITT
Tel. 01 248 4477

LIST OF OTHER A BBREVIA TIONS

A.F.N.O.R. ASSOCIATION FRANAISE DE

NORMALISATION

..I.A. ASSOCIAZIONE NAZIONALE FRA LE

IMPRESE ASSICURATRICI

APSAIRD ASSEMBLEE PLENIERE DES SOCIETES

D'ASSURANCES CONTRE L'INCENDIE
ET LES RISQUES DIVERS

B.,S. BRITISH STA NDA RD

C.,E.,A. COMITE EUROPEEN DES ASSURANCES

(EUROPEAN INSURA NCE COMMITTEE)

D,. 1 . ,N. DEUTSCHES INSTITUT FUER NORMUNG

D.,S. DANISH STA NDA RD

F,. 1 . , R . T .0. FIRE INSURERS' RESEARCH AND TESTING

ORGANISATION

F,,M. FACTORY MUTUAL

I .B.,N. INSTITUT BELGE DE NORMA LISA TION

I. .S . 0 . INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR

STANDARDIZATION

.F, . P . A NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION A SSOCIA TION

U .L UNDERWRITERS LA BORA TORIES

SKAFOR DANISH ASSOCIATION OF NONLIFE

UNDERWRITERS

STELF STATION D'ESSAISLABORATOIRE

DU FEU
 350

SMOKE AND HEAT EXTRACTORS

W. HALPAAP
Head, Industrial Safety Division, Bayer AG

Summary

Depending on their design, scale and application, smoke and heat

extractors can be used for the protection of persons or property
and for direct cost savings where they can be substituted for other
required fire protection equipment . This paper will consider
mainly the smoke and heat extractors which operate on the princi-
ple of thermal convection. Attention will also be given to aspects
of scaling and assessment and the economy of mechanical smoke
extractors and forced ventilation.
A German standard is currently being drawn up on smoke and heat
extractors - DIN 18 232. There are major differences between
smoke extractors - normally individually powered flaps - and heat
extractors, which operate on the basis of materials easily destroyed
in the heat of a fire so that an aperture is created.
The German Association of Property Insurers has given some thought
to the idea of smoke extractors and the result of this work is to
be found in the guidelines of the CEA (Comit Europen des Assu-
rances) . Standard DIN 18 230, which will be used in conjunction
with the concept of heat extractors to categorize the fire perfor-
mance of structural materials has meanwhile been submitted to the
ICBR (W 14 - Horkshop on Structural Fire Safety).

1. INTRODUCTION
Smoke and heat extractors merit particular attention in view of
their importance for fire prevention, in other words how they can
affect the development of a fire and influence the fire-fighting approach
adopted. However, their effectiveness should not be overestimated. This
paper will emphasize a number of important aspects. Smoke and heat
extractors form part of an overall fire protection plan for a building
and are thus a particularly important element in the planning permission
procedure for building construction (cf. Fig. 1.).
Depending on their design, scale and application, smoke and heat
extractors can be used for:
- the safety of persons by keeping the escape routes smoke free;
- the protection of property by improving the conditions in which
the fire brigade operates and preventing the damage caused by
smoke, and finally
- achieving direct cost savings by allowing larger standard fire
compartments and/or reduced fire performance requirements for
load bearing structures.
 351

Smoke and heat extractors can be classified according to the prin-

ciple on which they work:
- by thermal convection or
- by forced ventilation (fans).
This paper will deal mainly with smoke and heat extractors which
operate on the principle of thermal convection. Aspects of scaling and
rating and consequently the economics of mechanical smoke extractors
and forced ventilation systems will also be reviewed.
A German standard, DIN 18 232, on smoke and heat extractors is
currently being drawn up. It comprises the following sections:
Section 1: Definitions and applications (September 1981)
Section 2: Smoke extractors - scaling, requirements and installa-
tion (currently in press)
Section 3: Smoke extractors - tests (currently in press)
Section 4: Heat extractors (projected)
Section 5: Mechanical smoke extractors (projected)
This paper will consider the contents of this standard. Equipment
which keeps escape routes smoke free in the event of a fire in an adja-
cent room will for example not be reviewed. Relevant literature should
be consulted on this point. Items of mobile equipment used by the fire
brigade to remove smoke once the fire has been brought under control
will also not be considered.

2. DEFINITIONS AND APPLICATIONS (DIN 18 232, PART 1)

2.1 Definitions
Smoke and heat extractors are intended to remove smoke and heat so
that
- escape and fire-fighting access routes remain smoke-free
- the fire-fighting operation is eased by the creation of a smoke-
free zone
- flash-over and the consequent development of a full-scale fire
can be delayed or prevented
- property can be protected
- damage caused by the secondary effects of a fire (combustion
gases and thermal decomposition products) can be minimized and
- fire-induced stresses on structural components can be reduced.
Since this catalogue of requirements applies in principle to all
types of smoke and heat extractors, it should be explained why it is
important to differentiate between
- smoke extractors,
- heat extractors and
- mechanical smoke extractors.
The explanation at the same time sheds light on past experience of
smoke and heat extractors that have not always come up to the expecta-
tions. The fire brigade was unable to bring the fires successfully under
control or tackle a fire at close quarters although smoke extractor
flaps had been installed. Large-scale fires with extensive damage have
occurred although in some instances the entire roof functioned as
a smoke and heat extractor and indeed had even been in instrumental
in aggravating the fire.
At this point some explanation of the theory underlying the
scaling of smoke extractors and their practical application is called
for.
The theory is valid up to a temperature of approximately 300C
and is based on the assumption that in an area of smoke between the
smoke extraction panels a layer will form, consisting of uniformly
 352

distributed hot gases which can be removed to the outside by thermal

convection through appropriately scaled apertures (cf.Fig. 2 ) .
The formation of such a layer may be impossible, however, if the
ceiling is low or if the high level of items stored in the room allows
the flames to reach into the layer and cause turbulence (cf. Fig.3).
In addition, during a fire which gives rise to a high fire load very
considerable dynamic forces are involved. The consequence of this is
that over a period of time - assuming that the fire has not meanwhile
been brought under control - temperatures will rise to far above 300C
and approach the temperature time-curve referred to in DIN 4102.
Experiments to establish the effectiveness of.smoke extractors
normally involve very small fire loads ( 1 - 2 kg/m wood). Although
this fire load is concentrated as a 'spot fire load' temperature/time-
curves were recorded, even when no smoke extractors were installed, which
on the basis of their short duration alone can be deemed relatively
insignificant (cf. Fig. 4, test series I [9]). An equivalent fire dura-
tion in accordance with DIN 18 230 (cf. Section 5.1) would produce a
lower value accordingly. If test series I and II are compared it will
be seen that the albeit impressive effect of smoke extractors for very
small fire loads noted in test series I cannot be assumed to apply to
large fire loads. Finally, experiments with large fire loads showed
that even where apertures were provided it was impossible to prevent
high temperatures arising. It was established, however, that the tem-
perature/time-curve for determining the strain on structural components
is considerably flattened when large areas of aperture are provided
(cf. Fig. 4, Test series II [2]). The effect of large heat extraction
apertures, which produce an improved heat extraction factor II, is
demonstrated by a comparison of the temperature/time-curve for Test
series II. Moreover the cost aspect of smoke or heat extractors was
taken into account. Smoke extractors which are normally in the form
of powered flaps and must satisfy other special requirements exist
alongside heat extractors which operate exclusively by material proper-
ties and create apertures as a result of the melting or combustion of
material.
Consequently the German standard makes a distinction between
- smoke extractors, which are particularly designed to improve the
conditions for fighting initial fires by extracting smoke and
- heat extractors which prevent flash-over during more advanced
fires and reduce the fire-induced stress on structural components.
The assignment of smoke extractors to initial fires is intended to
indicate that their real value is to be found there, and that as the
duration of fire development becomes more protracted the limited area
of the aperture means that the smoke extractors cannot become fully
effective. In the case of heat extractors, however, only the portion
of heat is specified which in the course of a fire can be channelled to
the exterior through heat extractors or, in other words, the extent to
which the strain on the structural components is reduced.
It was thus necessary to define the initial fire for the purposes
of this standard as a stage of fire characterized by a temperature
under the ceiling of the room, or within the layer of hot combustion
gases above the source of the fire, not exceeding 300C. An "advanced
fire" as defined in this standard is a stage of a fire characterized
by a temperature in excess of 300C.but where flash-over has still not
occurred. In large spaces flash-over is normally characterized by a
temperature (approximately 550C) at which the carbonization gases
spontaneously ignite.
 353

2.2. Notes on the recommended applications

In the opinion of the Standards Committee smoke extractors should
be provided in the following cases:
- in single-storey buildings having very large areas and dimensions
- in buildings with open or unprotected and excessively long escape
routes
- in buildings in which special protection is statutorily required,
and
- in buildings containing materials or equipment of particular value
and easily damaged by smoke where there are special grounds for
such increased protection.
At present, a link with Planning Department regulations exists only
in the first two cases listed above. Standard DIN 18 230 - fire protec-
tion in buildings used as industrial premises - theoretical fire resis-
tance period - provides information on how to determine what is a very
large area. The view currently held is that planning authorities and
building promoters can agree on the application of Standard DIN 18 230.
In Standard DIN 18 230, which is described in more detail in Section
5.1, a link is established between theoretical and required fire resis-
tance classes for structural components and the permissible size of a
fire compartment or fire control compartment. Reference is also made to
the fact that large areas - i.e. larger than the dimensions specified -
are permissible when smoke extractors are installed (cf. Fig. 11).
Heat extractors should be on a scale which produces a ratio of
overall extraction area to fire control compartment area of at least
0.02 or, in the case of large fire loads, of 0.05. If this is impossible,
smoke extractors should be installed. This indicates that heat extractor
apertures of a specific size should be a fundamental design feature of
buildings and, where this is not possible, smoke extractors should then
be installed in accordance with the DIN Standard. On the other hand, this
also establishes that where appropriately scaled windows are available
special smoke extractors are not required. This also takes account of
past experience that it's precisely in so-called window-less buildings
that fires have caused particularly extensive damage.

3. SMOKE EXTRACTORS: SCALING, REQUIREMENTS AND INSTALLATION (DIN 18 232,

PART 2)
3.1. Notes on dimensioning rules
The dimensioning rules should take account of three criteria:
- they should make allowance for fire development as a time-depen-
dent function,
- the principles on which dimensions are based should produce as
an average result the traditional proportion of 1 to 2% of the
roof surface and, finally,
- the rules should not appear to be more precise than is scienti-
fically justified.
Account had to be taken of the fact that theory offers no directly
applicable target dimensions and assumptions on fire spread had to be
made. The computational parameters selected for fire areas were those
incorporated in the initial guidelines of the association of German
property insurers. However, in contrast to that situation -where they
were linked to trials of sprinkler equipment under various conditions
of use - the guidelines were considered in conjunction with the develop-
ment of fire up to the point when fire-fighting operations commence.
It is for this reason that the definition "duration of fire deve-
 354

lopment" is particularly important. However, these definitions should

not be taken as an indication of a high degree of accuracy and it
should be borne in mind that local conditions determine whether fire
fighting operations can commence sooner or later. The difference con
sidered here of 20 minutes, divided into 5 minute intervals, between
very good and very poor circumstances should on the one hand reflect
reality while on the other stress the importance of taking account of
the time aspect (cf. Fig. 5 ) .
One interesting aspect is the definition of the time from the
outbreak of the fire to the alarm signal as 5 minutes. By analogy
with DIN 18 230 this is an equivalent fire duration which ends when
the fire is noticed, for example owing to the escape o smoke through
broken windows. This time value thus also covers a fire which develops
more slowly with a correspondingly later alarm than the one quoted
above.
As smoke extractors are to be seen in the context of initial fires,
there is no longer a dependence on the scale of the fire load. On the
other hand, it is possible to deviate from the median value and make
allowance for a particularly low or particularly high velocity of fire
spread, which in turn requires a higher or lower reference group for
dimensioning (cf. Fig. 6 ) . Although the fire load may be low, flammable
packing and the employment of flammable materials may lead to a more
rapid fire development or, conversely, nonflammable packing may have
a fireretardant effect.
The (aerodynamically effective) aperture can be calculated using
the reference group and the thickness of the smokefree layer in
relation to the~headroora available. If the surface area of the roof
exceeds 1 600 m or if a larger area is not divided by smokeextraction
panels to form smoke compartment areas of 1 600 m and the height of
the smoke extraction panel is not at least 0.5 h, a corrected thick
ness <L should be used as a basis for dimensioning (cf. Fig. 7 ) .
These dimensioning calculations clearly link the value of the smoke
extraction panel to the size of the smoke extraction apertures. They
also take into account the fact that smoke extraction panels, parti
cularly ones of the most desirable height, cannot always be fitted.
The standard is so worded as to encourage, in general, the adop
tion of intermediate values. Assuming the duration of fire development
to be five minutes before the alarm is raised and assuming an additional
average time of 10 minutes before the firebrigade arrives and begins
firefighting, a fire spreading at average speed would fall within
reference group 4 for dimensioning purposes. For a structure equalling
or exceeding 3 200 m , apertures would have to form 0.8% of the roof
surface where smoke extraction panels of 0.5 h were fitted and 2.1%
if there were no such panels. The value remains the same (0.8%) if the
floor area is equal to or less than 1 600 m since structures of this
size do not require subdivision.
The notes on this section of the standard point out how dependent
this system is on the basic dimensioning assumptions. In other words,
any deviation from the (recommended) average values will considerably
affect the result. As soon as new results or knowledge, confirming or
challenging these assumptions, become available appropriate amendments
will follow.
3.2. Requirements for smoke extraction equipment (summary)
The requirements concern:
size limitations (they may not be more than 2.50 m along one
side or in diameter),
 355

stability and fastenings,

resistance to corrosion and aging,
reliability of operation,
triggering (smoke extractors must be fitted with both a remote
triggering device and with an automatic thermal trigger),
performance during fire trials (the automatic trigger must have
come into action within 4 minutes and no more than 30 seconds
may elapse between manual remote triggering and the smoke
extractor being fully open),
inflammability (smoke extractors must be constructed of materials
meeting at least the Class 2 standards of DIN Standard 4102
Part 1. In certain cases (for example over emergency exits) use
may be made only of materials that, in the case of a fire, either
do not drip or fall away or do so without burning.
resistance to combustion caused by burning particles floating in
the air stream or by radiated heat.
Compliance with these requirements is tested according to DIN
standard 18 232 Part 3.
3.3. Installation regulations (summary)
Certain rules have to be observed during installation if the
planned level of smoke extraction is to be achieved;
smoke extractors must not be placed in areas of excess air
pressure or in parts of roofs subject to peaks of wind suction.
Where some parts of the structure are more used than others, the
smoke extractors should be distributed accordingly.
If the roofslope is less than or equal to 12, there should be
one smoke extractor for every2200 m . If the slope exceeds 12,
one smoke extractor per 400 m is required.
Remote triggering should normally be simultaneous for all smoke
extractors within a given smoke compartment. Where smoke extrac
tion panels are not.fitted, smoke extractors should be grouped
together in 1 600 m areas.
Smoke extraction panels must be constructed in such a way that
they can survive a 30 minute fire load as provided for in DIN
standard 4102 Part 2.
The crosssection of the duct opening must be at least twice
as large as the total crosssectional area of all smoke extrac
tor inlets in the smoke compartment (for the purposes of these
calculations, windows, gateways and doors may be included provi
ded that they can be manually opened from the exterior in the
event of a fire. Similarly, the smoke extractors of neighbouring
smoke compartments can also be included).
The builder is responsible for correct installation smoke
extractors and, after carrying out appropriate tests on them, provides
a certificate to this effect. At least once a year, unless the manufac
turer recommende a higher frequency, smoke extractors must be tested,
serviced and, where necessary, repaired. A written record must be kept
of these checks.
Within the standards committee, opinion was divided as to whether
the triggering temperature should be higher for smoke extractors than
for sprinkler systems in buildings where both are fitted. While on the
one hand it was stated that smoke extractors caused such a fall in
temperature that sprinkler tips would not be triggered, it was also
stated that, in the past, sprinkler systems have most strikingly failed
where lack of smoke extraction was associated with a build up of heat
and the triggering of too many sprinkler tips. Sprinkler tips are so
 356

much more densely distributed than smoke extractors that a small

difference in temperature would, in any case, have too great an effect.
For this reason, no decisions were made.

4. CHECKS ON SMOKE EXTRACTORS ( DIN STANDARD 18 232 PART 3)

The following comments on this section of the standard are intended
mainly to give some insight into the situation since this part of the
standard otherwise concerns only the manufacturers who are required to
have their devices tested by institutes empowered to carry out the
various examinations and who then receive a comprehensive certificate
from the appropriate authority. The following list contains some more
detailed requirements :
- in determining structural stability, it is important to know
whether wind suction peaks can be expected. If not, the wind
suction coefficients contained in DIN standard 1055 Part 4 can
be used. The same applies for the hydroJdynamic pressure.
- Assessment of resistance to corrosion or aging should also take
into account the timely recognition of the likely loss of opera-
tional efficiency in view of the servicing intervals defined in
Part 2.
- Different functional reliability standards apply depending on
whether the smoke extractor is also used for ventilation. Such
dual purpose units should be opened 10 000 times, to their
ventilation position, rather than 50. The load on the smoke
extractor is laid down in the standard as is the need to take
side winds into account.
- The triggering meachanism must have come into action within 5
minutes during which there has been a linear increase in tem-
perature from 20C to 120C.
- For the fire trials, a smoke extractor is installed in accordance
with normal practice in a fire chamber with at least 1.5. m
available head room and where the floor area is at least twice
the modular size. Oil burners are used to raise the temperature
to 300C within 5 minutes and then to hold it constant at that
level for 25 minutes.
- wherever the calculation method described in Section 3.7.2 of
this standard cannot be applied, the aerodynamically effective
aperture A^ has to be experimentally determined for each indi-
vidual smoke extractor. The associated area A^ directly deter-
mines the number of smoke extractors required.

5. HEAT EXTRACTORS (DIN STANDARD 18 232 PART 4, PIANNED)

5.1. Reference to heat extractors in DIN 18 230 Part 1
Earlier on, in section 1, it was stated in relation to the function
of heat extractors that this was particularly the reduction of loading
on structural components. Such a definition of their function links the
planned part 4 of DIN 18 232 very closelywith DIN 18 230, which lays
down the theoretical fire performance requirements for structural
components.
According to DIN 18 230 Part 1, all openings covered with material
as easilydamaged in a fireas normal window glass count as apertures. A
footnote to Part 1 of this standard reserves the right, in a later
edition of the standard, to replace this statement by a differentiated
method of calculating the dimensions which will permit, among other
things, the determination of the effective area of the aperture.
 357

To date there has been no followup to this announcement.

DIN 18 230 is concerned with the proportion of the heat that is
channelled away by heat extractors whereas under the terns of DIN 18
232, heat extractors have the additional function of avoiding flash
over. The question whether smoke extractors could also be employed
for this purpose is answered by reference to their limited size, which
is a function of their cost. For the prevention of flashover, higher
aperture temperatures can be permitted, provided the crosssection of
the aperture is large enough to inhibit the spread of gases of approxi
mately 550C throughout the entire smoke compartment something that
would eventually lead to flashover.
The following section describes the significance attributed to heat
extractors in DIN 18 230 (cf. Figure 8 ) :
DIN 18 230 Part 1 provides for the calculation of the equivalent
fire duration t based on the fire load q, multiplied by the factors
y, m, c and w. When this is multiplied by the factors y and y , , the
required fire resistance period is obtained and thus a ranking in
terms of fire protection categories. The fire protection category then
determines the fire resistance category applicable to the various
structural components (cf. Fig. 9) and the permissible maximum areas of
the fire control compartments (cf. Table 4, Fig. 10 and Table B, Fig.
).
The symbols have the following meanings:
m combustion factor as defined in appendix 1 to DIN standard 18
230
global coefficient for protected materials
w the heat extraction factor and, linked with this,
2
c a conversion factor for converting fire load (kwh/m ) into
minutes of fire resistance taking into account the heat insulation
of the surrounding structural components.
y a safety factor for singlestorey or multistorey buildings
in order to determine the size of the fire control compartments.
a safety factor for the assessment of fixed extinguishers and
'nb company firebrigades.
In the determination of the fire resistance period, the calculations
are very largely influenced by factor w, which is derived from the
size and location (cf. factor k in DIN standard 18 230 Part 1) of the
attributable apertures in relation to the area of the fire control
compartment. The range of values from 0.5. to about 2.0 can mean that
the resultant fire protection category can be either one higher or
one lower than that indicated by calculations based on 'a normal
situation' (w = 1.0). It can be seen from Tables A and B and Figures
10 and 11 that a variation in the fire protection category results
in an increase or a decrease in the permissible size of the fire control
compartment.
5.2. Available research results
As a basis for drawing up this part of the standard, some research
results, obtained in a variety of fire trials using various materials,
are available. For example, Dahlhoff, Spitzlei and Johannson [8]
obtained the following results (cf. Figure 13) in fire trials each
using 27 kg of ovendried spruce laths stacked in a wire cage, in a
24 m research chamber where there was approximately 2.50 metres
between the top of the stack of wood and the domelight three
 358

different materials being used for the dome-lights:

1. Where the dome-light was double-walled and made of low molecular
acrylic glass, the inner and outer walls split after 4 1/2 and
approximately 6 1/3 minutes respectively, the latter event being
associated with a noticeable drop in temperature, assuming a
maximum temperature of approximately 720C. The molten liquid
dripped from the domesky-light but did not catch fire since
there is too great a gap between the melting point of the depoly-
m.erization products and the flame and ignition points of this
molten material..
2. In the case of moulded acrylic glass, the inner wall collapsed
after 4.5 minutes but remained, as a deformed sheet, in the dome-
light frame. The temperature then continued to rise until the
gases given off ignited. A similar sequence was noted in the
case of the outer wall, which split at a maximum temperature
of approximately 860C, giving rise to a column of fire
approximately 3 m in height that lasted for several seconds.
After about 11 minutes, however, the heat build-up near the
ceiling disappeared within a few seconds.
3. In the case of fibreglass-reinforced polyester, the ignition
point of this material S reached at the inner wall after
approximately 4.5 minutes and ignition followed. Since the
fibreglass component remained near the sky light aperture, a
5 1/2 minute period of maximum temperatures between 800 and
900 was followed by a general fall i in temperature which was,
however, largely due to exhaustion of the fire load.
Research carried out by Flachglas AG showed that 4 mm and 5 mm-
thick PVC-sheets split at 370 C during trials in which the
temperature was raised by 10 C/minute.
The results of similar research done by Bayer AG indicate that
domesky-lights and rows of windows constructed of thermoplastic
material will open spontaneously when in contact with combus-
tion gases at between 200 and 300 C. As long as they are not
directly exposed to flames, even double-walled units can be
expected to split and melt without the formation of flames.
Some particularly interesting experiments are those done by the
Korrugal company (10) using aluminium sheeting with trapezoidal
corrugations :
Where the material was not insulated, the ambient temperature
had to be raised until about 900 C before the required melting
point of 650 C was reached. In the case of insulated single-
wall roofing, the inner sheeting melted more quickly and
caused a drastic fall in temperature (cf. Fig. 14).

6. MECHANICAL SMOKE EXTRACTORS (DIN STANDARD 18 232, PART 5)

No comprehensive theory which could serve as the basis for drawing
up standards for mechanical smoke extractors currently exists - parti-
cularly as far as dimensions are concerned. The following section is
therefore restricted to some comments on issues raised during a meeting
of a study group of the committee for DIN standard 18 232:
- compared to heat-triggered smoke extractors and heat extractors,
mechanical extractors have the advantage that they also work in
the case of cold smoke.
- systems based on thermal convection cannot usually be installed
in multi-storey buildings or in large internal spaces. Mechanical
smoke extractors are the only solution.
 359

- It was not considered sensible to prescribe air change rates for

large open spaces in the building. It seems impossible, at least
at realistic expense, to cope with smoke from a fire in such
spaces by diluting it.
- The air change rites achieved by airconditioning plants are not
generally sufficient for effective removal of smoke in the event
of a fire.
- Increasing the air change rates of such plants is associated with
very considerable problems - for example, the increase in power
required is the cube of any increase in air change rate.
- Opinions are still divided on the fire performance requirements
for the components of a mechanical smoke extraction system. In
this case, the criteria associated with an initial fire should
be compared with other situations.
- the conditions chosen should be such as to lead to the designation
under the terms of Part 2 of this standard, of one of the lower
reference groups for dimensioning purposes only where for example
either a sprinkler system or a company fire-brigade exists, or
where the rate of fire spread, or the fire load, is particularly
low
- this is the only conceivable case in which an equivalent air
change rate can be achieved, where necessary by selectively
switching the delivery and exhaust air to sub-areas in the
building.

7. FUTURE PROSPECTS
The printing of parts 2 and 3 of DIN standard 18 232 provides
us with a temporary definition of the standards for thermal-convection
based smoke extractors. This does not exclude the possibility that
research results and practical experience may later lead to changes in
requirements or dimensions.
As a basis for heat extractor standards, results are available
from fire experiments in sufficient quantity to make it evident that
the basic theoretical understanding of their effect is correct. The
next requirement is to standardize suitable research parameters which
can be used for the assessment of particular materials. Among the
items to be considered will be:
- the temperature at which an opening appears during the prescribed
trials or the length of time required before it appears.
- whether the opening is created by melting or combustion.
- the behaviour of the materials with respect to the rest of the
roof.
Standardization of mechanical smoke extractors is still in its
infancy. Although a hasic understanding has been achieved, it is gene-
rally held that this is insufficient for dimensioning purposes. Never-
theless, - even at the present time - provision of a standard could
help to remove the uncertainty that actually exists.

References
1. P.H. Thomas, P.L. Hinkley:
Investigations into the Flow of hot gases in roof venting.
Fire Research Technical Paper No. 7
2. Ehm:
Neue Wege der Brandforschung: Natrliche Brnde und Mglichkeiten
ihrer Verrechnung, VFnB - Zeitschrift 2/70, S. 55, Kohlhammer-Verlag,
 360

Stuttgart
3. H. Halpaap:
Rauch- und Wrmeab zug bei Brnden - Stand der Arbeiten an der DIN 18
232.
VFDB-Zeitschrift 3/79, S. 113, Kohlhammer-Verlag, Stuttgart
4. DIN 18 230 Part 1, Ausgabe November 1982 (Draft Standard)
5. DIN 18 232 Teil 1, Ausgabe September 1981
DIN 18 232 Teil 2 und 3, z. Zt. im Druck
6. Klingelhfer:
Rauch- und Wrmeabzug bei Brnden; Abschlussbericht (1883) des
Forschungsauftrags des Innenministers des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen
vom 30.03.1977 an das Staatliche Materialprfungsamt Nordrhein-West-
falen (Bearbeitungsnummer 23-5.3-2U3)
7. Schneiden
"Rauch- und Wrmeabzug in Gebuden (Literatursichtung im Hinblick auf
DIN 18 230)'
Institut fr Bautechnik (Az: IV/1-5 158/77)
8. W. Dalhoff, H. Spitzli, G. Johannson:
Transparente Chemiewerkstoffe im Brandtest
VFDB-Zeitschrift 4/75, S. 149 und 1/76, S. 81, Kohlhammer-Verlag,
Stuttgart
9. Portsmouth Feuer-Test
Colt-Lftungstechnik GmbH, Kleve
10. Das Korrugal Energiedach System
(Company-Brochure)
 361

Fire load and ma I Smoke + heat Fixed ex

terial characterist ics extraction tinguishers

Size of the fire Firefighting personnel

control compartments and water supply

number of stores

I i
fire protection
category A

fire protection
category

Fire resistance Permissible size of

category of fire control compart
structural elements menta

Contruction
regulations

Fig 1i Schematic representation of a fireprotection approach and its

constituent parts based on DIN Standard 18230 together with the resultant
regulations for the construction industry

smoke layer

Temperatures in
the smoke layer

300C

0C
Fig. 2: Representation of the formation of a smoke layer, on which the
theory of smoke extractor function is based, as a result of an initial
fire with average temperatures of up to 300C
 362
smoke layer

0C

Fig. 3: Representation of the temperature distribution in fullscale fires

with spot temperatures of well over 550C which cause the material over the
heatextraction apertures to melt or burn away and thus, among other effects,
help to avoid a flashover

Temperature in
fire chamber (C)
1200

(a) and (b) are with and

without heat and smoke
extractors respectively

w = l,2 (smoke extractor)

ii 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Duration of fire (in minutes)

Fig. 4: Comparison of two fire trials with a low fire load, with and with
out smoke extractors (text series I) as well as a comparison between two
fire trials in which the fire load was considerably higher but where two
different sizes of heatextraction apertures were used (test series II).
Factor w is employed to make the size and position of the apertures compar
able with DIN Standard 18 230, Part 1
 363

1 2 3 4
Expected dur dimensioning group
ation of fire
development speed of fire s pread
(see section very average very
2.4) in min. low (1) high

1 5 1 2 3

2 10 2 3 4

3 <15 3 4 5

4 <20 4 5 6

5 25 5 6 7

(1) averages, not separately determined

Fig. 5: Calculation of the dimensioning group as a function of duration

of fire development and speed of fire spread

Thickness of Aerodynamically effective

smokefree zorie apertures (A y) as
d o r k
Korr
(cf section 2 3) dim ensi on in g group
m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 0.5 h 0,3 0,4 0,6 0,8 1.0 1.2 1.4

2 0,55 h 0.35 0,5 0,7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1,7

3 0,6 h 0,4 0,6 0.9 1,2 1,5 1.8 2.1

4 0,65 h 0.5 0,7 1.0 1,5 1,8 2,2 2.5

5 0,7 h 0.7 0,9 1.3 1,8 2,2 2.7 3,0

6 0.75 h 0,85 1,1 1,5 2,1 2,6 3.2 3,6

linear extrapolation between values

Fig. 6: Calculation of the necessary (aerodynaraically effective)

apertures (as of the smoke compartment area) as a function of the
thickness of the smokefree zone (design value) and the calculated
dimensioning group (cf figure 5)
 364

CALCULATION OF THE THICKNESS OF THE SMOKEFREE ZONE

d = d+ A D 1600
Korr
2 FL 1 6 oo
whereby d should be >0.5 h

in which
h is the available headroom in m
"sch *s t ^ e height of the smokeextraction panel in m
h is h (d + hgjj,) in m
d is the desirable thickness of the smokefree zone in m
d K o r r is the area of the smoke compartment in m^
A R is the area of the smoke compartment in m^
A D is the horizontal area (i.e equivalent to the floor plan) of the
roof in m2 .
_
J!L
1
smoke extractor
1
>*.%^*.-**.%%. >

^ch *

i. dl t *
^
Fig. 7: Representation of the method of calculating the smokefree layer
(design value)

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DIN STANDARD 18 230

0.1 .v,. 1.S

equivalent fire duration

calculated using c and w
0.3
0.5

equivalent fire f i r e load q

duration (in min.).) (kWh/m2)
40(37.5) go 2O0 300 00
min 50
III IV V
T
required f i r e p r o t e c
tion category
t

* <

f i r e duration erf F , , / , / ,
c a l c u l a t e d using "l erf t F q -m (cw) (y ynb)
Vand Yffo required f i r e
' / resistance
2.0 2.5 period (erf F )
in minutes
F i g . 8 : G r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s t e p s p r e s c r i b e d i n DIN S t a n d a r d
18 230 ( p a r t 1) f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of " t h e o r e t i c a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e s p e r i o d " .
 365

REQUIRED FIRE RESISTANCE CATEGORIES DEPENDENT ON THE FIRE PROTECTION

CATEGORY

1 2 3 4 5 6
Fire pro- Calculated Fire ex-
tection fire resist- SK.3') SK, 2 SM posure
category ance for desig-
BK SKj>3 i n m i n . fire resistance category nation
1 15 no p a r t i c u l a r period c t t i r e v e r y low
no particular
II >15bisS30 30 30 period of low
f . r . required
III > 30 bis S 60 60 60 30 normal
IV > 60 bis S 90 90 60 60 high
V >90 120 90 60 very high

1) see comments in section 6.2 about walls and ceilings

dividing fire control compartments

Fig. 9: Table 7 of DIN Standard 18230, part 1, with the conversion of the
calculations based on this standard into fire protection categories and,
in consequence, into the fire resistance categories, listed in DIN
Standard 4102, applicable to the various structural elements depending
on their function

Number of f l o o r s
BKI BKII BK III BKIV BKV
i n the b u i l d i n g

1 20000 10000 5000 3600 2500

2 14 000 7000 3500 2500 1800

3 12 000 6000 3000 2000 1400

4 10000 5000 2500 1800 1200

5 9000 4 500 2200 1600 1100

6 8000 4000 2000 1400 1000

Fig- 10: Table A in the notes to DIN Standard 18230 (part 1, listing
the maximum permissible areas for single-storey fire control
compartments within multi-storey buildings depending on the number of
floors and the fire protection category (BK)
 Fire protection categories I II III IV V
Fire cont with app
rol comp ropriate Area (m ) 20 000* 10 000 5 000 3 600 2 500
artments extinguisher
with the equipment
dimensions where not
of structural taken into
elements account in Area (m ) 30 000 30 000 15 000 11 0 0 0 7 500
based on determining
fire prot fire
ection con resistance
siderations periods

Width Area as
60*" 1.0** "
Cm) <, in line
Area
1
2000"*
Fire control 5 000 3000*** 1600*"
compartments
Cm)
Heat ex
with the
traction >l*
dimensions
area A h > J 23 25
of structural
elements not
%
Width
based on 80" 60" 60" 60* *
fire proti
(m)i Area
ection As Area as
consider (m2)
15 0 0 0 9 000 6 000 5 ooo
ations
above in
Heat ex
line
traction
area Ah 2 >2 2 23 >

Larger fire control compartments are permissible if appropriate smoke extractors are
fitted to the roof ( e.g. in line 2 column h up to 60 0 0 0 m 2 )

Fire fighting must be possible from both long sides of the fire control compartment and
if only one side is a c c e s s i b l e , the permissible width of the compartment is halved.
If more than 3 2 0 0 1/min of fire hydrant water is permanently a v a i l a b l e , this value can
be increased by 0 0 m 2 f o r every additional 1 600 1/min.

Fig. 11: Table of the notes to DIN Standard 18230, part 1, showing the permissible areas in singlestorey
buildings (both where fireprotection considerations determine the dimensions of structural elements and where
this is not the case) as a function of the fireprotection category and whether sprinkler systems are fitted.
 367

Location Plan Cross Av+h/A

of the view section > > > >
apertures 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25
>
bis bis bis bis bis
0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25

Spaces with
apertures
't
3,2 2,0 1.5 1,2 1,0 0,9
on one
!
side mmm/m
Spaces wit hW www
apertures
on at least 2,2 1,5 1,0 0,9 0,7 0,6
two sides 9/w/
Spaces w i t h ^ M ^ ^
an aperture 3ZZEI
1.8 1,2 0,9 0,7 0,6 0,5
in the ... \ ^ ^
ceiling

Fig. 12: Table showing the w heat extraction factors (cf DIN Standard
18230, part 1, table 3) as a function of the size and location of the
attributable apertures

Temperature in fire chamber

1 = extruded acrylic glass

2 = moulded acrylic glass
3 = fibreglass-reinforced
polyester

10 11 12 13 14 Mm

Fig 13: Comparative fire trials with three different materials which can
be used to seal apertures and which form a heat-extraction opening in
different ways, thus influencing the temperature/time curve
 368

heat-insulated steel roof

with trapezoidal corrugations
heat-insulated roof of
aluminium sections

0 5 10 15 20

Fig. 14: Comparative fire trials using a trapezoidally-corrugated steel

roof and one made of aluminium sections (both insulated) to illustrate
the different behaviour of these roofing materials and the consequent
temperature/time curves
 369

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

F.DE COSTER
EURALARM

Summary

Work is underway on drafting European standards in the field of fire

detection based to a greater or lesser extent on the regulations
drawn up a number of years ago by insurers. These standards describe
the requirements which the equipment used must fulfil, but do not
include the installation instructions laid down by the insurers.

On an international level the insurers' requirements are still the

most widely-used instrument, but despite the fact that they are more
or less identical in the member countries of the EEC, manufacturers
have to approach different national organizations to their products
approved.

I am greatly honoured to be able to speak to you today, but the subject

matter took me a little by surprise. It mainly involves comparing
the standards, laws, regulations and technologies relating to fire
detection systems in the various member countries of the Common Market.
Manufacturers and suppliers in every country are having great difficulty
in learning and properly interpreting the various national regulations.
You will soon realize the work this involved when you come to study the
standards of different countries. For that reason I have restricted this
paper to very general comparisons and conclusions.

The last thirty years have seen great developments in fire detection
systems thanks to progress in technology and automation. These days fire
detection technology is developing even more swiftly. The ever-increasing
numbers of automatic fire detection devices made it necessary for several
countries to draw up certain rules. Later, international standards were
drafted, and there is now a whole series of regulations which have
resulted from studies carried out by various organizations. We might
mention the following :

- ECS (European Committee for Coordination of Standards);

- EIC (European Insurance Committee);
- CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization);
- IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission);
- ISO (International Standards Organization).

In future it would be best if these different organizations could coor-

dinate their work. The ideal situation would be for ECS standards to
apply at European level and ISO standards at international level.

Wat is the present situation in Europe and in the individual countries ?

 370

In Europe it is the regulations published by the EIC which are used nost
often. In fact, it was the insurers who first stressed the need for
international rules on automatic fire detection systems. Various in-
surance groups also have their own laboratories where they test equipment
submitted to them by the manufacturers for approval. Among such labora-
tories are :

- VDS (Specialist Insurers Association) in Cologne;

- STELF (Test Station - Fire Laboratory ) in Champs-sur-Mame;
- FIRIO (Fire Insurers' Research and Testing Organization) in Boreham
Hood;
- AMPI (National Association for Fire Prevention) in Ottignies,
Louvain-La-Neuve.
These organizations carry out practically identical tests on any equipment
which comes onto their domestic market. There are other laboratories
independant of the insurers which have a particular reputation in the
field of fire detection.

These are :

- ELEKTRONIK CENTRALEN (Danish Research Centre for Applied Electronics);

- Professor Luck's laboratory in Duisburg, which developed the tests used
by the other laboratories.

The certification issued by insurance companies is not a compulsory legal

requirement, but in practice it is often stipulated by local authorities
or included in specifications.

We have noticed that firms are becoming increasingly concerned about

safety, either out of fear that their property will be destroyed, thus
preventing them from operating, or else because of the demands of their
insurance companies, and they are asking specialist organizations to
inspect the fire detection systems which they have purchased.

Host of the EIC's requirements are incorporated in the draft European

standards drawn up by the ECS. The standards are published under reference
No EN54 and are divided into 13 parts :
- Part 1 : Introduction;
- Part 2 : Monitoring and signalling equipment (annunciator panel);
- Part 3 : Fire alarms;
- Part 4 : Power supplies;
- Part 5 : Heat detectors : fixed-point detectors containing a static
element;
- Part 6 : Heat detectors : fixed-point rate-of-rise detectors without a
static element;
- Part 7 : Smoke detectors : detectors using the luminous flux, refraction
or ionization principles;
- Part 8 : High-threshold heat detectors;
- Part 9 : Standard fire types ;
- Part 10 : Systems specifications;
- Part 11 : Environmental tests;
- Part 12 : Manual fire alarms;
- Part 13 : Flame detectors.
 371

To date, Parts 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 have been published (or should have

been by the end of July 1984).

Each new European standard is adopted by the national organizations of

the member countries of the ECS and is published in unamended form as a
national standard. However, it must be said that some countries add
reservations in a preface or annex to the national publications which
contain European standards.

On a national level in the United Kingdom there are various sets of

regulations : British Standards, the Code of Practice and the regulations
of the FCC (Fire Office Committee) which incorporate the EIC regulations.
A lot of progress has already been made with regulations, for example,
there are already several regulations on autonomous detectors. The EN54
standards are incorporated in BS5445.

There are legal requirements for hotels and other residential buildings.

In France, the EN57 standards are published under references NF S 61 -

952 to 956. Special reservations are made for each standard in the
preface to the relevant national publication. One particular standard,
NF S 61 - 950, has been in force for several years.

It is legally required that only equipment bearing the AFNOR seat may be
put onto the market. Local authorities also lay down certain requirements.

In Germany, the EN54 standards have been published and will replace
existing DIN standards. There is no legal requirement to use fire
detectors, but requirements are sometimes imposed by local authorities.

In the Netherlands, the European standards are incorporated in the NEN54

standards. The overall situation is more or less the same as in France
and Germany.

In italy, European standards are adopted in their entirety.

In Belgium, European standards are also adopted as Belgian standards,

with special requirements for certain educational buildings.

In all these countries local authorities may make it compulsory to

install an automatic detection system. The procedures which they apply
are chosen arbitrarily. In most cases the standards drawn up by insurers
are used, probably pending the completion of full European standards.
This shows that there is still a lot of work to be done on an international
level.

Any manufacturer who wants to launch a new fire detector on the European
market must go through various formalities. For example, with a radio-
active-source detector he must submit a request in each country to the
national authority responsible for public health. Then, if he wants his
product to have a chance of selling on the fire protection market, he
must have it approved by the laboratories mentioned earlier, who will all
carry out more or less identical tests. Although various laboratories do
exchange test results, much of the procedure must often still be repeated
(and paid for each time, of course). So despite the fact that inter-
national standards are being drafted, we fear that this situation, costly
as it is for manufacturers, will not be quick to change.
 372

What can we still hope for from future standards and regulations? In my
opinion we should not only look at technical considerations, but we
should also take other factors into account.

1. lhe aim is to use reliable fire detection systems which can detect a
fire when it breaks out and pinpoint it rapidly so that appropriate steps
can be taken, lb achieve this aim each case must be examined individually,
since standards are fairly vague because they have to cover a wide
variety of cases. An installation may comply with the standards and yet
not be effective. We conclude, therefore, that we should not only be
concerned with detection, but should also make allowance generally for
other necessary measures. Por example, the internal division and structure
of the building should prevent fire from spreading, so that effective
steps can be taken once it has been detected.

2. Regulations do not stipulate the qualifications required of supplies

of fire detection systems, and it is very often non-specialist electricians
who install the systems. Only France, Germany and Denmark issue licences
to suppliers. Installing a system does not merely consist of laying
cables and fitting equipment. Por satisfactory results it is absolutely
essential that installers have the requisite knowledge. Lack of knowledge
and experience is occasionnally revealed where very expensive systems
have been installed which do not always guarantee satifactory surveillance
and can cause false alarms.

3. A very effective system will remain effective only if it is maintained

or inspected regularly. Compulsery regulations on this aspect would be
welcome.

4. Apart from effective detection, there must also be optimal, adequate

signals, clear evacuation facilities, firefighting facilities, a list of
instructions for those in charge, etc.

Firefighting teams, in particular firemen, should be given instructions

in advance describing how the signals work and how the fire is located.
These instructions should preferably be standardised.

5. Unfortunately, standardization sometimes involves the risk of holding

back technical developments. For example, present standards cover only
fixed-alarm type detectors. From the technical point of view "intelligent"
detection systems already exist with analogue output signal sensors and
computerized alarm stations.

I should like to conclude by saying that the first steps have been taken
towards closer international coordination, but there is still a long way
to go before we have national and international regulations which satisfy
manufacturers, suppliers and users alike.
 373

THEME III - INNOVATIONS

Chairman: J.M. DELESDERRIER, President of the European Association

of Professional Fire Brigade Officers, Geneve

Rapporteur: P. ANCILOTTI, Commandant des sapeurs-pompiers de Milan

Innovation in fire protection techniques - Electronic

systems for fire detection, alarm, fighting

New intervention techniques

Protective clothing for firefighting personnel

Summary by the session chairman

 374

INNOVATION IN FIRE PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS FOR FIRE DETECTION, ALARM, FIGHTING

Ass. Dir. A.A.M. BORREMA NS

Siemens Nederland .V., The Hague

Abstract

It is now over 130 years since the first fire alarm installation,
still using only hand alarms, was introduced. Towards the end of the
19th century the first automatic fire alarms, which worked on the
thermal principle, were brought into service. The main aim timely
warning, preventing casualties, limiting damage remains more or
less unchanged. There has, however, been an enormous increase over
the years in the effectiveness of the means available for detecting
fire automatically. Now, we are once again on the threshold of a new
era in the history of fire alarm: the application of microelectro
nics. This technology is opening up completely new avenues towards
even more reliable systems, as is demonstrated by the pulsed alarm
system.

On behalf of Euroalarm the European association of protection technology

firms I should like to discuss the following aspects:

I SPRINKLER |
DETECTORS I | 1 SYSTEM I
ISTU I I
ICOMMUNICATION I
SENSORS I | FIRE ALARM 1 EVACUATION
I
CENTRE I FIREBRIGADE
Dedicated line lALARM CENTRE I I
I II
ICONTACTORS I |
Dialup network I FAULT ALARM II
I CENTRE I I
I II
 ms
1. Communication of fire alarms after detection.
2. Comnunication of automatic fault alarms for monitoring
system operation.

I have hence deliberately refrained from considering innovations devised

by many highlyqualified technical experts in the protection industry in
the field of construction and design, for example in relation to the
accessibility of alarm devices to smoke.

EURALARM

SENSITIVITY
(IN 3 STA GES HERE 2 EXA MPLES)
REDUCED NORMAL

INTEGRATION .'' :
ON OFF
SMOKE INTA KE

OPEN RESTRICTED

ALARM SYSTEM 9

Nor shall I be dealing here, say, with adjustable smokesensitivity

settings for devices in high rooms or rooms with iiigh air replacement
rates or with alarm identification systems.

In this connection, however, I would point out that it is possible to

optimize alarm reliability by integrating alarm signals from a detector;
i.e. an alarm is not passed on to the fire alarm centre unless the alarm
device has detected the presence of smoke for a certain period of time.
It would also take too long here to examine the possibilities of using a
microcomputer to simulate many aspects of fire and risk. Considerable
work is of course being done in this field.

lhanks to microelectronics it has become possible in recent years to

make great improvements at an acceptable cost. Microelectronics with
"intelligent" evaluation algorithms permit the first signs of fire to be
detected quickly and accurately, reducing the risk of false alarms. But
microelectronics is also useful for determining the quickest route to

<l!'".tiJ,i <!:
 376
the scene of the fire and making recommendations for firebrigade turnouts.
The application of microelectronics together with the associated algo
rithms can produce systems combining high reliability with costeffective
ness. One example is the fire alarm system based on the pulsed alarm
technique, now without doubt the most modern system and already widely
used.
EURALARM

RATEOFRISE DETECTOR
T
ALARM IND ICATOR

OPTICAL SMOKE DETECTOR COUPLING UNIT

IONIZATION SMOKE D ETECTOR HICROPROCESSORCONTROLLED

FIRE ALARM CENTRE CONTROL UNIT

PULSED ALARM SYSTEM

EURALARM
PULSED ALARM METHOD CONVENTIONAL ALARM METHOD

CONSTANT
ALARM FALSE I
THRESHOLD
ALARM I

IALARM DEVICE

MORE SENSITIVE

IALARM DEVICE!

LESS SENSITIVE

'S.

. CONSTA NT SENSITIVITY UNTIL E.G C ONTAMINATION OF COMPOUND

I FA ULT REPORTED

NO FA LSE A LA RM DUE TO E,G C ONTAMINATION OF INSULA TION

CONTAMINATION

PULSED ALARM METHOD: CONSTANT SENSITIVITY THROUGH ALARM THRESHOLD COMPENSATION

 377

One of the features of the pulsed alarm system is that the specially
designed detectors send signals over a normal 2-wire line to a micro-
computer in the fire alarm centre for processing and analysis. These
signals indicate what the detector is sensing of being exposed to, so
that it no longer functions as an 'intelligent' limit signalling device
with a fixed alarm treshold. In the pulsed alarm system, the intelligence
resides in the fire alarm centre, where the signals from the alarm device
- now a sensor - are analysed. Microprocessor technology and the associa-
ted software open the way to complete control of sensor operation and
hence to increased reliability of the fire alarm system as a whole.

the fire alarm centre can also compensate for an extremely slow change
in the setting of a sensor, due to, say, ambient influences such as
temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric pressure, or as a result
of pollution, by adjusting the neutral setting while maintaining the gap
between this setting and the alarm threshold at a constant level.

As a logical consequence of this feature, it is also possible to set the

"sensitivity" of the sensors in the fire alarm centre. The ability to
detect slowly developing, smouldering fires is improved compared with
systems employing limit signalling devices in that signals from the
sensors are integrated with reference to time. This means that brief,
spurious signals, possibly due to induction, which can lead to false
alarms in a conventional system, are supressed in the pulsed alarm
system. Every half hour, the neutral level of each sensor is determined
on the basis of current sensor readings. The gap between this neutral
level and the alarm threshold is always held constant.

The risk of casualties and the extent of damage depends on how accurately
the fire can be located and how long it takes for firefighting forces to
arrive.

In the pulsed alarm system, a two-wire alarm loop may be divided into
three alarm-groups, each with readouts and controls in the fire alarm
centre. This permits fires to be localized even more accurately. A group
can also be removed from service without affecting monitoring by the
other groups in the loop.

Each loop permits the identification of 30 sensors, which can be assigned

to any of the 3 groups without the need for extra lines.

The pulsed alarm technique also enables control commands initiated by one
more sensors in the monitored loop to be returned via the same loop.

Since separate control lines are not needed, installation costs are
lower. However, the best fire alarm is useless if it cannot function
properly: therefore for the first time in the history of fire alarm
technology, the pulsed alarm system continuously monitors all alarm
functions. If fault occurs, the precise location of the alarm device
is established to enable it to be speedily rectified.

The quality of the system as a whole is determined by the characteristics

of each individual component and the extent to which these components fit
together.
 378
In any event, with the pulsed alarm system, alarm processing and identi
fication are carried out by the microprocessor in the centre, turning
detectors into sensors interrogated at a rate of 4 ms/sensor.

EURALARM

24V ,

CENTRAL
MICROPROCESSOR
voltafi rulee
' gener
@ ^ 7 " (5^
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ j
Iti ALARM
INDICATOR
ALARM DEVIC E ] ALARM DEVIC E 2 C ONTROL ALARM DEVIC E 30
ELEMENT

CL CHARGING CAPACITOR T L " CIRCUIT SWITCHING TRANSISTOR

PULSED ALARM LOOP AND PRINC IPLE OF PULSED ALARM DEVIC E

EURALARM

u
u.
..

t
1 1, I, I3 I. U I 30

t
M, M; (M,) M. M 30

I C OUNT PULSE U, START PULSE AT START OF INTERROGATION C YC LE

M MEASUREMENT READING (J,, ' CONTROL PULSE

PULSED ALARM LOO0, CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES DURIG AM INTERROGATION CYCLE

 379

The sensor readings are all digitally stored and processed in the fire
alarm centre.

New fire alarm centres incorporating an advanced approach using auto-

nomous micro-computer units represent a further improvement.

However, what use is a fire alarm centre if an alarm cannot be evaluated

reliably or easily interpreted and handled?
This question played a central part in determining the priorities for
developing the new generation of fire alarm centres.

To optimize processing speed and reliability , a system using several

microcomputers has been adopted, with an independent processor for every
8 detector loops. This restriction to 8 loops per processor is also
necessary to meet the existing or likely specifications of approval
authorities in the Federal Republic of Germany. In conventional systems,
more than 100 alarm loops may be connected to a single processor.

In view of the high degree of reliability required, important control

functions such as 'internal alarm' and 'alarm to fire brigade' are
activated directly via the hardware signal bus. An on-line central
processor regulates information flow by cyclically interrogating the
individual microcomputers. The information is displayed at the fire alarm
centre or processed in other system units, e.g. for registration purposes.
All processors are supervised by a 'watch-dog' timer.

Furthermore, an automatic self-check carried out every 20 minutes gua-

rantees that no module can fail unnoticed.

Microprocessor centres can be universally used for limit-value and

pulsed-alarm groups or for actuating automatic fire-fighting equipment,
either as stand-alone untis or as sub-stations.

Clear information and guidance for the operator makes for simple, stress-
free control in an emergency.

A well-designed control panel with text display shows the overall status
of the installation.

The fire alarm centre is designed for 3 levels of operation. The first
level, intended for fire protection personnel and the fire brigade, only
permits alarms to be accepted. Level 2 is designed for skilled personnel
authorized to connect and disconnect alarm groups. Level 3 allows main-
tenance personnel, if necessary, to reprogramme the fire alarm centre,
following a simple procedure comparable to using a pocket calculator, in
order to adapt the system to changed conditions.

After detection and fire-alarm processing, all kinds of control opera-

tions can be undertaken form the fire-alarm centre. Heading the list of
course is direct intervention in the form of the actuation of fixed
fire-fighting installations.
 380
EURALARM

COMPACT FIREFIGHTING SYSTEM

EURALARM

FIRE ALARM CENTRE

Followed by operation of the conmunication and/or evacuation warning
installation forming part of the building's alarm organization. The
integration of such controlled systems with the risks covered, using
multifunctional cabling systems, is in itself an interesting area of
 381

innovation. Coordination with fire-brigade and/or insurance bodies and

discussion of the applications of such integrated systems could undoub-
tedly bring about important changes in the current approach to systems.

EURALARM

GC ID
SICLI 1

AUSTROALARM
OEST.FEUERW.G. 1
ZVEI
SPS
VSHA Zl
SWELARM Zl
METROVOX ( 0 1
SEAT (1) I
BELGIUM I

ID 20 11 41 so 10 70 10 10 101%

PERCENTAGE OF FISE ALAR SYSTEMS WITH ONLY INTERNAL ALARMS

In the event of a genuine fire alarm in a building, the first task is to

ensure, after early detection, that the start of a fire is reported as
rapidly and reliably as possible to the appropriate forces trained and
optimally equipped to combat the fire - which we can simply call the Fire
Brigade, you will say.

While this may be the case in the Netherlands, it is far from being so
everywhere in Europe.
Signals generated by a fire alarm system are generally transmitted and
processed via dedicated or dial-up line systems.

The most reliable way of signalling a fire is still via a dedicated

line.

However, regional spread, high costs and the prospect of these lines
becoming even more expensive has encouraged increasing use to be made of
dial-up systems. Since fire alarm installations are required in many cases
and all a fire service receives is a simple 'fire' signal, signals
indicating whether the fire alarm system is still in fact functioning
have assumed great importance.

The application of micro-electronics enables fire alarms to be trans-

mitted to the fire brigade and fault alarms to be reported to a mainte-
nance organization, with its own maintenance centre, via the same alarm
signalling unit.
Integrating the two systems on one operator terminal is certainly a
possibility for the future.
 382

However, the increase in the number of alarm signals has already led to
the coupling of these alarm systems to a turnout operations system, which
enables the fire brigade to process incoming signals from both systems on
one video display for each operator station. This operations system does
not just permit control of the alarm systems, it also provides relevant
information quickly to enable a central operator to initiate the correct
action extremely rapidely in the event of an alarm, ensuring a high level
of protection for people and property.

As noted earlier, in my view more attention definitely needs to be

devoted in Europe to automatic fault alarms from protection installations
to continously manned stations for monitoring the operation of the
protection system.

To be sure, the fire alarm industry in Europe, or rather the protection

industry, is not resting on its lauels and is certainly investing a great
deal of time and money not just in research and development but also in
marketing, implementation an maintenance.

The major taks involved - at all stages but particularly when determi-
ning the organization of the alarm system in buildings - are as follows:

1. optimization of the reliability of

a. alarm signals,
b. system functions;
2. optimization of intervention time to
a. prevent casualties,
b. enable fires to be tackled at an early stage,
c. minimize damage.
Using cold cathods tubes as amplifier elements together with the closed-
circuit principle. Dr. E. Meili of Cerberus AG in Mnnedorf founded in
his day the development and application of fire alarm systems.

Today, roughly 40 years later we find ourselves in the age of microelec-

tronics, which allows us to incorporate complex circuitry on a tiny chip
and to use inexpensive microprocessor systems, all for the sake of
increading the level of fire protection in our society.
 383

NEW INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES

R.C. PARAMOR
CHIEF FIRE OFFICER, ESSEX COUNTY FIRE BRIGADE (U.K.)

Summary

New intervention techniques are introduced as a result of several

factors and conditions. They are necessary to meet the increased
risks that firemen face and the changing character of fires.
Historically they have been made by gradual refinement of existing
ideas. More recently commercial interests have become involved,
which have given rise to more widespread availability of equipment
and Information, but have also resulted in much higher costs.
Innovations in fire fighting equipment also come from adapting
equipment produced for other purposes; - the space programmes and
military conflicts have been the main avenues for this type of
advance. Some innovations are relatively inexpensive and may, for
example, involve only a change of procedure, whilst others are
particularly expensive. The use of Helicopters and suspended
manoevring systems are an example of the latter. Thermal
detection equipment, Robot fire fighting and use of computers are
discussed in greater depth later in this paper. Developments in
the field of intervention are, however, very gradual and there is
a general lack of the exchange of information both nationally and
throughout Europe. This Symposium should be the springboard for
future European co-operation in this field, to improve development
and reduce the costs involved.

New intervention techniques and the innovations which lead to

their introduction, happen for many of the same reasons as the other
advances we have heard about during this Symposium.
New technology in building construction and design and the hazards
caused by materials from which buildings and their contents are made,
have increased fire risk and the problems during operations with which
firemen now have to deal.
Additionally, the dangers for the firemen associated with
industrial processes now take many forms. The materials and products
which cause these dangers are also to be found In our transport
networks, on land and sea, and in the air. These problems as we have
heard, are taking place in response to many demands, some social, some
political, others technical and economic. This is the price of
progress and it increases in momentum as each day passes.
We have also heard that in attempting to minimise these increased
risks, particularly to minimise loss of human life, a great deal of
activity and research takes place in the field of fire safety. This
work has a reasonable degree of priority, but often responds to
problems after they occur rather than before. There is also a
financial constraint. Occasionally the priority is increased due to a
disaster and often only then because public opinion, perhaps spurred on
by the press, makes life difficult for the politicians who quickly
improve laws and regulations to try to prevent a similar tragedy.
It is right that we concentrate on ensuring that people can escape
 384

from buildings in Che event of fire and that fires are prevented from
occurring. It is also important that the spread of fire is slowed by
design and use of the correct construction materials. There is a
degree of European and international co-operation on these aspects, but
there is room for improvement and this Conference is an important step
for Europe in this respect.
Innovation in intervention techniques on the other hand Is not a
field of activity which affects many people. Outside the circle of
firemen, a small number of specialist manufacturers and a few
interested research scientists, there is very little interest.
This leads to the means of progress in chis field being quite
different. An understanding of the manner of advance is, therefore,
necessary and I shall indicate the main ways in which this happens as I
proceed wich my presentation.
Historically, particularly in Europe, the advances have been made
by firemen and by engineers wich a particular interest in fire fighting
equipment. These innovators have always had a very traditional outlook
and have usually worked alone, sometimes wich only Chelr own passionate
belief in what they are doing to drive them on.
As a fireman and a Chief Officer, I feel that to a great extent we
are still working in this way, within our own small worlds. We seem to
disregard the similar activities going on in other parts of the
community or even in our own individual countries. We are, I suggest,
wasting the collective talent we all have. We are also wasting some of
Che resources and in particular finance, the lack of which we all
suffer.
Of course new ideas do not all now follow this traditional
pattern. There is a move towards the spread of ideas, and co-operation
is becoming apparenC.
More recendy, for example, innovacions in chis field have been
broughc about by equipmenc manufacCurers wich financial aims and chis
is having several effecCs. Many of these companies operate on the
international market, and Chie has Che effecC of cheir ideas becoming
more widely known. Their commercial inCeresCs, however, encourage Chem
to keep cheir ideas Co chemselves until they are developed and
protected from being copied. This often means that there is Uccie
input from firemen and there are long development periods. The results
of Cheir work are therefore often not as practical as they could be and
are in many cases very expensive. This is often made worse by the fact
that Fire Brigades are a limited customer outlet.
New techniques do, however, come from ocher origins and can vary
considerably in their costs to Fire Brigades. Changes in fire fighting
tactics are an example of Innovations which cost very little in
monetary terms. Tactics must always be reviewed and changed as
problems increase. Advances in technology in all aspect of life give
rise to new situations. Even the advances in the fire protection of
buildings, that we have heard much about during the last few days,bring
with them cheir Caccical problems for the fireman.
Pressurisation of staircases and lobbies is an example of such an
advance. This way of maintaining escape routes, by the principle of
forcing air into the parts of a building needed for escape purposes and
allowing the pressure to build up to a point greater than Che
surrounding areas, Co keep smoke ouc, Is known Co us all.
 385

These pressurised routes can also be used by firemen to enter

buildings and create bridgeheads for fire fighting purposes. The
principles need, therefore, to be understood by the fireman and tactics
revised to use the facilities properly. Many of the systems, for
example, only operate when fire Is detected and may have to be started
manually by firemen. Entries have to be made without leaving the doors
completely open or pressure will be reduced. The staircases with
pressurised systems do not usually have any natural ventilation in the
form of openable windows, which can be used when things go wrong.
The ducts which supply the air to maintain these systems cannot have
fire dampers in them, so in adverse conditions could be a potential
cause of unseen fire spread. From this it can be seen that every
advance, even those related to improvements in fire safety in one way,
give rise to problems for the fireman In another. This often results in
the necessity of updating our intervention techniques.
In preparing for this presentation, I have contacted many of the
Brigades In each country in the E.E.C, as well as some outside the
community. It is clear that the problems which face firemen
throughout Europe and possibly the world are basically the same.
Several Brigades are, for example, revising their tactics for fighting
fires in high rise buildings. There also seems to be a gradual move by
many Brigades towards the use of specialist squads, or task forces of
men trained to carry out particular aspects of work, which are
Increasingly becoming part of our role.
Some Brigades have considerable experience with such aspects as
Sub-Aqua work, others with specialist chemical and decontamination
incidents. A few have para medic and airborne sections, whilst rapid
intervention squads, to overcome city congestion, are a feature of
other Brigades and one at least has tried motor cycle response units
for this purpose. Many Brigades are only just beginning to think along
the lines of specialist squads. The idea certainly overcomes many of
the difficulties associated with the training programmes necessary,
when every fireman must be able to carry out every function. Here I
believe is a good example of where one Brigade can learn from another
and at a level where co-operation will not become unnecessarily
complicated. My research has, however, indicated that such
co-operation within Europe is at present comparitlvely rare.
There are other origins for new fire fighting ideas which affect
their character, timing of their arrival and again the cost to Fire
Brigades. I am sure some ideas are discovered by accident, although
this is not common or well recorded. However, even with todays
understanding of the laws of physics and chemistry, I do not believe
that some dramatic new 'cure all' fire fighting medium will be found.
It does not, therefore, seem a good idea to rely on chance to help us
out. Instead the majority of innovations in our field come from slow,
but continual refinement of the existing practices and equipment. This
is partly because of the very traditional outlook we have and the fact
that many of us are perhaps rather parochial and unwilling to change.
Many good ideas do, however, come from firemen and engineers with a
particular Interest in fire fighting and some of the ideas are
relatively Inexpensive.
A recent example I can think of has been the appearance of an all
purpose hand extinguisher using Aqueous Film Forming Foam and a special
 386

spray nozzle which overcomes the problems of electrical hazards. The

extinguisher design, the A.F.F.F. and the spray nozzle, which I believe
was pioneered in France, have all been known for some time. The three
elements just had to be brought together.
The extinguisher seems to overcome the problems that powder has
suffered from as an all purpose medium. The A.F.F.F. is waterbased,
so cooling should prevent re-ignition of class A and fires. There
will not be problems of malfunctions due to compacting of the contents
and no contamination by powder of the surrounding areas, which is a
problem in some vital places and in equipment. This development should
improve considerably the chances of early intervention before the
arrival of the Fire Brigade and as the cost of the extinguishers is no
higher than existing models, this development may well be widely
adopted. This is a good example of gradual refinement of existing
equipment and technique.
The advantages and disadvantages of one type of extinguishing
medium, compared with another, is always a dilema for firemen and
despite what I have just said about extinguishers, dry chemical remains
the most efficient medium for quick knockdown of hydrocarbon fuel
fires, particularly spill and pressure fires. The major drawback is
that it has no security ability. To overcome this aircraft crash
attacks systems and fixed protection on oil platforms now use the twin
agent concept. This consists of dry powder for knockdown and A.F.F.F.
foam which is compatible with the powder, to provide security. These
systems vary but usually work through a twin feed single nozzle
delivery. This is at the other end of the cost scale, however, and a
50 second attack costs many thousands of dollars. Certainly cost is
not important where the risk warrants it, but this is not cheap by any
standards particularly for training purposes and may not be so easily
adopted by publicly funded Brigades.
There are many examples of the gradual evolvement of equipment and
products. Pumps, ladders and special service rescue equipment have all
steadily improved in this way without any seemingly dramatic
advances, yet today's equipment and techniques when compared with those
of only 10 years ago are far different in quality and effectiveness.
Perhaps one of the best known examples is the way in which foam
application and improvements of compounds have evolved. Where once all
flammable liquid fires were fought with protein foam, which was
difficult to use and to store, there are now many different types of
compound and methods of application. The storage life is excellent and
it does not corrode the equipment. These changes have been brought
about by people with specialist chemical knowledge and with commercial
Interests, but have been built on experience gained by and extracted
from firemen.
Breathing apparatus has also steadily improved in effectiveness
and more importantly in simplicity. It is easy to forget how simple it
is to train men to use today's equipment and how easy it is to service
and return it to readiness after use, compared with the situation in
the not too distant past. This is important since it is now almost a
matter of course for us to use Breathing Apparatus In our interventions
and the day will soon be with us when we will not even think of
fighting fire without a set on.
Another area of innovation and one which can be much more
 387

expensive, is the adoption of technology and equipment designed

originally for other purposes. The advances in space and
communications technology have been used in many fields in this way and
ours is no exception. Specialist vehicle engineering has also made its
mark with us; - the most obvious example being the hydraulic platform
originally designed for other uses, but adapted to help with our
problems of height and the need for a stable working platform. Working
at height has always exercised the minds of firemen and fire engineers
and the use and adaption of helicopters, particularly for rescue work
and forest or bush fire fighting, is now being refined for quick
attack, in high rise buildings. From the space programme a suspended
manoevering system has been designed and is also being used in this
way.
In the North Sea the success of the oil exploration and production
techniques has brought with them new problems for fire fighting and
fixed protection.
Flreboats have been a feature of interventions almost since
organised fire fighting began and they too have followed the pattern of
gradual improvement. I wonder who amongst us thought, however, that a
fire fighting and emergency vessel costing 87 million dollars would be
in operation, as it is today. Yet British Petroleum's Iolair,
Occidentals Tharos and several similar vessels now cover the entire
North Sea in zones and on a basis of international co-operation which
ignores national boundaries. There must be a lesson here for us in the
Fire Brigades of the Community.
Many developments are spurred forward by such revolutions as the
oil programme, some unfortunately by military conflict. Robot fire
fighting in very hazardous situations relates to developments in
terrorist bomb handling, whilst fire fighting on ships during the
Falklands War, hastened the final development of thermal imaging
cmaras. Both these concepts are being used by Fire Brigades in Europe
now and are of particular Interest for the immediate future.
Remotely controlled vehicles developed from military use are now
available for fire fighting. They can operate in oxygen deficient and
poisonous atmospheres. They can be used for chemical handling and in
radioactive zones. The benefit of sending such a machine into a
hazardous situation whilst the operator remains in safety can easily be
seen. The vehicle can carry hose into the heart of a fire, drag out
casualties climb stairs and negotiate rough terrain and rubble. One
feature borrowed directly from the military application, is the use of
the shotgun to break open doors and, of course, the vehicle can carry
monitoring equipment to report back on explosive atmospheres, levels of
toxicity and radioactivity. This is certainly a development which will
increasingly become familiar as the risk to firemen's lives from the
hazards around us becomes more unacceptable.
Thermal imaging cameras are perhaps the most important innovation
that has been developed for the fireman for many years. For the first
time ever a fireman can now see through smoke. He can enter a building
with greater confidence, search rooms for trapped and overcome
casualties or find the seat of a fire very quickly.
The camera which detects the different heat levels of all surfaces
and objects, gives a clear picture even through dense smoke. This
enables the fireman with very little practice at interpreting the
 388

images, to find doorways, staircases or dangerous holes In the floor.

The camera can also be used to find the seat of fire In complicated
ductworks, behind walls or under floor boards without the need for
costly damage and time consuming dismantling operations.
Further developments mean that the commander outside the building
will also be able to see what is happening on a monitor simultaneously
with hie men. This is a major breakthrough and prevents the need to
wait for reports or of trying to visualise from descriptions over a
radio what problems he will face as the fire progresses. This is a
facility we all must have dreamed of whilst waiting for information
from inside a smoke filled building to enable us to make our tactical
decisions. These monitoring facilities can also be carried by one of
the remotely controlled vehicles I mentioned earlier, so perhaps the
day of the robot fireman is close.
The cameras also have many other uses. One was used in London recently
to detect trapped casualties after a building collapse and for mountain
rescue it is possible to see images of people buried under snow.
Incidentally, they have a very useful spin-off benefit because they can
be used to monitor heat loss from buildings and they pinpoint exactly
where extra insulation can cut the running costs of fire stations. I
believe most of my Officers familiarised themselves with the operation
of the cameras in my own Brigade by checking their own houses in this
way.
Developments in communications technology and use of the
micro-chips are also having a marked effect on our operations.
Although not an Intervention technique itself, one Brigade that I know,
has developed an operational simulator to assist with training their
Officers in fire ground command and tactical decision making. Aircraft
pilots have been trained on simulators for several years now and this
type of use will grow as it becomes unacceptable to obtain experience
the hard way.
Communications improvements and the use of small computers mean we
can recall information, which enables us to get to fires more quickly.
He can control traffic signals; we can see at the press of a button
the layouts of buildings and their contents and find information to
enable us to deal with chemical problems.
All these and other Intervention innovations are being used now in
Brigades in Europe and many are only in their early stages. The
possibilities for the future are great, but the traditional way of
progress is no longer fast enough for us to keep pace with the other
advances of today. I have tried to indicate that most of the advances
which are propelling us forward are related now to technological and
commercial considerations and the majority, although not all, are being
developed or taken advantage of by fire fighters outside the public
Brigades. If we are not to be left behind we must make sure we are
involved at every level and In every way possible.
Innovations in intervention techniques must be brought about by
lateral thinking from within, as well as outside the public service
Brigades and we must encourage every far thinking project, to ensure
our future.
There are many people amongst us with this type of forward
thinking capability. Only recently I saw an article in The Fire
International Journal which concerned a rocket delivered fire fighting
 389

system for aircraft crash fires. Obviously this would cut down
response time and is possible with the technology available now. I
don't know if the idea would work, but it is an example of the sort of
thinking we should be encouraging within our own Brigades.
Finally, if we are not to be left behind we must work together,
pool our ideas and co-operate on research and interchange of
knowledge. Collectively we have many ideas and a great deal of
experience to enable us to improve intervention techniques.
In the European Community there is sometimes discord because of
clashes of Interest and perhaps there always will be. We at least,
whatever our personal or national feelings about these problems, work
in a field where there is no clash of interest and where there is no
obstacle to co-operation.
I hope whatever the future brings, we will always retain some of
our individuality because this is important, but I am convinced we
could become a much more effective force of innovators if we worked
closer together and I hope this Conference will be the foundation on
which greater co-operation will be built.
 390

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR FIREFIGHTING PERSONNEL

C.H.M. HAVER

Velsen Fire Service

Abstract

This paper discusses the problems of protective clothing for fire-

fighting personnel, in particular insulation, physiological charac-
teristics and ergonomie aspects. It considers whether the new
materials now coming on to the market are the ones that the fire
service has been waiting for and whether the enormous variety of
tests currently in existence can be regulated, limited and brought
into line with practice so as to obtain a clearer picture of the
situation.

INTRODUCTION

To prepare for this paper on developments in protective clothing for

firemen, I have carried out a study of the relevant literature. During
this study, it has become apparent that the enormous complexity of the
material requires a clear definition of the area under investigation. The
growing number of tasks assigned to the fire service in our society need
to be taken into account when choosing protective clothing. Accordingly,
I make a clear distinction between clothing used for "normal" fire-figh-
ting or assistance and clothing used during special operations, for
example to deal with dangerous substances. In addition, my approach is
based on the Dutch standpoint on inside fire attack. This assumes that
the fireman/woman will enter a burning building at all times to perform
rescue and/or fire-fighting operations efficiently and effectively,
however, before the problems of clothing can be discussed, a list needs
to be drawn up of the requirements that such clothing has to meet.

The following are minimum requirements:

flame resistance;
protection against skin burns (insulating capacity);
resistance to chemicals;
water repellence.

In addition to these important factors, account could also be taken of

such secondary matters as mechanical strength, ability to be cleaned,
durability, colourfastness and cost price. My discussion of requirements
takes the Coletta and Abbot diagram (see Fig. 1) as its basis.
 391

Entry operations expose f i r e f i g h t i n g personnel to severe internal and

external thermal loads. On the one hand, the environment may be extremely
hot, usually with intense radiant heat present, while on the other the
work to be carried out involves strenuous exertion.

05 10 20 10 M WO 200 JOO mlkll/ifi

1 f f I I I

no MOO

M i j i i n u n iMi
EMEROENCY

MO
CONOITIONS
SOO

300 " i M n m l o l 1 300

l I h wflt 1 1

~" 700
I clottwv) I |
HAZAROOUS 200
a . m f f y to dry tkn X
CONOIIION*

3 SM*, td 1 M M ' Moulh brvalhing dilricull ISO*

Notai brtatting dilfteiil 12S'c
g
10 ;
al UO*C
no
i
i
A
a
<
w
. ROUTINE i ! : so

30
CONDITIONS
l'I
S s je ! 30
i

20 _ 7
1
.
Y.
" . 20
' ' S
Hl ' ni ....II
I L.
i i
\ \ . .....,
a.
10
0 01 002 003 a 05 010 02 01 05 10 20 30 S0 leol /cm
RA D IATI VE HEAT FLUX

Fig. 1: Firefighter's exposure conditions

Such exertion releases a l o t of heat. Now, i f t h i s heat cannot be e l i m i
nated,a new problem arises. In the f i r s t case, the fireman w i l l suffer
burns, while in the second, heat exhaustion may cause the fireman to
endanger himself or his colleagues unnecessarily. This problem, which has
been increasingly recognized in recent years, means that designing an
item of clothing to give optimum protection against skin burns while
providing minimal f a c i l i t i e s for eliminating body heat simply s h i f t s the
problem of how to deploy f i r e personnel to a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l . Making
f i r e f i g h t i n g clothing that provides f u l l protection against skin burns
is no problem. However, such clothing would be so heavy that wearers
would scarcely be able to move in i t , i f at a l l , and would suffer physio
logical problems. This is thus clearly the problem with f i r e f i g h t e r ' s
clothing.

To summarize, every form of protection can therefore be said to have i t s

l i m i t a t i o n s . In terms of the delimitation of the subject of t h i s paper,
the protection of f i r e f i g h t i n g personnel against skin burns has maximum
priority.

Fig. 2 shows the effect of heat f l u x on skin with reference to time.

Figs. 3 and 4 i l l u s t r a t e the relationship between the heat flux and skin
temperature at which seconddegree burns occur.
 392

so

S o
.*


\
30 \
Ui


\
< 20 \
\
3
_
U.
\.
50
UJ
^^^^__^

0
I L 1 _
10 20
EXPOSURE TIME (t)

F i g . 2: Thermal i n j u r y c r i t e r i a for human skin

.5 17

Injury Zone

Tissue Destruction Zone

Painless Zone
' I

Absorbed Heat Flux (Cal/Cm2Sec.)

Fig. 3: Human skin tolerance time to absorbed thermal energy

delivered in a rectangular pulse
 393

J 4 > J IO IS

J li ml | I mil | 1 ml I nil
i 10 JO M 100 MO 1.000 S.OOO 10.000

Exposure Time in Seconds /Logarithmic Scale(

Fig. 4: time temperature thresholds at which skin burn occurs

A. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING REQUIREMENTS

The first step is to examine what effect heat has on the human body and
how to provide sufficient protection. Heat exposure may be divided into
three types:

radiant heat;
convertive heat;
conducted heat.
What then determines the insulating capacity of an item of clothing? This
factor is the result of both the characteristics of the materials used
and a number of physical properties.

1 layer multiple layers

Schematic diagram of heat transfer

 394

Clothing is best regarded as any material that retains air: not only a
layer of air corresponding to the thickness of the material, but also
layers of adherent air on either side of the material (with thin clo-
thing, the adherent air is more important than the actual layer of
material). The material functions as a medium (see diagram). It is the
static air that insulates against heat. It could therefore be concluded
that multilayer systems should be preferred for insulation. However, if
we examine the points mentioned above in more detail, the first step is
to determine the causes of skin burns. The diagrams above show that burns
are caused by exposure of the skin to a particular level of heat. It is
also obvious that flame in direct contact with bare skin gives rise to
skin b u m s . In view of these facts, one can therefore say without hesita-
tion that the outer layer of fire-fighters' clothing has to meet specific
requirements with respect to flame resistance. Furthermore, the overall
protection provided by fire-fighters' clothing against skin burns has to
be such that no such burns will occur within a specified period. You may
have noted that I expressly refer to specific requirements with respect
to flame resistance and protection provided by clothing against skin
burns. I will return to these later. Fire-fighter's clothing currently on
the market includes clothing consisting of multiple layers whereby, for
example, the second or third layer does not meet the flame resistance
requirement. In my view, this is inadmissible because the fireman/woman
could easily be confronted with flames under his/her clothing during the
performance of his/her duties. You can imagine what will happen if the
non-outer layers do not conform to a specific requirement with respect to
flame resistance. Bearing in mind the above comments, one can opt for,
say, a thick one-layer system or a multilayer system to provide protec-
tion. However, a constraint is placed on the number of layers by the
clothing manufacturer, since it is not possible to increase the number of
layers ad infinitum. The maximum limit would in fact be four or five.
Single-layer clothing would have to be so thick, and hence stiff and
inflexible, that it would excessively hinder the movements of fire-
fighting personnel. The conclusion is thus clear: concessions are requir-
ed or alternatively a choice needs to be made.

- Chemical resistance and water-repel1enee.

It will be clear that there are similarities between fluid chemicals and
water. What I mean to say is that fire-fighters' clothing must be resi-
tant to a number of chemicals and should also be water-repellent or
waterproof to a certain degree to maintain a reasonable level of comfort.
For these reasons, fire-fighters' clothing in many cases incorporates an
intermediate layer to make the suit waterproof and resistant to certain
chemicals. Inserting such a thin intermediate layer (vapour barrier) has
physiological drawbacks. I will return to this question later. Certain
conclusions may also be drawn from previous experience. Crucial for the
protection offered by a suit is, for example, the behaviour of the
wearer. In practice, it often happens that burns occur at those places on
the skin where the clothing pinches or is compressed, for example, the
points where compressed-air apparatus is fitted or at the knees or
elbows. This may be explained by the fact that only one layer, rather
than several layers, is effectively present at these points. One solution
could be to make the clothing thicker in these places, which would also
have the advantage of protecting the limbs involved against mechanical
damage.
 395

. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Clothing protects the wearer against his or her environment, for example
extrems heat. At the same time, clothing has the handicap of undesirable
thermal insulation and prevents the evaporation of sweat. For the body to
function properly, however, its temperature must be held as constant as
possible. Three factors are essential for maintaining the correct level:

1. blood circulation must be able to transport all the heat generated by

the body to the skin;

2. the skin must be able to produce the required quantity of sweat;

3. sweat must be able to evaporate.

A disturbance to any of these three functions may lead to serious physi

cal disorders. Practice has shown that if no action is taken on the
symptoms a fireman may collapse from heat exhaustion. He will clearly no
longer be able to perform his duties properly and may also expose himself
and his colleagues to unnecessary danger.

Again, the question here is what consequences does this have for the
fireman during fire fighting operations? In the literature, various
figures are given for the maximum permissible physical load over a
specified period. It is argued, for example, that a metabolic energy
load of 180 VM for one hour is acceptable and gives rise to no problems.
However, if the load rises to 250 W, for example, and perspiration cannot
evaporate, the fireman will collapse. If we now look at what happens in
practice, we note the following facts. No evaporation can take place if
operations are being carried out in gas suits and similar clothing, for
example. Normal firefighters' clothing, however, provides a certain
degree of ventilation, allowing some form of evaporation. Nevertheless, a
tradeoff is necessary here as well.

The choice of a material with relatively good vapour permeability (e.g.

wool) is extremely advantageous from a physiological point of view.
Research is currently being carried out into the effect of vapour in
clothing. In line with the behaviour of water in (for example) gypsum, it
appears that water vapour in clothing can absorb heat, which has a
positive effect on overall protection. On the other hand, it is also
known that if protective clothing is soaked through, this may have a
negative impact on skin burn protection. Preventing vapour permeability
from affecting waterproofness and vice versa is indeed one reason for
the insertion of a 'vapour barrier' layer. However, a design claiming to
be vapourpermeable from inside to outside and waterproof from outside to
inside is impossible because vapour pressure is higher on the outside (in
a hot environment). How then should the physiological aspects be traded
off against the protection offered by clothing? In my approach, although
the physiological factors are indeed important, they are expressly given
lower priority. I shall attempt to explain why.

According to the TNO* Institute for Sensory Physiology, there is a real

chance that after about 40 minutes of strenuous exertion a fireman will
reach a point at which he may collapse as a result of a disturbed heat

*TNO = Netherlands Applied Scientific Research Organization

 396

balance. In practice, the man will have already had to change his com-
pressed-air cylinder once. In my opinion, if someone has been performing
strenuous work and has to change his compressed-air cylinder after 15-20
minutes, he will perhaps unconsciously use the time needed to change the
cylinder to take a break. During this period, the body has a chance to
recover somewhat from its previous exertions. In my view, this shows that
the danger of personal injury involves primarily the risk of skin burns
and only secondarily the physiological aspect.

C. ERQONOMIC ASPECTS

The third important characteristic of clothing mentioned at the start is

the ergonomie aspect. When discussing the ergonomics of clothing, the
logical approach would be to start from the beginning, i.e. the weaver of
the fabric, before going on to the manufacturer and the user, in this
case the fireman. I expressly mention the weaver to start with, for a
number of material characteristics, e.g. water repellence, may be deter-
mined by the type of weaving. Furthermore, the use of certain 'blends'
can change these characteristics in an unpredictable fashion. In such
cases, it is thus wrong simply to assume good characteristics, since the
variation may be great. On the other hand, inferior characteristics might
be ameliorated in a 'blend'. From conversations, I have for example
learned that water repellence is never permanent, although the treatment
may be reapplied in some cases. Likewise, the application of water-repel-
lent agents affects the flame-resistant properties of materials. All
these factors could prompt one to contact the actual maker of the cloth.

The manufacturer is mentioned as the second link in the chain. In view of

the enormous variety of clothing, I can state without reservation that
there is a total lack of uniformity. In my view, our approach is still too
oriented to what suppliers offer. In practice, this means that wishes,
complaints or improvements have to be dealt with for each individual
brigade.

It will be apparent, as I have said, that protection is subject to

constraints. The question is just to what extent are these acceptable? It
should be the fire service official who determines the appearance of the
uniform, where the pockets are to be located, where any folds have to be
incorporated so as not to hinder movement or where extra protection is
required in the form of, say,shoulder pads or elbow and knee protectors.
It is not unusual for certain items of clothing (gas protection clothing,
bullet-proof vests) to lose more than 20% of their effectiveness.

What is now being done in the Netherlands, on the basis of the above
facts, to arrive at an 'optimal' turn-out suit? The chief inspector of
the Dutch Fire Service commissioned the TNO Centre for Fire Safety and
the Institute for Sensory Physiology to conduct research into the kind of
tunics now widely used.

I would like to explain these tests in more detail. Firstly, a comparison

was made between three fire suits made of wool, ncmex and pvc. (For the
sake of convenience, the suits are labeled according to their outer
layer, but you should be aware that a combination of various materials is
involved in each case.). The following aspects were tested:
 397

- protection against skin burn

- physiological load
- ergonomics (investigated in practical t r i a l s ) .

Wearing characteristics were determined for a group of 17 short, properly

controlled f i r e o f f i c e r s from three d i f f e r e n t brigades. These tests
measured performance and recorded the subjective experience of the test
subjects. The test subjects were also exposed to a hot environment in
various suits and measurements were taken of tolerance times. These tests
were accompanied by research into the thermal effects of modifications to
the water-repellent layer in a three-layer f i r e s u i t . I would l i k e to
show some s l i d e s to i l l u s t r a t e these t e s t s and e x p l a i n the r e s u l t s
obtained.

How can clothing be evaluated?

On several occasions in the course of my investigations, I have f e l t

unable to see the wood for the trees. As there are no international
standards as yet, many countries apply t h e i r own standards and testing
methods. (This is perhaps an area that could be tackled by the A.E.).
This may seem somewhat strange, but I would draw your attention to the
fact that in 1980, for example, the TNO f i b r e s i n s t i t u t e was unable to
determine the i n s u l a t i n g c a p a c i t y of f a b r i c s . I t c u r r e n t l y appears
that there are only a limited number of i n s t i t u t i o n s able to perform
these testing methods for c l o t h i n g . In many cases, these also turn out to
be bodies that have a direct interest in marketing the products concerned.
I t appears to me that t h i s sort of research should at least be controlled
by an independent i n s t i t u t i o n . At the same time, the testing methods
should be relevant and be translatable into practice. So what tests
should be carried out?

1. Flame t e s t . Flame tests are c l e a r l y indispensable. In view of the

d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , a d i s t i n c t i o n could be made between
horizontal and v e r t i c a l flame t e s t s . As a v e r t i c a l flame test is more
severe and, in my view, more p r a c t i c a l , i t is d e f i n i t e l y to be recom-
mended. The flame time may be varied and the extent of charring can be
measured along with the after-burn and after-glow times.

2. T.p.p. test (thermal protective performance). This test is used to

establish how many seconds elapse u n t i l the pain threshold and then the
b l i s t e r t h r e s h o l d (second-degree burn) i s reached. I t i s clear
that the time between the pain threshold and the b l i s t e r threshold is
p a r t i c u l a r l y important, since i t represents the time available to
evacuate location ( p . a . t . = pain alarm time). This test method com-
bines convettive and radiant heat to produce a combined heat f l u x of
40-120 kW/m . There is currently a proposal to replace the t . p . p . -
term ? by 'exposure energy to f a i l u r e ' and define the heat f l u x at 84
kw/m . Quite apart from what the figures say, i t is always worth-
while looking at the tested samples, because the f i r e - a f f e c t e d surface
(the 'mask') is sometimes b r i t t l e (weak) and sometimes tough (strong).
A number of samples break open, i . e . after a few seconds they no
longer offer any resistance to f i r e and heat and exhibit holes in the
fabric due to combustion or excessive shrinkage.

Needless to say, they then cease to provide any protection against f i r e

and heat.
 398

3. Conducted heat test. One method is that of Benisek and Edmonson, which
examines the amount of molten metal (e.g. aluminium and lead) required
to attack an artificial skin behind protective clothing. In addition,
it can also be used to investigate the extent to which liquid metal
adheres to the material.

Apart from these primary tests, other experiments can be carried out to
investigate water repellence, oil repellence, waterproofness, tensile
strength and tear resistance of suits.

Of course, the test methods I have outlined are open to discussion. I

fully realise that there may be other ways of capturing the differences
between various clothing types in a uniform fashion. The main point,
however, is that the fire service official responsible for clothing
matters should be able to acquire and idea fairly quickly of the benefits
and drawbacks of prospective clothing. There appears to be a clear need
for such information in practice. The report by the N.I.O.S.H. entitled
'the development of criteria for firefighters' gloves' states, for
example, that gloves must meet the following requirements:

a. 10 minutes resistance to a heat flux of 0.2 cal/cm per second;

b. 10 seconds resistance to a heat flux of 2.5 cal/cm ;
c. contact time of 5 seconds at 500 C for 4 psi.

No skin burns may occur under any of these conditions. Such data may
therefore be used as a simple check on gloves to see if they are up to
requirements. It would be ideal if similar test requirements were to be
laid down for service clothing.

The composition of new materials brought onto the market should be

immediately apparent. Trade names such as Karvin, Kermel or Nomex are not
very informative. It is likely that an increasing amount of protective
clothing on the market will be based on fibres manufactured from aromatic
polyamides (aramides) and polyheterocyclic compounds. A real comparison
of these materials requires data on the l.o.i. value, water absorption
capacity, decomposition temperature, light resistance, tensile strength
etc. Only then car a picture be obtained, on the basis of this informa-
tion, of the benefits and drawbacks of these materials relative to one
another and a comparison made to establish if these are the materials
the fire service has been looking for.

GLOVES

The N.I.O.S.H. (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health)

has published a report entitled 'The development of criteria for fire-
fighters' gloves', Volume 2: glove criteria and test methods, publication
number 77-134-P, February 1967. This report sets out all the criteria for
evaluating gloves.

HELMET

Fire helmets must conform to the following minimum requirements:

 399

- shock resistance
- resistance to penetration
- self-extinguishing capability
- insulating resistance
- resistance to radiant heat.

Standards already exist for these requirements in the various d i f f e r e n t

countries. In many cases, however, these standards are based on the type
of helmet used on building sites and in factories etc. My view is that
f i r e helmets are more similar to those worn by motor c y c l i s t s . Testing
should thus be carried out by, for example, a TNO i n s t i t u t e for road
transport. However, the complaint most often heard about helmets is that
the visor and helmet s t i l l remain two separate components. Attempts in the
past to develop an integral unit were abandoned. I am informed, however,
that new developments may be expected in t h i s f i e l d .

PROTECTIVE FOOTWEAR (BOOTS)

In the Netherlands, protective footwear is covered by the standard NEN

3420, which provides s u f f i c i e n t scope for developing a safe type of boot.
As a minimum requirement, however, a f i r e boot must be resistant to
mechanical damage via the intermediate sole (nails and similar objects)
and incorporate an integral protective toe-cap, while the sole must be
a n t i - s t a t i c and resistant to o i l s and f a t s , an ankle protector should be
f i t t e d , and the leg must conform to specifications r e l a t i n g to water
repellence, vapour permeability and mechanical strength.

REFERENCES

1. B.V. Holcombe, The Heat Related Properties of Protective Clothing

F a b r i c s . F i r e Safety Journal 6/1983;

2. Fire Safety Journal 4/1981; Seminar on F i r e f i g h t e r s ' Clothing and

Heat Protection;

3. G.C. Coletta, The Development of C r i t e r i a for F i r e f i g h t e r s ' Gloves.

NI0SH/1976;

4. I.Z.F. 1982, Thermische gevolgen van Modificatie van de Waterkerende

van een Drie-lagig Brandweerpak, W.A. Ltens;

5. I.Z.F. 1981, Een vergelijking van drie brandweerpakken

I : Fysiologische b e l a s t i n g . W.A. Ltens;

6. I.Z.F. 1982, Een vergelijking van drie brandweerpakken.

I I : Ergonomie en Praktijkproeven. W.A. Ltens.
 400

SUMMARY BY THE SESSION CHAIRMAN

J.M. DELESDERRIER

First paper: Use of electronic systems for fire detection, fire alara
and fire-fighting. Mr. A.A.M. Borremans, Engineer and Assistant Director
of Siemens Nederland N.V.

The speaker who gave his address on behalf of Euralarm, the Euro-
pean Association of Protection Technology firms said that special atten-
tion should be paid to the new era in the history of fire detection
with the application of microelectronics.

Whereas in traditional fire detection installations, it has always

been the detector which automatically decided whether an alarm should
be set off and the fire alarm centre had received, registered and trans-
mitted the information, in the most recent installations the detectors
had been replaced by sensors which transmitted a continuous stream of
information to a fire alarm centre equipped with a microprocessor. The
de tactor lines were interrogated once a second and each sensor responded
with a pulse. The appearance of smoke reduced sensor response time which
varied according to the thickness of the smoke.

This pulse interrogation system meant that each individual sensor

could be identified and sensitivity could be maintained by accounting
for most ambient changes.

The presence of a microprocessor in the fire alarm centre facili-

tated "calibration" of information with alarm triggering potential.

The speaker hoped that the cost of the new technique and national
approval procedures would not delay its installation. He thought it an
apt moment at which to appeal to the European laboratories to standardize
the approval tests as quickly as possible for these new and promising
systems.

Once the new systems had been approved and the transition period
allowed for, there should be regulations to ban the use of the old
techniques for all installations connected to official fire services.

Second paper: New Intervention Techniques, CFP R. Paramor, Essex County

Fire Brigade and member of the European Association.

The speaker said how interesting and rather strange it was that
much priority work has been undertaken at all levels in the field of
fire prevention, whereas updating intervention techniques had been
largely neglected by all those who were not directly concerned. Firemen
were often left to their own devices with low budgets, to develop new
techniques without being able to benefit from results obtained in the
same field by colleagues from other parts of the Community.
 401

Innovations by commercial companies often developed only slowly

due to the high price of new apparatus produced in only a limited
quantity.

Fire men often had no choice but to adapt equipment originally

designed for other uses. Improving special apparatus was a slow process
due to the low usage rate in each town or city.

Special mention was made of the infra red cameras currently being
developed which allow the commander to see from the outside what was
happening on the inside. The use of computers would greatly increase
fire-fighting effectiveness. The speaker hoped that the symposium would
prompt cooperation in the development of intervention techniques where
there was a wealth of ideas and experience and no conflict of interest.

The paper was accompanied by an impressive display of visual

material.

Third paper: Protective Clothing for Firemen.

This paper was the result of detailed research by French and Dutch
officers led by Commander P. Renevier from Nantes and Deputy Commander
C.H.R. Haver from Velsen. Mr. Haver gave a summary of the research.

A very detailed comparison of the properties of the main materials

used to make fire jackets had demonstrated the advantage of new fibres
with an aromatic polyamide or a polyheterocyclic polyamide base.

The highlight of the second part was the presentation of the new
helmet developed by the Paris fire brigade. The AE was urged to take
steps to facilitate approval in the Member states with a view to making
it the first truly European helmet.

It was impossible to overemphasize the importance of protecting

firemen by cutting back on clothing that restricted them in their work.

In terms of personal equipment, fire-fighting services were in

general left to themselves and could only go to suppliers for advice.
The community was asked to designate one or more official laboratories
for testing protective materials for firemen.
 403

SUMMARIES OF THE WORKSHOPS

1 - Economics
2 - Tests anc classification
3 - Regulations
4 - Problems of fire services

CLOSING SPEECH
 404

SUMMARY OF WORKSHOP NO 1 - ECONOMICS

CHAIRMAN : Professor D.J. RASBAS1I, Edinburgh University

RAPPORTEUR: Tom WILMUT, World Fire Statistics Centre

1. INTRODUCTION

The workshop was well attended and a lively discussion over the
four hours ranged over a wide selection of interesting questions posed
by delegates. These questions were handled within the context of the
Symposium's aim to consider "the measure that can be taken to cut fire
costs and to reduce fire risks". It was felt that the Symposium had
succeeded in establishing a new initiative at European level and the
Workshop hoped that the Commission would feel encouraged to follow up
the valuable initiatives that have taken place.

The Workshop's theme "Economics" was concerned with the fact that
Fire is costing most European countries around 1% of Gross Domestic
Product and that if even a small proportion of this cost could be saved,
large sums would be involved. In selecting items for inclusion in this
report, priority has been given to suggestions which were made which
raised the possibility of further action at EEC level. Amongst broad
areas worthy of further study in an effort to reduce the overall cost
of fire, the Workshop recognised the need for European action to:-

1. Quantify fire costs (both losses and protection costs) more

accurately.
2. Improve the effectiveness of fire prevention and protection.

For clarity, the report headings are related, where possible, to

the seven criteria used for assessing Lhe cost of fires by M. P. de
Moulins, (French Centre National de Prevention et de Protection) in
his paper given to the Symposium

1. Direct fire losses (30%)

2. Indirect fire losses (5%)
3. Human losses - Death and Injuries (5%)
4. Cost of administering fire insurance (15%)
5. Cost of intervention by fire-fighting
organisations (15%)
6. Cost of prevention in buildings (30%)
7. Cost of fire research, education and publicity (1/2%)
 405

It was recognised that there was also an additional important item

of fire costs - the cost of prevention for contents of buildings, but as
this item has been regarded as too difficult to quantify, no specific
heading has been allotted to it.

Underlying much of the Workshop's discussions was the consideration

of the extent to which harmonisation could help in improving Europe's
fire problems.

The report that follows starts by suggesting a European aim in

tackling fire problems. It goes on to suggest a possible procedure to
achieve this aim. Next, comments are made on several items of fire costs
(Direct and Indirect fire losses, European fire cost statistics, cost of
intervention by fire-fighting organisations, cost of protecting buildings
against fire and finally cost of fire research, education and publicity) .
It is suggested that small additional additions to this final item of
fire costs could result in disproportionate savings elsewhere.

2. WORKSHOP DISCUSSION.

A EUROPEAN AIM IN TACKLING FIRE PROBLEMS.

The Workshop felt that it was crucial for the Symposium to demons-
trate the will in the EEC to tackle fire problems energetically and one
delegate proposed that the goal should be "To halve the cost of fire by
the end of the century".

Although it was generally felt that "halving" was too ambitious

a target, nevertheless overwhelming support was given to the suggestion
that the EEC goal should be "To bring about a substantial reduction in
the cost of fire \?y the end of the century, whilst keeping safety of
life and the general feeling of public security against fire at least
at the present level".

In looking at the scope for hitting this target, it was felt that
there might be only limited scope for reducing the volume of life
loss since this had been a high priority for governments for many years.
The most rewarding action was likely to be concerned with reducing
property loss and reducing fire protection costs, - aspects which in
many countries has been only a secondary priority for governments.

In considering how the EEC might achieve such an aim, it was

suggested that a possible procedure might be:-

a) the formation of a small EEC working party to consider the basic

proposals for action suggested by the four Workshops. Such
working party would be likely to include representatives from
some of the organisations involved in the Symposium.

b) Priorities might then be allotted to the various proposals.

c) In* Working party might then report back to the EEC in the hope
that their recommendations would receive a friendly response.
 406

EUROPEAN FIRE COSTS SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTION

The working party discussed a wide variety of topics, including the

following subjects which appeared to them as being particularly rewar
ding for possible EEC action:

1. Direct and Indirect fire losses.

Arson was regarded as the major area warranting European action and
the workshop greatly welcomed the action of CFPA Europe in organi
sing a European seminar in 1985. It was felt that close cooperation
between the EEC and CFPA Europe could only be beneficial and that
a high priority should be given to devoting available resources
to tackling this fastgrowing problem at European as well as at
national level.

One practical suggestion put forward was that a data bank of infor
mation showing how materials of all kinds are affected by fires
should be prepared. By making this data bank available at an early
stage to teams investigating arson, the judiciary processes dealing
with arson could be made more efficient.

2. European fire cost statistics.

Several speakers stressed the importance of accurate national fire

statistics, not only for losses but also for protection costs (see
headings mentioned in Introduction and used in Symposium paper on
Cost of Fires). The importance of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe's fire statistical scheme wat> mentioned;
under this scheme 14 countries supply national fire cost statistics
annually to the United Nations and the World Fire Statistics Centre
produces an annual report. It was hoped that the EEC would play
its part in encouraging this scheme (in conjunction with the United
Nations and the World Fire Statistics Centre).

Looking ahead to improvements in national fire statistics, it was

suggested that closer cooperation between governments, fire brigades
and fire insurance companies could be beneficial. As examples of
countries where close cooperation exists, Austria and Canada were
mentioned. In these two countries, the annual statistics showing
the causes and locations of fires not only cover the number of
fires and the number of casualties but also contain invaluable
additional information about the monetary losses. Such additional
information would help in many fire studies Arson for example.

Another area warranting better statistics was felt to be the pro

vision of better information on the effectiveness of fire protec
tion measures such as sprinklers, fire detectors compartmentation
and means of escape. At present reports by fire brigades in many
countries cover this important item inadequately.

3. Cost of intervention by firefighting organisations.

Although this is an important item of fire costs, since another

Workshop was considering fire services, the Economics Workshop
only discussed the subject briefly. It was felt however that it
 407

was an important area for EEC discussion and that useful action
at EEC level could help national problems.

The problem of Industrial Fire Brigades was discussed and thought

to be worthy of European study, bearing in mind the tendency in
some countries for firms to reduce industrial fire brigades on
grounds of economy. The widespread German industrial fire
brigade system was described and the working party was interested
to learn of the insurance premium discounts which are sometimes
granted to firms with efficient fire brigades. In some cases these
discounts actually exceed the cost of running the brigade. As the
German fire record is generally believed to be a very good one,
this information reinforced the Workshop's belief that Industrial
Fire Brigades could be usefully studied at EEC level.

4. Cost of protecting buildings against fire.

It was felt that this item of fire costs presented exciting pros-
pects for substantial savings in several areas. The following
topics raised during the Workshop's discussion are by no means
all-embracing, particularly bearing in mind that several important
topics - Fire Tests for example - were discussed in far greater
detail by other Workshops.

Suggested possible areas for further study included:-

a) Harmonisation - particularly where barriers to trade exist.

In some areas, sprinklers for example, it was felt that the
technical case for harmonisation was complete and that only
political difficulties stood in the way.

b) Analysis of fire risks - to allow quantitative measures of fire

safety. The need to develop the methodology and European data
base for this analysis was stressed and the Workshop noted the
varying national approaches such as the French fault-tree
approach and the Swiss Gretener points approach, and the German
probability based approach to structural design. These compared
with the more traditional approach in the U.K.

c) Cost and complexity of building regulations.

A constant theme of several speakers was the belief that in some

countries, building regulations were now involving too high
implementation costs and had become too complicated. The Work-
shop showed sympathy with the UK governments attempts to relax
some of the requirements and to place more responsibility on
property owners who could then employ Fire Safety Engineers to
advise them.

d) Fire alarms, portable extinguisher etc.

A debate took place on the rapid rise of cheap smoke detectors

in the U.S.A. and different opinions were expressed on their
cost-effectiveness and reliability. It was felt that worthwhile
European research could be valuable in assessing the effective-
ness and reliability, not only of smoke detectors, but also of
 408

various types of fire protection systems.

e) National Certification systems Harmonisation.

In connection with assessing the costeffectiveness and relia

bility of fire protection systems, reference was made to the
recent steps towards National Certification systems which
represented an important step forward. At present in most
countries, a large number of authorities are involved in assess
ing the quality of fire protection systems. Once these numerous
authorities become united in a national approval scheme, an
important role for EEC will emerge in harmonising the varying
standards laid down by national schemes. Such harmonisation
will become important in encouraging recipricocity amongst
national approval schemes thus removing barriers to trade and
cutting fire costs. One area in which EEC action along these
lines could help in the long run, was the longstanding one
of false fire alarms.

5. Cost of fire research, education and publicity.

Many speakers supported the view that the current sums spent on
this important item are surprisingly small, being only around
1/2% of total fire costs. By comparison, in industry research
budgets frequently run at the rate of 5% of turnover. The
Workshop felt that even if this item of fire costs were doubled
to say 1%, dramatic reductions in other items of fire costs
might follow.

Amongst potential areas mentioned were

) European existing research bodies possible aid.

Many of the bodies helping to organise the Symposium such as

CFPA Europe and the Association of Professional Fire Brigade
Officers (A E) are involved in studies aimed at cutting
European fire costs. However the limited funds available
and the wide range of national fire problems mean that very
great efforts need to be made to fit in European Firework
if it is not to delay high priority work on day to day
national fire problems. A small EEC grant to such bodies
could enable staff to be employed with specific European
responsibilities who could help in organising such activities
as the projected CFPA Europe Arson Seminar.

b) Possible EEC Fire Research Council.

One possible method of implementing EEC action on research

which was suggested was the formation of a small EEC Fire
Research Council with an Organising Committee formed from
fire experts working in the EEC countries. Such a Council
could then:

1. Select topics for research at EEC level.

2. Form working parties to carry out research.
3. Organise symposiums to discuss action on working party reports
 409

c) Reducing costs of building protection.

Many of the subjects at present being studied by fire

research bodies in Europe could be handled faster and more
efficiently if a little more money were available for staff,
travel expenses etc.

d) Education - Universities and schools.

It is significant that countries contain a strong cadre

of well trained fire engineers appear to benefit by enjoying
low fire losses. At present frequently lack of funds restricts
this training and enlightened encouragement could result in
future generations tackling fire problems more scientifically.

Fire safety education on schools was another cash-short area

mentioned, although it was recognised that care was needed
to ensure that fire safety education in schools would not
have the opposite effect and lead to Incendairism.

e) Publicity.

Although powerful campaigns of TV advertising would clearly

be likely to involve large additional funding, nevertheless
small additions to publicity budgets could be rewarding,
particularly if preced by some European review of fire publi-
city methods in EEC countries and in N. America.

One possible role for closer EEC cooperation might lie in the
possibility of interchange of existing fire publicity material.

3) CONCLUSION

In seeking to hit the European target of materially reducing the

cost of fire by the end of the century the Workshop felt that much
would depend on the ability to put over to the public the significance
of this new European will to treat fire costs as an urgent priority.

Once the campaign started rolling, it was felt that the major areas
for savings might lie in building protection costs and in fire losses
(Direct and Indirect). The major area for more effort and for greater
financial resources was thought to be fire research, education and
publicity.
 410

SUMMARY OF WORKSHOP NO 2 -TESTS AND CLASSIFICATION

CHAIRMAN: J. MATHEZ, Head of Fire Safety Department - CSTB Paris.

RAPPORTEUR: Y. TROTTEIN, Auxlrbat - Paris.

REPORT OF PROCEEDINGS

The workshop dealt with the following three points:

. issues concerning equipment (sprinklers, detectors etc.)

. resistance to fire
. reaction to fire (or fire behaviour).

As regards the last point, an attempt was made to keep smoke and
fume production and combustion effluent toxicity separate from' reaction
to fire proper (i.e. the role of the materials in ignition and develop-
ment of a fire).

Mr Bineau (C.N.P.P.) summed up the situation regarding equipment.

He agreed with Mr De Coster (EURALARM) that, on the technical level,
the approach to detection and extinguishing equipment was relatively
similar in the various countries, and that the commercial difficulties
faced by manufacturers were due to the fact that equipment certification
systems varied from one Community country to another. The question of
quality control warranted special attention.

As a result, the certifying bodies, whether they be insurers or -

as regards detection - the official standards bodies, should come to-
gether and try to agree on joint acceptance principles for equipment
approval.

Dr Vandeveide had dealt with the problem of fire resistance in his

paper entitled "Classification tests on building components".

The technical barriers to trade were well-known and well-catalogued

in this field.

The following points were noted:

- An element of distortion in the fire resistance tests - especially

for the structural elements - as regards securing the test pieces
and the measurement conditions in the furnaces. This was a matter
which it was thought should be easy to settle through stricter
definition of the conditions. (Proposals would be made by the group
of three experts in the report they were preparing at the Communi-
ty' s request).
 411

- The problem of additional criteria included by certain countries

in fire resistance tests and additional elements introduced during
testing (water shock or spraying, etc.) which might alter the
classification categories without, however, putting a complete
stop to the exchange of results. Full harmonization would require
a number of changes in national procedures.

- Another point touched by Prof. Kordina in his paper concerned

calculation methods, harmonization of which was being studied
by such bodies as the European Committee for Concrete and the
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork; however, the
tests linked to the calculation methods should not be forgotten.

For load-bearing components this was clearly a fundamental problem;

while such calculations were not yet fully recognized as proof of fire
resistance, the general trend was to do so.

It was therefore felt that great importance should be attached to

the calculation methods and the associated tests designed to determine
the characteristics of the materials to be used in the calculations
(cf. the basic issue of products for protecting structure frames, whether
steel or concrete).

Following on from this review it was stressed that the work under-
taken by the Community (report of the three experts) dealt with struc-
tures proper that in actual fact the technical barriers to exports arose
mainly in connection with protection for metal structures, insulating
materials, doors, suspended ceilings etc, and these should be a prime
target for future work.

The remaining problem was that of furnaces and the heat flow in
then, where the only viable solution in the relatively short term was
to make adjustments on a direct experimental basis (as suggested by Dr
Vandeveide). It was felt that this should be followed up.

In this connection, Dr Vandeveide thought there was a marked

tendency to exaggerate the discrepancies resulting from the different
heat flows. Other factors were, in fact, more important: i.e. differences
in interpreting the criteria, interpretation of flameproofness, etc.

The Chairman thought that while the possibility of making adjustments

to the furnaces could be investigated,a posteriori changes would be
difficult to carry out in practice and it would be better to make adjust-
ments a priori, i.e. at the pilot stage.

Other issues which might hamper the exchange of results were broached
especially "identification of the constituents of fire resistance compo-
nents and test pieces", an important point which it was felt should be
considered. It was not expected to cause any major difficulty, but for
harmonization purposes it was necessary to supplement the fire resistance
directives with information on how to identify the products, from the
mechanical as well as thermal angle.

It would also be desirable to study quality control and certifica-

tion practices in order to further facilitate the exchange of results.
 412

The other concerned bodies would then have to be approached with

a view to the general acceptance of the harmonized classifications.

Finally, it was desirable that the necessary changes in test condi-

tions be undertaken at European level.

The third discussion topic concerned reaction to fire, a field in

which the immense diversity of European tests was a barrier to interna-
tional trade.

The different approaches with potential for improving this situa-

tion were reiterated:

1. Direct use of the work of ISO TC 92,

2. Use of model building techniques,
3. A pragmatic approach proposed by the Commission: i.e. studying
the various ways of using the observations made during a test
in one country to decide whether to give approval for a given
use in another country.

Given the variety of reasons for harmonization, the aim might be:

. either to do away with barriers to trade,

. or to establish a system better than the present one.

The classifications were, in fact, a rather simplistic system and

improvements were desirable in many cases.

This explained the advantages of model building which, by taking

account of basic properties, would yield predictions better suited
to particular problems. It was conceivable that the existence of a system
for predicting reaction to fire would enable harmonization to be achieved
without difficulty. However, at the moment it was impossible to say when
this approach would be operational.

The work of ISO TC 92 was not yet finished, neither on the test
methods themselves nor as regards their use. Changing national test
methods also gave rise to major practical problems. In the shorter term
a study of the pragmatic approach had been commissioned from IRBAT by
the EEC. Mr Blachre had summarized the broad guidelines of this study
in his paper on fire behaviour tests in the EEC, the aim being to see
if it was possible to glean from tests carried out in one country
information which would make it possible to get a material accepted for
a given use in another country.

In other words, it was not a question of classification equivalence,

which was open to suspicion - and tightly so - because of the risks
involved.

Neither were modifications to the experimental apparatus envisaged.

The initial assessments by the authors of the study suggested:

. possible acceptance in 50% of cases,

 413

. acceptance could be proposed in another 25% of cases if

certain checks were carried out (Miich were not covered by the
study).

Manufacturers1 main concerns were expressed by Mr Nelson, the

President of the Committee on Fire of the European Coated Fabrics
Association:

. they would like to have better information on regulations, tests

and classifications;

. they would like to obtain the necessary certificates quickly

(it was for this reason that Mr Blachre's suggestion was of
interest to them);

. they would like to keep cost as low as possible (i.e. the costs
of lost production due to modifying the product in order to meet
test requirements).

Mr Vandeveide said that conditions should be created at legislative

level in order to facilitate trade: i.e. acceptance of the results from
foreign laboratories (something which Member States1 laws did not accept
at the moment, a national list of official laboratories being generally
laid down).

It was difficult to envisage carrying out additional identification

tests in connection with reaction to fire, as this would be too expensive,
and the reaction test was in itself already a product identification
test.

The authorities were faced with the tricky problem of guaranteeing

conformity for certain products in circulation or which had been modified.
It might be possible to solve this at the certification level. Information
labelling had also discussed.

These points were suggested to the Commission for study, in order

to realize the harmonization potential, as being points which, as
regards reaction to fire, determined the ease of trade flows. What was
needed was a European policy on this topic.

Mr Roux (A.P.S.A.I.R.D.) voiced the insurance companies' concerns:

. like the manufacturers, they wished to see speedy harmonization;

. they also wanted to see common certification procedures for
products and information labelling;
. products which might require special rating remained a major
problem, however.

The new short-term approach suggested by Mr Blachre would, he

said, improve the present situation. It met with interest on the manu-
facturers' side, and experts found the approach interesting.

Steps should therefore be taken to confirm the conclusions once

the report was published, taking account of the suggestions made on
improving the percentages quoted.
 414

There should also be recognition of the results of tests carried

out by another country in the prduct's country of origin. This was a
delicate matter which required careful preparation, and which could not
be assessed by the workshop.

Given that the above approach came under the heading of 'exchange'
and not improvement of systems, the studies should be pursued in the
longer term, examining the possibilities offered by model building in
utilizing test results such as those of ISO TC 92.

The last point concerned tests on smoke and fume production and the
toxicity of combustion effluents, which had been discussed separately,
in view of their still restricted utilization and the reservations
expressed by the experts (see Dr Herpol's paper on toxicity). There
seemed to be grounds for improving the test conditions, which were
rather inflexible at the moment.

It was also noted that there were divergent, entrenched attitudes,

and that technical measures should be undertaken urgently to improve
things.
 415

SUMMARY OF WORKSHOP NO 3 - REGULATIONS

CHAIRMAN: Professor R. MINNE, Laboratorium voor Aanwending der Brand-

stoffen en Warmte-Overdracht, Rijksuniversiteit Gent
RAPPORTEUR: L. TWILT, Technical Centre for Fire Prevention, TNO, Delft

This report summarizes the results of the discussion? during Work-

shop No. 3. An attempt has been made to integrate into the report
certain written comments and replies to written questions submitted
during the symposium and which bear upon the areas discussed in workshop
No. 3.

The following are the major observations arising from our discuss-
ions:

It was noted that there was very little difference between the
Member States of the European Communities as regards the basic
principles underlying regulations in the field of fire protection.
On the whole, what differences there were related mostly to matters
of detail. Nevertheless, it was precisely such matters of detail
which were seriously impeding free trade between the countries of
Europe.

Attention was drawn to the present serious lack of data likely to

be of help in assessing hov significant an effect these differences
were having on the overall effectiveness of fire protection measures.
For this reason the workshop requests the Commission to encourage
surveys aimed at collecting and comparing statistical data on the
frequency and consequences of fires in the various Member States.
The results of such surveys would enable conclusions to be drawn
on the effects which existing differences were having on safety
levels.

A further important observation which arose from our discussions

was that existing regulations seldom made clear the particular
purpose which they were intended to serve. It was recommended in
this regard that future regulations at Community level should give
priority to the safeguarding of human lives, a necessary implication
of which would be that the requirement to safeguard buildings and
their contents also be fulfilled to a greater or lesser extent.
Then, if the expense were not too great, or if the importance of
the building or its contents were such as to require it, additional
fire protection measures should be considered. Our discussions
stressed the fact that the measures needed to safeguard human life
concerned not only the lives of a building's occupants, but also
involved the building's design, which should be such as to guarantee
the firemen's safety when they enter.

It was pointed out in the course of the discussion, which concerned

the basic principles of fire protection, that the same matters had
 416

already been discussed 15 years ago, and the hope was expressed that
the work undertaken by the Commission would now result in positive
action being taken.

It was also noted that various national regulations and testing

methods were at present under review. It was therefore felt to
be important that the Commission produce written guidelines as
soon as possible, so that the existing divergencies between various
national regulations and testing methods were not further increased.

In contrast to the procedures currently in force, which served to

break down what is a single overall problem into a number of
discrete smaller problems, the workshop agreed that there was a
real need for regulations based on an agreed overall safety level.
Such regulations would entail the introduction of new criteria which
would be expressed in terms such as "overall level of risk" or
"safety level". In this regard a number of manufacturers had asked
for regulations to be drawn up which were based on the performance
of building components and materials and which did not exclude or
unduly,discriminate against particular materials on the basis of
criteria unrelated to their performance with regard to fire. It
was felt that this would prevent a situation in .which regulations
failed to keep pace with the rapid progress in the development of
new materials and new building techniques. With this in mind, it
was suggested that the existence of active fire protection provisions,
such as automatic fire-fighting systems to name but one, should lead
to a reduction in passive provisions. It was thought that, given
a certain safety level it would then be possible to find and put
into practice the most economical balance between active and passive
provisions. One direct consequence of this approach to the problem
would be that regulations would have to include explicit instruc-
tions regarding the reliability, mode of operation, installation,
etc. of these active fire-fighting provisions. During our discussions
attention was drawn to the work carried out by the ICBR/W14 which
has put forward a method based on the above-mentioned risk factors.
This method was dicussed in the paper presented by Mrs Kersken-
Bradley.

A further concern expressed during the discussions was that the

procedures involved in carrying through the proposal to make
building design dependent on risk factors might prove unduly compli-
cated and elaborate. It was felt that signs should not be lost of
the fact that it was architects ;and designers and not, as a rule,
fire protection experts who would have to apply the regulations
and that this was reason enough for retaining the simple parameter of
"required fire-resistance" in the regulations. Furthermore it
was becoming increasingly common for architects to request the use
of building components which were "deemed to satisfy". This saved
designers both time and effort and cut out the cost of complex
calculations or tests which could also slow down considerably the
progress of a building project. On the other hand, the recommended
sizes and dispositions of these "deemed to satisfy" building compo-
nents were such that any one component should guarantee a certain
level of fire resistance in different everyday conditions. This
generally meant that such building components would be more or less
 417

oversize and therefore less economical. Professor Kordinafs paper

made clear that concrete building components which were "deemed to
satisfy" the requirements of different national regulations differed
in major respects, while apparently offering the same resistance
to fire. There were three main reasons for this:

a) the degree to which components were overdimensioned was arrived at

more or less arbitrarily;

b) the data required to establish a list of components which were

"deemed to satisfy" were obtained in tests whose procedures (and
therefore results) differed form country to country;

c) the working load which a load-bearing component may carry was

calculated on the basis of national building codes which varied
from country to country. This was further proof that the harmoni-
zation of fire protection regulations was not an isolated problem,
but had to be considered in the context of a far wider programme
of harmonization.

It was stressed that regulations very seldom covered the contents

of buildings, even though it was well known that the influence of
such contents on a fire was very considerable. It was therefore
obvious that any future regulations must comprise more than a
building code, testing methods and classification procedures etc.
Workshop participants felt strongly that there was a need to consider
the problems caused by smoke and fumes; these included the genera-
tion and toxicity of smoke and fumes, the spread of smoke within
a building and the problems of smoke extraction.

It was noted that harmonization was sometimes minimal as regards

signs and fire-escape notices, fire extinguishers, smoke extractor
systems etc. The workshop therefore requests the Commission to study
this problem and to work out a clear and comprehensible system of
signs.

The point was made that it was sometimes easier to attack the causes
of a fire than to attack the fire itself. With this in mind the
workshop agreed that the Commission's attention should be drawn
to the safety hazards which electrical equipment and heating
appliances could cause, not just in new blocks but above all in
older buildings.

The scarcity of architects and civil engineering consultants at the

symposium prompted workshop participants to request the Commission
to consider the problem of responsibility in the case of loss
through fire. It was proposed to increase the responsibility not
just of architects, but also of building's users.

In harmonizing regulations the workshop proposed that the following

steps be taken:
 418

a) in_the_shot term: a review of existing regulations should be

produced and published. This could be used as a basis for harmo
nization and would be of immediate value to manufacturers in
their fight against trade barriers;

b) in the long_ term: the following points should be established:

* the objectives which the regulations are designed to achieve;
* the required safety levels or the levels of risk acceptable
in different situations.
It would also be necessary:
to continue or begin scientific research in those areas where
not enough is known, so ag to ensure that regulations are both
comprehensive and cogent;
to supplement and finalize classification methods for materials,
building components and alarm and extinction systems.

10. On another point, it was felt that proper attention should be drawn
to the problem of arson, which was beginning to reach alarming
proportions. The workshop realized that this was more a mattar
for the legal authorities but nevertheless stressed that the
consequences of this crime were of immediate concern to us all.
For this reason the Commission is requested to study the problem
and to ensure that Member States are made fully aware that such
a problem exists.

11. Finally, it was noted that when fire broke out in a building the
reactions of occupants were often far from ideal given the situa
tion, and in some cases even made matters worse (doors were left
open, people went in the wrong direction, fire extinguishers could
not be operated etc). On the other hand, it was clear that the
problem of fire protection in all buildings both public buildings
and private dwellings could only be solved by relying on the
awareness of occupants. The general public had therefore to be
informed about and made more aware of the dangers of fire, the
behaviour of certain materials in fires and the various means of
firefighting available. An information campaign of this kind
could be carried out in schools, in cinemas and in the media.
Similarly, it was felt that employees in factories and in public
buildings catering for high concentrations of people (theatres etc.)
should receive more adequate training as regards the problem of
fire. It is proposed in this regard that the Commission should
encourage schemes to promote the dissemination of information,
increase public awareness and improve training.
 419

SUMMARY OF WORKSHOP NO 4 - PROBLEMS OF FIRE SERVICES

CHAIRMAN: P. EUI.ENBURG, Fire Brigade Commander, Essen
RAPPORTEUR: K. SEEGERER, Branddirektion der Landeshauptstadt Mnchen

The President of the AE opened the workshop on the problems of fire

services by pointing out that its main task would be to discuss ways of
improving the effectiveness of the AE's work on the basis of points
which had arisen in the symposium over the previous two days.

The ensuing discussion centred on the purpose of the workshop and

the problems of fire brigades and fire-fighting services with special
reference to questions arising from the previous two days of the
seminar, and approached from the fire brigades' point of view.

The following is an outline of the main problems of European fire

services examined during the discussion. It gives a picture of the
present situation and of the prospects for the future.

1. Problems

1.1 Problems of cooperation between the Commission of the European

Communities and the AE -
Optimum cooperation to be achieved by means of symposia and by using
AE advise for the Commission's work.

1.2 Problems of cooperation with European institutions such as Eurofeu,

Euralarm, EIC, CEN

- Procedures to harmonize standards and design recommendations for

fire engines, extinguishers, sprinkler systems and alarms at
European level should be initiated as soon as possible.

1.3 Problems of cooperation with international fire brigade associations

(CTIF)

- AE cooperation with the CTIF must be improved in order to avoid

duplication of effort.

1.4 Participation in the formulation of guidelines for the transpor-

tation of dangerous goods.

- The contribution of the European fire brigades to the work of the

transport bodies of the European Community on the formulation of
guidelines for the transportation of dangerous goods, is limited
and should be iraproved.

1.5 The use of containers for cross-border assistance in the event of

disasters and emergencies within the EEC.

- In order to guarantee maximum cross-border assistance in the

event of disasters or emergencies within the EEC standard
 420

minimum requirements must be laid down for the containers used

by fire brigades.

2. Evaluation of the current situation

2.1 The legal aspects

2.2 Different organizational structures of the fire brigades of

Europe

- Problems occur because of variations in manning levels, vehicles,

equipment and working hours.

2.3 The problem of financing fire brigades

- the financial situation to be improved by contributions from

insurance firms.

2.4 The problem of integrating women into the fire service.

3. Prospects

3.1 A report to be compiled on the minimum levels of manpower, vehicles

and equipment, at the same time taking into account fire prevention
measures.

3.2 Development of a risk assessment procedure, taking into consideration

local criteria for equipment and manning and at the same time
ensuring the existence of auxiliary fire prevention measures (e.g.
the density and reliability of the communications 'nevofck, the
availability of a water supply, unobstructed access to critical
areas).

3.3 The appointment of expert advisers of the AE to assist in the work

of the Commission.

3.A Heightened public awareness in Europe and support for fire protec-
tion.

1. Problems to be confronted

1.1 The problem of cooperation between the Commission and the AE.

The question was asked as to how the EEC - or rather, the Commission
- could help Europe's fire brigades to solve their problems, one
suggestion being to undertake relevant studies at EEC level. The
participants of the workshop agreed that the first step must be to
identify the most important problems in order to determine the
extent of help needed from the Commission.

It was pointed out that, during the course of the symposium, Ober-
branddirektor Seegerer from Munich had commented at length on the
location of fire services, and had pointed to the growing tendency
to locate sensitive structures in the countryside, thus giving rise
to problems, especially when high risk complexes such as shopping
 421

centres, supermarkets or leisure centres were located well out of

the bounds of any fire service.

The problem was thus being passed on to the local fire brigade which
was very often the least well equipped to deal with it. The
building owner and the planning authorization body were rid of
their responsibility, which devolved on the small volunteer fire
brigade which was neither sufficiently equipped nor adequately
trained to deal with such a large fire or emergency, so that the
failure of any such intervention was almost inevitable. As Mr
Seegerer said: "Regrettably, just recently there has been a whole
series of examples of such misconceptions (deliberate or other-
wise) - some of them within the European Community. In my opinion,
it is time to start work on an assessment procedure for high-risk
buildings which, in particular, takes full account of the capabili-
ties of the brigades which would be called out in case of fire".

An initial step forward at European level could be the introduction

of an objective, universal assessment procedure which, apart from
thoroughly examining all the risk-related details on the building
involved, would also take into account the capabilities of the
local fire brigade. Special note should be taken of current
manning levels, the capacity and number of vehicles, the amount
and capacity of rescue equipment such as turntable ladders, hydrau-
lic lift platforms and the like. Facilities for providing medical
attention for the injured should be considered along with the
average time between the raising of the alarm and the arrival of
the fire brigade at the scene of the fire. The risk assessment pro-
cedure must take into consideration the training and the professio-
nal ability of firemen.

European legislation on risk assessment would go a long way towards

standardizing and harmonizing fire services.

The participants of the workshop were all for the harmonization of

standards for equipment and engines at European level thus making
possible longer production runs. Connected to this, but even more
important for ordinary people, was the harmonization of safety
regulations, for example in hotels, department stores, hospitals
and leisure centres. It was also thought helpful to lay down a
European type of fire alarm based on detectors and sensors geared
specifically to the needs of fire brigades.

It was also thought desirable to involve fire experts from the

Member States in the work of regulating the transportation of
dangerous goods much more than had been the case hitherto. The
fire brigade was, it was pointed out, the institution responsible
for eliminating dangers in situ, a job it could only do effectively
if it was presented with information on the hazardous nature of the
material in good time. The participants felt that the basic elements
in fire-fighting and rescue operations were the same in all
European countries. There was no difference between a British, a
French, or a German fire, and problems arising from this situation
were the same everywhere. Differences in organizational structures
still existed and, in order to bring about improvements in the
 422

fire protection of buildings, agreement had to be reached on

drawing up guidelines as part of a risk assessment procedure,
based on standard European regulations and taking into account the
capacity of local fire brigades.

In Germany, for example, attempts had been made to grant reductions

in fire insurance premiums on the basis of the standard of fire
services.

Thus in the case of a well-manned brigade, adequately supplied with

fire engines and fire-fighting equipment, the reductions were quite
significant. In Bavaria an attempt had been made by means of
standard value procedures to evaluate all of these factors (e.g. the
location of the fire station with respect to the building, the
amount of time required to arrive at the scene of the fire, time
lost because of traffic delays, etc.), as objectively as possible.

The UK Government had set out to compile a comprehensive set of

national fire statistics and the resultant report has stated that,
with reference to fire protection regulations, comparisons with
other European countries were not possible because fire brigades
were not organized in the same manner or according to the same
legislative provisions. As a result a committee composed of fire
brigade officers had been set up four years ago to investigate the
situation and was now ready to present its final conclusions. This
Committee also believed in the need for standardizing rules and
regulations for the fire protection of buildings throughout Europe.
The participants of Workshop 4 agreed that they would welcome an
initiative on the part of the Commission to set up a universal risk
assessment procedure applicable throughout the Community.

They gratefully acknowledge the fact that, thanks to the initiative

of the Commission to hold a European symposium on fire protection
in buildings, the first steps towards establishing a common European
basis for discussion had been taken. Development of a broader and
firmer basis for discussion by means of future meetings was thought
desirable to enable the countries of the European Community to face
their problems together. The AE would appoint experts from among its
ranks to act as advisers to the Commission and provide basic
information.

The AE felt that, as the association of professional fire brigade

officers, it should be called upon to provide European politicians
with the requisite technical information. An opportunity had to be
found for the members of the AE to come together more frequently
in order to compile a list of the current differences in Europe
and then, within a relatively short space of time, to come up with
suggestions as to how to reconcile these differences, to be
submitted to the European Parliament with a view to being
incorporated in Community legislation.

The AE felt that the opinion of European fire brigades should be

put forward by expert fire officers and not by lawyers or govern-
ment officials who were not sufficiently familiar with the pre-
dominantly technical problem of the fire services.
 423

It was pointed out that the Commission or such political institu-

tions as the European Parliament might show little interest in
solving fire brigade problems until an exact cost-benefit analysis
of any proposed plan became available. In view of the far reaching
political decisions it was thought important for a group of advisers
from the European fire brigades to be available for consultation at
Community level. Only then could some light be shed on the cost-
benefit aspects of various systems.

The participants recognized that the findings of the AE's advisory

committees could be no more than recommendations to MEPs and that
new legislation could only be initiated by the Commission. It was
pointed out that the Commission could only take an interest in
measures which, being applicable throughout Europe, also offered
commercial advantages, which might take the form of the harmoniza-
tion of standards for fire engines and communication and information
systems. The participants welcomed any commercial advantages arising
from solutions applied throughout Europe, but recognized in practice
the drafting of standards was fraught with delays, which meant that
a quick solution to the European question did not seem imminent.

It was reiterated that progress would not be forthcoming unless an

objective assessment procedure was set up for fire engines, appara-
tus and equipment which already complied with national standards.
A scale would have to be devised, on the basis of scientific and
technical laws, to grade the efficiency arid power of any British,
French, Italian or German fire engine. Only then would it be possible
to come up with harmonization proposals covering all of these factors
to the aim of standardized quality fire-fighting equipment throug-
hout Europe.

1.2 The problem of cooperation with European institutions such as Euro-

feu, Euralarm, EIC and CEN.

The representative of Eurofeu (European Committee of the Manufactu-

rers of Fire Engines and Apparatus) stated that the organization
had a membership of about 600, who were anxious for the harmoniza-
tion of standards for fire extinguishers and other fire brigade
equipment at European level to be tackled as soon as possible.

In the meantime Eurofeu has issued 14 guidelines on fire-fighting

equipment, two of which, dealing with fire engines and pumps, and
regarded as of major importance. At the moment Eurofeu is engaged
in a combined effort with insurance companies to harmonize guide-
lines on sprinklers and other fixed fire extinguishing installations,
and is also trying to harmonize existing national standards on hand
extinguishers at European level.

Progress has already been achieved in harmonizing European standards

and regulations in certain areas thanks to the collaboration of fire
brigades and the Committee of Manufacturers of Fire Engines and
Apparatus (Eurofeu), the Committee of the Manufacturers of Alarm
Systems for Fire Detection and Fire Call (Euralarm), and the Manu-
facturers of Stationary and Fortable Fire Extinguishers, who all
worked together with the European Insurance Committee (EIC) and with
 424

the CEN.

Expert fire officers should be involved more in the work of the

committees of manufacturers to lend advice on regulations and
standard specifications, so that European fire brigades can make
their influence felt in these matters.

1.3. The problem of cooperation with the International Technical

Committee for the Prevention and Extinction of Fire (CTIF).

The question of cooperation between the Commission, the AE and the

CTIF, as umbrella organizations for the fire brigades of Europe,
including those of the Eastern bloc countries, was discussed at
great length.

It was decided that collaboration between the Commission and the

AE must be improved first of all, since CTIF had to take into
consideration the differing views of the Eastern bloc countries,
which was holding up the harmonization of European standards.

The participants of workshop 4 agreed that there must be continued

cooperation within the CTIF with representatives of the Eastern
bloc countries and that this should not be abandoned under any
circumstances. It was all the more necessary in order to avoid
duplication of effort when drafting standards. It was however the
explicit policy of the AE to set about harmonizing standards and
guidelines for Europe through the EEC, or to be more precise,
through the Commission.

The initial progress made in this area had been noteworthy. A

representative of the FRG said that, for the last three years, the
syndicate of fire brigade chiefs had been working on a new fire
engine design, due in part to the fact that there were, contrary
to recent trends, many different standardized types of fire engines
in the Federal Republic of Germany. The new design had the backing
not only of the German association of fire brigades (DFV), repre-
senting the volunteer fire brigades, but also of representatives of
fire brigades from other German-speaking countries in Western
Europe.

It was felt to be a very good thing in Germany thatnot only the entire
DFV but also representatives from Austria and Switzerland were
working together to replace the wide range of standard vehicles
with a few uniform models whose modular design meant that they
could be adapted to local needs.

The representatives of the Federal Republic of Germany hoped that

the other Member States would approve this approach as a first step
towards European collaboration.

Representatives from the UK and France basically agreed with this

view, and stressed that greater participation, in an advisory
capacity, on the part of expert firemen in European associations
of manufacturers such as Eurofeu, Euralarm, CEA, or CEN was a
necessary condition for progress towards standardization at
 425

European level. This was endorsed by representatives from Luxembourg

and the Federal Republic of Germany.

The representatives of the Member States participating in Workshop

4 came to the conclusion that advisers from the ranks of the AE
should be placed at the disposal of the European institutions to
maximize the Commission's chances of success in its efforts to
harmonize European regulations.

1 Participation in the formulation of guidelines for the transporta

tion of dangerous goods.

With regard to the formulation of guidelines for the transportation

of dangerous goods within the EEC (A DR, RID, ADN, ADNR), although
the fire brigade is the first organization summoned to lend assis
tance at traffic accidents, they are rarely called upon to partici
pate at the drafting stage, which is the responsibility of the
national Ministries of Transport.

The participants of the Workshop wanted to see much more involvement

on the part of expert fire personnel in the formulation of European
guidelines for the transportation of dangerous goods.

1.5 The use of containers for crossborder assistance in the event of

disasters and emergencies within the EEC.

The use of the container system for emergency rescue services is

becoming more widespread within the EEC. The participants agreed,
however, that for emergency intervention it was necessary to retain
riskrelated systems such as booster tank trucks, fire engines,
special firefighting appliances, rescue equipment, breakdown lorries
and equipment trucks. On the other hand fire brigades had come to
realize that the problem of supplying equipment and material could
be overcome satisfactorily by using containers. A representative of
the Federal Republic of Germany pointed out that in his country
farreaching proposals for the standardization of container systems
had already been made, and these would enable container systems for
supplying equipment to be regarded as compatible for use in
Germany and in the neighbouring Germanspeaking countries.

The participants of the Workshop thought that, in this area in

particular, i.e. the use of container systems, it should be possible
to draft proposals for the harmonization of standards and guide
lines at European level within a relatively short space of time,
given that fire brigades used almost exclusively conventional
container systems in general use in international freight traffic
and transportation.

A representative from Eurofeu said that he fully agreed with the

conclusions already reached in Workshop 4 and said that his
institution would willingly cooperate with the AE in solving
questions arising from the use of container systems.

2. Examination of the current situation

 426

2.1 The legal aspects

During the detailed discussion national representatives drew

attention to the problems caused by different organizational
structures, due in part to the differences in national legislation
in the Member States. However, a common feature of all legal
regulations was that local authorities were responsible for
guaranteeing an adequate fire-fighting and prevention service.
National governments' supervision of, and therefore influence on,
the manning levels of fire brigades, their training and provision
with vehicles and equipment varied from country to country. Within
the EEC, there were on the one hand centralized rules which made
provision for extensive government intervention in organizing
and equipping fire brigades, while on the other hand some central
governments, especially those in countries with a federal form of
government had relatively few opportunities to make their influence
felt.

2.2 Different organizational structures in European fire brigades

Different organizational structures are partly due to differences

in national legislation. On the other hand they may also be caused
by national governments' differing views with regard to the necessary
manning level of a fire brigade, how it is equipped with vehicles
and other apparatus, rules on job aptitude, and the training
necessary to do the job.

Thus within Europe there was a wide variety of approaches to the

organizational structure of fire brigades. In some Member States
a fire engine with a relatively small crew of five to six men is
dispatched first of all to the scene of the fire and may be backed
up with some rescue equipment such as a turntable ladder. In the
Federal Republic of Germany on the other hand, it is more usual
to dispatch a convoy consisting of a pumpwater tender, a fire
engine and a turntable ladder manned by 18 firemen, although smaller
tactical units are sometimes formed with 8 men to each fire
engine, so that several of these smaller units may join up with
larger ones, with a turntable ladder also being supplied.

The situation becomes even more complicated when one considers that
the vehicles used in the fire brigade of the Member States are not
all equally well equipped as regards extinguishers and other
apparatus, which means that some are more efficient and powerful
than others.

One other factor which also contributes to the differences in the

organizational structures is the fact that working hours vary from
country to country in the EEC. 40, 52, 56, 64, 72 or 84 hours may
be worked on average per week depending on the country and a day-
shift may be anything from 8 to 24 hours. This obviously means that
the factors which determine manning levels will vary. The partici-
pants of the workshop agreed that there must be a reserve amounting
to at least 25% of usual brigade strength to cope with staff
shortages due to holidays, sickness or participation in training
courses etc.
 427

Bearing in mind this strategic reserve and the working hours in

force at the time, every essential function in fire brigade opera-
tions must be filled a few times over. In practice this meant that,
on the basis of working hour stipulations currently in force, every
essential function would have to be filled 3.8 times in Germany and
the Netherlands, in order to guarantee availability at all times
over a full 24 hour period, compared with a factor of 5.6 in the
UK and 5.8 in Belgium.

There were thus considerable differences between Member States

due to the differing legislation on manning levels, vehicles and
appliances and the different manning factors arising out of differ-
ences in working hours. Naturally these differences made it
extremely difficult to draw up harmonizable regulations at
European level.

This highlighted the need for a standard European risk assessment

procedure, whose universal values would help to provide a risk
related, standard European solution to all of these problems.

.3 Financing the fire brigades

An essential difference in the organizational structure of European

fire brigades was caused by the fact that financing for the provi-
sion of personnel, vehicles and equipment was managed very
differently. In all countries of the EEC the responsibility for
guaranteeing an efficient fire protection service to meet the needs
of the local community lay with the local authority, which meant
that manning and equipping a fire brigade depended not on local
hazards but rather on the financial capacity and the budget of the
local authority.

The governments of the Member States paid subsidies to the local

authorities to finance fire brigade equipment procurement plans.
These subsidies were generally financed by taxing insurers on
premiums for fire and loss of business insurance. In some countries
subsidies were paid directly by insurance firms to the local
authorities or to their fire brigades. An example of this was the
Vaud canton in Switzerland where the fire insurers practically had
a monopoly because every citizen of the canton was obliged to take
out fire insurance and the insurance companies paid back 30% of
their yield from fire insurance premiums to the local authorities
to enable them to provide fire protection equipment. In other Swiss
cantons the subsidies paid by insurance firms from the yields on
insurance premiums for fire and loss of business ranged from 20%
to 50*.

The financial situation can be summarized as follows: fire brigades

of the Member States are financed from local government budget
resources and central government subsidies are restricted to
financing urgently required equipment. In this case the subsidies
are paid from tax revenue on fire insurance and partly from civil
defence funds and disaster reserve funds.
 428

2.4 The role of women in the fire service

The role of women in the fire service was discussed at length by

the participants of the workshop, who pointed out that not all
women would be able to cope with the heavy physical activity which
the work of a fire brigade entailed. However, because of European
laws on women's equality, women could be employed in the fire
brigade as long as they passed the same pre-training medical tests
as men.

It was noted that women had performed admirably while working for
fire brigades, particularly during the Second World War, which
showed that they were suited to the job.

The participants agreed that, because the number of women working

in the fire brigade was so small, further discussion of the problem
would lead nowhere and there was no point in devoting any more
attention to the issue.

3. Prospects

3.1 A survey to examine the present status of the fire brigade of

Europe as a factor in protecting the population and improving
general welfare.

The participants agreed to propose that the Commission carry out a

survey in order to determine the existing organization of fire
brigades as an instrument of public aid, by reference to manning
levels, vehicles and equipment. This document would form the basis
for drafting European guidelines on a risk assessment procedure at
a later date, to make it possible to set down minimum requirements
for brigade strength, vehicles and equipment in terms of local risks
At the same time the document would provide information on the
impact of supplementary fire prevention measures (e.g. additional
fire alarm systems) on these minimum requirements.

The data provided by this survey would act as a basis for setting
up a standard European risk assessment procedure and would be a
first important step towards European harmonization of the existing
safety regulations.

3.2 The appointment of expert representatives of the fire brigades to

assist the Commission in its work.

The participants decided to propose to the Commission that they

nominate one or two representatives from the AE who would advise
the Commission in the work of drafting the proposed harmonization
measures. The representatives of the AE would coordinate the various
national views on the problems of the fire brigade and advise the
Commission in the relevant negotiations.

With a view to harmonizing standards for vehicles and equipment,

expert representatives of the AE would be active in an advisory
capacity in the relevant European organizations.
 429

3.3 Standard recommendations for the use of containers by fire

services.

The participants agreed to propose that the Commission draw up

guidelines or recommendations to guarantee the cross-border use
of container systems in the event of disasters and other emergen-
cies, e.g. environmental disasters, the systems being fully
compatible to ensure that they could be used internationally.

In this regard it was thought sufficient to draw up standard

minimum requirements for containers throughout Europe, covering
permissible margins for the dimensions, payload and total lodd
of the containers and compatibility of loading and unloading
systems.

It was pointed out that the desired harmonization measures could

probably be brought to fruition relatively quickly in this area
because container systems as used in the fire services were
already in use internationally for freight transportation through-
out Europe.

3.4 Heightening public awareness of fire protection.

The participants decided to propose that the Commission give

consideration to the possibility of achieving a better response
from the people of Europe in matters concerning fire protection.
Thought should be given as to whether educational measures, such
as relevant training during military service, might have a positive
influence. Some national armies had already tried out the idea.

The participants of Workshop 4 felt that the proposals put forward

on the work of the Commission might contribute to the European
harmonization of existing safety regulations and that they repre-
sented a first step towards the kind of unification that was so
urgently needed in this field.
 430

CLOSING SPEECH

D. VERDIANI
C o m m i s s i o n of t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s
D i r e c t o r a t e - G e n e r a L for I n t e r n a l M a r k e t
and I n d u s t r i a l A f f a i r s

Ladies and Gentlemen,

As t h i s f i r s t E u r o p e a n S y m p o s i u m on F i r e s in B u i l d i n g s c o m e s to an
e n d , I s h o u l d l i k e , on b e h a l f of t h e C o m m i s s i o n of the E u r o p e a n
C o m m u n i t i e s , to t h a n k a l l t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to its
success.

In p a r t i c u l a r , o u r t h a n k s are d u e to M r . F. B O D E N , M i n i s t e r of
E d u c a t i o n and Y o u t h A f f a i r s of t h e G r a n d - D u c h y of L u x e m b o u r g , to
w h o m are m o s t g r a t e f u l for t a k i n g the t i m e to a t t e n d o u r o p e n i n g
session.

I s h o u l d a l s o l i k e to t h a n k M r . B R A U N , t h e D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l w i t h
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e I n t e r n a l M a r k e t a n d I n d u s t r i a l A f f a i r s , w h o
s t r e s s e d b o t h t h e i n t e r e s t and c a r e w i t h w h i c h t h e C o m m i s s i o n
i n t e n d s to e x a m i n e t h e a n a l y s e s and c o n c l u s i o n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m
y o u r a c t i v i t i e s and t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t m u s t be a t t a c h e d to the
p r o b l e m of f i r e s a f e t y w h i c h , for d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , is t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of e v e r y m e m b e r of s o c i e t y .

O u r t h a n k s a l s o go to t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e A s s o c i a t i o n s
w h i c h a s s i s t e d us in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e S y m p o s i u m - f i r s t and
f o r e m o s t t h e re p r e s e n t at i v e s of the c o - o r g a n i z i n g b o d y , the
A s s o c i a t i o n E u r o p e n n e d e s O f f i c i e r s P r o f e s s i o n n e l s de S a p e u r s
P o m p i e r s (AE - E u r o p e a n A s s o c i a t i o n of P r o f e s s i o n a l F i r e B r i g a d e
O f f i c e r s ) a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r , its P r e s i d e n t M a j o r J . M .
DELESDERRIER. We a l s o w i s h to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e h e l p g i v e n by t h e
C o n f e r e n c e of F ire P r o t e c t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n s ( C F P A ) , E u r o p e and t h e
A s s o c i at ion d e s l a b o r a t o i r e s d ' e s s a i au feu d e s I n d u s t r i e s
E u r o p e n n e s (As s o c i a t i o n of E u r o p e a n I n d u s t r i e s ' F i r e - t e s t i n g
L a b o r a t o r i e s ) a nd t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e P r e s i d e n t s , M r . C . D . W O O D W A R D
and M r . W . B E C K E R , w h o w e r e t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h e
o r g a n i z i n g c o m m i t t e e w h i c h a l s o i n c l u d e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of
E U R A L A R M , t h e A s s o c i a t i o n d e s C o n s t r u c t e u r s E u r o p e n s de S y s t m e s
d ' A l a r m e - I n c e n d ie et V o l ( t h e A s s o c i a t i o n of E u r o p e a n F i r e - and
B u r g la r - A l a r m M a n u f a c t u r e r s ) . I s h o u l d a l s o l i k e to t a k e t h i s
o p p o r t u n i t y to e x p r e s s o u r g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n at t h e p r e s e n c e of
M a j o r VAN G E E L ,
t h e H o n o r a r y P r e s i d e n t of t h e A E , at t h e
S y m p o s i urn.

In a d d i t i o n , o u r s i n c e r e t h a n k s are d u e to t h e Chairmen and

r a p p o r t e u r s of t h e d i f f e r e n t s e s s i o n s , all t h e speakers and t h e
C h a i r m e n and r a p p o r t e u r s of t h e W o r k s h o p s , w h o bore the b r u n t of
t h e w o r k of t h e S y m p o s i u m .
 431

The Symposium had two main objectives :

f i r s t l y , to d e f i n e and e x a m i n e all a s p e c t s of t h e current

s i t u a t i o n r e g a r d i n g f i r e s a f e t y in b u i l d i n g s , taking account
of all r e l e v a n t e c o n o m i c , t e c h n i c a l and human
considerations. This a c t i v i t y , which was the s u b j e c t of
t h e d i f f e r e n t s e s s i o n s and t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t r e p o r t s , was
called the a s s e s s m e n t ;

s e c o n d l y , on t h e b a s i s of t h i s a s s e s s m e n t . W o r k s h o p
d i s c u s s i o n s w e r e h e l d e n a b l i n g a C o m m u n i t y a p p r o a c h to the
f i r e s a f e t y of b u i l d i n g s to be w o r k e d o u t . The Workshop
C h a i r m e n o u t l i n e d t h e d e t a i l s of t h i s a p p r o a c h to y o u in
p r e s e n t i n g the c o n c l u s i o n s reached and the
p r o p o s a l s d r a w n up as a r e s u l t of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s .

In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e u n d e t a k i n g g i v e n g i v e n by H r . B R A U N on
b e h a l f of t h e C o m m i s s i o n , we i n t e n d to e x a m i n e t h e s e
p r o p o s a l s with the greatest c a r e , paying p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n
to t h e f i n a n c i a l and h u m a n r e s o u r c e s w h i c h t h e i r
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n would call f o r .

It i s , h o w e v e r , a l r e a d y p o s s i b l e to m a k e a n u m b e r of
observations concerning t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s in p a r t i c u l a r :

1. F i r s t l y , I s h o u l d like to e m p h a s i z e t h a t , at C o m m u n i t y
l e v e l , t h i s S y m p o s i u m has p r o v i d e d t h e f i r s t o p p o r t u n i t y of
b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r in o n e p l a c e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of all the
f i e l d s of a c t i v i t y d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d in t h e f i r e protection
of b u i l d i n g s . It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a t e r r i b l e s h a m e if
t h e m e e t i n g w e r e to p r o v e to h a v e o n l y a transitory effect.
On t h e c o n t r a r y , we h o p e t h a t y o u i n t e n d to g i v e it g r e a t e r
p e r m a n e n c e through the a s s o c i a t i o n s which you represent even
if, i n i t i a l l y , t h i s can o n l y be d o n e on an i n f o r m a l b a s i s .
We a r e p r e p a r e d to p r o v i d e t h e f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e s u p p o r t
a v a i l a b l e t o w a r d s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of t h i s o b j e c t i v e .

2. A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , w h i c h is not u n r e l a t e d to the
foregoing, concerns information. Like the working-session
and W o r k s h o p d i s c u s s i o n s , t h e n u m b e r and v a r i e t y of t h e
p r o b l e m s d e a l t w i t h in t h e r e p o r t s p r e s e n t e d at t h e
S y m p o s i u m r e v e a l t h a t , in o r d e r to a c h i e v e the t r a n s p a r e n c y
r e q u i r e d by a C o m m u n i t y a p p r o a c h , c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u s t be
g i v e n to t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t m e a n s of d i s s e m i n a t i n g
information. E x a m i n a t i o n of t h i s q u e s t i o n s h o u l d t a k e
a c c o u n t of e x i s t i n g d a t a b a s e s and n e t w o r k s .

F u r t h e r to t h e r e v i e w of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s e c t o r s and
t o p i c s in t h e R 8 D f i e l d , i n i t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be
g i v e n to w a y s of e n s u r i n g g r e a t e r C o m m u n i t y c o o r d i n a t i o n as
r e g a r d s m a t t e r s of c o m m o n i n t e r e s t w h i c h f o r m p a r t of
national programmes.

A s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e s h o u l d be to s e l e c t t h o s e p r o j e c t s which
c o u l d be s u b m i t t e d in r e s p o n s e to c a l l s for proposals under
the d i f f e r e n t C o m m i s s i o n p r o g r a m m e s . In t h i s f i e l d , our
 432

c o n t r i b u t i o n w i l l t a k e t h e f o r m of an exploratory
e x a m i n a t i o n , c o n d u c t e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h our c o l l e a g u e s in
t h e D i r e c t o r a t e - G e n e r a l for R e s e a r c h , on t h e b a s i s of t h e
c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d at t h e Symposium.

T e c h n i c a l s t a n d a r d s and r e g u l a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y as far as
t h e a m e n d m e n t of e x i s t i n g p r o v i s i o n s or n e w p r o v i s i o n s are
c o n c e r n e d , a r e n o w c o v e r e d by C o u n c i l Directive 83/189/EEC
of 2 8 M a r c h 1 9 8 3 w h i c h lays d o w n a p r o c e d u r e for t h e
p r o v i s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n in t h i s field. This procedure
s h o u l d lead to a p r a g m a t i c i m p r o v e m e n t in a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h
i s , at p r e s e n t , e x t r e m e l y c o n f u s e d , and s h o u l d g r a d u a l l y
bring about g r e a t e r t r a n s p a r e n c y in t h e n a t i o n a l s y s t e m s .

A l t h o u g h t h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n r e g u l a t i o n s is g e n e r a l l y not
e x c e s s i v e , t h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h e x i s t in certain
s p e c i f i c c a s e s g i v e r i s e to m a j o r o b s t a c l e s .

In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u s t be g i v e n to t h e
p r o b l e m of c e r t i f i c a t i o n and t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of
control procedures. T h i s d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n is a s o u r c e of
many trading p r o b l e m s . In my v i e w , t h e f i r s t s t e p s h o u l d be
to d r a w up a list of b o t h t h e s e c t o r s a n d products concerned
and t h e l a b o r a t o r i e s and b o d i e s w h i c h a r e r e s p o n s i b l e - in
w h a t e v e r c a p a c i t y - for certification. For its p a r t , t h e
Commission will c o n t i n u e its w o r k on q u e s t i o n s of f i r e
r e s i s t a n c e and r e a c t i o n to f i r e .

T h e q u e s t i o n of p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and s t a f f t r a i n i n g in
enterprises also warrants consideration. D i s c u s s i o n of
t h i s m a t t e r at C o m m u n i t y l e v e l w o u l d be e x t r e m e l y valuable
s i n c e , as far as w e a r e a w a r e , l i t t l e h a s b e e n d o n e in t h i s
di reet i on to d a t e .

As r e g a r d s e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , R 8 D e x p e n d i t u r e must be
i n c r e a s e d in an a t t e m p t to r e d u c e t h e o v e r a l l c o s t s of f i r e
damage.

In my o p i n i o n , t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d p o i n t s s h o u l d form the
b a s i s - at l e a s t i n i t i a l l y - of t h e f o l l o w - u p to the
Sympos i um.

I should, h o w e v e r , l i k e to combine that statement with the

following observations.

T h e S y m p o s i u m can be s e e n as a l a u n c h i n g p a d to w h i c h many
of y o u h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d in t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e w a y possible
and for w h i c h t h e C o m m i s s i o n h a s p r o v i d e d m a j o r financial
support. It t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s an i n v e s t m e n t which must
not be a l l o w e d to s u f f e r r a p i d depreciation.

If t h i s i n v e s t m e n t is to b e a r f r u i t , t h e i n c i p i e n t
c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n a s s o c i a t i o n s b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n s for and h o l d i n g of t h e S y m p o s i u m m u s t be
c o n t i n u e d and e v e n i n c r e a s e d . Although I have already dealt
w i t h t h i s m a t t e r in my f i r s t p o i n t , I f e l l it n e c e s s a r y to
 433

add t h a t it w o u l d be w r o n g to r e l y solely on r e g u l a t i o n s ,
d i r e c t i v e s and C o m m u n i t y f i n a n c i n g in o r d e r to c r e a t e t h e
European Community.

All t h e i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s m u s t a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r will
and c o m m i t m e n t so t h a t t h e b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e consensus,
w h i c h is e s s e n t i a l f o r s u c c e s s , can be achieved, especially
as t h e b u d g e t a r y d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g us all w i l l i n e v i t a b l y
i m p e l us t o w a r d s g r e a t e r c o o p e r a t i o n at C o m m u n i t y l e v e l .
This a p p r o a c h must a l s o lead to t h e p r o v i s i o n of a d e q u a t e
national back-up for d e c i s i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n w o r k e d out and
a p p r o v e d in a b r o a d e r c o n t e x t . If we f a i l to a d o p t t h i s
appraoch, it w i l l a p p e a r t h a t we a r e m e r e l y e n g a g i n g in
f u t i l e g a m e s and i n s t e a d of m a k i n g p r o g r e s s we s h a l l
i n e v i t a b l y lose g r o u n d . These g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are
all t h e m o r e r e l e v a n t to t h e f i r e p r o t e c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s in
v i e w of t h e v a s t n u m b e r of a c t i v i t i e s involved.

L a s t l y , a s s u m i n g t h a t o u r p r o j e c t b e c o m e s r e a l i t y , as I
s i n c e r e l y h o p e it w i l l , I s h o u l d l i k e n o w t o m a k e an
a p p o i n t m e n t to m e e t y o u a g a i n in t h r e e or f o u r y e a r s time,
in o r d e r to r e v i e w t h e p r o g r e s s m a d e and t h e results
a c h i e v e d , in t h e m e a n t i m e .

In c o n c l u s i o n , I s h o u l d l i k e to r e f e r to t h e e x t r e m e l y
v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d by t h e C o m m i s s i o n departments
in L u x e m b o u r g , and m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y by M r . N I C O L A Y and M r .
L I N S T E R , in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h i s S y m p o s i u m and to t h a n k
t h e i n t e r p r e t e r s for t h e i r i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e
s u c c e s s f u l p r o g r e s s of these activities.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN DER VORTRAEGE
 436

ORGANISATION DER FEUERWEHREN, IHRE MOEGLICHKEITEN UND GRENZEN

Dipl.-Ing. Karl SEEGERER

Oberbranddirektor, Mnchen

Ausgehend von dem -im allgemeinen durch Gesetz fixierten- Auftrag

der Feuerwehren werden zunchst die verschiedenen Organisationsformen
vorgestellt, die sich im ffentlichen wie im privaten Bereich eingefhrt
haben.
Es wird auf die einschneidenden Vernderungen eingegangen, die diese
Aufgabenstellung der Feuerwehren im Laufe der Zeit erfahren hat.
Das erheblich ausgeweitete Ttigkeitsfeld wird an dem enorm ausgeweiteten
Einsatzspektrum veranschaulicht, dem insbesondere stdtische Feuerwehren
und -noch spezieller- die Berufsfeuerwehren heute allenthalben gerecht
werden mssen.
Allein diese Breite des Einsatzspektrums stellt in unseren Tagen
erheblich vernderte Anforderungen an die Gliederung und Ausrstung der
Institution "Feuerwehr" ebenso wie an die Aus- und Fortbildung ihrer
Krfte, - Anforderungen, die sich fundamental von denen unterscheiden, wie
sie etwa vor 50 Jahren noch Gltigkeit hatten. Doch selbst bei Beschrnkung
auf die originre Feuerwehr-Aufgabe "Brandbekmpfung" und auf den Komplex
des Gebude-Brandschutzes, kommt man an der Feststellung nicht vorbei, dass
sich die Feuerwehr-Einsatzkrfte heute ganz anderen Risiken und Problemen
gegenbersehen als noch vor zwei oder drei und mehr Jahrzehnten!
Eine Betrachtung des Leistungsvermgens und der Leistungsgrenzen unserer
Feuerwehren darf und kann auch die grundlegend vernderte Gefahrensituation
nicht ausser Betracht lassen, der nicht zuletzt die eigenen Krfte heute
vielfach ausgesetzt sind.
Ihre Darstellung lsst erkennen, wie enge Grenzen dem Leistungsvermgen
der Feuerwehren duch die Art und die Ausdehnung des Risikos und durch dessen
spezielle rtliche Gegpbenheiten gezogen sind. Dabei wird auf die bestehenden
Abhngigkeiten zwischen vorbeugendem baulichen und betrieblichen Brandschutz
auf der einen und dem Lscherfolg auf der anderen Seite eingegangen.
Es wird verdeutlicht, dass sich die Effektivitt eines Feuerwehr-
Einsatzes keineswegs einfach aus der Kopfzahl der Einsatzkrfte und dem
Standard ihrer technischen Ausrstung ableiten lsst.
Wenn auch kaum eine Aufgabe denkbar ist, deren Bewltigung die Be-
vlkerung unseren Feuerwehren nicht zutrauen wrde: sie unterliegen nun
einmal gleichfalls den Naturgesetzen und jeder Feuerwehr-Einsatz hat
vorgegebene Leistungsgrenzen, die respektiert werden mssen. Sie zu
ignorieren, wre leichtfertig und knnte verheerende Folgen haben!
 437

PRIORITAETEN BEI DER BRANDBEKAEMPFUNG

G. CLARKE

Chief Fire Officer, CBE, FIFire E, Hampshire

Fire Brigade, Vereinigtes Knigreich

EINLEITUNG

Geht man davon aus, dass die Hauptaufgabe einer Feuerwehr darin besteht,
zum Nutzen unserer Gesellschaft fr eine sicherere Umwelt zu sorgen,
indem sie

(a) bei auftretenden Brnden die damit verbundenen

Gefahren verringt,
(b) den bei Brnden entstehenden Sach- und Personenschaden
so gering wie mglich hlt,
(c) den durch andere Unglcksflle entstehenden Personen-
und Sachschaden so gering wie mglich hlt,

so lsst sich feststellen, dass es bereits einer Reihe vorbereitender

Arbeiten bedarf, bevor die Feuerwehr zum Einsatz kommt.

Im Rahmen dieses Vortrags (der sich insbesondere auf Gebudebrnde

bezieht) setze ich voraus, dass die verantwortliche Brandschutzbehrde
in jedem Mitgliedstaat die nachstehend aufgefhrten und wesentlichen
Massnahmen getroffen hat; dabei ist es unwesentlich, ob es sich bei
dieser Behrde um die Zentralregierung oder eine der verschiedenen
Formen von Kommunalbehrden handelt, die es in der Europischen
Gemeinschaft gibt.

(a) Es gibt eine angemessene Rahmengesetzgebung ir Brand-

schutz, die darauf abzielt, bei der Errichtung von Gebu-
den einen hohen Sicherheitsstandard zu gewhrleisten und
die Gebude in vernnftiger Weise zu nutzen.

(b) Gebude wurden berprft und auf einer vorgegebenen

Gefahrenskala als brandgefhrdet eingestuft.

(c) Angemessene Mittel zur Brandbekmpfung (Personal, Ausstat-

tung, und Kommunikationsmittel) wurden bereitgestellt und
so angelegt, dass ein Noteinsatz sowohl in qualitativer
Hinsicht als auch in bezug auf Schnelligkeit zu zufrieden-
stellenden Ergebnissen fhrt.
 438

(d) Es steht gengend qualifiziertes und gut ausgebildetes

Personal zur Verfgung.

(e) Es besteht ein zufriedenstellendes System, das es Brandbri-

gaden ermglicht, schon vor Entstehen eines Feuers,
eine gewisse "Brandschutzintelligenz" zu entwickeln; sie
umfasst Aspekte wie Zufahrtsstrassen zu Gebuden, die
besten Eingangsstellen, Wasserversorgung, Bauweise und
Verwendung von Gebuden sowie Art der Bewohner.
Mit anderen Worten, ich muss davon ausgehen, dass alles vernnftigerwei-
se Mgliche getan wurde, um dem Feuerwehrkammandanten und seiner
Mannschaft ausreichende Informationen und Untersttzung zu geben, damit
- unabhngig von den bei ihrer Ankunft in einem Gebude oder Gebude-
komplex herrschenden Umstnden - rasch die richtigen strategischen
und taktischen Entscheidungen getroffen werden knnen. Fehlen diese
Voraussetzungen, so steht der beste Feuerwehrkammandant vor einer unls-
baren Aufgabe.

BEI DER ANKUNFT

Die Hauptsorge des Einsatzleiters bei der Ankunft ist komplex. Er muss
Leben retten, Leben schtzen, den Brand beherrschen, den Brand
lschen. Manchmal ist es nicht leicht, diese Prioritten voneinander
zu trennen. Es ist etwas anderes, ob man sich ber deren relative
Bedeutung in einem Vortrag Gedanken macht oder ob man sie sortiert und
einen Aktionsplan aufstellt, wenn ganz offensichtlich Menschen in Not
sind und gerettet werden mssen, whrend andere in Panik aus dem
Gebude strmen, vor dem sich eine grosse Menge Schaulustige
ansammelte, die alle mit Kritik zur Hand sind und gute Ratschlge
erteilen, und der Gebudeverwalter unauffindbar ist.

Sicherlich sind nicht bei allen Gebudebrnden eine grosse Anzahl von
Menschen betroffen. Dann treten ganz andere Erwgungen bei der Ankunft
in den Vordergrund, z.B. wenn aus einem Lagerkeller Rauch austritt oder
aber, wenn man in den frhen Morgenstunden vor einem fest verschlossenem
Lagerhaus steht, in jedem Fenster diese dunkle, rgerliche Rte
sieht, die es offensichtlich dem Einsatzleiter unmglich macht, das
Gebude zu ffnen,weil er so gengend Sauerstoff zufhren und
damit Voraussetzungen fr ein sofortiges Uebergreifen des Feuers
schaffen wrde, das dann zur vlligen Zerstrung des Gebudes
fhrt.

Der Feuerwehrleiter weiss, dass seine Feuerwehrmnner nur wirksam

helfen knnen, wenn sie vor der "Feuerwand" stehen, ebenso wie Kohlen-
arbeiter vor der "Kohlenwand" stehen mssen. So muss er also einen
Angriffsplan ausarbeiten, der es ihnen ermglicht, das Gebude zu
betreten und mit ihrer Ausrstung hineinzukommen, damit sie ihre
fr diesen Zweck bestinmten Feuerlschmittel am wirksamsten einsetzen
knnen. Handelt es sich um Wasser, so entfaltet es nur dann seine
grsste Wirksamkeit, wenn es so gespritzt wird, dass es verdampft. Auf
diese Weise erreicht es die grsste Khlwirkung und es bleibt kein
Wasser brig, das weiteren Schaden an Gebude oder Inhalt verursachen
knnte.
 439

RETTUNG VON LEBEN

Es ist usserst dramatisch, wenn der Einsatzleiter seine hhenverstell-

bare Rettungsausrstung, drehbare Leitern, hydraulische Plattformen und
ausnahmsweise sogar Hubschrauber einsetzt. Hat er jedoch die Wahl, so
wird er sich initier fr eine Rettungsmethode entscheiden, die die Verwendung
bereits im Gebude vorhandener Einrichtungen ermglicht. Gute Brand-
schutzwnde, horizontal durchgefhrte Rumung des Gebudes und
gut gebaute, nicht brennbare Treppenhuser erbrigen oft dramatische
und schwierige Rettungen von ausserhalb des Gebudes oder vom Dach
aus.

EINDAEHMNG DES BRANDES

Zunchst muss der Brand gefunden werden.Oft gibt es eindeutige Anzei-

chen hufig, jedoch muss nach dem Brandherd gesucht werden, so z.B.
wenn Rauch oder Feuer durch versteckte Hohlrume (Rohrleitungen,
Aufzugschchte, usw.) dringen. In diesem Fall hat der Feuerwehrmann
oft keine gute Sicht, weil er ein Atemgert trgt und somit auf
seinen Gehr- und Tastsinn sowie eine gute Kenntnis der Baustruktur und
des Brandverhaltens angewiesen ist. Die heutzutage verfgbaren Thermal-
bildkameras, die es den Feuerwehrmnnern ermglichen, durch Rauch zu
"sehen" und Hitzequellen zu entdecken, sind in solchen Fllen sehr
ntzlich.

Im Vordergrund des Denkens und der Bemhungen des Einsatzleiters steht

die Frage : "Kann ich diesen Brand auf den Bereich begrenzen, von dem er
ausging, auf das Gebude, auf das Stockwerk oder auf den Raum?" Sein
Hauptziel ist es, die Ausbreitung des Brandes und potentielle Verluste
unter den herrschenden und sich entwickelnden umstnden so gering wie
mglich zu halten.

LOESCHEN

Es i s t mglich, dass schon vor Ankunft der Feuerwehr bestimmte, im

Gebude angebrachte Brandbekmpfungseinrichtungen eingesetzt wurden
(z.B. Sprinkler, CO,- oder Halon-Anlagen). Der Einsatzleiter muss dann
entscheiden, inwieweit seine Arbeit dadurch erleichtert oder erschwert
wird. Sprinkler, die nach Lschen des Feuers weiterhin Wasser verspr-
hen, knnen sehr kostspielige Wasserschden verursachen und Bereiche,
in denen Inertgasanlagen eingesetzt wurden,drfen von Personal nicht
ohne Atemgerte betreten werden. Sie drfen ausserdem nicht belftet
werden, bevor der E i n s a t z l e i t e r sich davon berzeugt h a t , dass das
Feuer entweder gelscht oder unter Kontrolle i s t .

Die Auswahl der Feuerlschmittel und der anzuwendenden Methoden i s t

heute wirklich sehr g r o s s . Bei der Mehrzahl der Lschmethoden wird
jedoch immer noch Wasser mit oder ohne Zustze verwendet. Hochdruck-
spritzen werden wegen ihres starken Khleffekts und ihres sparsamen
Wasserverbrauchs immer mehr bevorzugt. Schume mit starker, mittlerer
und geringer Ausbreitung sowie "Leichtwasser"-Schaum stehen ebenfalls zur
Verfgung. Auf jeden Fall i s t der E i n s a t z l e i t e r e n t s e t z t , wenn er
"freies" Wasser auf den Fussbden der Gebude oder an den Wnden
herunterlaufen sieht, denn abgesehen von seiner offensichtlichen Wirkungs-
l o s i g k e i t , fhrt dies zu grsseren Schden und oft schwerer eber-
lastung des Bauskeletts mit der Mglichkeit vorzeitigen Einstrzens.
 440

BELUEFTUNG SOWIE SCHUTZ- UND BERGUNGSMASSNAHMEM

Die Entscheidung, ein Gebude "zu ffnen", um Rauch und Hitze abzulas-
sen, ist usserst schwierig. Wird dies zu zeitig und an der falschen
Stelle getan, so kann sich der Brand sehr rasch verstrken; geschieht es
zu spt, so bentigen die im Gebude arbeitenden Feuerwehrmnner zu
viel Zeit, um den Brandherd zu finden, was eine verstrkte Ausbreitung
des Feuers sowie Rauch- und Wasserschden zur Folge hat. Es gibt mechani-
sche Rauchabsauggerte, aber ihre Verwendung ist im Kreise der Feuerwehr
sehr umstritten.

Schutz und Entfernung von Material aus dem Gebude wird im allgemei-
nen als Bergungsarbeit bezeichnet. Mit dieser Arbeit muss unbedingt so
rasch wie mglich begonnen werden. Einfache Massnahmen bei der Konstruk-
tion eines Gebudes (z.B. leicht schrge Bden, die zu Kanlen zur
Ableitung des Wassers aus dem Gebude fhren, erhhte Schwellen
zwischen Abteilungen, um ausfliessende flchtige Flssigkeiten festzu-
halten sowie automatische Rauchventilatoren) knnen erheblich zur Verring-
erung von Verlusten und Schden beitragen. Grundlegende Bergungstechniken
sollten wesentlicher Bestandteil der Ausbildung von Feuerwehrmannschaften
sein.

DIE SCHLIMMSTEN FOLGEN

Die schlimmsten Brnde sind n a t r l i c h d i e j e n i g e n , bei denen der

V e r l u s t von Menschenleben zu beklagen i s t . Leider kommt e s aber auch
v o r , d a s s d i e Feuerwehrmannschaften gezwungen s i n d , d a s Gebude zu
v e r l a s s e n , weil d i e Bedingungen einfach zu g e f h r l i c h s i n d . Dann muss
d e r E i n s a t z l e i t e r e i n e m a s s i v e Eindmmungsaktion v e r a n l a s s e n , f r
d i e g r o s s e Mengen von Wasser durch Pumpen mit hoher Kapazitt e r f o r d e r -
l i c h s i n d . Oft bringen eine solche S i t u a t i o n den t e i l w e i s e n oder v l l i g e n
E i n s t u r z des Gebudes mit s i c h . Dies i s t zwar e i n g r o s s a r t i g e s Schauspiel
fr Schaulustige und Reporter, b e r e i t e t jedoch dem Feuerwehrmann und dem
B e s i t z e r des Grundstcks n i c h t s a l s Kunmer.

DIE BESTEN ERGEBNISSE

Fr den Feuerwehrmann sind die nicht spektakulren Unflle, die

beinahe wie eine Probe fr den "echten Brand", aussehen, die befriedi-
gensten, denn in diesem Falle haben die Vorausplanung sowie die Strategie
vor Ort und das taktische Vorgehen gemeinsam zu einer reibungslosen und
wirksamen Beseitigung einer potentiell ernsthaften Bedrohung fr das
Wohlergehen der Gemeinschaft gefhrt. Derartige Unflle, die sich auf
den ursprnglichen Gegenstand oder Raum beschrnken, sind ein Beispiel
fr die Worte Shakespeares, der bereits sagte, dass ein kleiner Brand
leicht zu beseitigen ist, whrend er, breitet er sich erst einmal aus,
auch von Flssen nicht mehr zu lschen ist.

ANMERKUNG

Mein Vortrag schliesst mit einem Ueberblick ber sieben Bereiche, ein-
schliesslich Kommunikations-, Rettungs- und Brandbekmpfungstechniken und
-ausrstung, in denen in Zukunft Verbesserungen von Nten sind.
 441

PRIORITAETEN DES VORBEUGENDEN BRA NDSCHUTZES

C . DIRMER
LieutenantColonel b e i d e r D i r e c t i o n de l a S c u r i t C i v i l e

Das Thema " P r i o r i t t e n des vorbeugenden Brandschutzes" s e t z t e i n i g e

e r k l r e n d e Bemerkungen zum T i t e l v o r a u s . Das vorliegende Referat g i b t
eine Uebersicht ber d i e w i c h t i g s t e n Risiken und Probleme beim Gebude
brandschutz, denen heutzutage d i e besondere A ufmerksamkeit d e r Feuerwehr
sowohl im Zusammenhang mit dem Schutz d e r Bewohner bzw. des Personals a l s
auch der Verhtung von Sachschden g i l t . A nlass zur Sorge geben i n der
Tat zunchst einmal d i e moderne Bauweise sowie der Stdtebau und d i e
Stdteplanung unserer heutigen Z e i t . Das Referat geht anschliessend
auf d i e von den Behrden herausgegebenen Sicherheitsbestimmungen e i n ,
u n t e r besonderer Bercksichtigung d e r Probleme bei i h r e r A usarbeitung
sowie bei i h r e r A nwendung in unserer so f r e i h e i t s l i e b e n d e n G e s e l l s c h a f t ,
d e r jede Beschneidung d e r persnlichen F r e i h e i t w i d e r s t r e b t und d i e
Zwangsmassnahmen ablehnend gegenbersteht. S c h l i e s s l i c h weist das Referat
auf d i e durch den Menschen s e l b s t bedingten Schwierigkeiten h i n .

Bei den modernen baulichen A nlagen knnen d i e Risikofaktoren, unabhngig

vom Gebudetyp, nach folgenden d r e i A spekten e i n g e t e i l t werden : A ussen
kcnzept, I n h a l t und technische A u s s t a t t u n g .

Zum A ussenkonzept wre zu sagen, dass d i e Gebude immer hher und g r s s e r

w e r d e n . So mogen Hochhuser m i t e i n e r Hhe von b e r 100 o d e r s o g a r
200 m Aufsehen e r r e g e n ; man s o l l t e jedoch bedenken, d a s s auch d i e Flche
der Brogebude, d i e n i e d r i g e r a l s 30 s i n d , oder der iirnier g e w a l t i g e
ren Warenhuser mit mehreren 10 000 m ohne Unterteilung immer g r s s e r
wird. A usserdem sind in den Gebuden ganz verschiedene, baulich u n t e r e i n
ander in Verbindung stehende Nutzungszweige u n t e r g e b r a c h t , d i e audi u n t e r
s c h i e d l i c h e Risikofaktoren in sich bergen. Hier kann e i n Brand schnell um
s i c h g r e i f e n , wenn d i e Vorschriften bezglich d e r Schleusen und der
Brandschutztren nicht e i s e r n b e f o l g t werden. Das durch d i e s e Nutzungspa
l e t t e bedingte Risiko wird dadurch e r h h t , dass durch d i e immer komplexere
a r c h i t e k t o n i s c h e Gestaltung d i e verschiedenen Geschosse durch grosse
Lichtschchte oder berdeckte P a t i o s unmittelbar miteinander in Verbindung
s t e h e n . Besonders k r i t i s c h wird d i e S i t u a t i o n in den F l l e n , wo v i e l e
verschiedene Nutzungszweige u n t e r i r d i s c h angelegt sind (z.B. Verkaufsgale
r i e n und Bahn bzw. UBahnStationen). Eine l e t z t e Bemerkung im Zusammenhang
mit dem Gebudeaussenkonzept b e t r i f f t das Problem der l e i c h t e n Konstruk
t i o n . Wenn auch d i e Bewohner bzw. das Personal im Brandfall e v a k u i e r t
werden knnen und k e i n e Opfer zu b e k l a g e n s i n d , so s t r z t doch d a s
Gebude o f t e i n und Hab und Gut gehen in Rauch und Flammen auf 1

Was den Gebudeinhalt b e t r i f f t , so muss darauf hingewiesen werden, dass

das h i t z e und raucherzeugende P o t e n t i a l in den Innenausstattungen, den
Mbeln, dem Dekor, der Wrme und Schalldmmung s t n d i g zunimmt, da
d i e Verwendung von Kunststoffen berhand nimmt. Einige d i e s e r P o l y p l a s t e
knnen berdies t o x i s c h e , j a sogar tzende Gifte ( z . B . S a l z und Blau
s u r e ) i n g r o s s e n Mengen f r e i s e t z e n , was n i c h t nur d i e Evakuierung
 442

der Bewchner bzw. des Personals sowie das Eingreifen der Rettungsmannschaf-
ten erschwert, sondern auch grssere Sachschden zur Folge haben kann.
Ausserdem sind die Waren und Erzeugnisse heutzutage aufgrund ihrer empfind-
lichen Aufmachung (z.B. dnne Folien oder Kunstharzschaum) nicht mehr so
gut gegen Wrmeeinwirkung geschtzt.

Zum Gebudeinhalt wre abschliessend zu bemerken, dass die spezifische

Gefhrdung durch die technische Ausstattung immer grsser wird. In der
Tat nehmen die in den Gebuden verteilten energetischen Quellen (elektri-
sche Anlagen, Gas, usw.) stndig zu und die lufttechnischen Anlagen
(Heizungs- und Klimaanlagen, Be- und Entlftung, Zwangslftung, Rauchab-
zug ) sowie die sicherheitstechnischen Anlagen selbst werden immer komplexer
und ipso facto immer anflliger. Nicht unbedenklich ist es ausserdem,
wenn zur Verbesserung der Brandschutzsysteme neue Technologien verschieden-
artiger industrieller Herkunft eingesetzt werden, ohne dass dem ursprng-
lichen Sicherheitsgedanken der ja Ausgangspunkt fr die derzeit sich in
Betrieb befindlichen Systeme war, ausreichend Rechnung getragen wird
(selbstttiges, zentralgesteuertes Multiplex- Brandmeldesystem, computer-
gesteuerte Ausstattung, usw.)

Im Bereich Stdtebau und -planung erwarten wir, dass bei der Errichtung
neuer Stadtteile oder der Renovierung alter Viertel einerseits befahrbare
Zu- und Durchfahrten fr Feuerwehr- und Rettungsfahrzeuge und andererseits
ein adquates Wasserversorgungsnetz miteingeplant werden. Ausserdem darf
nicht vergessen werden, dass auch die Fussgngerzonen fr die Feuerwehr-
fahrzeuge zugnglich sein mssen.

Was die Bestimmungen fr Brandschutz im Bauwesen betrifft, so muss

hervorgehoben werden, wie schwierig es ist, klare und leichtverstndliche
Sicherheitsvorschriften auszuarbeiten und festzulegen, da immer wieder neue
Technologien und Erzeugnisse auf den Markt kommen. In diesem Zusammenhang
stellt sich auch die Frage, ob die Massnahmen zur Brandverhtung auf die
Ziele oder auf die Mittel ausgerichtet sein sollen. Schliesslich wird die
Anwendung der Bestimmungen dadurch erschwert, dass ausserhalb der Gross-
stdte nicht gengend Beamte und Ingenieure fr den prventiven
Brandschutz zur Verfgung stehen.

Aber im Mittelpunkt der eberlegungen ber die moderne Bauweise steht der
Mensch, der Mensch nicht nur als Planer bzw. Gestalter oder als Ordnungs-
hter, sondern vor allem der Mensch als Bewohner und Benutzer, und
manchmal als ....Opfer. Individuell gesehen ist der Mensch in unserer
"bergesicherten" europischen Gesellschaft nicht mehr wie frher an
feindliche und aggressive Situationen gewhnt, die durch Umwelt und
grosse Katastrophen hervorgerufen werden. Auf kollektiver Ebene kann ein
falsches und unberechenbares Verhalten einiger Personen bei grossen Menschen-
ansammlungen in grossen modernen Gebuden eine Panik auslsen bzw.
verstrken. Besorgniserregend ist ausserdem die nachlssige (oder sorglose)
Einstellung des fr die Sicherheit und die technische Wartung innerhalb
der Gebude zustndigen Personals, und zwar insbesondere im Rahmen der
derzeitigen Krise, wo man dazu neigt, auf Kosten der Sicherheit sparen zu
wollen.
 443

S c h l i e s s l i c h erhhen sich d i e Brandrisiken noch durch e i n e unachtsame

Nutzung, bei der d i e fr e i n v e r t r e t b a r e s S i c h e r h e i t s n i v e a u notwendigen
Bedingungen bewusst oder unbewusst umgangen werden (Aenderung der Nutzungs-
a r t , V e r s p e r r e n d e r Rettungswege d u r c h Lagerung von G e g e n s t n d e n ,
v e r s c h l o s s e n e Ausgnge, v e r d e c k t e B e s c h i l d e r u n g , b l o c k i e r t e o f f e n e
Brandschutztren, v e r a l t e t e technische Ausstattung und S i c h e r h e i t s a n -
lagen, usw. )

Die Bedenken d e r f r d i e B r a n d v e r h t u n g z u s t n d i g e n Feuerwehr s i n d

a l s o durchaus b e r e c h t i g t und angebracht. In der Arbeitsgruppe 4 knnte
f e s t g e h a l t e n werden, welche Konsequenzen daraus in bezug auf d i e Brand-
schutzanforderungen gezogen werden mssen.

Wir mssen unsere wissenschaftlichen und experimentellen Kenntnisse

ber das Verhalten der Bauteile und - s t o f f e , des Rauchs und der Benutzer
bei Brandfllen in Grossbauten v e r t i e f e n . Die I n d u s t r i e muss d i e
Entwicklung von Erzeugnissen v o r a n t r e i b e n , d i e weniger raucherzeugend und
g i f t i g und d i e allgemein annehmbar s i n d . S e n s i b i l i s i e r u n g , Information
und Unterrichtung der b r e i t e n O e f f e n t l i c h k e i t , d e r Planer bzw. G e s t a l t e r
sowie d e s f r den G e b u d e b r a n d s c h u t z z u s t n d i g e n P e r s o n a l s mssen
i n d i e Wege g e l e i t e t werden. Gemeinsam mssen w i r uns bemhen, e i n
annehmbares und wohldurchdachtes S i c h e r h e i t s n i v e a u fr jeden einzelnen
Bautyp f e s t z u l e g e n .

Die geplante EWG-Richtlinie ber Brandverhtung in Beherbergungssttten

i s t b e r e i t s e i n e r s t e r S c h r i t t in d i e s e r Richtung. Ungeachtet a l l e r
Schwierigkeiten muss auch w e i t e r h i n das Ziel der Harmonisierung v e r f o l g t
werden, damit n i c h t Zeit und Kraft damit vergeudet werden, dass in jedem
einzelnen Land Untersuchungen und Forschungen b e t r i e b e n werden, d i e
b e r e i t s in einem anderen M i t g l i e d s t a a t der Gemeinschaft durchgefhrt
worden s i n d .
 444

DIE KOSTEN VDN BRAENDEN

Ph. DE MOULINS-BEMJPORT
Generalbevollmchtigter des Centre National de Prvention
et de Protection

EINLEITUNG

Ein Brand ist ein Unglck, bei dem die Kosten nicht nur vom Opfer,
sondern auch von der Gemeinschaft getragen werden, zu der die betroffene
Person gehrt. Brnde verursachen in jedem Fall Kosten. Diese Kosten
und Hilfsmassnahmen, und zwar auf allen Ebenen : Einzelpersonen,
Gebietskrperschaft, Staat.

GLOBALE KOSTEN VON BRAENDEN

S e i t der von T.Wilmot im Auftrag des I n t e r n a t i o n a l e n Zentrums fr

B r a n d s t a t i s t i k durchgefhrten Untersuchung i s t es b l i c h , bei der
Bewertung der Kosten von Brnden die 7 folgenden Kriterien zugrundezulegen

- direkte Kosten
- indirekte Kosten
- Verluste an Menschenleben
- Versicherungskosten
- Kosten fr Hilfsmassnahmen
- Kosten fr Brandschutz im Bauwesen
- Kosten fr Forschung und Information.

In dem eben erwhnten Bericht wurden fr den Zeitraum von 1970 bis
1975 in zwlf europischen Staaten globale Brandkosten in Hhe von
ungefhr 1% des Bruttoinlandsprodukts berechnet. Diese Kosten sind
folgendermassen aufzuschlssen :

- direkte Kosten 30%

- Brandschutz im Bauwesen 30%
- Feuerwehr 15%
- Versicherung 15%
- indirekte Kosten 5%
- Verluste an Menschenleben 5%

IT"der globalen Kosten

Anzumerken ist, dass die Kosten fr Forschung und Information aufgrund

ihrer Geringfgigkeit nicht geschtzt wurden.

- Kosten der Verluste

In diesem Kapitel beschftigen wir uns zunchst mit den Kosten der
Verluste, wie sie von den Versicherungen berechnet werden, also direkte
Risiken plus indirekte Risiken, wie sie durch die Betriebsverlust-Policen
gedeckt werden. Es sind nur ungefhr 6,5% der Industriebetriebe gegen
"Betriebsverluste" versichert, was ungefhr 17% der Prmien fr
industrielle Risiken ausmacht.
 445

Da wir hiervon nicht die genauen Kosten der indirekten Risiken abziehen
knnen, nehmen wir als Berechnungsgrundlage den in der Studie von
T.Wilmot angefhrten Prozentsatz, also ein Viertel der direkten Kosten.

Die Versicherungskosten entsprechen dem Betrag der von den Versicherten

an die Versicherer gezahlten Prmien abzglich der vorgenommenen
Erstattungen.

- Kosten der Hilfsmassnahmen

Eine genaue Bestimmung der Kosten der Hilfsmassnahmen ist praktisch

unmglich, gehren doch hierzu :

- die zu Lasten der Allgemeinheit gehenden Kosten :

. Ausrstung, Unterhalt und Betrieb der Feuerwehreinheiten,
von denen nur 10% der Einstze der Brandbekmpfung dienen,
. Anlage und Unterhalt von Wasserleitungsnetzen und Hydranten,
die auf dem Wege ber die Steuern auf die Gesamtheit der Bevl-
kerung abgewlzt werden.
- die Kosten fr firmeneigene Hilfsmannschaften.

Grundstzlich drfte diese Zahl keinen grsseren Schwankungen

unterworfen sein, da es sich um feste Kosten handelt und Abweichungen
eher von der allgemeinen wirtschaftlichen Lage (Inflation) als von der
Entwicklung der Brandunglcke herrhren.

DIE KOSTEN DER BRANDVERHUETUNG

Zu den Brandverhtungsmassnahmen gehrt die Aufklrung der betroffe-

nen Personen ber die Brandrisiken, unter anderem durch Fortbildungskurse,
die Einfhrung geeigneter baulicher Lsungen bei der Errichtung von
Gebuden unabhngig von ihrer Bestimmung sowie der Einbau bestimmter
automatischer Branddetektions- und Lschanlagen.
Die Schtzung der Kosten fr die bauliche Massnahmen ist schwierig,
hngen diese doch von zahlreichen Faktoren ab :
- das gewnschte Mass an Brandschutz, je nach dem Bestimnungszweck
der Gebude : Wohngebude, Industrieanlagen, ffentliche
Gebude, usw.
- das Stadium der Einbeziehung d i e s e r Massnahmen : vor bzw. nach Planung
oder Bau.
So h a t das CNPP zum B e i s p i e l vor e i n i g e n Jahren eine Studie ber d i e
Auswirkung des z u l e t z t erwhnten Kriteriums fr e i n Einkaufszentrum
a n g e f e r t i g t . Dabei kam man zu dem Ergebnis, dass 9 b i s 18 Prozent hhere
Ausgaben e r f o r d e r l i c h waren, wenn man d i e BrandSchutzmassnahmen e r s t
nachtrglich i n t e g r i e r t h a t t e .
Dennoch kann man d i e Brandverhtung im allgemeinen n i c h t a u s s c h l i e s s l i c h
u n t e r dem Gesichtspunkt der I n v e s t i t i o n e n sehen. Wir verweisen in diesem
Zusammenhang noch einmal auf d i e in dem Bericht des i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n
Zentrums fr B r a n d s t a t i s t i k a n g e f h r t e n P r o z e n t z a h l e n , nmlich 30%
der Gesamtkosten, a l s o ungefhr 0,08% d e r Gesamtinvestitionen.
Was d i e Verhtung von i n d u s t r i e l l e n Risiken b e t r i f f t , so schlagen s i c h
d i e I n v e s t i t i o n e n in verminderten Prmien n i e d e r , m i t t e l f r i s t i g g i b t e s
aber keine Verminderung bei d e r Zahl oder den Kosten der Unglcksflle.
 446

Es s c h e i n t s o , a l s hinge d i e Schwankung der Kosten der Unglcke mehr

von den w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n Bedingungen a l s von den Brandverhtungsraassnahmen
a b , und zwar fr a l l e Kategorien : P r i v a t h a u s h a l t e , Unternehmen,
Landwirte. Werden a l s o in K r i s e n z e i t e n d i e Brger unvorsichtig ?

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG

Wir mchten den Standpunkt v e r t r e t e n , dass ganz allgemein die Hhe

der Aufwendungen fr den Brandschutz in bezug zum Bruttoinlandsprodukt
den Industriestaaten durchaus zugemutet werden kann. Hingegen kann man
d i e Folgen der Unglcksflle, die sich in Produktionsstillstnden
sowie in einer Steigerung der Arbeitslosigkeit niederschlagen, und die
die wahren indirekten Kosten darstellen, niemals wirklich erfassen,
obwohl sie bei weitem den bedeutensten Faktor ausmachen.
Die Komplexitt des Ansatzes der Kostenbewertung fr die Brandverhtung
fhrt dazu, dass man es als vergeblich, ja als falsch und gefhrlich
ansehen muss, wenn man geschtzte oder durchschnittliche Kosten festlegen
w i l l , da sich die Kosten t a t s c h l i c h nur in einer E i n z e l f a l l s t u d i e
bewerten lassen.
 447

KOSTEN, NOTZEN UND A NA LYSE DER BRA NDGEFA HR

. GRA BER
B u r e a u VERITA S, L e v a l l o i s P e r r e t

Ziel des Vortrags i s t e i n s y n t h e t i s c h e r Ueberblick ber A ufgaben und

Methoden der Brandverhtung in Gebuden.

1 . Zunchst e i n kurzer Rckblick auf d i e verhngnisvollen A uswir

kungen von Brnden.

2. A nschliessend eine Zusammenfassung der gewhnlich empfohlenen M i t t e l

der Brandverhtung und des Brandschutzes.

3. S c h l i e s s l i c h e i n i g e Ueberlegungen zu den Kosten der Brandverhtung

und zu den Mglichkeiten, d i e s e Kosten durch Methoden der Forschung
und der Risikobewertung auf e i n Mindestmass zu begrenzen.

AUSWIRKUNGEN VON BRAENDEN

Brnde gehren zu den grossen Naturkatastrophen, deren A uswirkungen
zu a l l e n Zeiten gefrchtet waren.

Allgemein s c h l s s e l t man d i e Folgen nach Personenschaden und Sachschaden

auf.

1. Dawren a l s o z u e r s t d i e A uswirkungen auf Gesundheit und Menschenleben.

Brnde knnen Verbrennungen und Vergiftungen verursachen, d i e hufig
t d l i c h e Folgen haben. Diesbezglich kann man S t a t i s t i k e n anfhren,
welche zeigen, dass d i e Hufigkeit d e r durch Brnde verursachten
Todesflle n i c h t v e r n a c h l s s i g t werden d a r f .

Zu erwgen sind ferner gefhlsmssiqe und s o z i a l e Nachwirkungen,

insbesondere im Hinblick auf das Gefhl der Unsicherheit bzw. im
Hinblick auf das Verlangen der Menschen nach Geborgenheit.

2 . A n z w e i t e r S t e l l e muss man s i c h m i t den V e r l u s t e n an S a c h w e r t e n

beschftigen. Diese Verluste sind entweder e i n Ergebnis d e r Verbrennung,
oder aber auf Korrosionsphnomene bzw. d i e Unbrauchbarmachung durch
Feuer zurckzufhren.

Diese Verluste kann man t h e o r e t i s c h mit dem entsprechenden Geldwert

ausdrcken. Die F e s t s t e l l u n g d i e s e s Wertes i s t jedoch schwierig, da zum
Kaufwert d i e Gesamtheit d e r i n d i r e k t e n Kosten und V e r l u s t e im Zusammenhang
mit der Wiederinstandsetzung der beschdigten Sachwerte und d e r h i e r f r
e r f o r d e r l i c h e n Zeit a d d i e r t werden muss.

Bei bestimmten Industrieanlagen ist eine Wiederinstandsetzung nicht

wnschenswert.
 448

3. Schliesslich knnen Brnde Phnomene auslsen, die betrcht-

liche Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt haben : beispielsweise der Brand in
einem Kernkraftwerk.

METHODEN DER BRANDVERHUETUNG

Die lteste Methode, den Folgen von Brnden zuvorzukommen, ist

wahrscheinlich die Flucht.

Diese Methode wird stets angewandt, weshalb der Architekt Einrichtungen

zur Rumung sowie den Schutz dieser Einrichtungen, insbesondere bei
Gebuden mit grosser Flche oder grosser Hhe, vorsehen muss.

Ein anderes, fast ebenso altes Verfahren besteht darin, das Eingreifen
von Hilfsmannschaften sowie die Bewsserung der betroffenen Gebude-
teile vorzusehen. Wir verfgen in allen Fllen ber die Dienste der
Feuerwehr sowie ber die Hilfsmannschaften in Fabriken und ffentlichen
Gebuden. Allgemein unterscheidet man die passive Brandverhtung,
die mit der Bauweise zusammenhngt, und die aktive Brandverhtung,
die die Hilfsmassnahmen umfasst. Die passive Brandverhtung, deren
Bedeutung nicht vernachlssigt werden darf, kommt bei der Auswahl der
Baumaterialien zum Tragen, welche eine Brandsperre bilden und schwer
entzndlich bzw. schwer brennbar sein mssen. Technische Ausrstungen,
bei denen bedeutende Energiemengen (Elektrizitt, Heizl usw.)
eingesetzt werden, sind so zu planen und zu installieren, dass Brnde
vermieden werden. Zur aktiven Brandverhtung gehren auch smtliche
automatischen und manuellen Lschvorrichtungen, hinzu kommen noch
technisch aufwendige elektronische Ueberwachungs-, Detektions- und
Alarmgerte.

DIE KOSTEN DER BRANDVERHUETUNG

Brandverhtungsmassnahmen sind zweifellos teuer, sowohl bei der Plannung

als auch bei der Durchfhrung und bei der Wartung. Doch wird uns durch
die technische Entwicklung ein solches Arsenal an Brandverhtungsmass-
nahmen verfgbar gemacht, dass eine Auswahl mglich ist, bei der
sowohl die Kosten als auch die Wirksamkeit sehr variabel sein knnen.
Eine korrekt durchgefhrte Voruntersuchung ermglicht die Begrenzung
der Kosten fr jede Anwendung. Wenn auch die Untersuchungsverfahren
gegenwrtig noch im empirischen Stadium sind, so wollen wir dennoch
ihre wichtigsten Elemente theoretisch analysieren. Diese Analyse besteht
aus drei Teilen :

I. Definition des gewnschten Schutzniveaus

II. Bewertung des durch die gewhlten Mittel gewhrleisteten
Schutzniveaus unter Bercksichtigung von Wartung, Eingreifmglich-
keiten usw.
III Bewertung der Kosten.

I. DEFINITION DES GEWUENSCHTEN SCHUTZNIVEAUS

Da es eine absolute Sicherheit nicht qibt, muss man ein Sicherheitsniveau

definieren. Dabei wird man zu unterschiedlichen Anstzen kcmmen, je
nachdem ob es um die Sicherheit von Gtern oder die von Personen geht.
 449

Was die Sicherheit von Gtern betrifft, so kann man die Zielsetzung in
einer volkswirtschaftlichen Optimierung zusammenfassen, die die Summe
zweier Kosten auf ein Mindestmass begrenzen will : die Kosten fr die
Brandverhtung und die Kosten fr die Verluste durch Brnde. Dabei
muss man u.a. auch den Betrag der Prmien fr die Feuerversicherung
bercksichtigen. Was die Sicherheit von Personen betrifft, so ist ein
rein materialistischer Ansatz ausgeschlossen. Die Sicherheitsanforderungen
zum Schutz vor Brnden in Gebuden sind in unserer Gesellschaft sehr
hoch : nichts darf vernachlssigt werden, um Menschenleben zu retten.
In der Praxis wird das fr den Schutz von Personen erforderliche
Sicherheitsniveau in Gesetzen und Verordnungen festgelegt.

Neuere Untersuchungen erffnen die Aussicht auf die Entwicklung eines

quantifizierten Bewertungsverfahrens fr das Sicherheitsniveau. Dieses
Niveau wrde dabei durch die Wahrscheinlichkeit des Auftretens eines
Schadenfalls mit einem bestrmten Schweregrad definiert. So zum Beispiel
: Wahrscheinlich von 10 pro Jahr fr einen Todesfall im Betrieb.

II. BEWERTUNG DES DURCH DIE GEWAEHLTEN MITTEL GEWAEHRLEI STETEN

SCHUTZNIVEAUS

Im allgemeinen wird - mehr oder weniger explizit - das Verfahren der

Brandablauf scheinen angewandt. Hierbei zieht man smtliche, unter
bestimmten Bedingungen mgliche Brnde in Betracht, stellt sich die
Entwicklung und die Folgen vor und leitet daraus die erforderlichen
Brandverhtungsmassnahmen ab. Gesttzt wird dieses Verfahren durch
die Beobachtung tatschlicher oder versuchsweise angelegter Brnde.
Dabei geht man vom gesunden Menschenverstand und der intuitiven Bewertung
des Sicherheitsniveaus aus. Der Vorteil dieses Verfahrens liegt in der
Vermeidung schwerer Fehler wie der Ausserachtlassung bestimmter, nicht
geschtzter Risiken oder einem Uebermass an Schutzmassnahmen fr andere
Risiken. Aufgrund der Vielfltigkeit der mglichen Situationen sowie
aufgrund des Fehlens numerischer Daten ist jedoch eine Quantifizierung
des Risikoniveaus nicht mglich. Nur bei einfachen und genau definierten
Systemen wie beispielsweise einem einzelnen Branddetektionssystem kann man
gegenwrtig zu teilweise quantifizierten Ergebnissen kommen.

III. BEWERTUNG DER KOSTEN

Leicht zugnglich sind nur die Kosten der Anlage, wie sie
sich aus dem Kostenvoranschlag des Unternehmens ergeben.

Jedoch drfen auch die anderen Kosten nicht vernachlssigt

werden. In diesem Zusammenhang sei hingewiesen auf :

- die Kosten fr das Architektengutachten, das die zur

Verminderung von Brandrisiken
erforderlichen Vorrichtungen und Materialien auffhrt,
- die Kosten fr die Wartung der Anlagen,
- die Kosten fr die Hilfsmannschaften und ihre Weiterbildung,
- die Kosten fr die Information ber Brandschutz,
- usw.
 450

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN

Die Brandverhtungsverfahren sind inzwischen ausreichend entwickelt.

Hingegen sind die Methoden zur Bewertung des Schutzniveaus sowie die
Methoden zur Kostenoptimierung noch im empirischen Stadium.

Es gibt jedoch Anstze zur Rationalisierung. Ihre Entwicklung wird eine

bessere Anwendung der verfgbaren Mittel ermglichen.
 451

DIE BEDEUTUNG BAULICHER MASSNAHMEN FUER DEN BRANDSCHUTZ

Dr. E. Bamert, Brand-Verhtungs-Dienst, Zrich

1. Ziel baulicher Massnahmen
Ein Rckblick auf die Entwicklung der baulichen Vorkehrungen
zur Schadenverminderung erleichtert das Verstndnis fr die
heutigen Aufgaben des vorbeugenden Brandschutzes.

Whrend Jahrhunderten verwsteten Brnde Drfer und Stdte mit

ihren engstehenden, aus Holz gebauten Husern. Die stndige Ge-
fahr war der Feuerbergriff auf brennbare benachbarte Bauten.

Die Menschheit musste lernen, sich gegen die aus den kompakten
Ueberbauungen ergebenden Gefahren zu schtzen. In Siedlungen
erhielten Wohngebude im Laufe der Zeit massive Aussenwnde,
"harte" Dacheindeckungen (z.B. aus Ziegeln) und Brandmauern
trennten zusammenhngende Baukomplexe. Damit gelang es, die
Brandbereiche erheblich zu verkleinern, und zwar vom Ausmass
ganzer Siedlungen auf einzelne Gebude.

Die Eisenbeton-Bauweise brachte Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts

feuerwiderstandsfhige Deckenkonstruktionen. Die Brandbereiche
bildeten jetzt die einzelnen Geschosse und Rume mit massiven
Trennwnden. Das Hauptziel des baulichen Brandschutzes war er-
reicht: "Durchbrandsichere" Brandabschnitte wurden realisiert,
die Brnde begrenzen, bedrohte Personen und Sachen in Nachbar-
Brandabschnitten schtzen sowie den Feuerwehren die "Innenan-
griffe" im Gebude erleichtern.

Das frher wegen seiner Brennbarkeit gefrchtete Holz wurde all-

mhlich aus den Bauten verdrngt. Dieser Baustoff wurde oft
auch dort ersetzt, wo er keine Gefahr darstellt. Dafr entstan-
dan auf andere Weise neue Gefahren, die diejenigen der Holzbau-
weise bei weitem bertrafen.
Namentlich in den vergangenen zwei Jahrzehnten hat sich bei ver-
schiedenen Bauweisen die Brandsicherheit vermindert. Moderne
Baumethoden, wachsende Komfort- und Prestigeansprche sowie neue
Fabrikations- und Lagermethoden stellen einzelne der seinerzeit
mit dem baulichen Brandschutz erreichten Ziele wieder in Frage.
Die Probleme sind:
- Grossflchige bzw. grossrumige Bauweise fr Brobauten,
Fabrikationssttten und Lagerhuser
- Verwendung brennbarer Baustoffe - namentlich von Kunststoffen -
fr Isolationen und Verkleidungen
- Durchlcherung eines Gebudes mit Oeffnungen, Schchten und
Kanlen fr die Versorgung und Entsorgung, fr Transportsyste-
me sowie fr Klimaanlagen.
 452

Ein zerstrtes Grosswarenhaus oder eine grosse Lagerhalle verur-

sacht Wiederaufbaukosten, die vergleichbar sind mit denen einer
vor hundert Jahren abgebrannten Stadt. Dies ist verstndlich,
denn die Stadtmauern als frhere Grenzen des Brandbereiches wur-
den in brandschutztechnischer Hinsicht durch die Aussenwnde
eines modernen, nicht unterteilten Geschfts-, Produktions-
oder Lagergebudes ersetzt.

Wo dies nicht anders mglich ist, mssen die Ziele des Brand-
schutzes deshalb heute mit Kombinationen neuartiger Schutzmass-
nahmen zusammen mit den nach wie vor mglichen baulichen Schutz-
massnahmen verwirklicht werden.

2. Aufgaben baulicher Massnahmen

Die Aufgaben des baulichen Brandschutzes bestehen grundstzlich

darin, je nach Bauweise und Nutzung eines Gebudes die Voraus-
setzungen fr eines der beiden Schutzziele zu schaffen:

1) Rechtzeitige Lokalisierung oder Ausschaltung der Bedrohung

und Verbleib der gefhrdeten Sachen und Personen im stand-
sicheren und durchbrandsicheren Gebude (mit lokalen Ver-
schiebungen aus dem unmittelbaren Brandbereich) oder
2) rechtzeitige Rumung des Brandobjektes mit Gewhrleistung
der Standsicherheit des Gebudes bzw. der Fluchtwege whrend
der Rumungszeit.

Das erste Ziel dient dem Personen- und dem Sachwertschutz

gleichermassen, das zweite Ziel visiert meist ausschliesslich
die Personenrettung an.

Leider wird in der Praxis die Sicherstellung des ersten Zieles

viel zu wenig konsequent verfolgt. Der primre Gedanke an eine
Flucht ist zwar naheliegend und verstndlich. In Grossbauten aber
ist eine vollstndige Rumung vielfach gleichbedeutend mit der
Inkaufnahme einer schweren Gefahrensituation (Krankenhuser,
Heime, Hotels, Hochhuser).

Ein Schutzziel soll deshalb nicht ohne grndliche Klrung der

Fragen festgelegt werden:

- Wie rasch wird sich ein Brand bei einer gegebenen Gebudebau-
weise und bei gegebenem Inhalt auf ein ganzes Geschoss bzw.
Gebude ausbreiten?

- In welcher Zeit ist mit einem Einsatz der Lschkrfte zu

rechnen?

- Wieviel Zeit erfordert eine teilweise oder vollstndige Ru-

mung bei ungnstigen Verhltnissen?

- Behindert eine Rumung einen sofortigen Lscheinsatz?

 453

- Welche Stand- und Durchbrandsicherheit soll das Bauwerk auf-

weisen?
Der ausfhrliche Vortragstext enthlt Kriterien, nach denen
sich die verschiedenen Gebudearten nach ihrem Einfluss auf die
Brandausbreitungsgefahr einstufen lassen, und wie das Verhltnis
Brandentwicklungszeit zu Feuerwehranmarschzeit die Planung
"stand- und durchbrandsicherer" Bauten beeinflusst.

Die beiden letztgenannten Begriffe - die nicht mit der Feuer-

widerstandsklassierung nach dem ISO-Temperaturverlauf fr Bau-
teile gleichzusetzen sind - werden dabei nher erlutert und
definiert.
 454

Der Beitrag des Gebudeinhalts zum Brandqeschehen

Douglas BUENS

I n s t i t u t e for I n d u s t r i a l Research and Standards, Dublin, I r l a n d

Thema d e s R e f e r a t s i s t d e r B r a n d s c h u t z i n d e r R a u m a u s s t a t t u n g mit
Schwerpunkt auf den I n n e n a u s s t a t t u n g s s t o f f e n . Behandelt werden
auch d i e Entzndung, der Brandverlauf, der Feuerbersprung ("flashover")
und d i e Zersetzung sowie d i e bei Innenausstattungsstoffen allerdings
s e h r b e g r e n z t e n B r a n d S c h u t z m g l i c h k e i t e n . Dabei wird d i e I n n e n a u s -
s t a t t u n g eher a l s Gesamtheit b e t r a c h t e t - a l s Ausstattungssystem
fr bestimmte Gebudetypen - d . h . d i e einzelnen A u s s t a t t u n g s -
komponenten werden weitgehend ausser acht g e l a s s e n .

Der Referent b e r i c h t e t e ber den a k t u e l l e n Stand der b r a n d s c h u t z t e c h n i -

schen Eigenschaften von Mbelstoffen und b e r c k s i c h t i g t dabei
a l l e S t o f f a r t e n von den herkmmlichen Naturfasern b i s zu den
modernsten Kunstfasern. Dabei geht e r auch auf den Einfluss von
Mischungszusammensetzung, Gewicht und S t r u k t u r e i n . Da v i e l e der
F a s e r n an s i c h b e r n u r u n z u r e i c h e n d e b r a n d s c h u t z t e c h n i s c h e E i g e n -
schaften verfgen, werden auch d i e Mglichkeiten der Brandschutz-
ausrstung d a r g e l e g t . Ferner werden d i e brandtechnischen Eigenschaf-
ten von Polyurethan- und Latexschaum u n t e r s u c h t , unter Einbeziehung
d e r Bildung g i f t i g e r Rauchgase.

Die in Gebuden verwendeten I n n e n a u s s t a t t u n g s m a t e r i a l i e n werden

umfassend besprochen : Vorhnge, Teppichbden und Teppiche,Baldachine,
Polstermbel, Matrazen und Matrazenbezge, Bettzeug, Wandbeklei-
dungen und Knautschsessel. Behandelt werden auch das Entzndungsver-
h a l t e n verschiedener M a t e r i a l i e n , e i n s c h l i e s s l i c h der Schaumstoffe,
d i e mit diesen M a t e r i a l i e n verbundenen besonderen Brandgefahren
sowie deren W e i t e r l e i t u n g s v e r h a l t e n .

Ausserdem g e h t d a s R e f e r a t auf d i e fr d i e Wahl von feuerhemmenden

Innenausstattungsstoffen ausschlaggebenden Faktoren - gewhnlich
e i n Kompromiss zwischen den s i c h e r h e i t l i c h e n Anforderungen auf d e r
einen und den s t h e t i s c h e n Anforderungen sowie den Anschaffungs-
kosten auf der anderen S e i t e . In diesem Zusammenhang werden d i e
P r e i s e von T e x t i l i e n und Schaumstoffen in bestimmten EWG-Lndern
einander g e g e n b e r g e s t e l l t , und zwar insbesondere von hnlichen
M a t e r i a l i e n mit und ohne Brandschutzausrstung. Danach wird
d i e s e r Vergleich auf verschiedene Innenausstattungskomponenten
ausgedehnt.Abschliessend werden verschiedene vorzugsweise mit
feuerhemmendem Mobiliar auszustattende Bereiche v e r g l i c h e n , in
Verbindung m i t e i n e r K o s t e n b e r s i c h t fr A u s s t a t t u n g s a l t e r n a t i v e n .

Auch wenn d e r B r a n d s c h u t z g r u n d s t z l i c h e i n e K o s t e n s t e i g e r u n g mit

s i c h b r i n g t - und manchmal auch den s t h e t i s c h e n Eindruck b e e i n -
t r c h t i g t - so kann der Kufer dennoch durch s o r g f l t i g e Auswahl
von Mobiliar eine d e u t l i c h e Verbesserung der brandschutztechnischen
Eigenschaften ohne unzumutbaren Mehraufwand e r z i e l e n .
 455

Der Autor versumt n i c h t , darauf hinzuweisen, dass der Brandschutz

in der Raumausstattung, so sehr man ihn auch verbessern mag, nur
zweitrangig i s t gegenber den Brandschutzmassnahmen an den Bauteilen
selbst.
 456

BRANDENTDECKUNG, DER ERSTE SCHRITT ZUR BRANDBEKAEMPFUNG

Friedrich HEMME

Trotz aller Bemhungen des vorbeugenden Brandschutzes wird es immer

wieder zu Brandausbrchen kommen. In solchen Fllen ist die rechtzeitige
Brandentdeckung eine Voraussetzung fr die Minimierung eines Brandschadens.
Sie ist nur in Ausnahmefllen fr sich allein ausreichend und muss in der
Regel in ein Schutzsystem eingebunden werden.
Ein solches Schutzsystem muss eine befriedigende, auf den Einzelfall
zugeschnittene Problemlsung fr den Brandschutz darstellen, das heisst,
die Teilfunktionen Entdeckung, Alarmierung, Evakuierung und Bekmpfung
mssen aufeinander abgestimmt sein.
Es werden die Eigenschaften verschiedener Schutzsysteme - unter
besonderer Bercksichtigung des Subsystems "Entdeckung" - besprochen und
Ziele fr die weitere Entwicklung angegeben. Das Normenwesen hat bisher
dem technischen Fortschritt nicht im Weg gestanden. In Zukunft sollte es den
technischen Fortschritt frdern und strker auf den Abbau technischer
Handelshemmnisse (Landesnormen) hinwirken.
Die Wirksamkeit von Massnahmen des vorbeugenden Brandschutzes lsst
sich wegen fehlender Statistiken nur sehr ungenau beschreiben. Dies trifft
besonders fr brandentdeckende Anlagen zu. Sie sind hufig Ursache dafr,
dass ein Brand so rechtzeitig entdeckt und gelscht wird und deshalb kein
Aussenstehender davon etwas erfhrt. Bessere Kenntnisse ber den Erfolg
von allen brandschutztechnischen Massnahmen knnten der Volkswirtschaft
unter Umstnden viel Geld sparen.
Zwei im Vortrag zitierte Arbeiten vom Building Research Establishment
und Euralarm sollen zur weiteren Durchdringung des Themas anregen.
 457

SELBSTTAETIGE BRANDBEKAEMPFUNGSANLAGEN: SPRINKLER-SYSTEME

R.A. YOUNG
Europisches Komitee der Versicherungswirtschaft

Zusammenfassung
Der Einbau selbstttiger Sprinkleranlagen ist heute die gngigste Mass-
nahme des vorbeugenden Brandschutzes. Sprinkler wurden in den 80iger
Jahren des vorigen Jahrhunderts gleichzeitig in England und in den Ver-
einigten Staaten eingefhrt. Ihre Auslegung und Funktion wurde im ver-
gangenen Jahrhundert kontinuierlich optimiert, so dass sie heute bei an-
nehmbaren Kosten hohe Wirksamkeit und Zuverlssigkeit miteinander ver-
binden.

Sprinkleranlagen sind seit langem allgemein als wirksame Brandschutzein-

richtungen anerkannt. Dennoch sind bisher viel zu wenig Sprinkleranlagen
installiert. Zweifellos wre in weiten Bereichen des Gebudebrandschutzes
der vermehrte Einsatz von Sprinklern sowohl in bezug auf die Brandsicher-
heit als auch unter dem Kosten-Nutzen-Aspekt von Vorteil.

Will man die knftigen Verwendungsmglichkeiten und die Weiterentwicklung

von Sprinkleranlagen untersuchen, so bentigt man dazu alle verfgbaren
einschlgigen Statistiken und Leistungsdaten. Glcklicherweise sind
Sprinkleranlagen weltweit sehr hnlich konstruiert, weil die Installations-
richtlinien von "Factory Mutual" in den Vereinigten Staaten und des
"Fire Offices Committee" im Vereinigten Knigreich, auf denen nahezu alle
einzelstaatlichen Richtlinien aufbauen, hnlich konzipiert sind.

Auch die Anlagenbauteile sind auf der ganzen Welt gleichartig ausgelegt,
da sich die Hersteller bei der Planung der Sprinkler, Ventile usw. an den
Prfanforderungen der wichtigsten Prfstellen orientieren.

Diese weltweit vergleichbare Basis sowohl der Installationsrichtlinien

als auch der Anlagenkonzeption macht es mglich, anhand der verfgbaren
Sprinkler-Leistungsdaten die Wirksamkeit und Zuverlssigkeit von Sprinkler-
anlagen in verschiedenen Schutzbereichen zu ermitteln und die Auswirkungen
konstruktionstechnischer Aenderungen zur Leistungsoptimierung bzw. Kosten-
minderung zu untersuchen. Aus den Statistiken lsst sich ferner ableiten,
auf welchen Bereichen ein Alternieren von Brandschutz durch Sprinkler und
abwehrenden Brandschutzmassnahmen sinnvoll sein knnte.

Obwohl Sprinkler ihre Brandschutzeffektivitt im praktischen Einsatz

lngst bewiesen haben, wird nach wie vor an der Optimierung der Anlagen
sowohl im industriellen Bereich als auch im Personenschutz gearbeitet.
In den letzten dreissig Jahren hat sich die Lagertechnik tiefgreifend ver-
ndert, und mit dem Vordringen der Kunststoffe haben sich die von den
Baustoffen selbst ausgehenden Brandgefahren erheblich vergrssert. Um
den Brandschutz durch Sprinkler an die sich aus den erhhten Brandrisiken
ergebenden Anforderungen anzupassen, haben "Factory Mutual" und "Under-
writers Laboratories" in den Vereinigten Staaten, F.O.C, und "Fire
Research Station" im Vereinigten Knigreich sowie in jngster Zeit auch das
Europische Komitee der Versicherungswirtschaft umfangreiche Arbeit ge-
 458

leistet.

Auf dem Gebiet des Personenschutzes hat man - im allgemeinen auf Veran-
lassung der Regierung - auf beiden Seiten des Atlantiks parallel An-
strengungen unternommen,die in der Konstruktion schneller ansprechender
Sprinkler ihren praktischen Niederschlag gefunden haben - ein erster
Schritt in einer Entwicklung, die dazu fhren drfte, dass bis zum Ende
des Jahrhunderts Sprinkler in nichtindustriellen Gebuden in weit grsse-
rem Umfang zum Einsatz kommen.

Sprinkleranlagen haben sich seit nunmehr 100 Jahren als hochwirksame

Einrichtungen zum Personen- und Sachschutz bewhrt. Dennoch wird ihr
Nutzen immer noch stark unterschtzt, insbesondere in Europa. 1983 wurden
in Europa etwa 2,2 Millionen Sprinkler installiert, gegenber 12 Millionen
in den Vereinigten Staaten. Es ist zu erwarten, dass knftig Sprinkler
in dem Masse in weit grsserem Umfang eingesetzt werden wie man die
Leistungsfhigkeit, Zuverlssigkeit und niedrigen Kosten dieser Brand-
schutzeinrichtungen im Verhltnis zu anderen Brandschutzmassnahmen erkennt.
 459

SELBSTTAETIGE GAS UND PULVERLOESCHANLAGEN

.E. DRINKWATER

The Walter Kidde Company Limited

United Kingdom
im Namen von Eurofeu

Wenn ein Kunde eine Lschanlage kauft, bekommt er dann fr sein Geld
den entsprechenden Gegenwert, und trgt die Investition in eine Brand
schutzanlage auch dazu bei, die verhngnisvollen Folgen eines Grossbran
des zu verhten?

GasLschanlagen sind sehr kostenwirksam, so dass entsprechende Investi

tionen gut angelegtes Geld sind. Doch wie kann ich das beweisen? Hierfr
msste ich Fakten und Zahlen vorlegen, was jedoch schwierig ist, da in
Europa derartige Angaben nicht vorliegen.

Die einzelnen Brandschutzunternehmen fhren natrlich Unterlagen

ber die Lschwirksamkeit ihrer Anlagen. So verffentlichen bei
spielsweise zwei der grossen Halon1301Hersteller regelmssig Angaben
ber Brnde, die mit Halon1301 Anlagen erfolgreich gelscht
wurden. Ganz sicher wrden sie sich darber freuen, interessierte
Organisationen in ihre Adressenkartei mitaufzunehmen.

Allein aus dieser Quelle wissen wir, dass in einem kurzen Zeitraum ber
100 potentielle Grossbrnde erfolgreich aufgesprt und gelscht
wurden.

Mein Unternehmen verfgt ber einen umfangreichen Bestand derartiger

Angaben. Seit 1. Januar 1982 erhielten wir 70 Berichte ber Schadenfeuer,
die mit CO.,, Halon oder Pulverlschanlagen automatisch gelscht
wurden.

Wir kennen zwar nicht den direkten bzw. indirekten Kapitalwert der "Sach
werte", die durch diese Anlagen geschtzt werden. Wir knnen nur
vermuten, dass er mehrere zig Millionen Pfund betragen haben drfte,
insbesondere, wenn die zu den jeweiligen besonderen Risiken gehrenden
bzw. in deren Umgebung stehenden Sachwerte hinzugezhlt werden. Diese
benachbarten Sachwerte wren ihrerseits einem sehr grossen Risiko
ausgesetzt gewesen, wenn diese Anlagen nicht installiert worden wren
und, was noch wichtiger ist, sie nicht so wirkungsvoll gearbeitet htten.

Aus einer ausfhrlichen USamerikanischen Untersuchung geht hervor,

dass von allen Unternehmen, bei denen es infolge eines Brandes zu einer
grsseren Unterbrechung der Dienstleistung am Kunden kam, 60% innerhalb
von vier Jahren nach diesem Zwischenfall das Geschft aufgaben.

Eine derartige Entwicklung lsst sich nicht durch Glck, sondern nur
durch vorausschauendes Erkennen eines Brandrisikos und durch den richtigen
Sinn fr die entsprechenden Massnahmen verhten.
 460

Seit 1918 wurden Hunderttausende von Pulverlschanlagen installiert und

inmer wieder verbessert, bis sie ihren heutigen hohen Leistungsstand
erreichten.

Worin liegt der Grund fr ihre zunehmende Beliebtheit? Ein Grund ist
zweifellos der, dass sie in der Lage sind, auf einen Entstehungsbrand
rasch und automatisch zu reagieren und ihn zu lschen, bevor sich der
Brand ausbreiten und Schaden verursachen kann. Grossbrnde, die die
grssten finanziellen Verluste verursachen, zeigen deutlich, dass sich
bei einem wirksamen Lschangriff in der ersten Hinute des Brandausbruchs
ein vollstndiger Verlust vermutlich htte verhindern lassen. Diese
ersten Minuten eines Fabrikbrandes sind von entscheidender Bedeutung.
Obwohl es regelmssig zu Tausenden von Brnden kommt, verursacht der
kleine Anteil von Grossbrnden die grssten Verluste.

Die Ausbreitung eines kleinen Einzelbrandes zu einem grossen Allgemein-

Brand ist in den meisten Fllen auf die Zeitverzgerung zurckzu-
fhren, die bis zu dessen Entdeckung vergeht.

Wirksame, schnell ansprechende Brandmeldeanlagen sind deshalb fr die

rechtzeitige Brandentdeckung, die Rettung von Menschenleben und die
Begrenzung von Verlusten auf einige Hundert anstatt einige Millionen
Pfund von entscheidender Bedeutung.

Im Hinblick auf ein Zusammenwirken mit schnell ansprechenden Brandmelde-

anlagen wurden Gas- und Pulver-Sonderlschanlagen entwickelt.

Worin liegen die weiteren Vorteile von Gas-Lschanlaqen?

CO_ und Halon haben eine dreidimensionale Lschwirkung, aufgrund
deren sie in Ritzen und verborgene Aussparungen eindringen knnen, die
fr Wasser oder Schaum unerreichbar bleiben.

Es sind saubere Lschmittel, die keinen Dreck hinterlassen und die

Ausfallzeiten dadurch erheblich verringern.

Sie sind elektrisch nicht leitend, so dass sie an Spannungfhrenden

elektrischen Betriebsmitteln sicher eingesetzt werden knnen.

Personen werden durch Halon 1301 in Feuerlschkonzentration nicht

gefhrdet.
CO_ ist nicht teuer.
Beide verursachen an den von ihnen geschtzten Stoffen keine Schden.
Mit der Kenntnis dieser Eigenschaften ist ein Werturteil mglich, das
zur Auswahl der kostenwirksamsten Anlage unter den gegebenen Umstnden
beitragen kann.
Beispielsweise:
Sicherheit: Fr den Schutz eines normalerweise von Personen besetzen
Raumes ist Halon 1301 die beste Wahl.
Tiefsitzende Brnde: Zum Lschen mit grossen Mengen von Stoffen der
Brandklasse A und zur Aufrechterhaltung der Konzentration ber einen
lngeren Zeitraum ist CO_ die beste Wahl.
Gewichtsmssige und rumliche Einschrnkungen: Die beste Wahl ist
Halon 1301 oder 1211.
Khlwirkung: Falls Khlung von Vorteil ist (z.B. fen), ist CO.,
zu verwenden. Soll eine rasche Abkhlung vermieden werden, istTJalon zu
verwenden.
 461

Hufiges Nachfllen: Beim hufigen Auftreten von Brnden und zur

Verringerung der Nachfllkosten i s t C0_ zu verwenden.
S c h l a g a r t i g e Lschwirkung bei Flammenbrnden: Wenn es auf e i n e
s c h l a g a r t i g e Loschwirkung bei Flanmenbrnden ankommt und A u s f a l l z e i t e n
fr Reinigung hingenommen werden knnen, i s t Lschpulver zu verwenden.
Undichte S t e l l e n in Rumen: In Rumen mit n i c h t s c h l i e s s b a r e n ff-
nungen i s t C0 ? oder Lschpulver d i e b e s t e Wahl.
O r t l i c h e Anwendung: Fr den r t l i c h e n Schutz f r e i s t e h e n d e r Objekte
i s t CO-die b e s t e Wahl.
Diese L i s t e e n t h l t l e d i g l i c h Antworten auf einfache Probleme. Sollen
a l l e denkbaren Umstnde b e r c k s i c h t i g t werden, ndern s i c h d i e
Fragen und Antworten in v i e l f l t i g e r und oftmals sehr komplexer Weise.

Fr a l l e d i e s e Anlagen, s e i es nun eine S p r i n k l e r - , eine Schaum-, e i n e

Halon-, eine 00.,- oder eine Lschpulveranlage, g i l t , dass s i e n i c h t
miteinander k o n k u r r i e r e n . Fr jeden Anwendungsfall g i b t es das r i c h t i g e
Lschmittel, wobei es vor allem darauf ankommt, d i e r i c h t i g e Wahl zu
treffen.

Abschliessend mchte ich noch auf das a u s s e r o r d e n t l i c h e wichtige Thema

der Normen und deren Auswirkungen auf d i e Kosten von Gas-Lschanlagen
zu sprechen kennen. Innerhalb der europischen Lndern mssen wir
zu gemeinsamen Normen fr folgende Punkte kommen:

- Anlagenkonzeption;
- Gerteleistung und Herstellungsqualitt;
- Abnahmeprfung;
- Installierung und Wartung der Anlagen.

Im Bereich des Brandschutzes nimmt die Aufstellung europischer oder

internationaler Normen zu viel Zeit in Anspruch. Deshalb mssen erhr-
tete nationale Erkenntnisse und Bestimmungen in irgendeiner Form zu einem
gemeinsam anerkannten Normenwerk vereinheitlicht werden.
 462

BRANDBEKAEMPFUNG DURCH BEWOHNER ODER PERSONAL

H. ARESU DE SEUI
Leiter des ANPI
(BELGISCHEN BRANDSCHUTZVERBANDS)

Die Bekmpfung eines Brandes ist ein Wettlauf mit der Zeit.
Da er sich bereits an Ort und Stelle befindet und auch die Umgebung
besser als jeder andere kennt, muss ein Bewohner eines Gebudes bzw. ein
Personalangehriger aktiv werden, sobald er bemerkt, dass ein Feuer aus-
bricht. Er hat dann keine Zeit, irgend etwas zu improvisieren - er muss
genau wissen, was er zu tun hat und was nicht. Zu seinen Aufgaben gehrt
zunchst, dass er mglichst die Feuerwehr, die er unverzglich zu infor-
mieren hat, bei ihrem Eingreifen untersttzt.
Gebudebewohnern dies vor Augen zu fhren und sie in bestimmten
Fllen entsprechend auszubilden, ist eine Aufgabe - und zwar keineswegs
eine unwichtige -, die von den meisten nationalen Brandschutzverbnden
wahrgenommen wird, die "CFPA (Europe)" angehren, einem der Organisatoren
dieses Kongresses.
 463

FLUCHTMOEGLICHKEITEN BEI GEBAEUDEBRAENDEN

H.L. MALHOTRA, B.Sc (Eng), M.I.C.E., F.I. Fire E.

(Structural Fire Protection Consultant)

Problemstellung

Eine Gemeinsamkeit zwischen den Mitgliedstaaten der Europischen

Gemeinschaften besteht darin, dass die Bewohner immer noch durch
Gebudebrnde gefhrdet sind. Immer wieder werden Brandflle mit Toten
und Verletzten gemeldet, zuweilen mit so vielen Opfern, dass ein Auf-
schrei durch die Oeffentlichkeit geht, gepaart mit der Forderung nach
zustzlichen Sicherungen und Schutzmassnahmen gegen Feuer. In den
letzten 15 Jahren ist es zu einer Reihe derartiger Katastrophen ge-
kommen, die zu neuen Gesetzen oder zur Aenderung bestehender Vorschrif-
ten fhrten, um notwendige Schutzmassnahmen durchzusetzen. 1977 hatten
zwei Hotelbrnde in Brssel bzw. in Amsterdam Anfragen im Europischen
Parlament zur Folge, was die Kommission veranlasste, die Brandsicher-
heit bestehender Hotels zu untersuchen. Anfang dieses Jahres wurde dem
Ministerrat der Entwurf einer Empfehlung ber Sicherheitsnormen fr
Hotels in der Gemeinschaft vorgelegt.

Aus den von der NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) fr

1979 verffentlichten Statistiken ist ersichtlich, dass sich in den
sechs Gemeinschaftslndern, fr die Information zur Verfgung stehen,
1979/80 279 500 Brnde ereignet haben, also ein Brand alle 2 Minuten.
Dabei waren 2 402 Tote zu verzeichnen, was bedeutet, dass alle vier
Stunden ein Mensch durch Feuer umkam. Die meisten Brnde und die
meisten Toten wren vermeidbar gewesen.

Sicherheitsvorstellungen

In so gut wie allen europischen Lndern gibt es staatliche

Brandschutzvorschriften. Dabei ist der Schutz von Leben der wichtigste
Ausgangspunkt, ja in einigen Fllen sogar die einzige Grundlage fr
deren Erlass. Im allgemeinen geht es dabei um Schaffung geeigneter
Fluchtmglichkeiten fr die Gebudeinsassen, Ueberwachung der fr
exponierte Flchen verwendeten Werkstoffe, Brandverhalten der Bauteile
und Gebudeabstnde. Den Bestimmungen ber Fluchtmglichkeiten liegt
der Gedanke zugrunde, dass die sich in einen sicheren Ort zu fliehen.
Dies bedeutet in vielen Fllen eine Flucht "ohne Hilfe", d.h. ohne
Beistand durch Rettungsmannschaften; der Zufluchtsort liegt im
allgemeinen ausserhalb des Gebudes. In einigen Staaten sehen die
Behrden die Verfgbarkeit von zustzlichen oder alternativen Flucht-
mglichkeiten vor; der "sichere Ort" kann auch ein geschtzter
Gebudeteil sein.

Branduntersuchungen haben ergeben, dass fehlende Fluchtmglich-

keiten auf eine oder mehrere der folgenden Ursachen zurckzufhren sind:
 464

a) zu spt gegebener Alarm

b) Fluchtwege durch Rauch behindert
c) alternative Fluchtwege nicht bekannt
d) Fluchtwege unzureichend in Zahl, Umfang oder
Gestaltung
e) Ausgnge blockiert oder auf andere Heise
behindert.

Fluchtweggestaltung

Normalerweise sind bei der Fluchtweggestaltung folgende Elemente

zu bercksichtigen:
a) Fluchtwegplanung: Zahl, Ort, Streckenlnge, Breite, Ausgnge,
Flure, Hallen, Treppen, Fluchtorte
b) Fluchtwegschutz: Rauchbekmpfung, Feuerwiderstand, Sprinkler (?)
c) Fluchtwegkennzeichnung: Symbole, Richtungszeichen, Beleuchtung
d) Brandwarnung: Brandmelde- und Alarmanlagen

Zur Zeit gibt es keinerlei Uebereinstimmung in diesem Durchein-

ander verschiedener Komponenten, wie sie von den verschiedenen Behrden
in den verschiedenen Lndern verwendet werden. Selbst in ein und dem-
selben Land knnen Unterschiede bestehen zwischen dem, was verschiedene
Behrden fr unterschiedliche Situationen an Sicherheitsmassnahmen
fordern. Die Kommissionsverffentlichung ber Hotels macht diese
Unterschiede deutlich. Ein Hauptgrund hierfr mag vielleicht die
fragmentarische Entwicklung verschiedener "Vorschriften" nach Brand-
katastrophen in einzelnen Lndern sein. Erst in letzter Zeit haben
Brandschutzgremien eine Rationalisierung der Anforderungen in Betracht
gezogen, doch steht bis jetzt noch kein umfassendes System zur Ver-
fgung.

In jedem rationellen System ist das spezifische, durch die jewei-

lige Art der Gebudebelegung bedingte Risiko zu bercksichtigen, und
zwar ausgehend von folgenden Elementen: menschliche Faktoren, Art der
Brandgefahr, Grsse, Hhe und Komplexitt des Gebudes, voraussicht-
liche Rolle der Feuerwehr. Manche Gebude lassen sich schnell evaku-
ieren, bei anderen dagegen nimmt dies soviel Zeit in Anspruch, dass
eine vollstndige Evakuierung weder in kurzer Zeit mglich noch viel-
leicht sogar notwending ist. Die Gebudeinsassen knnen mit dessen
Anlage vertraut sein oder es kann sich um eine laufend wechselnde
Population handeln. Nicht alle Anwesenden sind krperlich voll
leistungsfhig, bei manchen ist nicht anzunehmen, dass sie sich ohne
Hilfe retten knnen. Will man derart unterschiedliche Faktoren
systematisch bercksichtigen, ist die Entwicklung von Fluchtwegmodellen
unumgnglich, in die sich quantifizierbare Komponenten einfhren lassen.

Bei verschiedenen Instituten wurden Untersuchungen in Angriff

genommen, in deren Rahmen Fluchtwegmodelle entstehen. Bei einigen
davon geht es um die Probleme des "Evakuierungsflusses" in Fluren
bzw. ber Treppen, bei anderen um Brandentwicklung und -ausdehnung,
Rauchausbreitung in verschiedenen Gebudeteilen und Effektivitt der
Rauchbekmpfungsverfahren.
 465

Ganz besonders ntzlich ist es, die Fluchtprob lerne auf eine
Basiszeit zu beziehen. Dies bedeutet, dass die Zeit, die die
Gebudeinsassen bentigen, um einen sicheren Ort innerhalb oder
ausserhalb des Gebudes zu erreichen, keinesfalls lnger sein darf,
als die Zeit, die zur Verfgung steht, bis die Bedingungen fr sie
unhaltbar werden. Die verfgbare Zeit hngt von der Geschwindigkeit
der Feuerausbreitung, von der Geschwindigkeit der Rauchentwicklung
und von der Effektivitt der Rauchbekmpfungsmassnahmen ab. Die zur
Flucht bentigte Zeit dagegen wird beeinflusst durch menschliche
Faktoren und durch die Gestaltung der Fluchtwege. Beides lsst sich
quantifizieren, wodurch es mglich sein sollte, verbesserte und zu-
verlssige Fluchtmglichkeiten zu schaffen, was wiederum zu einem
signifikanten Rckgang der Zahl vermeidbarer Brandopfer fhren drfte.
 466

SCHUTZ- OND BERGUNGSMASSNAHMEN WAEHREND DER BRANDBEKMPFUNG

G. KARRAN, FIFireE
Chief Fire Officer
West Yorkshire Fire Service
Vereinigtes Knigreich

In dem Bericht wird dargelegt, dass zur erfolgreichen Eindmmung

der Brandschden in Gebuden ein sorgfltig vorbereiteter
Aktionsplan erforderlich ist, der sich im wesentlichen in drei
Stufen aufgliedern lsst :

Stufe 1 : Massnahmen, die von den Gebudeinsassen vorsorglich bei

Ausbruch eines Brandes zu treffen sind.
Stufe 2 : Massnahmen der Feuerwehr bei ihrer Ankunft und wahrend
der Brandbekmpfung.
Stufe 3 : Gemeinsam von Feuerwehr und Gebudeinsassen nach dem
Brand zu treffende Massnahmen.

Stufe 1 : Hier wird erklrt, wie im Falle eines Brandes durch

Beachtung einfacher aber sachgemsser Brandschutzmassnahmen in
bezug auf Lagerung von Vorrten und Rohmaterial auf deren Verteilung
innerhalb des Gebudes und auf die Art und Weise, wie mit ihnen
umgegangen wird, Schden eingeschrnkt werden knnen. Ausserdem
wird auf einige bauliche Massnahmen im Gebude hingewiesen, die in
der zweiten Stufe von Nutzen sind.
Stufe 2 : Hier wird dargelegt, dass der Einsatz der Feuerwehr nur
erfolgreich sein kann, wenn sie bei ihrer Ankunft mit Schutz- und
Bergungsmassnahmen beginnt, nach einem festgelegten Plan vorgeht und
ein Minimum an einfacher Ausrstung benutzt. Untersuchungen
haben ergeben, dass die Unterlassung geeigneter Massnahmen in einem
frhen Stadium alle spter eingeleiteten Schutz- und Bergungsmass-
nahmen erschwert.
Stufe 3 : Hier wird erlutert, wie bei Beachtung der Stufen 1 und
2 eine nicht unbetrchtliche Reduzierung des Schadens erreicht
werden, auf diese Weise feuerbeschdigte Bestnde gerettet oder
wesentliche Vorgnge bzw. Unterlagen erhalten werden knnen.

Zu beachtende Hinweise
Stufe 1
1. Fussbdeu sollten so angelegt sein, dass das Oberflchenwasser
zu Aussentren hin abfliessen kann. Es sollte weder Rampen noch
Stufen geben, die dies - sofern keine Wasserablufe vorhanden
sind - verhindern.
2. Die Oeffnungen der Innenwasserablufe drfen nicht durch
Warenbestnde, Mobiliar oder Fussbodenbelge verstellt bzw.
verdeckt sein.
3. Auf Anschlsse fr Senkgruben oder Pumpen in Kellern ohne
Wasserabzug ist zu achten.
4. Es sollten angemessene Belftungsmglichkeiten zum Abzug des
Rauches aus den Rumen vorhanden sein.
 467

5. Brandschutztren s o l l t e n vorhanden s e i n .
b . An der Wand i t o n t i e r t e Schaltvorrichtungen sind unbehindert durch
Wnde auf Leisten anzubringen.
7. Lagerbestnde sind zu v e r t e i l e n und zu zhlen.
8 . E l e k t r i z i t t s , W a s s e r - , G a s a n s c h l s s e und S p r i n k l e r k o n t r o l l v e n -
t i l e mssen l e i c h t zugnglich s e i n ; i h r Standort i s t d e u t l i c h zu
kennzeichnen.

Stufe 2
1 . Abdeckung - Gegenstnde m i t PVC - o d e r B e r g u n g s f o l i e n a b d e c k e n .
2. Mobiliar usw. aus brennenden Gebuden entfernen und
3 . Geborgenes Mobiliar usw. schtzen.
4. Sperren an Trffnungen und Bodenflchen e r r i c h t e n , um e i n
Ausbreiten von Wasser zu verhindern.
5. Bergungsfolien anschlingen, um Wasser durch Fenster und Tren
nach aussen a b z u l e i t e n .
6. Bden ffnen, um Wasser a b f l i e s s e n zu l a s s e n .
7. Von Decken tropfendes Wasser in Schsseln, Eimern usw. auffangen.
8. Abflsse ffnen und f r e i h a l t e n .
9. Belften, um Rauchschden zu vermeiden.
1 0 . A u s b r e i t e n d e s Rauches d u r c h V e r s c h l i e s s e n d e r B r a n d s c h u t z t r e n
unterbinden.

Austrocknen der Rumlichkeiten :

1. Teppiche e n t f e r n e n .
2. Schutt und Trmmer wegrumen und entwssern, nach Wertgegen-
stnden suchen.
3. Bden von Wasser befreien.
4 . Keller auspumpen.
5. Trocknen durch Belftung oder Einsatz von Heizungsanlagen.
6. Zuvor e n t f e r n t e s geborgenes Gut Zurckbringen.
7. Verderben von L a g e r b e s t n d e n durch E n t f e r n e n n a s s e r Umhllungen
verhindern.
8. Maschinenanlagen trocknen und l e n .
9. Notreparaturen an Dchern, Dachluken und Fenstern ausfhren.
10.Beschdigte Gebude vor Eindringlingen schtzen.
 468

SCHUTZMASSNAHMEN NACH BRAENDEN - VORBEUGUNG GEGEN KORROSION

UND WIEDERHERSTELLUNG VON GEBAEUDEN UND INHALT

Dr. A. WEISS
Winterthur-Versicherungen, Mnchen

Betrachtet man das Innere von Gebuden, die nicht unmittelbar durch
Brnde zerstrt, sondern "nur" durch Russ und Rauchkondensate beaufschlagt
wurden, drfen die mglichen Folgeschden nicht ausser acht gelassen werden.
Angesprochen sind die durch aggressive Bestandteile in den Rauchkondensaten -
insbesondere Salzsure - mglichen Korrosionen an metallischen Oberflchen
sowie die Gefhrdung der Armierung in Stahlbeton.
Seit etwa 20 Jahren sind diese Gefahren nach Brnden nahezu allgegenwrtig,
nachdem halogenhaltige Kunststoffe, insbesondere Polyvinylchlorid CPVC),
fr viele Zwecke - also nicht nur als Kabelummantelungen - Verwendung finden
und im Brandfall als Surelieferant dienen. Zwar gibt es heute eine Vielzahl
alternativer und halogenfreier Kunststoffe zu PVC, doch fordert allein die
Aufarbeitung des wichtigen Rohstoffes Steinsalz (NaC1) die Weiterverarbei-
tung des anfallenden Chlors zu einem Massenprodukt wie PVC.
. Wie lsst sich eine beginnende Korrosion durch Salzsure erkennen?
Das typische, oft schon wenige Stunden, sptestens aber ein bis zwei Tage
nach dem Schadenereignis erkennbare Bild ist das g leichmssige Rosten
der brandgasbeaufschlagten Oberflchen von blanken Eisenteilen. Ein
Vergleich mit identischen Metallflchen, die whrend des Schadenereignisses
fr die Brandgase nicht frei zugnglich waren, gibt in der Regel Sicher-
heit. Teile aus Kupfer oder Messing erhalten durch salzsaure Kondensate
eine Grnfrbung, Zink und Aluminium reagieren mit weissen Ausblhungen.
Dagegen lsst sich die Korrosionsgefahr fr die Armierung in Beton nicht
visuell, sondern nur durch Analyse von Bohrmehlproben bestimmen.

. Sofortmassnahmen, die ein Fortschreiten der Korrosion verhindern

Sowohl die Rostbildung auf Metallen als auch das Eindringen von Salzsure
in Beton erfordert die Anwesenheit von Wasser, das normalerweise als
Luftfeuchte bzw. als Lschwasser ausreichend vorhanden ist. Das Fortschreiten
der Korrosion auf metallischen Oberflchen wird durch Aufsprhen von
Korrosionsstoppol unterbunden, wobei die aggressiven Rauchkondensate
durch eine lige Schutzschicht unterwandert werden. Wirksamer ist es
jedoch, die relative Luftfeuchte durch moderne Kondenstrockner mit Um-
luftbetrieb auf ca. 40 % zu reduzieren. Dies kann sowohl fr einzelne
Maschinen unter einer Abdeckung aus Polyethylenfolie geschehen als auch
fr Rume als ganzes, sofern deren Decke und Wnde nach dem Brandereignis
nicht grossflchig offen sind. Die schnell aufgebaute und nahezu ohne
Personal auskommende Luftentfeuchtung wird leider viel zu selten angewandt,
 469

insbesondere in Gebudebereichen, die ohne thermische Schden sind und

nur ber offene Turen, InstaiLationsschchte bzw. Klimaanlagen mit
korrosiven Rauchgasen beaufschlagt wurden. Darber hinaus hat die Luft-
entfeuchtung den Vorteil, dass sie das weitere Eindringen von Salzsure
in den Beton verhindert.
Sanierungsarbeiten zur Wiederherstellung von Maschinen, Vorrten und
Gebuden
Voraussetzung fr wirkungsvolle, dem Schadenumfang angemessene und
letztlich auch kostengnstige Sanierungsmassnahmen ist die quantitative
Bestimmung der durch das Schadenereignis vorhandenen Salzsure (Chlorid)
auf Oberflchen und im Beton. Diese Aufgabe sowie die darauf basierende
Ausarbeitung eines Sanierungskonzeptes obliegen in Deutschland (in der
Regel) ffentlich bestellten Sachverstndigen. Hierzu legte der Verband
der Sachversicherer (VdS) erst krzlich fest, welchen Mindestanforderungen
Gutachten mit Sanierungskonzpten entsprechen sollen.
Korrodierte Metallflchen von nicht demontierbaren Einrichtungen,
Maschinen etc. mssen im Wi schverfahren entrostet und passiviert sowie
anschliessend mit einem Konservierungsmittel behandelt werden. Fr
transportable Einrichtungen, Vorrte etc. hat sich das Tauchverfahren
mit maximal fnf Arbeitsgngen (Reinigung/Entfettung, Passivierung,
Wassersplung, Wasserverdrngung, Konservierung) bewhrt. Fr viele der
bentigten Korrosionsstopp- und Sanierungsmittel gibt es VdS-Richtlinien
nach heutigen Erkenntnissen. Die Verwendung von den Richtlinien entsprechen-
den Mitteln bringt den Vorteil, dass diese Chemikalien in ihrer Wirkung
bekannt und deshalb auf den Einzelschaden bezogen angewendet sowie
problemlos entsorgt (Umweltschutz!) werden knnen.
Fr die Wiederherstellung von elektrischen und insbesondere elektronischen
Gerten bieten sich neben Chemikalien auf der Basis organischer Lsemittel
mehr und mehr wssrige Reinigungsverfahren an. Unabhngig davon ist fr
dieses Aufgabengebiet das technische Know-how der ausfhrenden Firma
besonders wichtig.
Strittig ist die Sanierung von armiertem Beton. Dies trifft sowohl fr
Anwendungsbereich, Ausfhrung und Wirkung der mglichen Verfahren wie
Sandstrahlen, mehrmaliges Beschichten mit Kalkhydrat, Hochdruckheiss-
wsche oder Hochdruckheisswsche in Kombination mit Luftentfeuchtung als
auch auf die Frage der Gefhrdungsgrenze durch Salzsure zu. Eine der
Ursachen mag die bisher fehlende Eigenkontrolle der ausfhrenden Sanierungs-
firmen und die kaum praktizierte Abschluss-, d.h. Erfolgskontrolle durch
den Sachverstndigen sein.
 470

BRANDVERSICHERUNG

Dr. EVERT C. WESSELS

Direktor TBBS - Technical Bureau for Loss Prevention (Technisches
Bro fr Schadenverhtung), Baarn, Niederlande

Fr Aussenstehende ist das Versicherungsgeschft nicht immer einsichtig,

Aus diesem Grunde wird h ier das Interesse der Brandversicherer am Brand-
schtz beschrieben, wbe es darum geht, die besondere Stellung der
Versicherer innerhalb de r Gesamtstruktur von Behrden, Organisationen, In-
stitutionen und Privatpe rsonen herauszuarbeiten, die sich mit dem Gebude-
brandschutz beschftigen
Darber hinaus wird bei einem ersten Versuch, ein besseres Verstnd-
nis der mit dem Brandsch utz verbundenen Kosten und Vorteile zu gewinnen -
der Beziehung zwischen dien Kosten fr Brandschutzmassnahmen und deren
Auswirkungen auf die Ris ikoverminderung sowie den Brandversicherungsstzen
besondere Beachtung zute il. Es ergibt sich die Schlussfolgerung, dass sich
Brandschutzverfahren woh l nie in vollem Umfang aus Einsparungen bei Vei
Sicherungsprmien finanz ieren lassen.
 471

GESETZGEBUNG UND UEBERWACHUNG

P . CANOVAN
Home O f f i c e , London

EINLEITUNG : THEMENSTELLUNG

1. Das Referat g l i e d e r t sich in zwei T e i l e . Der e r s t e T e i l umreisst

e i n i g e d e r a k t u e l l e n g e s e t z g e b e r i s c h e n und s o n s t i g e n Massnahmen i n
europischen Lndern zur Ueberwachung der B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t in Wohnge-
buden. Der zweite T e i l s c h i l d e r t d i e neue "Brandschutzphilosophie",
d i e s i c h in Grossbritannien auf der Grundlage e i n e r Revision d e r e i n s c h l -
gigen R i c h t l i n i e n und g e s e t z l i c h e n Bestinmungen e n t w i c k e l t h a t ( d i e s e
Ueberprfung b e i n h a l t e t e eine Untersuchung der r e l a t i v e n Kosten von
Einhaltung und Durchfhrung der V o r s c h r i f t e n ) . Dabei wird auch auf d i e
in anderen europischen Lndern vorgenomme Reform der entsprechenden
Gesetze eingegangen.

TEIL 1 : AKTUELLER STAND

B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t l i c h e Ueberwachung f f e n t l i c h e r Gebude

2. Das Ueberwachungsverfahren i s t von Land zu Land u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h .

In Deutschland fhren d i e Feuerwehren in besonders brandgefhr-
deten Gebuden e i n e Brandschutzschau durch und beraten in Fragen der
B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t . Die e r t e i l t e n Empfehlungen knnen durch kommunale
Verordnungen in Auflagen umgewandelt werden. In F r a n k r e i c h wird i n
Hochhusern und Versammlungssttten regelmssig e i n e Brandschau
durchgefhrt, deren Hufigkeit vom jeweiligen Gefhrdungsgrad
abhngt. In I t a l i e n i n s p i z i e r t das n a t i o n a l e Feuerwehrcorps
e i n e Vielzahl von Gebuden und s t e l l t hierber Bescheinigungen
aus (die Verpflichtung d i e Bescheinigung zu e r h a l t e n und zu erneuern
l i e g t dabei bei d e r fr das Gebude verantwortlichen P e r s o n ) . In
Dnemark g i b t es f e u e r p o l i z e i l i c h e Vorschriften fr Beherbergungsbetriebe,
Versammlungssttten, Krankenhuser, Altenheime und hnliche E i n r i c h -
tungen.

3. In Grossbritaniuen r i c h t e t sich d i e Brandschutzberwachung nach dem

Verwendungszweck des Gebudes. Wichtigstes Ueberwachungsinstrument i s t
d a s F i r e P r e c a u t i o n s Act von 1 9 7 1 . Das R e f e r a t e r l u t e r t d a s l a u t
diesem G e s e t z d u r c h z u f h r e n d e Genehmigungsverfahren und f h r t a u s ,
welche Gebude gegenwrtig ihm u n t e r l i e g e n (die meisten H o t e l s ,
Fabriken, Geschfte, Bros u s w . ) . Andere Gebude, wie z . B . Versammlungs-
s t t t e n und Pflegeheime, werden durch e i n Systau von Registrierung und
Genehmigung berwacht, wobei d i e Brandschutzbehrde e i n e Brandschau
vornimmt und d i e zustndige S t e l l e darber i n f o r m i e r t , ob d i e g e t r o f f e -
nen Brandschutzmassnahmen den Anforderungen entsprechen.
 472

B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t l i c h e Ueberwachung von p r i v a t e n Wohngebuden

4. Grundstzlich geht man davon a u s , dass d i e Gesetzgebung ein unange-

messenes Mittel zur Ueberwachung der BrandSicherheit in Einfamilienhu-
sern i s t , da d i e Bewohner i h r e eigenen Brandschutzvorkehrungen t r e f f e n
knnen. D e r a r t i g e Wohngebude sind deshalb in Grossbritannien im Act
von 1971 ausdrcklich ausgenommen (in begrenztem Umfang finden h i e r
a l l e r d i n g s Verbraucherschutzgesetze Anwendung). Anders v e r h l t es sich
in Grossbritannien bei Mehrfamilienhusern, d i e in bezug auf d i e
Brandsicherheit den Wohnungsbaugesetzen u n t e r s t e h e n .

5. Ungeachtet der minimalen g e s e t z l i c h e n Brandschutzauflagen fr Einfami-

l i e n h u s e r , rumen d i e R e g i e r u n g e n i n den e u r o p i s c h e n Lndern d e r
Brandsicherheit in diesen Gebuden einen hohen S t e l l e n w e r t e i n .
Insbesondere in Grossbritannien i s t man sich bewusst, dass d i e Mehrzahl
d e r Brnde und Personenschden in Wohngebuden in Einfamilienhusern
a u f t r e t e n . W i c h t i g s t e Massnahmen d e r R e g i e r u n g e n z u r Verhtung von
Brnden und Personenschden in Wohnungen sind d i e Brandschutzaus-
bildung und Sicherheitskampagnen. Was auf diesem Gebiet in verschiedenen
e u r o p i s c h e n Lndern ( S c h w e i z , D e u t s c h l a n d , Schweden, N i e d e r l a n d e ,
F r a n k r e i c h , G r o s s b r i t a n n i e n ) unternommen wird, s c h i l d e r t das Referat
e b e n f a l l s , in Verbindung mit E i n z e l h e i t e n ber d i e h i e r f r in England
und Wales e i n g e s e t z t e n M i t t e l .

TEIL 2 : AUSBLICK

6. Z a h l r e i c h e e u r o p i s c h e L n d e r , z . B . d i e N i e d e r l a n d e , F r a n k r e i c h
und I t a l i e n , sind . d a b e i , i h r e BrandSchutzgesetze zu r e v i d i e r e n oder
n e u z u f a s s e n . Die e i n s c h l g i g e n Massnahmen i n d i e s e n Lndern werden
kurz b e h a n d e l t .

R e v i s i o n d e r B r a n d s c h u t z g e s e t z e i n G r o s s b r i t a n n i e n und V o r s c h l g e
fur d i e Zukunft.

7. Bei d e r 1980 v e r f f e n t l i c h t e n , vom Innenministerium vorgenommenen

Revision der B r a n d s c h u t z r i c h t l i n i e n h a n d e l t e e s s i c h um e i n e umfassende
Untersuchung der Mglichkeiten zur Brandverhtung und Brandbekmpfung.
B e s t a n d t e i l der Revision war auch e i n e Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse des Gesetzes
von 1971. Hauptzweck der Gesetzesberprfung war d i e Analyse und
Gegenberstellung der Kosten der Durchfhrung und d e r Kosten der Einhaltung
d e r V o r s c h r i f t e n , d . h . von den Eigentmern bzw. Bewohnern von Gebuden
z u r E r f l l u n g d e r Genehmigungsauflagen zu t r a g e n d e K o s t e n ) . I n d e r
Ueberprfung kam man zu dem S c h l u s s , dass das Gesetz wenig f l e x i b e l und
zu aufwendig i s t : d i e Durchfhrungskosten machen einen zu hohen
P r o z e n t s a t z d e r Einhaltungskosten aus und das Ueberwachungssystem
fr Gebude mit hohem Brandrisiko wird gleichermassen auf zahlreiche
k l e i n e r e Gebude mit geringem B r a n d r i s i k o angewandt. E r f o r d e r l i c h
s e i e i n m o d i f i z i e r t e s System, das es den Brandschutzbehrden ermglicht,
Gebude mit hohem Brandrisiko zu bestimmen und deren Brandsicherheit zu
erhhen, ohne dass Gebude mit geringem Brandrisiko in gleichem
Umfang zu k o n t r o l l i e r e n s e i e n .
 473

8. Ausgefhrt wurde die 1982 abgeschlossene umfassende Revision des

Gesetzes von 1971 von einem Planungs/Gesetzungsgebungs-Unterausschuss,
dem Vertreter des Staates der KommunalVerwaltungen und der Feuerwehr
angehren. Der Unterausschuss kam zu dem Ergebnis, dass das Genehmigungs-
verfahren des Gesetzes einen unangemessenen Einsatz der feuerpolizeilichen
Einrichtungen beinhaltet. Er stellte die Erfordernisse fr ein neues
System auf und legte hierzu detaillierte Vorschlge vor. Dies ist
der gegenwrtige Stand der Entwicklung.

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN

9. Der Referent vertritt die Auffassung, dass die neuen Gesetzesvorschlge

von einem richtigen Ansatz ausgehen, und dass die Verantwortung fr den
Brandschutz letztlich bei der ffentlichkeit selbst und den Brandschutz-
organisationen liegen muss. Die eigentliche Aufgabe der Brandschutzdienst-
stellen besteht darin, zu beraten und anzuregen, und erst in letzter
Hinsicht, Auflagen fr einen angemessenen Brandschutz in Wohngebuden
zu erlassen.

10. Der Referat gibt seiner Hoffnung Ausdruck, dass die neue "Brandschutz-
philosophie" des Gesetzgebers in Grossbritannien auf Interesse gestossen
ist. Er erwartet in der Arbeitssitzung einschlgige Stellungnahmen der
anderen Delegierten, ausgehend von deren Erfahrungen im eigenen Land.

Aspekte des Referats, die voraussichtlich durch Dias und Tabellen veran-
schaulicht werden

1. Beispiel fr das vom Innenministerium benutzte Material fr Brand-

schutzausbildung/Sicherheitskampagnen (Absatz 5 der Zusammenfassung)

2. Bei der Revision der Brandschutzrichtlinien erarbeitete Tabellen, in

denen die Durchfhrungs- und Einhaltungskosten im Brandschutz
gemss Fire Precautions Act von 1971 gegenbergestellt sind
(Absatz 7 der Zusammenfassung)

3. Verzeichnis der Grundzge des neuen Brandschutz-Ueberwachungssystems,

wie es fr Grossbritannien vom Planungs-/Gesetzgebungs-Unterausschuss
vorgeschlagen wurde (Absatz 8 der Zusammenfassung).
 474

VORBEUGUNG GEGEN BRANDSTIFTUNG

C. Douglas WOODWARD

Direktor der UK Fire Protection Association

Brandstiftung hat sich in allen europischen Lndern sowie generell

in allen entwickelten Lndern zu einem schwerwiegenden brandsicherheit-
lichen Problem entwickelt. Eingehende Untersuchungen im Vereinigten
Knigreich und in den Niederlanden haben ergeben, dass im Zeitraum von
den frhen 60iger Jahren bis zu den spten 70iger Jahren die Flle
von Brandstiftung in diesen beiden Lndern sich verfnfzehnfacht
haben.

Die Brandstatistiken, einschliesslich der Statistiken ber die Brandstif-

tung sind in den meisten Lndern unzureichend. Nur in wenigen europi-
schen Lndern ist man berhaupt in der Lage, anzugeben, wieviele
Brnde eindeutig auf Brandstiftung zurckzufhren sind. Dennoch
lsst sich aus den uns vorliegenden Zahlen ableiten, dass die durch
Brandstiftung verursachten Schden in den europischen Lndern
mindestens 15% in einigen Fllen bis zu 50%, der Brandschadenskosten
ausmachen. In den meisten europischen Lndern wird der Anteil der
Brandstiftung an den Brandschadenskosten auf mindestens 20 bis 30%
geschtzt. Fr das Vereinigte Knigreich haben wir ermittelt, dass
44% der Grossbrnde mit eindeutig bestirrmbarer Ursache auf vorstzliche
Brandstiftung zurckzufhren sind.

Brandstiftung ist ein nur schwer aufzuklrendes Delikt. Nur wenige

Brandstifter werden berfhrt; noch weniger werden verurteilt.

Zur Brandstiftung zhlen wir alle vorstzlich und bswillig gelegten

Brnde, ungeachtet des Motivs. In Europa drfte Vandalismus die
hufigste Ursache der Brandstiftung sein.

Vandalismus ist vor allem der vorherrschende Beweggrund, aus dem Jugendli-
che unter 18 Jahren eine Brandstiftung begehen. Dementsprechend ist die
Gefahr einer Brandstiftung umso grsser, je hher der Anteil an
Kindern und Jugendlichen in einem potentiellen Tterkreis ist.

Das Referat gibt Empfehlungen, wie man der Brandstiftung vorbeugen kann
und geht dabei auch kurz auf die lngerfristigen Massnahmen ein,
die auf nationaler und mglicherweise auch auf europischer Ebene zu
treffen sind, um eine Vernderung der Einstellung in der Bevlkerung
zu erreichen. Zunchst sind einmal umfassendere Statistiken ber
Brnde und Brandstiftung erforderlich. Die Brandstiftung sollte unter
dem technischen Aspekt untersucht werden, um ausgehend von den dabei
gewonnenen Erkenntnissen die Betroffenen informieren und beraten zu
knnen. Generell werden leistungsfhigere Einrichtungen fr die
Untersuchung von Brnden bentigt.
 475

Im restlichen Teil seines Vortrags macht der Referent praktische Vor

schlge, durch welche Massnahmen in einzelnen Fllen die Gefhrdung
durch Brandstiftung vermindert und der Schaden durch vorstzlich
gelegte Brnde begrenzt werden kann. Die entsprechenden A usfhrungen
sind wie folgt gegliedert :

Planung der Gebude

Auslegung (Verladerampen, Lagerflchen, Mllbeseitigung)

Zugangskontrolle (Pfrtnerhuser, Sperren, Betriebsfernsehen)
Fernhalten von Eindringlingen bei nicht belegten Gebuden (Wnde,
Zune, 'Dore, Verwendung nichttrocknender Farbe)
Tren und Fenster (Schlsser, Riegel, Fensterlden, Doppelvergla
sung)
Abstimmung von brandtechnischen und Sicherheitsanforderungen.

Sicherheitseinrichtungen und systme

Alarmanlagen
automatische Brandfrherkennung
Sprinkleranlagen
Betriebsfernsehen
S icherhe itsbeleuchtung
Versicherungsschut
Schutz der Sicherheitseinrichtungen gegen mutwillige Zerstrung

Sicherheitsorganisation

Sicherheit als Teil der Brandschutzmassnahmen

Ueberprfung neuer Angestellter
Spezielle Ueberprfung von A ushilfskrften, Reinigungspersonal,
ausserbetriebliche Arbeitskrfte
Erziehung des gesamten Personals zur Wachsamkeit
Verfahren beim Abschliessen des Gebudes am Abend
Besucherkontrolle
Kontrollgnge
Schlssel : es ist sicherzustellen, dass sie nicht in falsche
Hnde geraten.
Einsatz ausserbetrieblicher Wach und Sicherheitsunternehmen zur
Ueberwachung und Kontrollbegehung der Gebude.

Vorhandensein leicht entzndlicher Stoffe

Lagerhuser
Brennbare Flssigkeiten und Gase
Lagerpltze im Freien
Abfall, Verpackungsmaterialien

Zusanmienarbeit mit Feuerwehr und Polizei

 476

GRUNDLAGEN DES BRANDSCHUTZES

Dipl.-Ing. Dietrich STEINHOPF

Senatsrat beim Senator fr Bau- und Wohnungswesen, Berlin

Ausgangslage
So lehensnotwendig das Feuer ist, so gefhrlich kann es
fr den Menschen und seine Umwelt werden, wie zahlreiche
Brnde zeigen. Hieraus ergibt sich die Notwendigkeit des
Brandschutzes.
Was ist Brandschutz
Unterscheidung von bekmpfendem und vorbeugendem Brand-
schutz, Philosophie der Brandbekmpfung, Grenzen des vor-
beugenden Brandschutzes in Richtung Personenschutz und
Sachschutz.
Inhalt des vorbeugenden Brandschutzes
- Anforderungen an Baustoffe, Bauteile und Betriebsein-
richtungen.
- Hhe und Grundrigestaltung von Gebuden, Rettungsweg-
system.
- Lage des Gebudes auf dem Grundstck, Zugnglichkeit fr
die Feuerwehr, Abstnde zu anderen Gebuden.
- Einrichtung zur Brandbekmpfung
- Anforderungen an Dekorationen und Einrichtungsgegenstnde
(Mbel, Gardinen u. .).
- Verhalten von Personen
- Werk- und 3etriebsfeuerwehr
Regelungsbereiche im Brandschutz
Abwehr von Gefahren fr die Allgemeinheit oder den Einzelnen
als Aufgabe des Staates. Festlegung von staatlichen Anforde-
rungen nach dem Grundsatz je gefhrlicher eine bauliche An-
lage ist, um so hher mssen die ffentlich-rechtlichen An-
forderungen sein.
Festlegung der Anforderungen im Gesetz, Rechtsverordnung, Aus-
fhrungsvorschrift, Norm / Standard.
Behrdliches Verfahren
Umfang der prventivei Prfung - Genehmigungsverfahren, ber-
 477

wachung des Betriebes bestimmter baulicher Anlagen.

Versicherungswesen
Feuerversicherung - Grundlagen fr Anforderungen - Prmien-
rabatte bei bestimmten Manahmen.
Schlubetrachtunp;
Trotz gewisser, durch die historische Entwicklung und die
Lebensgewohnheiten in dem einzelnen Staat bedingter Unter-
schiede, gibt es auf dem Gebiet des Brandschutzes und den
zu erreichenden Zielen viel Gemeinsamkeit. Zahlreiche Gre-
mien sind international ttig. Aufgabe ist, ber ein System
des Brandschutzes Einigkeit zu erzielen und alle Schritte
unter Wrdigung der Belange der Praxis in dieses System
einzupassen.
 478

BRANDSCHUTZANFORDERUNGEN AN DIE GEBAEUDEPLANUNG

G. FERENCZY
Leiter des Technischen Dienstes - Socotex Export

EINLEITUNG

Die meisten Brandschutzbestimmungen knnen - und sollten normalerweise

auch - schon bei der Gebudeplanung bercksichtigt werden. Dies gilt
insbesondere fr die die Gebudearchitektur betreffenden Baubestim-
mungen, von denen nher untersucht werden sollen :
- Feuerwehr-Zugangsmglichkeiten
- Schutz gegenber benachbarten Gebuden
- Unterteilung des Gebudes in Brandabschnitte
- Evakuierung der Insassen
Ergnzend zu diesen Bestimmungen sind ebenfalls zu erwhnen :
- Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit von Bauteilen
- Rauchabzug.
Diese Themen sind Gegenstand weiterer Kongressbeitrge.
Nicht behandelt werden andererseits hier die Gebudeausrstung, wie
Feuerlschanlagen, Generatorstze, Heizungszentralen usw., die
ebenfalls eng mit dem Brandschutz zusammenhngen und die an anderer
Stelle untersucht werden.

1. FEUERMEHR-ZUGANGSMOEGLICHKEIIEN

Die Zugnge zu den Gebuden (insbesondere wenn sie gegenber

ffentlichen Verkehrswegen zurckversetzt sind,die Gestaltung ihrer
unmittelbaren Umgebung und die Bauweise ihrer Fassaden beeinflussen den
Zugang der Feuerwehrleute und den Einsatz ihrer Gerte.

Deshalb werden diese Aspekte normalerweise von den rtlichen Feuerwehr-

diensten untersucht, die Vorschriften erlassen, die auf ihre Gerte
abgestimmt sind. Auch dieser Aspekt wird in einem weiteren Kongressbeitrag
vertieft.

2. SCHUTZ GEGENUEBER BENACHBARTEN GEBAEUDEN

Zwischen benachbarten Gebuden kann sich ein Brand hauptschlich auf

folgendem Wege ausbreiten :

- ber gegenberliegende Fassaden oder Zwischenmauern

- ber die Dachung.
Unter einem Mindestabstand zwischen den Gebuden sind in den Schutzvor-
schriften fr die Zwischenwnde und die gegenberliegenden Dachunqen
Anforderungen an das Brandverhalten vorgeschrieben. Ferner knnen darin
Vorschriften ber die Begrenzung bzw. den Schutz gegenberliegender
Oeffnungen enthalten sein.
 479

3 . UNTERTEILUNG DES GEBAEUDES IN BRANDABSCHNITTE

Wie bei den wasserdichten Schotten von Schiffen, die die Folgen eines
Wassereinbruchs begrenzen sollen, geht man auch hier von der Ueberlegung
aus, die Gebude durch mehrere, besonders feuerhemmende Mauern und
Decken zu unterteilen, um ein Ausbreiten des Brandes zu verhindern.

Die Aufteilung in Brandabschnitte und die Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit

ihrer Zwischenwnde hngen von der Art der Risiken, der Art und
Grsse der Gebude sowie von der Anordnung der Evakuierungswege
innerhalb der Gebude ab.

Desgleichen sind Bestimmungen zu bercksichtigen, die die Ausbreitung

eines Brandes ber die Fassaden von einer Ebene auf die andere verhin-
dern sollen.

4. EVAKUIERUNGSWEGE FUER DIE INSASSEN

Die Evakuierung der Insassen eines Gebudes oder eines Brandabschnitts

dieses Gebudes bei Ausbruch eines Brandes ist ein Sicherheitsfaktor
von grundlegender Bedeutung.

Aus diesem Grunde sind innenliegende Fluchtwege (Broausgnge, Flure,

Treppen, Gebudeausgnge) einzuplanen, die auf dem raschesten Wege
nach draussen fhren und :
- deren Aufnahmefhigkeit im Verhltnis zur Anzahl der Insassen
stehen muss, - die nach Mglichkeit immer eine Evakuierungsalterna-
tive bieten (Verkrzung der Flure ohne Ausgang), sowie
- einen guten Schutz gegen Feuer und Rauch bieten.

5. PRUEFUNG DERZEIT GELTENDER VORSCHRIFTEN

Beim Bestehen von Brandschutzvorschriften in den verschiedenen Lndern

der Gemeinschaft gilt es zunchst, sie daraufhin zu berprfen, ob
sie die obenerwhnten Aspekte behandeln und anschliessend die vorgeschrie
benen Bestimmungen miteinander zu vergleichen.

Die verschiedenen Schutzmassnahmen lassen sich wie folgt einstufen :

- Zweckbestimmung der Gebude,
- Anzahl der Insassen
- Ausdehnung und
- Hhe der Gebude.
 480

ANFORDERUNGEN AN BAUTEILE, BAUSTOFFE UND INVENTAR

Erik PEDERSEN
Dnische Brandschutzvereinigung

O f t i s t von S e i t e n der B a u i n d u s t r i e und der A r c h i t e k t e n d i e Behauptung

zu h r e n , dass zu den w i c h t i g s t e n Problemen bzw. Handelshemmnissen auf
dem Bausektor d i e Brandsicherheitsanforderungen/Brandschutzbestimmungen
f r Gebude i n den e i n z e l n e n EG-Staaten gehren. B i s h e r wurden a l l e r d i n g s
zu diesem Thema - wenn berhaupt - nur sehr wenige Untersuchungen durchge-
f h r t und v e r f f e n t l i c h t .
Es b e r r a s c h t a b e r , dass d i e B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t s a n f o r d e r u n g e n f r
Gebude so u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h s e i n s o l l e n , wenn s i e doch a n d e r e r s e i t s i n etwa
d i e g l e i c h e S i c h e r h e i t f r d i e Gebudebenutzer, den g l e i c h e n Personen-
und Sachschutz g a r a n t i e r e n , da man j a wohl davon ausgehen kann, dass d i e
p h y s i k a l i s c h e n Bedingungen und Parameter der Brandentstehung und Brandaus-
b r e i t u n g kaum von Grenzen b e e i n f l u s s t werden.
Bei e i n e r U e b e r s i c h t ber d i e B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t s a n f o r d e r u n g e n f r
B a u s t o f f e sowie tragende und n i c h t t r a g e n d e B a u t e i l e , wie s i e im folgenden
gegeben w i r d , s t e l l t s i c h h e r a u s , dass es zwar gewisse Unterschiede
zwischen den verschiedenen e i n z e l s t a a t l i c h e n Brandschutzbestimmungen g i b t ,
dass das Hauptproblem aber i n der u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e n Formulierung und
D a r s t e l l u n g an s i c h g l e i c h b e d e u t e n d e r Anforderungen l i e g e n d r f t e .
Die darberhinaus noch z w e i f e l s f r e i vorhandenen Abweichungen s i n d
wohl im w e s e n t l i c h e n auf r t l i c h e B a u t r a d i t i o n e n und d i e j e w e i l s v e r f g b a r e n
B a u s t o f f e ( Z i e g e l , S t a h l , Holz) i n den EG-Staaten z u r c k z u f h r e n . Ein
w e i t e r e r Grund f r U n t e r s c h i e d e i s t d i e T a t s a c h e , dass eine V e r e i n h e i t l i c h u n g
der Oefen und s o n s t i g e n Anlagen f r Brandversuche versumt wurde^zu einem
Z e i t p u n k t , a l s man b e i den S i c h e r h e i t s a n f o r d e r u n g e n von der V o r s c h r i f t
r e i n e r Masseinheiten f r B a u s t o f f e sowie f r tragende und n i c h t t r a g e n d e
B a u t e i l e berging zu L e i s t u n g s a n f o r d e r u n g e n aufgrund mehr oder weniger
genau d e f i n i e r t e r Prfmethoden bei entsprechenden Versuchsfen. Hier
d r f t e auch der U n t e r s c h i e d zwischen der herkmmlichen N e u n z i g - M i n u t e n -
Anforderung i n Deutschland und der Sechzig-Minuten-Norm i n bestimmten
allgemeinen B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t s b e r l e g u n g e n einzuordnen s e i n .
 481

RECHENVERFAHREN FUER DIE BRANDENTSTEHUNG

UND -AUSBREITUNG

P.H. THOMAS
Fire Research Station, Boreharawood (UK)

In den letzten Jahren ist es den Brandschutzingenieuren gelungen, fr

die Zwecke der Bauplanung Prfungen und Versuche mit Vollbrnden quanti-
tativ zu analysieren. Trotz seiner Einschrnkungen hat sich das Konzept
der Einheitstemperatur als Basis zur Berechnung der Wrmestromdichte
und des daraus abzuleitenden Verhaltens einer Konstruktion durchgesetzt.

Schwierigkeiten verursacht anderseits die Brandausbreitung. Die Tempera-

turen sind nicht einheitlich im Raum und unterliegen auch raschen zeit-
lichen Schwankungen. Die Art der Brandentstehung und das dabei entflammte
Material prdeterminieren die Brandausbreitung. Die besonderen Schwierig-
keiten der quantitativen Vorherbestinmung liegen auf physikalischem und
chemischem Gebiet; die Analyse erfordert die Einbeziehung zahlreicher
Wrmebertragungs-, Energie-, und Kontinuittsbeziehungen. Bis vor
etwa einem Jahrzehnt war es kaum der Mhe wert, das Problem im Detail
anzugehen, weil die Rechenkapazitten nicht ausreichten. Dies hat sich
gendert. Heute kann man je nach Zweck und angestrebter Differenzierung
zwischen mehreren Brandausbreitungsmodellen auswhlen.

Das Referat beschreibt kurz verschiedene Arten von Modellen fr die

Phase vor der Vollentzndung und deren Brauchbarkeit. Es wird auch
zeigen, welche Aspekte der Nachbildung aktive Forschungsarbeit beinhalten
und wird deutlich machen, dass die bereits angelaufene internationale
Zusammenarbeit mehr formelle Untersttzung bentigt. Insbesondere
soll die Zusammenarbeit Daten ber einen breiten Bereich von Brand-
bedingungen liefern, auf deren Grundlage man dann Tests mit dem Brand-
geschehen in Beziehung setzen und eine Datenbank zur Bewertung der
Wahrscheinlichkeiten fr stochastische Modelle einrichten kann.

Die berechnete Fliessdynamik drfte noch nicht gengend verifiziert

sein, um als Grundlage fr die Konstruktion kommerzieller Motoren oder
Oefen zu dienen. Ausreichen wird ihr Entwicklungsstand jedoch in naher
Zukunft fr zahlreiche Aspekte der Konstruktion und brandsicherheitliche
Bewertung von Anlagen zur Beherrschung der Rauchausbreitung.

Fr verschiedene Zwecke sind sogar einfachere herkmmliche Verfahren

angemessen: so lassen sich z.B. die Kapazitt von Dachentlftungen in
bezug auf die Rauchentwicklung bei vorgegebenem Brennwert oder die Zeit
bis zum Absinken der Brandgasschicht auf Kopfhhe hinreichend genau
bestimmen. Noch nicht ausreichend ist die Genauigkeit dagegen bei
Kombination mit anderen Brandausbreitungsprozessen, z.B. Wrmebergang
durch Strahlung zur Zndung sekundr entflammter Stoffe oder Wrme-
rckfhrung zum Brandgut mit dadurch verursachter Entflammung oder
 482

Beschleunigung der Flammenausbreitung.

Die Beschrnkungen der quantitativen Bewertung haben ihren Ursprung in

der quantitativen Einbeziehung von realen (als Gegensatz zu mathematisch
einfachen) Materialen und deren Verbrennungsprodukten, insbesondere Russ
(sie bestimmen die A uswirkungen der Wrmestrahlung). Das letztgenannte
ist ein Problem der Brandforschung, whrend die berechnete Fliessdynamik
zur Nachbildung der Brandgas und Rauchstrmung in den Bereich der
Ofenbautechnik, Meteorologie usw. gehrt.

Ohne ein eingehenderes quantitatives Verstndnis wird sich eine wissen

schaftlich fundierte langfristige (als Gegensatz zu adhoc) Lsung zur
Vereinheitlichung der brandtechnischen Versuche auf dem Gebiet des
Brandverhaltens wohl kaum finden lassen. Man kann sogar behaupten, dass
Prfverfahren sich erst dann harmonisieren lassen, wenn sie Quantit
ten messen, die auch ausserhalb der Versuchsbedingungen signifikant sind.
Und welcher A rt diese Signifikanz sein muss, ist nur auf der Grundlage
eines grndlichen Problemverstndnisses zu ermitteln. Die gegenwrtig
von ISO TC82 ausgearbeiteten Versuche sollen ausrstungsunabhngige
Informationen oer bekanntermassen relevante Quantitten liefern (im
Gegensatz zu zahlreichen bestehenden Versuchen). CIB empfehlt der ISO
diese A rt der Untersuchung brandtechnischer Prfungen auszuweiten.
Ist es nicht erstaunlich, dass eine anerkannt grundlegende Quantitt
in der Bildung brennbarer Gase und Dmpfe von Fluiden, die tatsch
liche bzw. effektive Zersetzungs oder Pyrolysewrme, nicht Gegenstand
auch nur eines Standardtests ist? Das gleiche gilt fr kpc (mit k =
Wrmeleitfhigkeit, = Dichte und c = spezifische Wrme), eine fr
Zndung und Flammenausbreitung wesentliche Verbundeigenschaft (direkt
gemessen). Es wird viel Mhe aufgewandt, um herauszufinden, ob die ef
fektiven Werte dieser Eigenschaften abzuleiten sind aus den Ergebnissen
bestehender Prfungen, die nicht fr diesen Zweck angelegt sind.

Wir sind in der Brandforschung also bereits in einem Stadium, in dem die
wissenschaftliche Untersuchung der Brandausbreitung so weit fortgeschrit
ten ist, dass sie sich der brandtechnischen Versuche annehmen kann.
Knftig wird dies nicht nur fr den Gesetzgeber von Nutzen sein, sondern
auch fr den Bauplaner und den Brandschutzdienst.

Das Referat errtert die genannten allgemeinen Fragen, einige der

Forschungsprobleme und die gegenwrtigen Mglichkeiten von Brandaus
breitung siiodellen .
 483

PRFVERFAHREN ZUR KLASSIFIZIERUNG VON BAUTEILEN

P. VANDEVELDE, Rijksuniversiteit Gent

Dieser Beitrag ist der Bericht ber eine von Herrn Dekker (..O.,
Niederlande), Herrn Klingelhfer (M.P.A . N.W., Deutschland) und mir
im Auftrag der Kommission der Europischen Gemeinschaften durchgefhrte
Untersuchung, die der Harmonisierung der Prfverfahren zur Klassifizie
rung von Bauteilen dient.

Ausgangspunkt der Untersuchung war das Dokument 1202, welches von einer
Gruppe nationaler Experten als Kompromiss zwischen der zu wenig ins
Detail gehenden ISONorm 834 und den vorhandenen nationalen Normen
erarbeitet worden war.

Das Dokument 1202 wurde 1977 verffentlicht.Die nationalen Behrden

lehnten es ab, da sie es als ungeeignet ansahen, die Reproduzierbarkeit
zwischen den verschiedenen Laboratorien und den verschiedenen Lndern
zu gewhrleisten.

Die Arbeitsgruppe untersuchte folgende Aspekte des Problems :

Die vorhandene Ausrstung in 15 europischen Laboratorien und die

gertetechnischen Mglichkeiten, das in Dokument 1202 beschriebene
Verfahren einzuhalten.

Hierzu gehrt :

* die Bauart der Oefen und der Aufgabevorrichtungen

* die Hess und Regeltechnik
* die Brennerleistung, usw.

Die Auslegung und das Verstndnis von Dokument 1202 durch die einzel
nen Laboratorien, was folgendes einschliesst :
* die Formgebung des Prfstcks;
* die Herstellung thermischer und mechanischer Bedingungen in den Grenz
bereichen;
* die Sachkompetenz des Personals;
* der Informationsgehalt der Prfberichte;
* die Auslegung der Klassifizierungskriterien.

Die Schlussfolgerungen der Untersuchung lassen sich wie folgt zusammen

fassen :

Abgesehen von einigen Ausnahmen hinsichtlich der Aufgabevorrichtung

sind keine wesentlichen Vernderungen an der Ausrstung erforderlich.

Dokument 1202 ist vllig unzureichend formuliert und lsst zuviel

Raum fr Interpretation. Die Unterschiede in der Klassifizierung sind
in erster Linie auf eine unterschiedliche Auslegung der Norm zurckzu
fhren. Das Dokument ist viel exakter abzufassen.

Sowohl die Qualitt als auch die Quantitt der in den Prfberichten
gelieferten Informationen mssen verbessert werden, sollen diese auf
internationaler Ebene nutzbar sein.
 484

Die logische Schlussfolgerung der Untersuchung bestam aarin,das? aas

Dokument 1202 neuzufassen ist. Diese Aufgabe wurde der ArbeitsgruDpe
zugewiesen.

Das neue Dokument besteht aus drei Teilen :

- Der erste Teil liefert allgemeine Informationen ber die Prfverfah-

ren fr smtliche Arten von Bauteilen.

- Der zweite Teil enthlt spezifische Informationen ber die folgenden

tauteile :

* nichttragende Wnde
* tragende Knde
* Sttzen
* auf der Unterseite deir Feuerangriff ausgesetzte Geschossdecken
* Trger.

- Im dritten Teil ist beschrieben, wie der vereinheitlichte Prfbericht

aussehen soll.

Das neue Dokument liefert genaue Spezifikationen fr smtliche

Aspekte des Prfverfahrens.Hieraus folgt, dass das Verfahren sich zu
einer Art Zulassungsprfung entwickelt, whrend der Forschungsaspekt,
in 6en Hintergrund tritt.

Wie schon in Dokument 1202 bleibt der Anwendungsbereich des neuen Dokuments
auf einige Kategorien von Bauteilen beschrnkt.
Zahlreiche Bauteile, die hufiger international gehandelt werden,
bleiben weiter ausgeschlossen. Wir erwhnen in diesem Zusammenhang
Tren und Hngedecken.
Bei anderen Bauteilen sind in vielen Lndern nationale Prfverfahren
noch nicht vorhanden oder erst in der Ausarbeitung : Lftunqsleitungen,
Feuerklappen, Kabel- und Rohrdurchfhrungen.
Um einer drohenden Auseinanderentwicklung zuvorzukommen sind Bemhungen
um eine Harmonisierung dringend erforderlich.

Aufgrund der erheblichen wirtschaftlichen Konsequenzen wird die Vereinheit-

lichung der Prfverfahren zur Klassifizierung von Bauteilen in der
Europischen Gemeinschaft wahrscheinlich eher durch volkswirtschaftliche
als durch technische Probleme gehemmt werden.
 485

EUROPAEISCHE SICHERHEITSKONZEPTE ZUM BAULICHEN BRANDSCHUTZ

Frau Kersken-Bradley, Dr.-Ing., beratender Ingenieur, Mnchen

Thema des Beitrags ist der Brandschutz in der Bauplanung mit folgenden
zwei Schwerpunkten :

1. Modelle zur Bewertung der Temperaturbeanspruchung der Konstruktion in

einem Brandabschnitt
2. Verfahren zur Bewertung des Brandrisikos und der Wechselbeziehung
zwischen baulichen und brandsicherheitlichen Anforderungen.

Zu 1. : In Europa und auch weltweit benutzt man im wesentlichen drei

Modelle zur Darstellung der Temperaturbeanspruchung :
i. Beanspruchung nach einer Einheits-Temperaturkurve und einer Mindest-
beanspruchungsdauer wie sie in Bauordnungen bzw. Bestimmungen zu den
Feuerwiderstandsklassen festgelegt sind.
ii. Beanspruchung nach einer Einheits-Temperaturkurve und einer ausgehend
von der quivalenten Branddauer berechneten Beanspruchungsdauer (dabei
werden die Auswirkungen eines natrlichen Schadenfeuers in einem
Brandabschnitt aus denjenigen einer Einheits-Brandbeansprucnung abgeleitet).
iii. Beanspruchung nach einer Einheits-Temperaturkurve mit Modelldarstellung
eines natrlichen Schadenfeuers.

Die drei Anstze werden als Stufen einer zunehmend perfektionierten

Modelldarstellung errtert und kurz vergleichend bewertet.

Zu 2 :Die herkmmliche Klassifizierung nach in Bauordnungen und

sonstigen Vorschriften festgelegten Feuerwiderstandsklassen beinhaltet
bereits eine gewisse empirische Risikobewertung, die sich jedoch nur
schwer quantifizieren lsst, da nicht eindeutig nach physikalischen
Aspekten und Sicherheitsanforderungen unterschieden wird. Eine verbesserte
Risikobewertung soll sich auf folgende Faktoren sttzen :
i. Ein Sicherheitskonzept des baulichen Brandschutzes, in dem die
brandschutztechnische Bemessung auf ausgeklgelten Temperaturbeanspruch-
ungsmodellen beruht und die Sicherheitsfaktoren aus zuverlssigkeits-
theoretischen Berechnungen abgeleitet werden, die von nachstehenden
Grssen ausgehen :

- Die Auftretenswahrscheinlichkeit von Brnden eines bauliche Schden

verursachenden Schweregrads, je nach Nutzung des Brandabschnitts und
Leistungsfhigkeit der Branderkennungs- und Brandbekmpfungseinrich-
tungen
- Die zulssige Versagenswahrscheinlichkeit whrend der gesamten
Nutzungsdauer, ausgehend von den Sicherheitsanforderungen der Oeffent-
lichkeit und in Abhngigkeit von den Folgen einer die Anforderungen
an das bauliche Verhalten berschreitenden Brandbeanspruchung.
Vgl. CIB Draft Design Guide, deutscher Model Code).

i. Ein Punktebewertungsverfahren mit einem standardisierten Brandrisiko

ind einer hauptschlich empirischen Bewertung folgender Grssen:
 486

- Zunehmender bzw. abnehmender Einfluss verschiedener Faktoren (Brandlast,

Toxizitt, Weitlufigkeit des Brandabschnitts) sowie der Einrichtungen
fr Brandschutz, Branderkennung und Brandbekmpfung auf die Risiko-
bewertung .
- Das zulssige Risiko, ausgehend von den Sicherheitsanforderungen der
Oeffentlichkeit sowie der Nutzungskategorie und der Lage des Brandab-
schnitts sowie der Anzahl der im Brandfall gefhrdeten Personen.
(vgl. Swiss Draft Standard).
iii. Eine Fehlerbaumanalyse, in der die potentielle Brandentwicklung und
-ausdehnung untersucht und nach Wahrscheinlichkeitsgesetzen quantifiziert
wird. Dargestellt werden diese Wahrscheinlichkeiten als Wahrscheinlichkeits
kurven,
- die z.B. mit der Ausdehnung des vom Brand erfassten Bereichs, der
Anzahl der vom Feuer berwundenen Feuersperren usw. abfallen, wobei
die Neigung von der Wirksamkeit der Branderkennungs- und bekmpfungs-
massnahmen sowie der Sperrenkonstruktion abhngt;
- die mit den Sicher heitsanforderungen der Oeffentlichkeit entsprechen-
den zulssigen Wahrscheinlichkeitsgraden verglichen werden knnen,
(vgl. U.S.A.- Verffentlichungen).

Die genannten Verfahren werden einander gegenbergestellt, wobei

insbesondere auf die Wechselwirkung zwischen baulichen Brandschutzmass-
nahmen und aktiven Massnahmen eingegangen wird. Die Frage der Aequivalenz
der aktiven und passiven Massnahmen wird eingehend im Zusammenhang mit
den entsprechenden Gefahren des Feuerwehreinsatzes errtert.
 487

MASSIVBAUTEILE

Prof. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Karl KORDINA

Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz
Lehrstuhl fr Massivbau - TU Braunschweig

Alle Bemhungen, die seit Jahren darauf gerichtet sind, die Massnahmen
zur Sicherung eines ausreichender, vorbeugenden baulichen Brandschutzes intei
national oder wenigstens auf europischer Ebene zu vereinheitlichen, stossen
bekanntermassen immer wieder auf Schwierigkeiten. Das ist durchaus nicht
unverstndlich, da die brandschutztechnischen Anforderungen an die Bauwerke
in jedem Land formuliert wurden anhand der Erfahrungen vieler Jahre. Dabei
ist das nun vorhandene Sicherheitsniveau aus eben diesem Grund des empirischen
Werdens kaum zu definieren. Es mag im allgemeinen als ausreichend empfunden,
im einen oder anderen Fall, auch abhngig vom Betrachter, als zu hoch oder
zu niedrig angesehen werden. Das gilt fr die Verhltnisse im eigenen
Land; ein Urteil ber die Sicherheitsanforderungen im Nachbarstaat ist noch
weniger mglich und eine gegenseitige Akzeptanz kaum zu erwarten.
Um einen Eindruck von dem derzeitigen Stand zu gewinnen, wurden von
einigen europischen Lndern Informationen erbeten ber den erforderlichen
Brandschutz in drei-, sechs- und zehngeschossigen Wohngebuden, soweit er
Beton- und Mauerwerk-Bauteile betrifft.
Es zeigte sich zunchst, dass die nach deutscher Auffassung klar
gestellten und ohne grossen Aufwand zu beantwortenden Fragen einigen der
auslndischen Kollegen Schwierigkeiten bereiteten und dass der angestrebte
direkte Vergleich nicht immer mglich war. Schliesslich standen grob ver-
gleichbare Daten fr Stahlbetonbauteile aus Belgien, der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland, Frankreich und Grossbritannien zur Verfgung. Fr Wnde und
Sttzen aus Mauerwerk erhielten wir keine auswertbaren Unterlagen.
Hinsichtlich der bauaufsichtlichen Forderungen ergab sich folgendes
Bild:
Bei dreigeschossigen Wohnhusern werden in
- Belgien keine Forderungen erhoben, in
- Frankreich 30 min. Feuerwiderstandsdauer, in
- Grossbritannien 60 min. und in
- Deutschland 30 min. fr horizontale und 90 min. fr vertikale
Bauteile gefordert;
oei sechsgeschossigen Wohnhusern in
- Belgien, Frankreich und Grossbritannien 60 min. und in
- Deutschland 90 min. Feuerwiderstandsdauer;
bei zehngeschossigen Wohnhusern in
- Deutschland, Frankreich und Grossbritannien 90 min. und in
- Belgien 120 min. Feuerwiderstandsdauer.
 488

Die den Anforderungen gengenden ButeiImerkmale folgen nicht den

gleichen Gesetzmssigkeiten. Beispielsweise betrgt die mindestens
erforderliche Dicke von Stahlbetondeckenplatten in sechsgeschossigen
Wohnhusern in
Frankreich 70 mm
Grossbritannien 100 mm bei 60 m i n . Feuerwiderstandsdauer,
Belgien 150 mm
D eutschland 100 mm bei 90 m i n . Feuerwiderstandsdauer.
Es i s t e v i d e n t , dass d i e V e r e i n h e i t l i c h u n g ansetzen muss bei der
B e u r t e i l u n g des B a u t e i l v e r h a l t e n s u n t e r vorgegebener Brandbeanspruchungs
dauer. E r s t dann wre eine Basis g e s c h a f f e n , von der aus man d i e bauauf
s i c h t l i c h e n Forderungen b e r p r f e n und g g f . a n g l e i c h e n knnte. Jedoch
wre schon der e r s t e S c h r i t t der w e s e n t l i c h e zur Aufhebung der Handels
hemmnisse f r Produkte aus dem j e w e i l i g e n N a c h b a r l a n d .
Auf dem Gebiet des Betonbaues und des Stahlbaues s i n d Expertengruppen
der Europischen Konvention f r S t a h l b a u ECCS und des E u r o I n t e r n a t i o n a l e n
Betonkomitees CEB s e i t Jahren mit d i e s e r Aufgabe b e f a s s t . Beide haben
b e r e i t s Empfehlungen v o r g e l e g t . D ie CEBEmpfeh Lungen dienen z . B . a l s
w i c h t i g e Grundlage f r d i e i n B e l g i e n und G r o s s b r i t a n n i e n d e r z e i t d u r c h
g e f h r t e Neubearbeitung der n a t i o n a l e n V o r s c h r i f t e n . Fussend auf dem ISO
Standard 834 b i e t e n d i e Empfehlungen verschiedene Methoden zur E r m i t t l u n g
der Feuerwiderstandsdauer von B a u t e i l e n a n , z . B . D iagramme und Bemessungs
t a f e l n , aber auch v e r e i n f a c h t e Rechenverfahren.
Fr a l l e Bauelemente, d i e s i c h e i n e r solchen B e u r t e i l u n g s m g l i c h k e i t
e n t z i e h e n , muss auf Brandversuche z u r c k g e g r i f f e n werden. D ie Ergebnisse
solcher Versuche ber d i e Staatsgrenzen hinweg anzuerkennen, wurde durch
eine Expertengruppe ILD A ( I n t e r L a b o r a t o r y D ata Acceptance) a n g e s t r e b t ;
auch d i e Europische Gemeinschaft l e i t e t e dazu S c h r i t t e e i n . Vor a l l e m
aber s i n d d i e A k t i v i t t e n der ISP TC 92 i n den l e t z t e n Jahren v e r s t r k t
worden, um dieses Z i e l zu e r r e i c h e n .
 489

STAHLBAU
M. LAW
Ove Arup Partnership, London (UK)

1. Brandsicherheit
Es weist n i c h t s darauf h i n , dass in nach nodernen Konstruktionsprinzipien
e r r i c h t e t e n Gebuden der Baustoff an sich d i e Personengefhrdung
b e e i n f l u s s t . Das h e i s s t , e s g i b t k e i n e n Grund zu d e r Annahme, d a s s
P e r s o n e n in einem modernen Gebude m i t S t a h l t r a g w e r k im Brand f a l l
s t r k e r g e f h r d e t s i n d a l s P e r s o n e n i n einem modernen Gebude aus
Beton, Ziegel oder Holz. Ebenso i r r i g i s t d i e Auffassung, dass eine
Stahlkonstruktion besonders hohe Brandschden v e r u r s a c h t . Die hchsten
Sachschden bei Brnden entstehen in gewerblichen Gebuden -
Lagerhusern und grossen P r o d u k t i o n s s t t t e n - , wobei s t e t s der
V e r l u s t oder d i e Beschdigung des I n v e n t a r s den g r s s t e n Schadensposten
ausmachen.Die Feuerausbreitung wird b e g n s t i g t , z.B. durch brennbare
Stoffe auf Wand - und Dachflchen, zu s p t e Branderkennung, fehlende
Unterteilung in Brandabschnitte und s c h l e c h t e Ausfhrung der Brandab-
schnitt-Schnittstellen.

2. Brandverhalten von S t a h l

Stahl ist nichtbrennbar. Wird er nicht fr Tragkonstruktionen verwendet,

z.B.lediglich fr Tren und nichttragende Trennwnde, so bentiqen
die entsprechenden Stahlbauteile keinen Brandschutz. Wie bei anderen
Bauteilen auch nehmen die mechanischen Festigkeiten von Stahl (Zugfestig-
keit, Streckgrenze und Elastizittsmodul) mit steigender Temperatur
ab. In Abhngigkeit von Gebrauchslast, Feuerwiderstand, Auflager und
Stahlsorte lsst sich eine kritische Stahltemperatur bestimmen, bei der
die Stahlkonstruktion der Belastung voraussichtlich nicht mehr standhlt
oder sich bermssig verformt. Aufgrund seiner hohen Wrmeleitfhig-
keit erwrmt sich Stahl in Gebudebrnden rasch und muss gewhnlich
geschtzt werden, soll er die kritische Temperatur nicht erreichen.
Es gibt verschiedene Schutzmassnahmen - Verkleidungen, dmnschichtbildende
Belge, Wasserkhlung-, um die Stahltemperatur fr die geforderte
Widerstandsdauer unter dem kritischen Wert zu halten.

3 . Bauplanung

Die thermischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften von S t a h l wurden fr d i e

Bauplanung s t a n d a r d i s i e r t ; in Handbchern sind d i e Verfahren zur
Bewertung des Traqverhaltens beschrieben. Als Brandbelastung angenommen
wird d a b e i gewhnlich d e r Normbrand, w e i l d i e s e r a l s Grundlage fr
e i n s c h l g i g e V o r s c h r i f t e n d i e n t . Der fr d i e E i n s t u f u n g zum E r l a s s
von Verordnungen z w e i f e l l o s n t z l i c h e Normbrandversuch i s t fr d i e
Bauplanung jedoch weniger g e e i g n e t .

Bezieht man das vorhandene brennbare Material im V e r h l t n i s zur Grsse

und Belftung des Gebudes e i n , so z e i g t sich o f t , dass d i e t a t s c h -
l i c h e Brandbelastung e i n e r Konstruktion anders bzw. weniger s t a r k i s t a l s
u n t e r Normbrandbedingungen. Ein b e k a n n t e s B e i s p i e l h i e r f r i s t d a s
offene Parkhaus.
 490

Ebenfalls sehr unterschiedlich von den Normbrandbedingungen ist die

Brandbelastung von Bauteilen ausserhalb der Gebudefassade : sie wird
beeinflusst von der Anordnung des betreffenden Bauteils in bezug auf die
Fenster.Bei Stahlkonstruktionen wre es oft ntzlich, wenn die
Behrden als Alternative zu den Normbrandbedingungen auf naturlichen
Brnden beruhende Zulassungskriterien angeben wrden.

4. Bauordnungen

Der Umfang der von den Behrden fr ein Tragwerk geforderten Brandschutz-
massnahtnen bercksichtigt neben der Brandintensitt auch andere
Faktoren wie den Personen- und Sachschutz, die Folgen des Versagens der
Konstruktion und die Gefhrdung der Feuerwehrleute. Demgegenber wird
die Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit nur nach einem Kriterium festgelegt: der
Feuerwiderstandsdauer iir. Normbrandversuch. Nur wenig oder gar kein Raum
bleibt hierbei fr die Einbeziehung oder gar Quantifizierung von
automatischen Branderkennungs- und Lschsystemen, automatischen Rauchab-
zugs- oder Rauchbekmpfungseinrichtungen sowie der eberwachung durch
den Menschen als Brandschutzbeitrge, welche einen Teil oder die
gesamte geforderte Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit ersetzen knnten. Die
Zielrichtung der Vorschriften ist zudem nicht eindeutig definiert. Sie
dienen zum Teil ausschliesslich im Schutz von Personen, kombinieren
jedoch vielfach auch den Personenschutz und den Sachschutz.

Aus einem an eine Reihe von Stahlinformationszentren in Europa (1)

verschickten Fragebogen geht hervor, dass der Mangel an eindeutig festgeleg-
ten brandtechnischen Aufforderungen in den Bauordnungen als schwerwiegendes
Problem angesehen wird. Desgleichen enthllte der Fragebogen unterschied-
liche Brandschutzanstze bei vergleichbaren Bedingungen in den einzelnen
Lndern. In einigen Staaten ist man z.B. restriktiver als in anderen
bei der Verwendung von ungeschtzten Stahlbauteilen fr eingeschossige
Gebude. Nicht alle Lnder lassen ungeschtzte Stahlbauteile fr
Dachkonstruktionen oder fr Parkhuser zu, doch finden sich andererseits
in den weniger restriktiven Lndern offenbar keine Hinweise darauf,
dass durch deren Praxis die ffentliche Sicherheit strker gefhrdet
wre.

5. Abbau von Handelsschranken.

Obwohl der Normbrandversuch in allen Lndern auf derselben internationa-

len Norm - IS0834 - basiert, sperren sich die einzelstaatlichen Behrden
immer noch dagegen, Prfberichte aus anderen Lndern anzuerkennen.
Dies erhht die Kostenbelastung und bedeutet eine Zeitverzgerung
fr den Verbraucher. Die meisten Prf institute bewerten heute die
Vvrmedmmfhigkeiten von Baustoffen nach Normversuchen fr
den Brandschutz von Stahl, doch werden vielfach sogar diese Daten nicht
ber die Landesgrenzen hinweg anerkannt. In als besonders schwerwiegend
anzusehenden Fllen wird selbst eine von Fachleuten aller Staaten
vereinbarte Berechnungsmethcde mit der Begrndung, sie sei "europisch",
abgelehnt.

In den meisten Lndern, Grossbritannien ausgenommen, erschweren die

versicherungstechnischen Kriterien die Stahlverwendung. Untersuchungen
haben ergeben, dass diese Diskriminierung in keiner Weise durch Sachschden
in Stahlbauten gerechtfertigt ist.
 491

6. Schlussbemerkungen

Fr den Brandschutz von Stahlkonstruktionen und Stahl/Beton-Verbundkonstruk-

tionen wurden Planungsverfahren e n t w i c k e l t und in Planungshandbchern
v e r f f e n t l i c h t , d i e den Ingenieuren a l l e r N a t i o n a l i t t e n zugnglich
s i n d . Auf technischer Ebene s t e h t der Nutzung von Erfahrung in anderen
Lndern n i c h t s entgegen. Die Konstrukteure von Stahlbauten wrden d i e
g l e i c h e V o r u r t e i l s l o s i g k e i t auch auf a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r Ebene begrssen,
zumal d i e praktischen Erfahrungen mit Gebudebrnden zeigen, dass es
weit mehr Vergleichbarkeiten a l s Unterschiede g i b t .

QUELLENNACHWEIS

1. BEHETS, J . F . und LAW, Margaret (1980): Untersuchung des Brandverhaltens

von S t a h l b a u t e i l e n .
F o r s c h u n q s b e r i c h t f r d i e EGKS, CBLIA, B r s s e l und Ove Arup and
P a r t n e r s , London.
 492

BRANDVERHALTEN VON HOLZKONSTRUKTIONEN

E. SAUVA
Directeur du Centre Technique de l'Industrie du Bois

Das Referat befasst sich mit dem Brandverhalten von Holz und den daraus
abzuleitenden Bemessungsverfahren zur Vorherbestimmung der Feuerwiderstands-
fhigkeit von Holzkonstruktionen. Darber hinaus wird aufgezeigt, wie
die Feuerwiderstandsdauer eines Bauteils zur Einhaltung vorgegebener
Brandschutzanforderungen erhht werden kann.

0. EINLEITUNG

Im Bauwesen i s t Holz das e i n z i g e M a t e r i a l , bei dem das Brandverhalten von

Bauteilen u n t e r dem doppelten Aspekt der Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit und
des Brandverlaufs zu untersuchen i s t .

Wir werden uns h i e r auf d i e Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit beschrnken, da

der Brandverlauf in einem anderen Themenkreis behandelt wird.

Holzbauteile sind v i e l f a c h n i c h t a l l e i n a l s tragende Elemente oder a l l e i n

a l s r a u m a b s c h l l e s s e n d e Elemente zu p r f e n , s o n d e r n g l e i c h z e i t i g im
Hinblick auf beide Funktionen.

1. ZERSETZUNG DES HOLZES DURCH DAS FEUER

Die Feuereinwirkung fhrt zu e i n e r Verkohlung d e r Holzsubstanz, d i e

sich in e i n e r Holzkonstruktion so lange f o r t s e t z t , b i s der Querschnitt
d e s s c h w c h s t e n B a u t e i l s s o w e i t abgenommen h a t , d a s s d i e s e s s e i n e
Funktion n i c h t mehr e r f l l e n kann.

Die Feuerwiderstandsdauer i s t demnach abhngig von d e r Menge der

b e r s c h s s i g e n H o l z s u b s t a n z , d i e durch Verkohlung z e r s e t z t werden
k a n n , b e v o r d a s Feuer den zur E r f l l u n g d e r v o r g e s e h e n e n F u n k t i o n
mindestens e r f o r d e r l i c h e n R e s t q u e r s c h n i t t a n g r e i f t .

Im Feuerangriff v e r k o h l t das Holz mit r e l a t i v k o n s t a n t e r Geschwindigkeit

von d e r Z n d t e m p e r a t u r d e s H o l z e s , d . h . 275 b i s 300 C, b i s zu d e r
fr d i e Brandversuche zur Bestimmung des Feuerwiderstands v o r g e s c h r i e b e -
nen Temperatur (etwa 1200 C). Die Abbrandgeschwindigkeit i s t weitgehend
abhngig von der Dichte des H o l z e s - B e i Nadelhlzern mit einem
Raumgewicht von 400 b i s 500 kg/m , z.B. Rotkiefer, F i c h t e , Douglasie,
Oregonfichte usw., l i e g t s i e zwischen min. 0,6 mm/min und max. 1,1 mu/min.

Bei den Laubhlzern, z.B. der Eiche mit e i n e r Dichte von 600 b i s 800
kg/m , l i e g t d i e Abbrandgeschwindigkeit dagegen n i e d r i g e r , zwischen
min. 0,3 mm/min und max. 0,6 mm/min.

Die genannten Abbrandgeschwindigkeiten sind a l l e r d i n g s nur a l s Nherungs-

werte anzusehen, denn neben der Dichte s p i e l e n auch andere Faktoren eine
Rolle : vor allem d i e Form, d i e Abmessungen und die rumliche Anordnung.
 493

Anzumerken ist in diesem Zusammenhang, dass die Flaimischutzbehandlung

des Holzes die Abbrandgeschwindigkeit kaum beeinflusst. Sie verzgert
lediglich die Flammenbildung auf der Holzoberflche sowie die Ausbreitungs-
geschwindigkeit. Mit anderen Worten : die Flammschutzbehandlung verndert
den Brandverlauf, nicht die Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit.

2. AUSWIRKUNGEN DER RAEUMLICHEN ANORDNUNG DER BALTTEILE IN BEZUG AUF DEN

FEUERANGRIFF

Hauptschlich in Deutschland und im Vereinigten Knigreich durchge-

fhrte systematische Untersuchungen haben ergeben, dass die Abbrandge-
schwindigkeit von Holzbauteilen von deren rumlicher Anordnung beeinflusst
wird. Die eingangs genannten Daten stammen aus Versuchen mit Trgem
und Sttzen.

Die geringste Abbrandgeschwindigkeit ist bei Sttzen festzustellen.

Geringfgig hher ist sie an den beiden Wangen und der Oberseite von
Trgern. Die hchste Abbrandgeschwindigkeit wurde an der Trgerunter-
seite ermittelt.

In bestimmten Fallen ist ferner der Kantenabbrand zu bercksichtigen,

der zunchst sehr rasch verluft, sich jedoch dann bis zur Querschnitts-
abrundung allmhlich verringert.

3. ERHOEHUNG DER FEUERWIDERSTANDSFAEHIGKEIT

Ist es nicht mglich, Bauteile mit ausreichendem Querschnitt zu verwenden,

oder handelt es sich um Leichtbauteile, so lsst sich die gewnschte
Feuerwiderstandsdauer durch eine Ummantelung erzielen, die den Abbrandbeginn
hinauszgert.

Die "thermische" Ummantelung kann aus mineralischen Stoffen bestehen,

z.B. Putz, oder aus brennbaren Stoffen, z.B. Holzbauplatten, Massiv wie
furniert weist Holz derselben Sorte im wesentlichen dieselbe Abbrandge-
schwindigkeit auf, denn das Furnier ist im Grunde nicht anderes als eine
strukturelle Variante des massiven Holzes.

Was Spanplatten angeht, so hngt die Abbrandgeschwindigkeit unmittelbar

von der Dichte ab, die zwischen 400 und 80O kg/m liegen kann. Am
gngigsten sind Platten mit einem Raumgewicht von 600 kg/m , die mit
einer Geschwindigkeit von etwa 1 mm/min verkohlen, d.h. schneller als
massives Holz derselben Dichte.

Erforderlichenfalls lsst sich die Schutzwirkung der Ummantelunq noch

durch Einbringen eines geeigneten Dmmstoffes erhhen, was sich
insbesondere bei Bauteilen mit raumabschliessender Funktion empfiehlt.

4. VERBINDUNGEN

Zum Abschluss ist unerlsslich, darauf hinzuweisen, dass die Verbindungen

natrlich genauso widerstandsfhig sein mssen wie die Bauteile.

Angesichts der Komplexitt dieses Teilaspekts wrde selbst eine sehr

kurz gefasste Behandlung der Probleme den Rahmen des Referats sprengen.
 494

UNTERSUCHUNG DES BRANDVERHALTENS VON MEHRFAMILIENHAEUSERN IN

HOLZSKELETT-BAUWEISE

Chef de Bataillon AYMARD

Directeur dpartemental des Services
d'Incendie et de Secours des Hautes-Alpes

Bei der Errichtung von Mehrfamilienhusern in Holzskelett-Bauweise hat

man Lsungen bevorzugt, die den Anforderungen an das Brandverhalten
gengen und die an das sogenannte Stnderfachwerk-Bauverfahren
angepasst sind.

Da es gegenwrtig noch kein genormtes Verfahren gibt, um durch einen

Laborversuch die Feuerwiderstandsfhigkeit von Gebuden als Gesamtheit
zu bestimmen, wird das Brandverhalten entweder im Analogieverfahren oder
aber durch Berechnungen bewertet.

Die betroffenen Gebude umfassen :

. in einem Fall acht Wohnungen auf drei Etagen mit Gemeinschaftsrumen,

. im anderen Fall 16 Wohnungen auf vier Etagen.

In beiden Fllen liegt die Geschossdecke der obersten Etage weniger als
8 m ber dem Boden.

Die Konstruktionselemente dieser Gebude mssen folglich eine Feuerwider-

standsdauer von einer halben Stunde fr die tragenden Elemente sowie
einen Brandschutz von gleicher Dauer fr die Trennwnde gewhrleisten.

Die Treppenflure und Treppenlufe mssen eine Feuerwiderstandsdauer

von einer Stunde aufweisen.

Die gesteckten Ziele erreichte man durch eine Kombination verschiedener

Massnahmen :

. Brandschutzverkleidung
. die Ueberdimensionierung des Holzskeletts
. das Fllen der Hohlraums im Stnderfachwerk mit Dmmstoff.

Das beste Ergebnis erzielte man durch die Brandschutzabschirmung des

Holzskeletts.

Das Fllen der Hohlrume mit Glaswolle, das zur Vermeidung des
Kamineffekts zweifellos wichtig ist, sowie die Ueberdimensionierung der
Fachwerkteile wurden nur als zustzliche Massnahmen bercksichtigt.

Die Feuerschutzverkleidung im Gebudeinneren besteht aus :

. einer Beplankung aus Gipsplatten und Spanplatten fr die Wnde
. einer doppellagigen Gipsplattenbeplankung auf Metallrahmen fr die
Decken
. einer Beplankung aus Spanplatten und speziellen Brandschutz-Gipsplatten
fr die Unterseite der Treppenflure und Treppenlufe.
 495

Besondere Aufmerksamkeit widmete man den Fugen und Anschlssen, den

potentiellen Schwachstellen der Brandschutzabschirmung.

Smtliche Fugen an den Verbindungsstellen der Verkleidung wurden mit

Glaswolle ausgefllt, um Wrme- und Schall-brcken sowie den
Feuerdurchschlag zu vermeiden.

Von den sonstigen Feuerschutz-Bauteilen sollte schliesslich noch auf den

Einbau einer Metallseite in Fussbodenhhe als Abschluss fr die
Glaswolle in der vertikalen Aussenwand hingewiesen werden.

Die genannten einfachen Lsungen ermglichten die Erfllung der

Brandschutzanforderungen im Hinblick auf das in seiner Gesamtheit, jedoch
gesondert betrachtete Gebude.

Hingegen stellt sich bei der Errichtung von Gebudekomplexen in dieser

Bauweise durch das Vorhandensein eines bedeutenden inhrenten Wrme-
erzeugungspotentials das Problem der Isolierung der Gebude untereinander.
 496

DIE VERSCHIEDENARnQIT DER VERFAHREN ZUR BRANDTECHNISCHEN

PRUEFUNG VON BAUSTOFFEN IN DEN LAENDERN DER
EUROPAEISCHEN GEMEINSCHAFTEN
G. BLACHERE
Auxirbat, Paris

Die in den Lndern der Europischen Gemeinschaften verwendeten

Prfverfahren zur Kennzeichnung des Brandverhaltens von Baustoffen
basieren mit einer Ausnahme auf Versuchungsanordnungen, in denen man sich
um die Simulierung der Bedingungen eines tatschlichen Brandes bemht.
Ihr Zweck ist nicht, die physikalisch-chemischen Grundmerkmale zu
messen : ermittelt werden vielmehr Zeiten, Entfernungen und Temperaturen.

Es gibt in der Europischen Gemeinschaft 30 verschiedene Prfverfahren;

einige Lnder haben die Prfverfahren anderer Lnder bernommen.

In den Entzndungsversuchen dienen als Entzndungsenergie : die

Hitzestrahlung einer Heizplatte oder eines Ofens) bzw. die Flamme eines
Brenners.

Die Flammenfortpflanzungsversuche lassen sich von den zuvor genannten oft

nur schwer unterscheiden, umfassen sie doch notwendigerweise eine Entzn-
dungsphase - die Fortpflanzung geschieht ohne Energiezufuhr oder mit
Hitzestrahlung bzw. mit Brenner -in einigen Fllen vollzieht sie sich
in senkrechter Richtung, wobei die Flamme zur Fortpflanzung beitrgt.

Einige komplexere Versuche messen darber hinaus auch die Entzndung

und die Fortpflanzung anhand einer (oder mehrerer) Probe(n), die der
Strahlung einer ersten Probe ausgesetzt ist (sind).

Die Brennstoff-Bestimmungsversuche sind nur im Falle der Bombe kalorimet-

risch. In den anderen Fllen liefern sie eine Synthese aus Brennwert
(insbesondere bei Pyrolysegasen), Erwrmung und Entzndbarkeit.

Die genannten Prfverfahren fhren zu Klassifizierungen,wie sie in

den brandsicherheitlichen Regelwerken verwendet werden. Bislang war es
nicht mglich, die Wirksamkeit der Vorschriften an sich bzw. im Vergleich
zu bestimmen. Wenn man eine Unzulnglichkeit vermutet oder wenn ein
neues Risiko auftaucht (neue Materialien), so werden neue Prfverfahren
eingefhrt, die neben die vorhandenen treten. Dennoch hat jedes Land
sein Basisprfverfahren (Strahlungsofen, Brandschacht, Heizplatte
usw.).

Von den neueren Prfverfahren sind die Opazitts- und Toxizittstests

fr Verbrennungsprodukte erwhnenswert.

Man hat sich wiederholt bemht, eine Korrelation zwischen den Prfungs-
ergebnissen und dem tatschlichen Brandverhalten herzustellen; bisher
ist dies nicht gelungen. Auch bei entsprechenden Vergleichen mit Versuchen
in natrlicher Grosse zeigte sich, dass es keine Korrelation gab.
Ebensowenig besteht eine Korrelation zwischen den nach den verschiedenen
Prfverfahren zustandegekommenden Klassifizierungen.
 497

Dennoch sind die physikalisch-chemischen Basisgrssen in den verschiede-

nen Prfverfahren dieselben. Unterschiedlich ist jedoch ihr Einfluss
auf die ermittelten Grssen (Zeit, Entfernung, Temperatur), was zu
unterschiedlichen Klassifizierungen fhrt.

Diese Situation bringt fr die Hersteller den Nachteil mit sich, dass
sie vielfltige Prfverfahren durchfhren und darber hinaus auch
noch die in die verschiedenen Lnder verkauften Produkte entsprechend
modifizieren mssen, um die Klassifizierung zu erlangen, die den
Marktzugang erffnet.

Zwei Lsungen sind hier mglich, die beide auf einer besseren Kenntnis
des tatschlichen Ablaufs der Prfverfahren beruhen :

1) Im Auftrag der EWG hat IRBat eine Untersuchung durchgefhrt, um

herauszufinden, ob man aus den in einem Land durchgefhrten Prfverfah-
ren Schlussfolgerungen ziehen kann, die die Zulassung des Materials fur
eine bestimmte Verwendung in einem anderen Land ermglichen : dies ist
mehr oder weniger einfach, je nachdem ob die Prfverfahren der beiden
Lnder vom gleichen Ansatz ausgehen (beispielsweise Versuche mit
unterschiedlichen Heizplatten).

Der erste Teil der Untersuchung befasste sich mit nur 6 Lndern (Belgien,
Frankreich, Grossbritannien, Irland, Italien, Luxemburg) und fhrte in
50% der Flle unmittelbar zu einer Lsung, whrend bei weiteren 25%
unter der Voraussetzung gute Lsungsmglichkeiten bestanden, dass man
sich um eine Bestimmung der thermischen Beanspruchung in den Prfverfah-
ren bemhte.

Der zweite Teil der Untersuchung, der sich auf smtliche 10 Lnder
erstreckt, und gegenwrtig noch luft, zeigt nahezu vergleichbare
Erfolgsauss ichten.

2) Die Bemhungen um eine europische Klassifizierung auf der Grundlage

gemeinsamer Prfverfahren endeten bislang mit einer Enttuschung.

Ein besseres Verstndnis und letztendlich die Einfhrung einheitlicher

Messungen oder Basisversuche - von denen man dann in jedem einzelnen
Land das vorhersehbare Verhalten in den nationalen Prfverfahren und
die nationale Klassifizierung ableiten knnte - wrde vielleicht
die Durchfhrung von Messungen zur Bestimmung der Phnomene ermgli
chen, die das Materialverhalten in den verschiedenen Prfverfahren
beeinflussen.

Schliesslich muss unterstrichen werden, dass selbst dann, wenn mehrere

Lnder ein und dasselbe Prfverfahren benutzen, die Versuchspraxis
dennoch aufgrund von Faktoren wie Art der Sttze, Zahl der Thermo-
elemente, Zahl der Versuche usw. jeweils eine andere ist. Es wre ein
Zeichen guten Willens auf europischer Ebene, wenn die Forschungslabors
eine Harmonisierung all dieser Faktoren erreichten.
 498

TOXIKOLOGISCHE RISIKEN IM BRANDFALL

Ciaire HERPOL
Dr. sei., Projektleiterin im Laboratorium fr Zoophysiologie der
Universitt Gent, Belgien

1. EINLEITUNG

In den letzten Jahrzehnten wurde dem Problem der Toxizitt der Brandschwa-
den sowohl von Seiten der durch einige grssere Katastrophen beunruhig-
ten Oeffentlichkeit als auch von Seiten der Behrden sowie von smt-
lichen durch dieses Risiko betroffenen Kreisen zunehmend grssere
Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet.

2. DIE BEWERTUNG DES RISIKOS

Bei systematischen Untersuchungen von Autopsiebefunden stellte sich

heraus, dass die meisten Unfallopfer deswegen sterben, weil sie durch die
Einwirkung der Brandschwaden das Bewusstsein verlieren und sich deshalb
nicht der direkten Einwirkung der hohen Temperaturen und der Flammen
entziehen knnen.

Eine weitere Informationsquelle sind Augenzeugenberichte sowohl von

Feuerwehrleuten als auch von Ueberlebenden. Die wissenschaftliche Unter-
suchung des menschlichen Verhaltens im Brandfall befindet sich aber erst
im Anfangsstadium.

3. VERSUCHSMETHODEN

Ansatz ist die chemische Analyse der ausstrmenden Gase mit modernen
analytischen Methoden, Die Interpretation der Ergebnisse stsst dabei
aber auf praktisch unberwindliche Schwierigkeiten aufgrund der komplexen
Zusammensetzung der durch die Pyrolyse und die unvollstndige Verbrennung
der Materialien erzeugten Atmosphre.

Die begrenzte Tauglichkeit der chemischen Analyse fr die Bewertung der

toxikologischen Risiken war Anlass fr die Entwicklung von Methoden,
die mit Hilfe von Tierversuchen die globale Reaktion auf smtliche
vorhandenen Giftstoffe erfassen wollen.

Diese Methoden werden in zwei Hauptkategorien aufgeschlsselt :

- Bei den "statischen" Methoden werden die thermischen Zersetzungsprodukte

in der Expositionskammer fr Tiere erzeugt.
- Bei den "dynamischen" Methoden werden die Brandschwaden ausserhalb des
Expositionsortes erzeugt und an diesen mit Hilfe eines Luftstroms
bertragen.

Die Aussagekraft der Ergebnisse dieser Methoden ist davon abhngig,

wieweit das thermische Modell die Brandbedingungen reproduzieren kann.
 499

4. FORSCHUNGEN

4.1. Forschungen mit analytischen Verfahren

Heutzutage stehen uns umfangreiche Daten sowohl ber d i e Art a l s auch

d i e Mengen der toxischen Stoffe zur Verfgung, d i e in e i n e r Brandatmos-
phre anzutreffen s i n d . Die Mehrheit d e r e r m i t t e l t e n toxischen Stoffe
gehrt zu zwei Kategorien :

- Narkotika wie Kohlenmonox id ;

- Reizmittel wie S a l z s u r e .

Durch das sogenannte "Fingerabdruck"-Verfahren (Vergleich der Chromato-

gramme) i s t es uns nunmehr mglich, d i e Aussagekraft d e r Modelle im
Hinblick auf d i e verschiedenen Phasen e i n e s wirklichen Brandes zu bestimmen.

4.2. Biologische Forschungen

Die meisten Forschungen werden an Nagetieren durchgefhrt, in jngster

Zeit auch an Primaten.

Man untersucht dabei die verschiedenen toxischen Einwirkungen, die als

Kriterien fr die Bewertung der Toxizitt dienen. Im allgemeinen
empfehlen die Toxikologen eine globale Bewertung, da die biologischen
Systeme sich nicht durch einen einzigen numerischen Wert angemessen
darstellen lassen.

Der Vergleich der relativen Toxizitt thermischer Zersetzungsprodukte

kann auf verschiedene Art und Weise vorgenommen werden :

- Anhand der Beziehung Konzentration/Auswirkung fr eine gegebene

Expositionsdauer (z.B. CL. = tdliche Konzentration in einem
gegebenen Zeitraum fr 50*der exponierten Tiere)
- Anhand der Beziehung Zeit/Auswirkung fr eine gegebene Konzentration
(z.B. TL- = Expositionsdauer, whrend der die gegebene Konzen-
tration fur 50% der exponierten Tiere tdliche Folgen hat)
- Anhand der Kurven fr die Beziehung Konzentration/Expositionsdauer
nach dem Gesetz von Haber.

In jedem Fall sind zahlreiche Versuche notwendig, um die gewnschten

Werte zu erhalten. Deshalb drften die genannten Anstze wohl kaum
fr Routineversuche in Betracht kommen.

Inzwischen findet sich in der Fachliteratur eine gewaltige Menge von auf
Dutzenden von Methoden zur Erzeugung der Brandatmosphre und einer
Vielzahl von mglichen biologischen Kriterien basierenden Ergebnissen,
die den grossen Nachteil haben, dass sie nicht untereinander vergleichbar
sind. Deshalb wurde schon 1976 im Rahmen der ISO eine Arbeitsgruppe fr
die Harmonisierung eingesetzt.

4.3 Forschungen an Primaten

Diese Forschungen werden mit subletalen Dosen thermischer Zersetzungspro-

dukte durchgefhrt, welche Affen bis zum Auftreten der ersten Vergiftungs-
erscheinungen verabreicht werden.
 500

Trotz der chemischen Komplexitt der Atmosphren sind die Auswirkungen

auf die Affen relativ einfach und stets von einem der drei folgenden
Aspekte beherrscht :

- der narkotischen Wirkung von Kohlenmonoxid;

- der narkotischen Wirkung von Blausure;
- der kombinierten Wirkung von Reizmitteln.

Dies schliesst jedoch die Mglichkeit der Erzeugung von Stoffen mit
ungewhnlicher toxische Wirkung nicht aus; derartige Stoffe wurden
auch tatschlich nachgewiesen.

Die Forschungen an Primaten sind deshalb wichtig, weil sie ein besseres
Verstndnis des Intoxikationverlaufs ermglichen. Sie haben mit
Sicherheit Konsequenzen fr die knftigen Perspektiven der Toxikologie
der Verbrennung.

5. NORMUNG UND GESETZGEBUNG

Bislang haben nur sehr wenige Lnder Massnahmen im Hinblick auf die
Toxizitt von Brandschwaden ergriffen :
- die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (DIN-Norm 53436);
- Frankreich (Ministerialverordnung vom 20.Januar 1977);
- Japan (Verordnung Nr.1231 des Bauministeriums);
- die Sowjetunion (GOST 12.1.017-80).

Darber hinaus wird die Bestimmung der Toxizitt durch chemische

Analyse fr bestimmte ausstrmende Gase in einigen Industriezweigen,
wie der elektrotechnischen Industrie (Frankreich UTE/C20-454) oder der
Luft- und Raumfahrtindustrie (Airbus-Industrie), empfohlen.

Im Vereinigten Knigreich sind in einem Dokument (BSI-PD6503:1982) die

Schwierigkeiten einer Normung der Toxizittsversuche dargestellt,
gleichzeitig werden Empfehlungen fr die Entwicklung solcher Versuche
gegeben.

In anderen Lndern, wie z.B. in Belgien, wird die Toxizitt von

Brandschwaden nur in sehr vagen Begriffen wie der "ertrglichen physiolo-
gischen Einwirkung" bercksichtigt, ohne dass es hierfr irgendeine
Spezifikation gbe.

Dabei sollte nicht vergessen werden, dass die Anforderungen an die

Unterteilung von Gebuden sowie an den Schutz der Fluchtwege ebenfalls
mit der Toxizitt zu tun haben, auch wenn sie nicht in den Rahmen
dieses Vortrags gehren.

6. ARBEITEN DER ISO UND KUENFTIGE PERSPEKTIVEN

1976 hat der Ausschuss CT 92 der ISO die Arbeitsgruppe GT 12 "Vergiftungs-

gefahren durch Brnde" eingesetzt. Bei der Umorganisation des Ausschusses
CT 92 im Jahre 1981 wurde diese Gruppe in einen Unterausschuss (SC 3)
umgewandelt, der vier Arbeitsgruppen umfasst.
 501

Die e r s t e Aufgabe von GT 12 war d i e Abfassung e i n e s technischen B e r i c h t s ,

der einen Ueberblick ber d i e verschiedenen laufenden Forschungen g i b t .
Dieser im Jahre 1979 v e r f f e n t l i c h t e Bericht e n t h l t d i e Empfehlung,
dass d i e P r i o r i t t d e r Entwicklung e i n e r Methode g e l t e n s o l l , mit der
man solche Materialien bestimmen kann, d i e eine ungewhnliche toxische
Atmosphre erzeugen.

Fr eine genauere Untersuchung wurden dabei zwei Methoden b e r c k s i c h t i g t :

- eine "dynamische" Methode, d i e Methode DIN 53436;

- eine " s t a t i s c h e " Methode, d i e Methode NBS (die sogenannte " P o t t ' s
pof'-Methode).

Gegenwrtig sind d i e Arbeiten der neuen Arbeitsgruppen in vollem Gange:

e s werden neue technische Dokumente e r a r b e i t e t , d i e an d i e S t e l l e des
vorhandenen t r e t e n . Dabei werden d i e in der Forschung e r z i e l t e n F o r t s c h r i t t e
bercks i c h t i g t .

Das sogenannte "Fingerabdruck"-Verfahren ermglichte den Vergleich d e r

in den zwei untersuchten Modellen erzeugten Atmosphre mit d e r Atmos-
phre bei t a t s c h l i c h e n Brnden und fhrte zu d e r Schlussfolgerung,
d a s s d i e j e w e i l s erzeugte Atmosphre u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e n Brandbedingungen
e n t s p r i c h t . Die Arbeitsgruppe GT 1 bemht sich um d i e E r s t e l l u n g e i n e r
L i s t e von K r i t e r i e n , denen e i n fr d i e Normung vorgesehenes Brandmodell
entsprechen msste. Die Arbeitsgruppe GT 2 e r s t e l l t e i n Inventar der
analytischen Methoden fr d i e ausstrmenden Gase, whrend s i c h d i e
Arbeitsgruppe GT 3 mit den K r i t e r i e n fr d i e Tierversuche b e s c h f t i g t .

Dank der an Primaten durchgefhrten Forschungen i s t d i e Auswirkung der

narkotischen Gase (CO und HCN) r e c h t gut bekannt. Dies l s s t es denkbar
erscheinen, d a s s man eine Vorauswahl der M a t e r i a l i e n auf d e r Grundlage
e i n e r Analyse d e r S c h n e l l i g k e i t des Auftretens d i e s e r Gase in u n t e r genau
d e f i n i e r t e n Umstnden erzeugten Brandschwaden vornehmen knnte. I s t
vorhersehbar, dass eine Atmosphre aufgrund des Vorhandenseins narko-
t i s c h e r Gase unatembar s e i n wird, dann braucht man d i e s n i c h t im T i e r v e r -
such zu prfen. Im anderen F a l l muss man s i c h jedoch im biologischen
Versuch vom Nichtvorhandensein s o n s t i g e r t o x i s c h e r Stoffe berzeugen.

Heute sind s i c h f a s t a l l e Fachleute im Unterausschuss 3 der Tatsache

bewusst, dass das toxikologische Brandrisiko nur einen T e i l des Gesamt-
r i s i k o s ausmacht. S i e sind der Ansicht, d a s s d i e Verwendung der t o x i k o l o g i -
schen Ergebnisse auf d i e B e r e i t s t e l l u n g von Daten zu beschrnken i s t ,
d i e man in e i n e r r e a l i s t i s c h e n Analyse des globalen Risikos einbeziehen
msste. Die Ergebnisse drfen in keinem F a l l l o s g e l s t vom Gesamtrisiko
b e t r a c h t e t werden.

Trotz d i e s e r ebereinstimmung sind d i e Fachleute nach wie vor g e t e i l t e r

Meinung, ob es zweckmssig i s t , beim gegenwrtigen Kenntnisstand eine
biologische Versuchsmethede a l s Entwurf e i n e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n Norm
vorzuschlagen. Die Arbeitsgruppe GT 4 bemht s i c h um d i e Zusammenfassung
der verschiedenen Problemaspekte und entsprechenden Stellungnahmen.
 502

HOLZ UND HOLZWERKSTOFFE

G.S. HALL
TRADA (Timber Research & Development Association), UK

Feuer macht n i c h t vor Staatsgrenzen h a l t , und dennoch weichen d i e g e s e t z -

l i c h e n Massnahmen der einzelnen Lndern zur Brandbekmpfung und Begren-
zung des Brandschadens s t a r k voneinander a b . Das Referat v e r s u c h t , d i e
Auswirkungen d e r e i n s c h l g i g e n V o r s c h r i f t e n auf d i e Verwendung von
Verkleidungen aus Holz- und Holzwerkstoffen in Gebuden in den EG-Ln-
dern zusammenzufassen. Aufgrund des komplexen Charakters d e r g e s e t z l i c h e n
Bestimmungen i s t das Referat nach dem Ordnungsprinzip der in verschiedenen
F l l e n zugelassenen Produkte/Werkstoffe aufgebaut. Die gleichmssigen
Eigenschaften von Bauholz und Holzbauplatten in i h r e r Ausgangsform in der
b r a n d s i c h e r h e i t l i c h e n Prfung e r l e i c h t e r n diesen Ansatz. Die Mglich-
k e i t d e r Brandschutz-Nachbehandlung sowie des Einbringes von Flammenschutz-
chemikalien whrend der Herstellung zur Verbesserung des Brandverhaltens
d e r P r o d u k t e w i r f t j e d o c h s o f o r t d a s Problem d e r P r f v e r f a h r e n und
der b r a n d s i c h e r h e i t l i c h e n Einstufung auf. Bei beiden bestehen gewaltige
Unterschiede. Und d i e Tatsache, dass d i e Ergebnisse z a h l r e i c h e r e i n z e l -
s t a a t l i c h e r Prfverfahren s t a r k verfahrensabhngig s i n d , macht Vergleiche
im e i n z e l n e n v o l l e n d s u n m g l i c h . Immerhin wurde d e r Versuch u n t e r -
nommen, d i e e r w e i t e r t e n Verwendungsmglichtkeiten zu untersuchen, d i e
s i c h fr Holz und Holzwerkstoffe durch d i e Behandlung mit auf dem Markt
e r h l t l i c h e n Flammenschutzmitteln erffnen.
 503

TEXTILIEN UND BODENBELftEGE

L. BENISEK
International Wool Secretariat, Development Centre,
Ilkley, West Yorkshire, England.

Die Kommission der Europischen Gemeinschaften legte dem Rat am 17.

Januar 1984 den Vorschlag einer auf einzelstaatlichen Normen basierenden
Empfehlung ber den Brandschutz in Beherbergungssttten vor. Die ein-
schlgigen Normen fr Boden-, Wand und Deckenbelge sind in Tabelle I
zusammengefasst. Zweck des Referats ist es, die verschiedenen einzel-
staatlichen Entflammbarkeitsprfungen zu bewerten und die Mglichkeiten
einer Vereinheitlichung der Prfverfahren innerhalb der EG aufzuzeigen.

Die nationalen Prfverfahren lassen sich unterteilen in Brandversuche,

bei denen mit einem Brenner eine kleine Zndflaimie simuliert wird und
Versuche mit einer grossen Zndquelle bestehend aus Strahlungshitze
und/oder Flammen.

Versuche mit kleinen Zndquellen

DIN 54332/DIN 66081 : Die Oberflche einer vertikal angeordneten Probe

wird mit einem Brenner beflammt. Auf der Grundlage der Brennzeit und der
Flammenausbreitung werden die Materialien nach DIN 66081 in drei Klassen
(Ta, Tb, Tc) eingestuft.
CSE RF2, 75: Diese italienische Norm stimmt weitgehend mit DIN 54332
berein.

Versuche mit grossen Zndquellen

BS 476, Teil 6, 1981 : Eine vertikal angeordnete Probe wird in einer

geschlossenen Kammer Zndflammen und Strahlungswrme ausgesetzt. Man
misst die frei werdende Wrmemenge und den Wrmestrom. Das brandtechnische
Verhalten wird numerisch ausgedrckt.
BS 476, Teil 7, 1971 : Eine vertikal angeordnete Probe, rechtwinklig zu
einer senkrechten Heizplatte, wird einer maximalen Stahlstrke von etwa
4 W/cm und einer Zndflamme am heissesten Teil der Probe ausgesetzt.
Nach dem Kriterium der Flammenausbreitung werden die Materialien in vier
Klassen eingereiht.
CSE RF3, 75: Diese italienische Norm basiert auf einer senkrechten
Heizplatte, die einen Wrmestrom von 6,2 w/cm erzeugt. Die Probe kann
der Strahlungswrme und einer Zndflaimie in Boden-, Wand- oder Decken-
position (bezogen auf die Heizplatte) ausgesetzt werden. Gemessen wird
die Flammenausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit, die Abbrandlnge und die Nach-
brennzeit.
DIN 4102, Teil 1 : Prfung von Wand- und Deckenbelgen Brandschachtversuch.
Vier jeweils rechtwinklig zueinander vertikal angeordnete Proben (Platten-
schlot) werden in einem Brandschacht bei aufwrts gerichteter Luft-
 504

3
Strmung von 10 m /tain, mit einem mehrdsigen Brenner beflammt. Ein-
stufung in zwei Klassen, j e nach Flammenausbreitung und Temperatur der
Verbrennungsprcdukte. Bedenbelge werden nach der Heizplattenprfung
fr Fussbodenbelge des NBS (ASTM E 648-78) b e w e r t e t . Dabei wird d i e
auf dem Boden e i n e r Prfkammer liegende Probe der Strahlung e i n e r mit
i n einem Winkel von 30 zum Prfstck geneigten H e i z p l a t t e und e i n e r
Zndflamme a u s g e s e t z t . Die Strahlungswrmeverteilung entlang des 100 cm
langen Prfstcks l i e g t dabei zwischen max. 1,0 W/cm und min. 0,1 W/cm .
Die Abbrandlnge b i s zum Erlschen wird in W/cm umgerechnet und a l s
k r i t i s c h e r S t r a h l u n g s f l u s s angegeben.
NEN 3883: Diese n i e d e r l n d i s c h e Norm h n e l t BS 476, T e i l 6 und 7 .
NFP 92-501 ( E p i r a d i a t e u r ) : Die mehr a l s 5 imi d i c k e , in einem Winkel von
45 geneigte Probe wird in e i n e r Brennkammer mit nach unten zeigender
Angriffsflche e i n e r Strahlungswrme von 3w/cm a u s g e s e t z t . Einstufung
i n v i e r Klassen (M1-M4) nach den K r i t e r i e n ZndZeitpunkt, Flammenlnge
und Wrmeabgabe.
NFP 92 - 503 (Brleur E l e c t r i q u e ) : Mindestens 5 mm dicke Proben werden in
einem Winkel von 30 zur Waagerechten mit nach unten weisender A n g r i f f s -
flche in regelmssigen Zeitabstnden e i n e r S t r a h l u n g s q u e l l e und e i n e r
Zndflamme a u s g e s e t z t . E i n s t u f u n g i n v i e r K l a s s e n (M1-M4) nach den
K r i t e r i e n Nachbrennzeit, Abbrandlnge und - b r e i t e sowie Schmelzver-
halten.
NFP 92-506: Eine mit BS 476 T e i l 7 v e r g l e i c h b a r e Heizplattenprfung.
N o r d t e s t NT F i r e 0 0 7 : Ein i n einem Winkel von 30 zur Waagerechten
g e n e i g t e s Prfstck wird in e i n e r Luftstrmung von 2m/s mit dem unteren
Probenende einem brennenden Holzstapel (42 g) a u s g e s e t z t . Gemessen werden
Flammenausbreitung und Rauchdichte.

Diese kurze Zusammenfassung l s s t Aehnlichkeiten zwischen den v e r s c h i e d -

enen e i n z e l s t a a t l i c h e n Normen erkennen. Davon ausgehend werden folgende
Vereinheitlichungen vorgeschlagen:

Fussbodenbelge

Comitextil s c h l g t zur Ermittlung von M a t e r i a l i e n mit unvertretbarem

B r a n d r i s i k o den Heizplattenversuch (Tablet t e s t ) (ISO 6925, BS 6307) v o r ,
der e i n e k l e i n e Zndquelle s i m u l i e r t . M a t e r i a l i e n , welche d i e s e Prfung
bestehen, sind fr Bereiche mit normalen B r a n d r i s i k o , z.B. Schlafzinmer,
Bros, g e e i g n e t .

Fr B e r e i c h e m i t hohem B r a n d r i s i k o , z . B . Gnge und Ausgnge, wird

d i e Heizplattenprfung des NBS fr Bodenbelge (ASTM E 648-78) vorge-
schlagen. Diese Prfung wurde i n Korridorbrnden im Massstab 1:1 v e r i -
f i z i e r t und e r m i t t e l t e dabei Bodenbelge a l s das M a t e r i a l , das in t a t -
schlichen Brandsituationen sich a l s e r s t e s entzndet und d i e Flammen
weiterleitet.

Im Handel sind Teppiche aus unterschiedlichem F a s e r m a t e r i a l e r h l t l i c h ,

d i e s e l b s t - d i e s t r e n g s t e Anforderung e i n e s k r i t i s c h e n S t r a h l u n g s f l u s s e s
0 , 4 5 W/cm e r f l l e n . D i e s e r Wert i s t b e s s e r a l s d i e e n t s p r e c h e n d e n
Werte fr Fussbodenbelge aus Holz.

Zur f a i r e n und r e a l i s t i s c h e n Bewertung des Brandverhaltens von Teppichen

in diesem Test i s t w e s e n t l i c h , d i e Teppiche ggf. mit Unterlage zu prfen
und d i e Flammenausbreitung b i s zum Erlschen zu messen und n i c h t nach
 505

30 min., wie j n g s t von ISO/TC38/SC19/tG5 (Brandverhalten von Teppichen)

v o r g e s c h l a g e n . Sind d i e s e b e i d e n V o r a u s s e t z u n g e n n i c h t g e g e b e n , so
knnten in dem Versuch Teppiche mit gefhrlichen brandtechnischen Eigen-
schaften n i c h t a l s solche erkannt werden.

Wandbelge

Zur Simulierung k l e i n e r Zndquellen knnte s i c h e i n Versuch nach DIN

54332 und/oder CSE RF 2, 75 eignen. ISO/TC38/SC19/WG5 u n t e r s u c h t einen
h n l i c h e n T e s t d e r z e i t i n einem L a b o r r i n g v e r s u c h . Zur Prfung von
Materialen fr Bereiche mit hherem B r a n d r i s i k o , z.B. Gnge, Aus-
gnge, grosse Versammlungsrume, s o l l t e d i e Probe v e r t i k a l angeordnet
und e i n e r u s s e r e n S t r a h l u n g s q u e l l e a u s g e s e t z t w e r d e n , welche d i e
Messung der Flammenausbreitung und/oder der Wrmeabgabe z u l s s t , wie
z.B. BS 476 T e i l 6 und 7, NEN 3883, CSE RF 3 , 75 und NFP 92-506. Diese
miteinander vergleichbaren Normen werden b e r e i t s in sechs EG-Lndern
(B, GB, GR, I , IRL, NL) angewendet.

Deckenbelge

Zur r e a l i s t i s c h e n Simulierung s o l l t e n d i e Proben in der Deckenposition

g e t e s t e t werden. Diese Anforderung e r f l l t nur d i e i t a l i e n i s c h e Norm
CSE RF 3 , 7 5 . Laborprfverfahren mit v e r t i k a l angeordneten Prfstcken
mssten e r s t durch Korrelation mit Brandversuchen im Massstab I I I v e r i -
f i z i e r t werden.

Diese Uebersicht macht d e u t l i c h , dass e i n e Vereinheitlichung der Entflaimi-

barkeitsprfungen fr Fussboden- und Wandbelge innerhalb d e r EG t e c h -
nisch und w i r t s c h a f t l i c h durchfhrbar i s t . Die Harmonisierung i s t d r i n -
gend e r f o r d e r l i c h , um den Warenaustausch innerhalb der EG zu e r l e i c h t e r n
und unntige Handelsschranken zu vermeiden. Sie wrde zudem den gegen-
wrtig berhhten Kosten- und Zeitaufwand fr d i e Prfung der M a t e r i a l i e n
- d i e Normen der meisten EG-Lndern unterscheiden s i c h - d e u t l i c h v e r -
mindern.

C o m i t e x t i l bemht s i c h um d i e Einfhrung f a i r e r und r e a l i s t i s c h e r

e i n h e i t l i c h e r Entflammbarkeitsprfungen fr T e x t i l i e n zur Frderung
des Handels innerhalb der EG und zum Abbau bestehender unntiger Handels-
schranken.

Da auch das Gebudeinventar eine p o t e n t i e l l e Brandursache d a r s t e l l t ,

s i n d e b e n s o E n t f l a m m b a r k e i t s p r f u n g e n f r P o l s t e r m b e l und Vorhn-
ge e r f o r d e r l i c h . ISO/TC136/SC1/WG4 (Entzndbarkeit von Mobiliar) a r -
b e i t e t d e r z e i t am Entwurf eines ISO-Prfverfahrens fr Polstermbel
mit Z i g a r e t t e n und s i m u l i e r t e r Zndholzentzndung a l s Zndquelle. ISO
6940 und 6941 bewerten d i e Entzndbarkeit und Flanmenausbreitung bei
e i n e r kleinen Zndquelle ausgesetzten Vorhngen.

Um d i e gesamte von einem Material ausgehende Brandgefahr zu bewerten,

sind bei Baustoffen und Gebudeinhalten neben der Entzndbarkeit und
der Flanmenausbreitung noch w e i t e r e K r i t e r i e n w e s e n t l i c h : d i e Wrmeabgabe,
d i e Rauchentwicklung sowie d i e T o x i z i t t d e r V e r b r e n n u n g s p r o d u k t e .
ISO/TC92/SC1 und SC3 befassen s i c h b e r e i t s damit, doch wird d i e Aus-
arbeitung r e a l i s t i s c h e r und f a i r e r Prfverfahren noch e i n i g e Zeit in
Anspruch nehmen.
 506

TABELLE I

WICHTIGSTE ENTFLAMMBARKEITSPRUEFUNGEN FUER BODEN-, WAND- UND DECKENBELAEGE

INNERHALB DER EG

Prfverfahren/Norm Produkt Land

1. BS 476 Teil 6, 1981 C,W B, GB, GR, IRL

2. BS 476 Teil 7, 1971 c,w B, GB, GR, IRL
3. C.S.E. RF 2, 75 F,W I
4. C.S.E. RF 3, 75 C,F,W I
5. DIN 4102 Teil 1
Brandschachtprfung C,W D,L
DIN 54332/DIN 66081 F D,L
NBS-Heizplattentest fr F D,L
Bedenbelge
6. NEN 3883 C,F,W NL
7. NFP 92-501 C,F,W B, F
8. NFP 92-503 C,W F
9. NFP 92-506 C,F,W F
10. Nordtest NT Fire 007 F DK
C - Deckenbelag
F - Fussbodenbelag
W - Wandbelag
 507

BAUPLATTEN AUS MINERALISCHEN BAUSTOFFEN

Dr. G. NEUHAUSER
Gebr. Knauf, Westdeutsche Gipswerke, Iphofen

Das Referat befasst sich mit dem Brandverhai ten folgender Bauplatten:
1. Calciumsilikatplatten
2. Gipsbauplatten
3. Vermiculiteplatten
4. Perliteplatten
Rein anorganische, mineralische Bauplatten wie Asbestzementplatten
oder Wandbauplatten aus Gips werden nicht abgehandelt. Unumstritten gelten
sie in allen Lndern als nichtbrennbare Baustoffe und unterliegen keinerlei
Einschrnkungen.
Die hier referierten Platten bestehen zum berwiegenden Teil aus
mineralischen, anorganischen Stoffen. Sie enthalten einen geringen Anteil
an brennbaren organischen Substanzen. In bezug auf das Brandverhalten sind
sie deswegen sehr interessant, weil sie den Bereich von den "klassischen"
nichtbrennbaren zu den brennbaren Baustoffen abdecken.
ad1) Calciumsilikatplatten
Das Bindemittel Calciumsilikat entsteht aus der chemischen Reaktion
von Kalkhydrat mit Quarz. Die Platten enthalten ausserdem mineralische
Leichtzuschlagstoffe (Glimmer, Perlite) und Fasern (Cellulosefasern,
Mineralfasern). Anwendung in Feuerschutzkonstruktionen. Verschiedene
Typen werden hergestellt. Es gibt Platten mit Rohdichten von 200 bis
1.200 kg/m . Demnach variieren die Anteile an Zuschlagstoffen und
Fasern.
Trotz der Vielfalt an Typen zeigt das Brandverhalten ein recht ein-
heitliches Bild. In allen Staaten sind die Platten in der hchsten
Baustoffklasse vertreten. Unterscheidet man nach den Kriterien
"nichtbrennbar/brennbar", so ist die berwiegende Mehrzahl nicht-
brennbar. Plattenspezies mit hheren Anteilen an Cellulosefasern
(bis 10%) gelten z.B. nach Britischem Standard als brennbar.
In bezug auf das Brandverhalten bestehen fr die Calciumsilikatplatten
keine Einschrnkungen in den EG-Staaten. Eine Harmonisierung im
EG-Rahmen ist fr diese Platten problemlos durchzufhren.
ad2) Gipsbauplatten
Die bei weitem wichtigsten Platten sind die Gipskartonplatten. Sie
bestehen aus einem Gipskern, der auf beiden Seiten mit einem fest
haftenden Karton ummantelt ist. Ihre Dicken betragen 9,5 bis 25 mm,
Rohdichte ca. 750 - 1000 kg/m . Das brandtechnisch signifikanteste
 508

Charakteristikum ist, dass der gesamte organische Anteil (je nach

Dicke 3 8 MasseX) auf den Aussenf Lachen konzentriert ist.
Gipskartonplatten mit Prfbescheid gelten expressis verbis nur in
Deutschland als nichtbrennbarer Baustoff. Sie gehren der Klasse A2
DIN 4102 an. Bei Anwendung von ISO1182 (1979) oder IMO Resolution
A 472 (XII) wrden sie die Kriterien der Nichtbrennbarkeit nicht
erfllen. In den meisten europischen Staaten sind sie den "klassischen"
nichtbrennbaren Baustoffen nahezu oder vllig gleichgestellt, so in
Dnemark und den Niederlanden. In Grossbritannien und Irland sind
Gipskartonplatten Baustoffe der Klasse 0 und den nichtbrennbaren
Baustoffen "quivalent".
Einschrnkungen bestehen fr Rume und Brandabschnitte, deren Volumen
7.000 m berschreitet.
Die ungnstigste Bewertung haben die Gipskartonplatten in Frankreich,
nmlich Klasse M 2 . Ihre Anwendung in Hochhusern und in Gebuden mit
hohem Publikumsverkehr ist nicht gestattet. Die frhere bestehende
Einschrnkung der Anwendung als Verkleidung fr Installationswnde
in Wohnhusern wurde inzwischen aufgehoben.
Was die Harmonisierung betrifft, so sollten Gipskartonplatten als ein
quasi nichtbrennbarer Baustoff gelten, die keinen Einschrnkungen
in der Anwendung unterliegen.
ad3) Vermiculiteplatten
Kleinformatige wasserglasgebundene Vermiculiteplatten sind rein
anorganisch und selbstverstndlich nichtbrennbar. Grossformatige
Platten enthalten geringe Mengen Phenol oder HarntoffFormaldehyd
harze als Bender. Je nach Dichte (400 bis 800 kg/m ) und Binderanteil
schwankt auch ihre Klassifizierung. Ziel ist fr die Hersteller, nicht
brennbare Platten anzubieten. So haben die Hersteller mehr als eine
Type im Programm, um die unterschiedlichen Anforderungen an die Nicht
brennbarkeit bzw. an die gnstigste Baustoffklasse zu erfllen. Dies
trifft fr die Vermiculiteplatten zu, die fr den Schiffsbau herge
stellt werden.
ad4) Perliteplatten
Diese Platten werden aus expandierten Perliten, Fasern und Binde
mittel hergestellt. Sie haben eine Rohdichte von 170 220 kg/m und
dienen als Dmmplatten fr Dcher o.a. Standardqualitt ist in Deutsch
land B1 (schwer entflammbar); ausserdem eine Type der Klasse A2
(nichtbrennbar). In Frankreich ist die B1Qualitt in M1 eingestuft,
in Grossbritannien in class 0.
Im Rahmen der hier referierten Baustoffe fllt ein Widerspruch besonders
auf: Perliteplatten der Baustoffklasse B1 DIN 4102 sind M 1 , Gipskarton
platten der Klasse A2 nur M2.
 509

Gedanken zur Harmonisierung

- Die "quasi nichtbrennbaren" Baustoffe sollen den nichtbrennbaren Bau-
stoffen zumindest weitgehend gleichgestellt sein.
- Der Nichtbrennbarkeitstest nach ISO-1182 ist allein nicht geeignet fr
eine Klassifizierung des Brandverhaltens.
- All umfassende Prfungen (z.B. CSTB-Epiradiateur) sind fr die Bewertung
des Brandverhaltens ungeeignet.
- Da das Brandverhalten eine Summe verschiedener Erscheinungen ist, mssen
mehrere Tests durchgefhrt werden. Diesen Weg gehen ISO TC 92 und auf
nationaler Ebene Grossbritannien und Deutschland.
- Langjhrige praktische Erfahrungen sind fr die Bewertung mit einzube-
ziehen. Testergebnisse an "Musterbaustoffen" sollten bei der Festsetzung
von Grenzwerten bercksichtigt werden.
 510

MINERALFASERERZEUGNISSE
J . P . LEROY

Isover SaintGobain
F Rantigny

Mineralfasererzeugnisse (Glas oder S t e i n f a s e r ) zur Wrme und S c h a l l

dmmung sind im Bauwesen weit v e r b r e i t e t , und zwar j e nach A nwendungszweck
mit oder ohne Kaschierung.

M i n e r a l f a s e r I s o l i e r s t o f f e ohne Kaschierung knnen zu den Werkstoffen

gerechnet werden, d i e dem A nwender im Brandfall e i n hohes A usmass an
S i c h e r h e i t g e w h r l e i s t e n . Zwar s e t z e n s i c h d i e s e Erzeugnisse im a l l g e m e i
nen aus zwei B e s t a n d t e i l e n zusammen, und zwar einem mineralischen der
von Natur aus n i c h t brennbaren Glas oder G e s t e i n f a s e r , sowie einem
organischen dem von Natur aus brennbaren Trnkleim ( i . a . d u r o p l a s t i
sche Leime auf Phenolbasis) , jedoch wird das V e r h l t n i s des organischen
B e s t a n d t e i l s zum mineralischen B e s t a n d t e i l so gewhlt, dass das Endpro
dukt aus Mineralfaser p l u s Bindemittel in den meisten Fllen n i c h t
brennbar i s t .

Die R i c h t i g k e i t d e r Behauptung, dass "die n i c h t k a s c h i e r t e n I s o l i e r s t o f f e

aus Mineralfaser brandsichere Erzeugnisse sind", wird durch einen knappen
Ueberblick ber d i e Ergebnisse b e k r f t i g t , d i e mit diesen Erzeugnissen
bei den amtlichen Brandversuchen in d r e i grossen Gemeinschaftslndem
(England, Deutschland, Frankreich) e r z i e l t worden s i n d .

Bei den zunchst b e t r a c h t e t e n n i c h t k a s c h i e r t e n Erzeugnissen werden d i e

Ergebnisse der Brennbarkeitsversuche nach folgenden Normen u n t e r s u c h t :
BS 476 T e i l 4 , ISO 1182 (1979)
DIN 4102, Baustoffklassen A l und A 2
NFM 03005 und NF 92507.

Gemss diesen Normen kann d i e obere Grenze des Leimanteils (in % oder
volumenbezogener Masse kg/m ) e r m i t t e l t werden, b i s zu d e r der j e w e i l i g e
M i n e r a l f a s e r I s o l i e r s t o f f n i c h t brennbar b l e i b t .

Es i s t von I n t e r e s s e , d i e A uswirkungen des e b e r s c h r e i t e n s d i e s e r Grenze

auf das s o n s t i g e Brandverhalten zu beobachten : Entflamubarkeit, Flammen
a u s b r e i t u n g , Rauchstrke.
 511

Anschliessend werden d i e Kaschierungen d e r M i n e r a l f a s e r - I s o l i e r s t o f f e

b e t r a c h t e t , d i e dem Erzeugnis neben der Brandsicherheit w e i t e r e g e f o r d e r t e
Eigenschaften im mechanischen, thermischen, a k u s t i s c h e n , s t h e t i s c h e n
Bereich usw. v e r l e i h e n s o l l e n . Diese Kaschierungen v e r s c h l e c h t e m zwar in
einigen Fllen das Brandverhalten der Mineralfaser, knnen jedoch
auch so gewhlt werden, d a s s s i e d i e brandschutztechnischen Eigenschaften
des Grundmaterials noch v e r b e s s e r n ; so erschienen in den l e t z t e n Jahren
auf dem Baumarkt V e r b u n d - I s o l i e r s t o f f e auf d e r Grundlage von Mineralfasern
und Kaschierungen mit g r o s s e r B r a n d s i c h e r h e i t .
 512

SCHAUMKUHSTSTOFFE

J. T R O I T Z S C H
Consul tant
Dr. T r o i t z s c h B r a n d s c h u t z S e r v i c e , W i e s b a d e n (D)

Die Vors chri ften z u m v o r b e u g e n d e n bal i c h e n B r ands chutz fr

Baus toff e un d Fe r t i g t e i l e , di e da mi t ve r b u n d e n en K 1 a s s i f i i e
rung en u nd rUfv e r f a h r e n s i n d in den ei n z e l n e n EG S t a a t e n w e i t
fort gesc hrit ten ( m a n g e l s I n f o rmat ionen k o n n t e Grie c h e n l a n d
ni eh t be rck sich t i g t w e r den ) . Ali en gem ei n s a m ist d i e P h i l o s o
phi e , du rch ge e i g n e t e M a n a h m en d as Ris i k o d e r Bra n d e n t s t e h u n g
und der Entw ickl u n g z u m V o l l b rand auf e in M i n i mum zu r e d u z i e
ren , um den M e n s c h e n a u s rei eh ende Mogli c h k e i t e zu r F l u c h t zu
gebe un d wi rksa m e L s c h a r b e i ten zu erm g l i c h e .
Ein e be sond e r s w i c h t i g e bran d s c h u t z t e c h n i sehe M a n a h me
ist die ri si koan g e p a t e Anwen dung brenn b a r e r B aust o f f e un d
Fert igte i l e . Bes o n d e r e S icher heit sanfor d e r u n g e an B a u s t o ffe
und Fert i gte ile b e s t e h e n in d en e i e 1 en E G S taat en, z.B . fr
Geb ude beso nder er A r t u nd Nu tzun g s o w i e f r G ebu de, die ei ne
best immt e H he b e r s c h r e i t e n . Die i h n e n z u g r u n de 1 l e g e n d e
Vors chri ften zum v o r b e u g enden Bra n d s c h u tz u n d die ei nzel en zu
i hre r Er fll ung b e s t e h e n den rUfv e r f a h r en u n t e rsch eiden s ich
star k vo La nd u L a n d , Die s ich a u s de r V e r k n pf u ng von
Anfo rder unge un d K l a s s i f i i erung en a u f der Ba sis der Pr f v e r
fahr en e rgeb e n d e n a t i o n al e n Syst e m e be schrei b en j edoch er
glei chba re R i s i ke n . b e r ei n s t i mme nd w e r den i alle EGSt aaten
fr best immt e Ri si k o s t u f en B a umat e r i a 1 ien mit geri gem Br and
beit rag verw e n d e t. D a r u n t e r erst eh t m a brenn bare B a u s t o ffe,
die dure h Zu n d q u e l l e n mi t t l e r er u nd kl e iner In tens itt ni c h t ,
ern nur d u r e h s o l c h e h h e rer I n t e n s i t t in Bra nd gese tzt
sond
en.
werd Ents A u e r d e m n e h m e n s i e a uch im f o r t g e s c h r i t tenen Sta di um
des indi tehu n g s b r a n d e s u r mi t ge ri n g e r Flamme naus brei tun g s g e
schw gkei t am B r a n d g e s c h e n en t eil .

Die V e r w e n d u n g von S c h a u m s t o f f e n ist im B a u w e s e n weit v e r b r e i

tet. Die w i c h t i g s t e A n w e n d u n g ist der W r m e s c h u t z . Die fr
diesen B e r e i c h am h u f i g s t e n v e r w e n d e t e n S c h a u m s t o f f e sind
P o l y s t y r o l , P o l y u r e t h a n und P h e n o l h a r z H a r t s c h a u m . Mit einer
g e e i g n e t e n B r a n d s c h u t z a u s r s t u n g v e r s e h e n b e s i t z e n diese drei
B a u s t o f f e z.B. als B e s t a n d t e i l e von Voll W r m e s c h u t z s y s t e m e n
einen g e r i n g e n B r a n d b e i t r a g . Sie e r f l l e n deshalb fr b e s t i m m
te B e r e i c h e mit e r h h t e m R i s i k o die j e w e i l i g e n n a t i o n a l e n
brandschutztechnischen Anforderungen.
S c h a u m s t o f f s y s t m e als A u e n w a n d v e r k l e i d u n g e n w e r d e n am
Beispiel v e r s c h i e d e n e r Vol 1 W r m e s c h u t z s y s t e m e auf Basis P o l y
s t y r o l , P o l y u r e t h a n und P h e n o l h a r z fr die e i n z e l n e n E G S t a a
ten v e r g l e i c h e n d u n t e r s u c h t . In T a b e l l e I sind die national
 513

bestehenden A n f o r d e r u n g e n , kl assi f 1 zierungen und die dazu not

wendigen Prfverfahren z u s a m m e n g e s t e l l t . Danach ist die Anwen
dung aller drei Schaumstoff systme in allen Staaten der EG zu
lssig. Eine Einschrnkung findet in Dnemark statt, wo zur
Erfllung der geforderten Klasse 1 praktisch im Sinne einer
Bautei 1 prfung die F e u e r w i d e r s t a n d s f h i g k e i t des Verbundes 10
min nach der E i n h e i t s T e m p e r a t u r z e i t k u r v e gem DS 1060.1 ge
prft wird. Daher mssen zur Erfllung dieser Forderung nicht
brennbare Baustoffe bestimmter M i n d e s t d i c k e im V o l l w r m e
schutzsystem enthalten sein.

Die ergi ei chende U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zeig en, d a fr S c h a u m s t o f f

sy ste me im Bauwes en i a l l e E G Staate h o h e brand s c h u t z t e c h
n1 seh e Anfo rderun g e n b e s t e h e n , di e von dies en Syst e m e n j e w e i l s
erf l 11 wer den k n n e n . D i e .: s ehr u nters chiedli c h e n n a t i o
nalen Vorsc hri fte u n d K l a s sifizi erung en so wie die d a z u n o t
wendi genBra ndprf v e r f a h r e n e rgeben in ombi ation e r g l e i c h
bareS icherh e i t s iv e a u s . D i e EGHa m o n i sieru ng der A n f o r d e r u n
genun d Prf v e r f a h r e n f r b r ennbar e Bau stoff e und F e r t i g t e i 1 e
wrde die S c h a f f u ng ei h e i t1icher Bauv orsch ri ften u n d P r f v e r
fahre mi t s e h r g r o e m z e i t 1 i chen und fi nan ziellen A u f w a n d er
forde rn. De s h a l b m a c h t d a s in den EGS taate b e s t e bende hohe
Siehe rhei ts ni v e a u f r S c h a u mstoff sy ste me zu mi n d e s t f r d i e s e n
Berei eh ei e H a r m oni si
e r u n g zum j etzig en Ze i t p u n k t n i c h t
erfor deri i ch .
 514

GEBAEUDEBRANDSCHUTZ: VERHALTEN VON HARTKUNSTSTOFFEN

Umberto FLISI - MONTEPOLIMERI CSI
V.le. Lombardia, 20 - 20021 Bollate (MI), Italien

Die Verwendung von Kunststoffen in Gebuden hat in den beiden letzten

Jahrzehnten stetig zugenommen. Heute sind sie in einer typischen Wohnung
in gleicher oder sogar grsserer Menge vorhanden als andere organische
Werkstoffe wie Holz, Farben und Textilien zusammen genommen.

Ihr Anwendungsspektrum ist sehr gross, wie aus der nachstehenden Tabelle
ersichtlich ist, in der auch Elastomere, synthetische Fasern und Verbund-
werkstoffe enthalten sind.

Verbundwerkstoffe wurden aufgenommen, weil sie sich einen ansehnlichen

Marktanteil erobert haben und erhebliche Mengen Kunststoffe enthalten.
Der Begriff Verbundwerkstoff umfasst eine ganze Palette von Materialien,
von faserigen Produkten wie glasfaserverstrktes Polyester (GFP) ber
Schichtstoffe und Sandwich-Werkstoffe, die im allgemeinen einen Schaum-
stoffkern besitzen, bis hin zu partikelfrmigen Produkten wie Leicht-
beton oder Polymerbeton.

Unter dem Aspekt des Brandverhaltens sind Kunststoffe in mindestens zwei

grosse Kategorien zu unterteilen: Thermoplaste und Thermodure.

Die erstgenannten verformen sich unter Wrmeeinfluss plastisch, was

mitunter gnstig ist, wenn das Material sich dadurch vor der Entzn-
dung aus dem Flammenbereich gewissermassen entfernt. Thermodure erzeugen
demgegenber aufgrund ihrer dreidimensionalen Netzstruktur weniger
Verbrennungsgase und neigen mehr zum Verkohlen, was ebenfalls eine
Entzndung verhindern kann.

Jedoch kann innerhalb jeder Kategorie jeder einzelne Kunststoff aufgrund

der unterschiedlichen chemischen 'Beschaffenheit ein ganz unterschiedliches
brandtechnisches Verhalten zeigen, das sich darber hinaus auch noch
durch verschiedene Zustze modifizieren lsst.

Man kann also schlussfolgernd feststellen, dass bei Kunststoffen mit

allen ordentlichen Arten brandtechnischen Verhaltens zu rechnen ist, je
nach Beschaffenheit des Werkstoffs, etwaiger Modifikationen und Kombina-
tionen mit anderen Werkstoffen.

Um von Fall zu Fall ein optimales Brandverhalten zu gewhrleisten, ist

es deshalb unerlsslich, die Eigenschaften der Kunststoffe zu kennen
und sie entsprechend zu nutzen.
 515

KUNSTSTOFFE IM BAUWESEN

Anwendung Wertetoff

1. Aussenwnde
1.1. Aussenschale: Schalung und Verklei- PVC (Hartschaum und Strukturschaum),
dung, hinterlftete Fassaden ABS, GFK, PMMA. Leichtbeton (EPS).
1.2. Dmmschicht oder Zwischenlage Schaumstoffe: PS, PU, PE, PVC, Harn-
stoff-Formaldehydharz, Phenolharz.
1.3. Dampfsperren PVC-, PE-, PP-Folien.
1.4. Innenschale: Wandbekeidung, Profil- PVC, ABS, GFK, Acrylharz (PMMA).
bretter, Bauplatten mit Beschlgen
1.5. Brstungen, Balkone PMMA, stranggegossenes PVC, GFK,
Strukturschaumstoffe.
1.6. Tr und Fensterrahmen PVC, PU (Strukturschaum),.
Melamin-Sch ichtstoffe.
1.7. Lichtplatten PC, PMMA, GFK, Kunststoffe auf
Cellulosebasis.
2. Trennwnde
2.1 Einschalig PVC (Hartschaura und Strukturschaum),
PMMA.
2.2 Dmmschicht oder Zwischenlage Siehe Punkt 1.2.
2.3. Belge, Verkleidung, Profilbretter, PVC, ABS, GFK, PMMA; Phenol-,
Schichtstoff-Dekorationsmaterial Harnstoff- und Heiaminharze.
3. Decken
3.1. Verkleidungen PVC, PS- und PU-Schaum Leichtbeton.
3.2. Zwischenlage (Abstandhalter EPS, PVC.
zwischen Balken)
3.3. Dmmstoffe EPS, PE- und PU-Schaum.
3.4. Abgehngte Decken PVC, ABS, PMMA.
3.5. Beleuchtungskrper Acrylharz, PVC, PS, PC,
Kunststoffe auf Cellulosebasis.

4. Fussbodenbelge PVC, Elastomere, Epoxidharz, synthe-

tische Fasern, Polyuretanschaum (Tep-
pichunterlagen, Beton-Kunststoff
-Gemische.
5. Dachbelge
5.1. Dachdeckung, Feuchtigkeitsschutz PVC, GFK. Weich-PVC, Elastomere.
5.2. Isolierung EPS, PU.
5.3. Verglasung und Dachfenster PC, PMMA, GFK.
5.4. Dachgauben GFK (vorgefertigt).
5 . 5 . Ablaufrinnen und ussere Fallrohre PVC, GFK.
6. Ausbau
6 . 1 . Innenliegende Regen- und Abwasser- PVC, HDPE, PP, GFK.
rohre
6 . 2 . S a n i t r I n s t a l l a t i o n e n Rohre GFK, PMMA, ABS.
Isolierung
6.3. Lftung PVC, GFK, EPS, PU- und PE-Schaum.
6.4. Rohrisolierung PE-, PU-Schaum und Elastomere, EPS.
6.5. Rohre fr flssige Brennstoffe Elastomere.
6.6. Tanks fr flssige Brennstoffe GFK, PE.
6.7. Aufzge PVC-Profile, Melamin-Schichtstoffe.
 516

GEBAEUDEINHALT
J. FISHBEIN, H. CREYF
British Research Materials Association (BRMA)
London (UK)

1. Einleitung

Es versteht sich von selbst, dass auf einer Konferenz ber das Thema
"Gebudebrandschutz" der Schwerpunkt auf dem Feuerwiderstand der
verschiedenen Baustoffe liegt. Von nicht zu unterschtzender Bedeutung
ist jedoch auch das Gebudeinventar.

Bekanntermassen werden die Eigenschaften von Polyurethanen fr

Bettausstattung und Polstermbel sehr geschtzt.

Polyurethane sind wichtige Komponenten dieses Mobiliars. Da sich das

Brandverhalten von Mbelstcken aus den Eigenschaften des Stoffver-
bundes ergibt, haben sich die Hersteller stets mit dem Brandverhalten
dieses Polymeren auseinandergesetzt, Es wurden hierzu umfangreiche
Arbeiten auf wissenschaftlichem, technischem und wirtschaftlichem
Gebiet geleistet, als deren Ergebnis ein wirkungsvoller Schutz
des Verwenders bei natrlichen Schadenfeuern erreicht wurde.

2. Anstze zur flammwidrigen Ausrstung

Die ersten Versuche zur Herstellung schwer entzndbarer Schaumstoffe

basierten auf chemischen Zustzen: die synergetische Wirkung von
Phosphor und Halogenen wird genutzt, um das Material schwerer entflamm-
bar zu machen. Dieses Verfahren hat sich zweifellos gut bewhrt und
wird auch heute zum Teil noch verwendet. Da jedoch gewisse Nachteile
unverkennbar waren (Rauchbildung usw.), wurde nach weiteren Methoden
geforscht.

Ein zweiter Ansatz zur Lsung des Problems bestand darin, das Polymere
zu modifizieren. Auf diese Weise entstand eine ganz neue Kategorie von
Materialen: die sogenannten kaltvulkanisierten Schaumstoffe oder Kalt-
schaum. Ihr Brandverhalten ist in verschiedener Hinsicht besser: sie
schrumpfen z.B. unter Flamneneinwirkung zusammen und ziehen sich so
gewissermassen von der Flamme zurck. Verschiedentlich verursachte
brennendes Abtropfen jedoch eine Flammenausbreitung.

Die Verbesserung der Flanmwidrigkeit sowohl durch Zustze als auch

durch Kaltvulkanisation ist bei kleinen Zndquellen unbestritten.
Bei grossen Zndquellen dagegen, wie brennendes Zeitungspapier,
brennendes Holz usw. wird selbstverstndlich keiner der beiden
genannten Brandschutzbehandlungen den freiliegenden Schaum vollstndig
schtzen. Im Zuge der Entwicklung von Prfungen mit inner strengeren
 517

brandschutztechnischen Anforderungen - um Hinweise auf die Brandgefahren

in Bereichen mit hohem Brandrisiko zu erhalten -, suchte die Industrie
nach iimier leistungsfhigeren Verfahren zum Schutz ihrer Produkte
gegen diese strkeren Zndquellen.

Gngigste Methode in den letzten Jahren ist die Zugabe grosser

Mengen inorganischer Stoffe, hauptschlich Aluminiumhydrat. Diese
Substanz enthlt im Molekl grosse Mengen Kristallwasser, das sie
in einer endothermen Reaktion etwa im Temperaturbereich natrlicher
Brnde abgibt. Dass es sich um eine inorganische Substanz handelt,
weist darauf hin, dass sie nur wenig zur Rauchentwicklung beitrgt.
Das Flammenschutzmittel kann entweder direkt zugemischt werden (one
-shot-Verfahren) oder durch Nachbehandlung der Schaumstoffschichten
aufgebracht werden (Imprgierverfahren, Verwendung als Einlage).
Ein derartig ausgersteter Schaumstoff unterscheidet sich in
seinen Komforteigenschaften nicht von unbehandeltem Polyurethan.

3. Die Verbundtheorie

Im letzten Jahrzehnt hat sich die wissenschaftliche Forschung immer

mehr auf die Untersuchung natrlicher Brnde verlagert.

Die Art des Stoffverbunds, d.h. die Schaumstoffabdeckung, und die

Gestaltung sind offenbar entscheidender als die Einzelkomponenten (wie
z.b. der Schaumstoff) fr die Entzndbarkeit, die Abbrandrate und
die Entwicklung von Rauch und toxischen Gasen.

Die Untersuchung dieser Merkmale ist fr die Verminderung der Gefahren

bei Schadenfeuern unerlsslich.

4. Einfluss der Umgebung

Jngste Risikoanalysen bei Grossbrnden haben gezeigt, dass die

Umgebung bei Brnden eine sehr wesentliche Rolle spielt. Dabei ist
nicht nur das Mobiliar zu bercksichtigen, sondern auch die es
umgebenden Materialen sowie die Art des Gebudes. Alle diese Faktoren
beeinflussen einen Brand in einer Weise, die sich nicht durch Untersu-
chung der Einzelmaterialen oder -komponenten vorherbestimmen lsst.

5. Weitere Grundlagenforschung

Parallel zu den vorgennanten Untersuchungen sind grundlegende Forschungs-

arbeiten zur Verminderung der Bildung von Rauch und toxischen Gasen
im Gange. Fr den Bereich der Schaumstoffindustrie werden d i e s e
Arbeiten am QMC der Universitt London ausgefhrt. Die bisherigen
Ergebnisse sind vielversprechend.
 518

SPRINKLER, CO,- UND HALONLOESCHANLAGEN

H. BINEAU, Centre National de Prvention et de Protection

Mit Wasser und mit Gas arbeitende selbssttige Lschanlagen sind

fr eine Vielzahl von Einsatzbereichen geeignet,in Abhngigkeit von
der Art des Lschmittels und der Funktion des Brandmeldeteils. Soweit
keine Unvertrglichkeit zwischen dem Brandgut und einem der Lschmittel
vorliegt, sind diese Anlagen sehr vielseitig verwendbar.

Die historisch ltesten derartigen Anlagen, die Sprinkler, sollen

folgende Funktionen erfllen : Erkennen eines Enstehungsbrandes durch
eine auf Wrme ansprechende Messonde, Alarmgebung und Besprhen des
Brandherdes mit Wasser, um diesen abzulschen oder bis zum Einsetzen
der Brandbekmpfung durch den Menschen einzudimien. Geschtzt
wird auf diese Weise gewhnlich das gesamte Gebude.

Der Allgemeinbegriff "selbstttige Gaslschanlagen (GCL oder

Halon)" umfasst mehr oder weniger komplexe Systeme, von der kleinen
Lschmittelfiasche mit Dse und Auslsemechanismus bis zu Anlagen
mit mehreren Tonnen Lschmittelinhalt zum Schutz mehrerer Rume, mit
Brandmeldeeinrichtungen, Verteilerventilen sowie automatischen Vorrich-
tungen, welche die Klimaanlage abstellen und die Tren und Fensterl-
den schllessen.

Im allgemeinen erfllen die selbstttigen Gaslschanlagen folgende

Funktionen :

Selbstttige Branderkennung (mit Alarmgebung) und Freisetzen einer

bestimmten Lschmittelmenge ber einen vorgegebenen Zeitraum und auf
einer definierten Flche bzw. in einem definierten Raumvolumen. Daneben
knnen solche Anlagen weitere Funktionen zum Schutz des Personals
bernehmen : Rumungsalarm, Auslsungsverzgerung..., luftdichter
Abschluss der betroffenen Rume. Sie bewachen demnach bestimmte
Gebudeteile :

- einen Raum oder mehrere Rume; in diesem Fall handelt es sich um

sog. Anlagen zur Raumflutung oder Raumschutzanlagen;

- eine gefhrliche Maschine oder einen Teil eines Raumes (Beispiel :

Spritzkabine); derartige Anlagen nennt man Objektschutzanlagen.
 519

Alle Arten von Brandmelderanlagen knnen eingesetzt werden (Rauch,

Flammen, Wrme). Es empfiehlt sich in Abhngigkeit vom Brandrisiko
die am schnellsten ansprechende Anlage zu whlen.

Die selbstttigen Gaslschanlagen lassen sich unterteilen nach :

- dem Lschmittel : CO., das den Brand erstickt; Halon (1301 und
1211), das ihn hemmt;

- der Anlagenauslegung, insbesondere der Lschmittellagerung ; zentrali-

sierte Anlagen und dezentralisierte Anlagen;

- bei C0_ : Hochdruck- und Niederdruckanlagen.

Die Betreiber sehen in selbstttigen, mit Gas oder Wasser arbeitenden

Lschanlagen ein Schutzmittel, das unter vorhersehbaren Bedingungen
einen Brand lscht oder eindmmt. Den Installationsfirmen eine
Erfolgsgarantie abzuverlangen, ist jedoch nicht mglich, unter anderem
deshalb, weil sich der Betriebsablauf und die allgemeine Sicherheitsorgani-
sation nicht als feste Grssen einbeziehen lassen.

Um eine optimale Anlagenfunktion zu gewhrleisten, knnen sich die

Kontrollinstanzen (im allgemeinen die Versicherer) verschiedener Mittel
und Methoden bedienen :

- Anweisungen fr den Einbau, die fr die Installationsfirma gewisser-

massen eine Verpflichtung zur Verwendung geeigneter Mittel darstellen.

- Regeln und Normen fr die Bestandteile und Hauptelemente derartiger

Anlagen.

- Eignung der Bestandteile, d.h. eberprfung der Vorschriftsmssigkeit

in Form von Zulassung oder Gtezeichen, die sich im allgemeinen auf
Laboruntersuchungen, gelegentlich auch auf Kontrollen bei den Herstellern
sttzt.

- Zulassung der Installationsunternehmen.

- Abnahmeprfung jeder einzelnen Anlage, in Form einer eberprfung

der Einhaltung der Installationsvorschriften, vorgenommen von den
Versicherern selbst oder von einer von den Versicherern anerkannten
Prfstelle.

- Schliesslich die regelmssige eberprfung (nicht zu verwechseln

mit der regelmssigen Wartung), die vom Ersteller oder einer anerkannten
Prfstelle ausgefhrt wird.
In den verschiedenen EWG-Lndern wendet man die genannten Vefahren in
mehr oder weniger strikter Form an - selbst in ein und demselben Land im
allgemeinen abhngig von der Art der Anlage (Sprinkler - selbstttige
00_ - Lschanlage - selbstttige Halonlschanlage).
 520

Auf rein technischer Ebene unterscheiden sich die Vorschriften fr den

Einbau und die Vorschriften (bzw.Normen) fr die Bauteile nur wenig, da
sie sich aus den NFPA-Normen, den Empfehlungen des Europischen Komitees
der Versicherungswirtschaft und/oder ISO-Verffentlichungen ableiten.
Bei Gaslschanlagen jedoch knnen die einzelstaatlichen Bestimmungen
ber den Personenschutz voneinander abweichen, insbesondere in bezug
auf den Einsatzbereich und die Zulassung der automatischen Funktion.

Dessenungeachtet knnte man zumindest bei den Bauteilen eine Harmonisie-

rung anstreben, sowie eine gegenseitige Anerkennung der Prfstellen der
verschiedenen EW3-Lnder. Es ist jedoch nicht damit getan, dass die
zugelassenen Laboratorien identische Verfahren mit entsprechenden Materia-
lien durchfhren. Vielmehr erfordert ein solches Vorhaben darber
hinaus, dass die Qualittskontrolleanforderungen bei den Herstellern
vereinheitlicht werden und die zugehrigen Ueberprfungen einander
entsprechen.
 521

RAUCH- UND WRMEABZUGSANLAGEN

W. Halpaap
Leiter der Abteilung Arbeitssicherheit der Bayer AG

Je nach Art, Dimensionierung und Anwendung dienen Rauch- und Wrmeab-

zugsanlagen dem Personenschutz, dem Sachschutz aber auch unmittelbar
der Wirtschaftlichkeit, wenn hierdurch Abweichungen von anderen bau-
aufsichtlichen Forderungen ausgeglichen werden knnen. In diesem
Referat wird bevorzugt ber Rauch- und Wrmeabzge berichtet, die
durch thermischen Auftrieb wirken. Daneben wird jedoch auch die Pro-
blematik der Dimensionierung und Bewertung und damit auch der Wirt-
schaftlichkeit von Maschinellen Rauchabzgen angesprochen, ber Rauch-
und Wrmeabzugsanlagen entsteht zur Zeit eine Deutsche Norm, die DIN
18 232. Es bestehen wesentliche Unterschiede zwischen Rauchabzgen -
das sind in der Regel besonders gesteuerte Klappen - und Wrmeabzgen,
deren Wirkung durch Materialien erreicht wird, die in der Brandhitze
leicht zerstrbar sind. Der Verband der Sachversicherer in Deutsch-
land nahm sich der Idee des Rauchabzuges besonders an, die berle-
gungen fanden ihren Niederschlag in Richtlinien des CEA. Die DIN
18 230 - und damit die Idee des Wrmeabzuges - wurde inzwischen als
Model Code "Baulicher Brandschutz" in das CIB (W 14) eingebracht.

Einfhrung

Rauch und Wrmeabzugsanlagen verdienen wegen ihrer Bedeutung fr den vor-

beugenden Brandschutz grere Beachtung. Gleichwohl drfen sie in ihrer
Wirkung nicht berschtzt werden. Je nach Art, Dimensionierung und Anwen-
dung dienen Rauch- und Wrmeabzugsanlagen
- dem Personenschutz durch Rauchfreihaltung der Rettungswege
- dem Sachschutz durch verbesserte Bedingungen fr den Feuerwehr-Einsatz
und Verhinderung von Rauch-Nachfolgeschden und schlielich
- unmittelbar der Wirtschaftlichkeit durch Zugestndnis grerer Brandab-
schnittsflchen in Verbindung mit einer geringeren Feuerwiderstandsdauer
der tragenden Konstruktion.
Nach der Art ihrer Wirkung sind Rauch- und Wrmeabzge zu unterschei-
den in solche, die
- durch thermischen Auftrieb wirken und solche, die
- durch Zwangslftung bzw. durch Maschinelle Rauchabzge (Ventilatoren)
einen Rauchabzug bewirken.
In diesem Referat wird bevorzugt ber Rauch- und Wrmeabzge berich-
tet, die durch thermischen Auftrieb wirken. Daneben wird jedoch auch die
Problematik der Dimensionierung und Bewertung und damit auch der Wirt-
schaftlichkeit von Maschinellen Rauchabzgen angesprochen.
ber "Rauch- und Wrmeabzugsanlagen" entsteht zur Zeit eine Deutsche
Norm, die DIN 18 232, mit den Teilen:
Teil 1: Begriffe und Anwendung (September 1981)
Teil 2: Rauchabzge - Bemessung, Anforderung und Einbau (z.Zt. im Druck)
Teil 3: Rauchabzge - Prfungen (z.Zt. im Druck)
Teil 4: Wrmeabzge (geplant)
Teil 5: Maschinelle Rauchabzge (geplant)
 522

In diesem Referat werden die Inhalte dieser Norm angesprochen. Nicht

behandelt werden Anlagen, die z.B. Rettungswege von Rauch freihalten, der
von Branden in benachbarten Rumen stammt. Auf die hierzu existierende
Literatur wird hingewiesen. Nicht behandelt werden auerdem mobile Ein-
richtungen, die eine Feuerwehr zur Rauchabfhrung einsetzt, nachdem der
Brand bereits unter Kontrolle gebracht wurde.
Hauptaufgabe von (stationren) Rauchabzgen ist es, der Feuerwehr
die Brandbekmpfung so zu erleichtern, da sie bereits den Entstehungs-
brand beherrschen und die Ausweitung zu einem "fortentwickelten Brand"
oder gar zum "flash over" verhindern kann. Der Nutzung von Rauchabzgen
ist daher insbesondere im Zusammenhang mit Entstehungsbrnden zu sehen.
Wrmeabzge dienen dazu, insbesondere bei bereits fortentwickelten
Brnden so viel Wrme abzufhren, da der flash over verhindert wird.
Es wird der Anteil der Wrmemengen bewertet, der nach auen abgefhrt
wird, ohne die Konstruktion zu beanspruchen.
Als Rauchabzge werden in der Regel entsprechend gesteuerte und
bestimmten Anforderungen gengende Klappen eingesetzt, als Wrmeabzge
gengen Materialien, die als "in der Brandhitze leicht zerstrbar" gel-
ten.
Wegen des erheblich hheren Aufwandes knnen Rauchabzge nicht in
beliebigen Mengen eingesetzt werden. Etwa 1 - 3 % ffnungen in der Dach-
flche werden im Regelfall als ausreichend angesehen, da die sich bil-
dende rauchfreie Schicht den Einsatz der Feuerwehr erleichtert.
Um einen wirksamen Wrmeabzug zu ermglichen, sind erheblich hhere
Anteile erforderlich. Eine Bewertung erfolgt in dem Rechenverfahren zur
Ermittlung der erforderlichen Feuerwiderstandsdauer nach DIN 18 230.
Hierin fhren beispielsweise ca. 8 % ffnungen (im Dach) zu einer Hal-
bierung der erforderlichen Feuerwiderstandsdauer. Aus dieser Gegenber-
stellung der Wirkungsweise und Bewertung ergibt sich die erforderliche
Unterscheidung von Rauchabzgen und Wrmeabzgen.
Maschinelle Rauchabzge knnen grundstzlich sowohl Rauch als auch
Wrme abfhren, wenn die Gerte den sich daraus ergebenden Anforderungen
gengen. Die Diskussion ber wesentliche Grundsatzfragen steht jedoch
noch am Anfang. Insbesondere scheint es kaum mglich, die quivalenten
Luft- bzw. Rauchgasmengen, die bei Rauchabzgen, die durch thermischen
Auftrieb wirken, ohne weiteres abgefhrt werden, mit Hilfe Maschineller
Rauchabzge abzufhren. Positiv ist jedoch festzustellen, da Maschinelle
Rauchabzge auch "kalten Rauch" abfhren, bei entsprechender Steuerung
erheblich frher als Rauchabzge wirken und nicht erst eines Brandes mit
entsprechender Wrmeentwicklung bedrfen.
Der Teil 1 der DIN 18 232 enthlt Anwendungsempfehlungen. Z. B. soll-
ten Rauchabzge bei bergroen Flchen angewendet werden. Eine Beziehung
besteht hier zu den Angaben in den Erluterungen zur DIN 18 230 ber die
zulssige Gre von Brandabschnittsflachen. Wrmeabzge sollten in einer
Mindestgre in Abhngigkeit der Brandbelastung vorhanden sein.

Angaben zu den Tabellen

Die Tabellen 1 und 2 der DIN 18 232, Teil 2, enthalten die Bemessungs-
grundlagen fr Rauchabzge. Je grer die zu erwartende Brandentwicklungs-
dauer, je grer die anzunehmende Brandausweitungsgeschwindigkeit und je
grer die sogenannte rauchfreie Schicht sein soll, desto grere Werte
ergeben sich fr die ffnungsflche. Betrachtet man die Tabellenwerte in
ihren gegenseitigen Abhngigkeiten, so erkennt man, wie empfindlich das
System ist, m.E. in bereinstimmung mit praktischen Erfahrungen.
 523

Die Tabelle 2 der DIN 18 230, Teil 1, enthlt die w-Faktoren fr die
Bewertung der Wrmeabzugsffnungen. Bewertet wird auer der Gre der an-
rechenbaren ffnungsflache auch deren Lage. Faktoren ber 1,0 weisen auf
zustzliche Erschwerungen und Beanspruchungen durch Wrmestau hin. Nach
Bild 1 der DIN 18 230, Teil 1, kann der Faktor k zur Bewertung von ff-
nungsflchen im Dach (1,5*-k -4,0) ermittelt werden.

Hinweise ber internationale Absprachen

Die in der DIN 18 232 festgelegte Bemessung von Rauchabzgen stellt eine
Fortentwicklung der Ergebnisse von Untersuchungen von Thomas u. Hinkley
dar. Diese wurden insbesondere vom Verband der Sachversicherer in Deutsch-
land aufgegriffen und zur Grundlage entsprechender Richtlinien der Ver-
sicherer auf europischer Ebene (CEA-Richtlinien). Deren Beachtung stellt
die Voraussetzung fr die Rabattierung von Rauchabzugsanlagen dar.
Die DIN 18 230 und somit auch die darin enthaltene Bewertung von
Wrmeabzugsffnungen ist inzwischen als Model Code "Baulicher Brandschutz"
in das CIB (W 14) eingebracht worden.
ber die Prfung von Rauchabzgen (nach Teil 2 bzw. 3) wird ein
mehrere Prfungen umfassendes Prfzeugnis ausgestellt werden. Dieses Zeug-
nis wird in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland Voraussetzung sein fr deren
Anwendung.

Anlage
DIN 18 232 Teil 2 Anlage
Tabelle 1. Bemessungsgruppen

1 2 3 4

Erwartete Bemessungsgruppe
Brandentwicklungsdauer
( s i e h e Abschnitt 2.4) Brandausbreitungsgesc tiwindigkeit
besonders m i t t e l besonders
min gering gro
1 < 5 1 2 3
2 < 10 2 3 4
3 < 15 3 4 S
4 20 4 5 6
5 < 25 S 6 7
Durchschnittswerte ohne besonderen Nachweis

DIN 18 232 Teil 2

Tabelle 2. Anteil der aerodynamisch wirksamen ffnungsflche

Dicke der A n t e i l der

rauchfreien Schicht d a e r o d y n a m i s c h wirksamen ffn u n g s -
bzw
Korr d f l c h e A in %
w
(siehe Abschnitt 2.3)
Bemessungsgruppe
m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 0,5 h 0,3 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4
2 0,55 h 0,35 0,5 0,7 1,0 1,2 1,5 l,7
3 0,6 h 0,4 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1
4 0,65 h 0,5 0,7 1,0 1,5 1,8 2,2 2,5
5 0, 7 h 0,7 0,9 1,3 1,3 2,2 2, 7 3,0
6 0,75 h 0,85 1,1 1,5 2
,1 2,6 3,2 3,6
Zw i s e h e n den Werten d a r x l i near i n t e r p o l i e r t werden.

DIN 18 230 Teil 1

Tabelle 3. Wrmeabzugsfaktor u

/ 2 3 4 s 1 e I 7 I 9

Lagt dir Offnungen Grundri Schnitt JA

> 0.05 > 0.10 > 0.15 > 0,20 > 0 . 2 5
bil 0.05 bil 0.10 bil 0.15 bli 0.20 bli 0.25

Riuma mit Offnungin i n

1 3.2 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.0 0.9
liner Seit

2
filum mit Offnungen i n
mindet tent zwei Seilen 2.2 1.5 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.6

r
3 Riume mit Dienen t luf tung 1.8 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5
 525

BRANDMELDSYSTEME
Ing. F. DE COSTER
EURAIARM

Der rasche Fortschritt der Technik und der Automatisierung hat den Ein-
satz automatischer Brandmeldesysteme beschleunigt.

Als Folge dieser Entwicklung hat man in verschiedenen Lndern einschl-

gige Vorschriften erlassen.

Auf europischer Ebene und weltweit wurden internationalen Normen aus-

gearbeitet, doch ist diese Arbeit noch nicht ganz abgeschlossen. Aufgrund
dessen sehen wir uns einer gewaltigen Menge von Normen und Vorschriften
gegenber.

Verffentlicht werden diese Normen von verschiedenen Organisationen:

- CEA: Europisches Komitee der Vesicherungswirtschaft

- CEN: Europisches Komitee fr Normung
- CENELEC: Europischer Ausschuss fr die Koordinierung der elektrotech-
nichen Normung
- IEC: Internationale elektrotechnische Kommission
- ISO: International Standard Organization.

Obwohl zwischen den verschiedenen Arbeitsgruppen bestimmte Absprachen bes-

tehen, ist zu befrchten, dass die erarbeiteten Regelwerke voneinander
abweichen werden.

Als erste haben die Vesicherer Bestimmungen ber die Brandmeldung verf-
fentlicht. Sie verfgen ber verschiedene Laboratorien (VDS, STELF,
FIRTO, ANPI), in denen sie die von den Herstellern zur Zulassung vor-
gelegten Gerte prfen.

Wenn ein Hersteller einen neuen Brandmelder auf dem europischen Markt
einfhren mchte, so sind im Prinzip in jedem Labor dieselben Prfungen
vorzunehmen.

Die Bestimmungen des CEA sind in den vom CEN ausgearbeiteten neuen euro-
pischen Normen (EN54) enthalten. Es sind folgende Teile vorgesehen:

1. Einleitung
2. Ueberwachungs- und Meldeanlagen
3. Feuermeldeanlagen
4. Stromquellen.
5. Punktfrmige Wrmemelder mit statischer Ansprechschwelle
6. Punktfrmige Wrmedifferentialmelder ohne Element mit statischer
Ansprechschwelle
7. Rauchmelder
8. Wrmemelder mit hoher Ansprechschwelle
9. Erprobungstest (Standard-Brandherde)
 526

10. Systemspezifikationen
11. Prfung unter Umgebungsbeanspruchung
12. Manuelle Alarmgeber
13. Flamnenmelder.
Die Teile 1 bis 5 sind bereits verffentlicht, die Teile 6 bis 9 drften
im Juli 1984 erscheinen.

Diese Normen werden von den Mitgliedstaaten als einzelstaatliche Normen

bernommen. Auf nationaler Ebene bestehen sehr wenige Vorschriften oder
Gesetze. Meistens werden von den lokalen Behrden Auflagen gemacht,
dies jedoch willkrlich.

Hersteller, Installationsfirmen und Betreiber haben ein unzweifelhaftes

Interesse an vollstndigeren Bestimmungen, die folgende Pulente berck-
sichtigen:

1 ) Das Brandmeldesystem ist so auszulegen, dass sonstige bestehende

Brandschutzmassnahmen einbezogen werden, z.B. der Grundriss des Gebudes,
die Unterteilung in Brandabschnitte usw. Eine Brandmeldung ist nutzlos,
wenn nach der Alarmgebung nicht mehr ausreichend Zeit fr die Rumung
oder Bekmpfungsmassnahmen bleibt.

2) Mit Ausnahme von Frankreich und Deutschland ist in den Vorschriften

nicht festgelegt, wer Brandmeldesysteme installieren darf. Es ist zu
vermeiden, dass unqualifizierte Installationsunternehmen derartige
Anlagen einbauen.

3) Es sind unmissverstndliche Bestimmungen fr die Wartung und Ueber-

wachung der Systeme erforderlich.

4) Die Anweisungen fr Rumung und Brandbekmpfung sind zu verein-

heitlichen.

5) Die Vorschriften mssen Raum lassen fr die Integration neuer Tech-

niken.
 527

ELEKTRONISCHE SYSTEME FUER BRANDENTDECKUNG, MELDUNG UND BEKMPFUNG

Ing. A.A.M. BORREMANS, Adj. Dir.

Siemens Nederland .V.
Den Haag

Vor nunmehr ber 130 Jahren wurde die erste Brandmeldeanlage, die
damals noch ausschliesslich aus Handbrandmeldem bestand, in Dienst
genommen. Gegen Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts kam es zur Aufstellung der
ersten automatischen Brandmelder, die nach dem thermischen Prinzip
reagierten. An dem vorrangigen Ziel der rechtzeitigen Erkennung von
Gefahren, der Verhinderung von Personenschden und der Begrenzung
von Sachschaden hat sich zwar wenig gendert. Die Wirksamkeit der
heute verfgbaren Gerte zur automatischen Branderkennung nahm
jedoch im Lauf der Jahre ganz enorm zu. Derzeit stehen wir wieder vor
einem neuen Abschnitt in der Geschichte der Brandmelder, der durch
die Anwendung der Mikroelektronik gekennzeichnet ist. Dass diese
Technik vllig neue Wege zu noch zuverlssiger arbeitenden
Systemen ffnet, wird anhand des Impulsmeldesystems sichtbar.

Im Namen von Euralarm, dem Europischen Verband von Unternehmen der

Sicherheitstechnik, mochte ich ber nachstehende Ablufe sprechen :

BED LOESCHSYSTEM

DETEKTOREN \_[~
KOMMUNIKATICN
K EVA KUIERUNG

SENSOREN BRANDMELDE
ZENTRALE STANDLEITUNG FEUEBWEHR
A ALAFMZENTRAIE

KONTAKTGEBER
FERNSPRECHNETZ STOERUNGS
S MELDEZENTRALE
 528

1. Der Ablauf der Brandalarmierung nach der Erkennung

2. Der Ablauf der automatischen Strungsmeldung als Funktionsber
wachung.
Ganz bewusst lsst sich also zu diesem Zeitpunkt die Innovation ausser
acht, die von vielen hochqualifizierten Technikern in der Sicherheitsin-
dustrie bei Konstruktion und Formgebung, beispielsweise im Hinblick auf
die Erreichbarkeit von Rauchmeldern, geleistet wird.

Auch ber die Rauchempfindlichkeitseinstellung, beispielsweise bei der

Anwendung von Brandmeldern in hohen Rumen, bzw. in Rumen mit hoher
Luftwechselzahl sowie Meldererkennungssysteme werde ich hier nicht referieren.

Wohl aber mchte ich in diesem Zusammenhang auf die Mglichkeit

hinweisen, die Zuverlssigkeit der Meldung durch die Zusammenfassung
von Meldungen eines Detektors zu optimieren. Hiermit ist gemeint, dass
die Meldung erst dann an die Brandmeldezentrale weitergeleitet wird, wenn
ber einen bestimmten Zeitraum hinweg Rauch im Melder festgestellt
wird. Auch drfte es hier zu weit fhren, auf die Mglichkeiten
zur Simulation zahlreicher Brand- und Risikofaktoren mit Hilfe des
Mikrocomputers einzugehen. Natrlich wird daran in grossem Umfang
gearbeitet.

Mit Hilfe der Mikroelektronik Hessen sich in den letzten Jahren erhebliche
Verbesserungen zu wirtschaftlich vertretbaren Bedingungen erzielen.

Die Mikroelektronik mit "intelligenten" Beurteilungsalgorithmen ermglicht

eine rasche und fehlerlose Erkennung von Branderscheinungen bei gleichzei-
tiger Verringerung unerwnschter Meldungen. Sie ist aber auch bei der
Festlegung der schnellsten Fahrtroute zur Brandstelle und beim Aufstellen
von Einsatzvorschlgen von Nutzen.

Die Anwendung der Mikroelektronik - mit den dazugehrenden Algorithmen

- kann zu sehr zuverlssig arbeitenden Systemen fhren, die auch noch
zu wirtschaftlich vertretbaren Bedingungen eingesetzt werden knnen.
Ein Beispiel hierfr ist das derzeit zweifellos modernste und bereits
in grosstechnischem Masstab angewandte Brandmeldesystem auf der Grundlage
der Impulsmeldetechnik.

Die Intelligenz eines derartigen Systems befindet sidh in der Brandmelde-

zentrale.

Einige Vorteile :
- Umgebungseinflsse wie Temperatur, relative Feuchtigkeit, Luftdruck,
aber auch durch verschmutzungsbedingte Einflsse knnen kompensiert
werden.
- Die Empfindlichkeit des Sensors lsst sich in der Brandmeldezentrale
einstellen.
- Die Beeinflussung durch Induktion kann verhindert werden.
Kurz gesagt wird die Zuverlssigkeit optimiert.
Ein in der Zentrale verarbeitetes Brandentdeckungssignal lst verschiedene
integrierte Massnahmen ajs :
 529

- Bedienung von Lschsysternen u . a .

- Kommunikation - Evakuierungssalarm
- unmittelbare Weitermeldung an d i e Feuerwehr
wobei a l l e Masssnahmen auf e i n e e i n d e u t i g e , dem Vorhaben bzw. Risiko
angepasste Alarmorganisation abgestimmt s i n d .

Strungsmeldungen von Sicherheitssystemen sowie auch von Brandmeldeanla-

gen sind e i g e n t l i c h Funktionsberwachungssignale. In der Praxis wird
d i e s e r u s s e r s t wichtige Aspekt a l l e r d i n g s in Europa noch sehr summarisch
behandelt.

Ich v e r t r e t e d i e Meinung, d i e auch in Euralarm-Kreisen immer d e u t l i c h e r

zum Ausdruck kommt, dass neben e i n e r optimalen, zuverlssigen Brandmel-
dung d i e Funktion e i n e r automatischen Strungsmeldung n i c h t vernach-
l s s i g t werden d a r f .
 530

NEUE METHODEN DER BRANDBEKAEMPFUNG

R.C. PARAMOR
Chief Fire Officer, Essex County Fire Brigade (UK)

Neue Methoden der Brandbekmpfung und die ihnen zugrundllegenden Inno-

vationen haben zu einem grossen Teil denselben Ursprung wie die anderen
Neuerungen, ber die auf diesem Symposium berichtet wird.

Die erhhte Brandgefahr und die neuen verfahrenstechnischen Anforderungen

an die Feuerwehr sind auf neue Technologien im Hochbau zurckzufhren
sowie auf die Brandrisiken der Baustoffe und Werkstoffe, aus denen Ge-
bude und deren Inventar heute bestehen. Darber hinaus sind die sich
aus neuen industriellen Prozessen fr den Feuerwehrmann ergebenden
Gefahren sehr vielfltig, um so mehr, als die meisten der betreffenden
Materialen und Produkte auch in unserem Transportnetz zu Land, zu Wasser
und in der Luft zum Einsatz kommen. Diese Probleme sind ein Teil des
Preises fr den Fortschritt, der sich aufgrund sozialer, technischer
sowie auch wirtschaftlicher Anstsse und Zwnge vollzieht. Und mit
dem stndig an Schwungkraft gewinnenden Fortschritt nehmen auch die
Probleme mit jedem Tag zu.

In dem Bemhen, die Brandrisiken einzudmmen, und die Brandschadens-

folgen, insbesondere fr den Menschen, zu vermindern, forscht man auf
dem Gebiet des Brandschutzes stndig nach Verbesserungen und neuen
Wegen. Die hierzu unternommenen Arbeiten geniessen zwar einen gewissen
Vorrang, hinken jedoch gewhnlich der Entwicklung der Problemursachen
hinterher und unterliegen natrlich auch finanziellen Einschrnkungen,
Nach einem Unglcksfall werden mitunter die Prioritten angehoben,
vielfach nur deswegen, weil die ffentliche Meinung, angeheizt von der
Presse, Druck auf die Politiker ausbt, die dann rasch die einschlgi-
gen Gesetze und sonstigen Bestimmungen verbessern, um knftig eine
hnliche Brandkatastrophe zu verhindern.

Es ist richtig, dass die zur Verfgung stehenden Mittel vorrangig fr

den vorbeugenden Brandschutz, die Verbesserung der Fluchtwege und die Ein-
dmmung der Brandausbreitung durch entsprechende Gebudekonstruktion
und geeignete Baustoffe eingesetzt werden. Es gibt auf diesem Gebiet bereits
Anstze fr eine Zusammenarbeit auf europischer und internationaler
Ebene, die jedoch natrlich noch stark ausbaufhig ist. Diese Konferenz
ist ein wichtiger Schritt fr Europa in diese Richtung.

Die Innovation bei den technischen Methoden der Brandbekmpfung muss

sich demnach mit dem zweiten Rang begngen, d.h., die nicht unmittelbar
Betroffenen befassen sich nur wenig damit. Dies fhrt dazu, dass Fort-
schritte in diesem Bereich auf ganz andere Weise erzielt werden. His-
torisch waren die Urheber von Verbesserungen, insbesondere in Europa,
Feuerwehrleute und Ingenieure mit speziellem Interesse fr Brandbekmp-
fungsverfahren und -ausrstung. Vielfach haben diese Neuerer allein und
manchmal sogar auf eigene Kosten gearbeitet, angetrieben nur von ihrem
 531

eigenen Glauben an das, was sie taten.

Als Feuerwehrmann und Feuerwehrkammandant erscheint es mir, dass wir in

vieler Hinsicht immer noch auf diese Weise arbeiten, in unserer eigenen
kleinen Welt und ohne grosse Anteilnahme oder gar Untersttzung von
Einrichtungen in anderen Lndern der Gemeinschaft oder sogar in unserem
eigenen Land, die auf hnlichen Gebieten ttig sind. Dadurch werden
aber nicht nur unsere gemeinsamen Fhigkeiten verschwendet, sondern
auch Mittel, insbesondere finanzielle Mittel, an deren Mangel wir doch
offenbar alle leiden.

Es gibt noch andere Instanzen, die Neuerungen auf diesem Bereich hervor-
bringen: wirtschaftliche Unternehmen mit finanziellem Interesse. Dies hat
zwei Auswirkungen. Die erste ist positiv: da viele dieser Unternehmen auf
dem internationalen Markt ttig sind, erreichen ihre innovativen Ideen
einen grossen Kreis von Interessenten. Die zweite ist weniger positiv:
Die Unternehmen behalten ihre Ideen fr sich bis diese voll ausgereift
sind und nich kopiert werden knnen. Dies verzgert oft den Fortschritt
und macht natrlich insbesondere die Ausrstungsgegenstnde teuerer.

Neue Ideen in der Technik der Brandbekmpfung nehmen die unterschied-

lichsten Formen an. Manche erfordern nur einen geringen finanziellen
Aufwand, wofr Aenderungen in der Taktik der Brandbekmpfung ein gutes
Beispiel sind. Einige Feuerwehren in der Europischen Gemeinschaft
gehen jetzt dazu ber, neben den in der Vielzahl von allgemeinen Feuer-
wehraufgaben ausgebildeten Feuerwehrleuten kleine, speziell ausgebildete
Sondereinheiten einzusetzen, um bestimmte Sonderaufgaben besser be-
wltigen zu knnen.

Ebenso haben einige Feuerwehren Versuche mit kleinen Einsatztrupps

unternommen, die sogar Motorrder benutzen, um Verzgerungen durch
Staus und sonstigen Verkehrsprobleme zu vermeiden. Auch wurden Brandbe-
kmpfungsverfahren entwickelt, welche die gebudeeigenen Brandschutz-
massnahmen, ber die wir bereits so viel gehrt haben, einbeziehen.
So werden z.B. unter Ueberdruck stehende Treppenhuser, die in erster
Linie die Flucht erleichtern sollen, auch von den Feuerwehrleuten als
Zugang zur Bekmpfung benutzt. Generell werden die Brandbekmpfungs-
verfahren zur optimalen Nutzung derartiger Einrichtungen modifiziert.
Andere Brandbekmpfungsverfahren sind natrlich teuerer, z.B. der
Einsatz von Hubschraubern. Die Innovationen, welche derartige Aenderungen
herbeifhren, sind demnach auch ganz unterschiedlichen Ursprungs, was
ihren Charakter, die Schnelligkeit ihrer Einfhrung und - erneut - die
Kosten fr die Feuerwehren beeinflusst.

Ich bin sicher, dass neue Ideen verschiedentlich durch Zufall entstehen,
auch wenn dies relativ selten vorkommen oder nicht entsprechend dokumen-
tiert sein mag. Beim heutigen Stand der Kenntnis der physikalischen und
chemischen Gesetze erscheint es mir jedoch unwahrscheinlich, dass ein
neues, sensationelles "Allheilmittel" der Brandbekmpfung gefunden wird,
d.h. es wre wohl abwegig, auf den Zufall zu hoffen. Vielmehr haben die
meisten Neuerungen auf unserem Gebiet ihren Ursprung in einer langsamen
aber stetigen Optimierung der bestehenden Verfahren und Ausrstungen.
Vielleicht rhrt dies daher, dass wir eine sehr traditionsbewusste
Einstellung zu unserer Arbeit haben. Zahlreiche der Verbesserungen
stammen von gewhnlichen Feuerwehrleuten mit guten Einfllen, andere
 532

von eten b e r e i t s genannten Ingenieuren mit besonderem I n t e r e s s e fr den

Brandschutz. Zum T e i l l a s s e n s i c h d i e Innovationen mit geringem Aufwand
r e a l i s i e r e n , zum T e i l verursachen s i e aber auch hohe Kosten.

J n g s t e s B e i s p i e l h i e r f r i s t d i e Entwicklung e i n e s Allzweck-Handfeuer-
l s c h e r s mit AFFF-Schaum (wssriges filmbildendes Schaumlschmittel)
und e i n e r s p e z i e l l e n S p r i t z d s e z u r Ueberwindung d e r Probleme m i t
e l e k t r i s c h e n T e i l e n . Die Lscherkonstruktion, der AFFF-Schaum und d i e
S p r i t z d s e , d i e wie ich g l a u b e , in Frankreich e n t w i c k e l t wurde, waren
a l l e bekannt - s i e mussten nur zusammengebracht werden. Der Lscher
s c h e i n t d i e Schwierigkeiten zu b e s e i t i g e n , d i e man mit Pulver a l s Allzweck-
Lschmittel h a t , und d r f t e de Mglichkeiten e i n e r e r f o l g r e i c h e n frh-
z e i t i g e n Bekmpfung b i s zum E i n t r e f f e n der Feuerwehr d e u t l i c h v e r b e s s e r n .
Da d i e einzelnen Komponenten zudem r e l a t i v p r e i s g n s t i g s i n d , e r s c h e i n t
d i e allmhliche Einfhrung d i e s e s Gerts wahrscheinlich.

Es g i b t z a h l r e i c h e B e i s p i e l e fr d e r a r t i g e allmhliche F o r t s c h r i t t e .
Pumpen, L e i t e r n und s p e z i e l l e Rettungsausrstung wurden auf d i e s e Weise
s t e t i g v e r b e s s e r t . Das bekannteste B e i s p i e l i s t v i e l l e i c h t d i e Entwicklung
beim Einsatz von Lschschaum und d i e Verbesserung von dessen Bestand-
t e i l e n . Wurden f r h e r a l l e F l s s i g k e i t s b r n d e m i t einem Schaum auf
Eiweisbasis bekmpft, der schwierig i n Lagerung und Anwendung war, so
stehen heute mehrere u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e Verbindungen mit guten Lagereigen-
schaften zur Verfgung. Dementsprechend werden heute Brnde von F l s s i g -
k e i t e n j e nach deren Brandverhalten mit u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e n Lschmitteln
bekmpft. Bewirkt wurden d i e s e Aenderungen durch Chemiefachleute mit
kommerziellem I n t e r e s s e , ihren e i g e n t l i c h e n Ursprung h a t t e n s i e jedoch
in den p r a k t i s c h e n Erfahrungen von Feuerwehrleuten.

Ein a n d e r e s w e i t e s F e l d f r Neuerungen - i n dem j e d o c h m e i s t w e i t

hhere Kosten a n f a l l e n - i s t d i e Anpassung von ursprnglich fr andere
Zwecke entwickelten Technologien und Ausrstungen.

Die F o r t s c h r i t t e i n der Raumfahrttechnik und der Nachrichtentechnik

werden auf v i e l e n B e r e i c h e n g e n u t z t ; d i e Brandbekmpfung b i l d e t da
keine Ausnahme. Auch s p e z i e l l e Fahrzeugtechniken haben ihren Niederschlag
g e f u n d e n : a u f f a l l e n d s t e s B e i s p i e l i s t d i e u r s p r n g l i c h fr a n d e r e
Zwecke e n t w i c k e l t e hydraulische Hebebhne, d i e unsere Probleme mit den
h e u t i g e n Bauwerkhhen v e r m i n d e r t und e i n e s t a b i l e A r b e i t s p l a t t f o r m
b i l d e t . Mit d e r Arbeit in grossen Hhen haben s i c h Feuerwehrleute und
Brandschutzingenieure schon immer a u s e i n a n d e r g e s e t z t . Hubschrauber,
hauptschlich in der Rettung e i n g e s e t z t , werden j e t z t fr d i e frh-
z e i t i g e Bekmpfung von Hochhausbrnden a u s g e l e g t , wofr man auch das
Hngebhnensystem aus d e r Raumfahrttechnik n u t z t .

Viele Entwicklungen werden durch bestimmte E r e i g n i s s e vorangetrieben,

e i n i g e l e i d e r auch durch m i l i t r i s c h e K o n f l i k t e . Die Brandbekmpfung
durch Roboter in sehr gefhrlichen S i t u a t i o n e n h a t ihren Ursprung im
Umgang mit Terroristenbomben, whrend d i e Brandbekmpfung auf Schiffen
im Falklandkrieg d i e Endstufen von Wrmebildkameras b e s c h l e u n i g t e . Die
Kameras drften d i e w e i t r e i c h e n d s t e Neuerung in der Brandbekmpfung
s e i t v i e l e n Jahren d a r s t e l l e n , denn zum e r s t e n Mal kann e i n Feuerwehrmann
j e t z t durch Rauch hindurchsehen. Eine s i c h b e r e i t s abzeichnende Weiterent-
wicklung i s t , dass d e r Kommandant ausserhalb des Gebudes das Brandge-
schehen g l e i c h z e i t i g mit dem Feuerwehrmann verfolgen kann - eine Mglich-
 533

keit, von der wir bestimmt schon alle getrumt haben, whrend wir auf
Berichte und Informationen aus dem Gebudeinneren warteten, um unsere
taktischen Entscheidungen zu treffen.

Auch die Fortschritte in der Nachrichtentechnik und die Mikrochips haben

unsere Arbeit nachhaltig beeinflusst. Eine mir bekannte Feuerwehreinheit
verfgt ber eine Simulator, was ich erwhnen mchte, auch wenn es sich
hierbei nicht um ein Brandbekmpfungsverfahren handelt. Piloten werden
seit mehreren Jahren auf Simulatoren ausgebildet, und diese Art der
Ausbildung wird jetzt auch in den Feuerwehren Fuss fassen, da es un-
vertretbar wird, Erfahrungen ausschliesslich in der Praxis zu sammeln
und deshalb andere Methoden gefunden werden mssen. Verbesserungen in
der Nachrichtentechnik und der Einsatz von Kleinrechnern bedeuten fr
uns, dass wir Informationen, die uns schneller zum Einsatzort leiten,
abrufen knnen sowie auf Knopfdrck auch den Grundriss von Gebuden
und deren Inventar sowie das optimale Vorgehen bei chemischen Problemen.

Die genannten und weitere Neuerungen in der Brandbekmpfung, heute

bereits von Feuerwehren in Europa genutzt, befinden sich erst in der
Anfangsphase ihrer Entwicklung. Die Mglichkeiten sind gewaltig, doch
genauso gewaltig sind vermutlich die Kosten, vielleicht sogar in einem
Ausmass, das den weiteren Fortschritt beeintrchtigen wird. Wir knnen
diese Kosten in Grenzen halten, wenn wir als eine Einheit auftreten und
nicht wie bisher als kleine auf sich gestellte Gruppen, und gleichzeitig
das Tempo des Fortschritts bewahren helfen.

Innovationen in unserem Bereich werden trotz der genannten Beispiele

letzlich nicht durch Forschung und laterales Denken innerhalb dieses
Bereichs selbst hervorgebracht. Hierber sollten wir vielleicht nach
dem Symposium nachdenken. Es gibt unter uns nmlich Leute mit dieser
Fhigkeit zum fortschrittsorientierten Denken, und mein Beispiel fr
diese Art, Neuerungen hervorzubringen, stammt aus einem Artikel im Fire
International Journal. Es handelt sich dabei um eine raketenbefrderte
Brandbekmpfungsausrstung fr Brnde bei Flugzeugunglcken - ein mit
der heute verfgbaren Technologie machbares System zur Verminderung
der Interventionszeiten. Ich weiss nicht, ob es funktionnieren wrde,
doch ich sehe darin ein Vorhaben von der Art, wie wir es knftig
frdern sollten.

Zum Abschluss mchte ich darauf hinweisen, dass wir alle Ideen haben
und ber hinreichende Erfahrung verfgen, um Brandbekmpfungstechniken
zu verbessern. Wenn wir unser Wissen vereinen, knnen wir eine grosse
Wirkung erzielen. In der europischen Gemeinschaft gibt es oft Unstimmig-
keiten wegen Interessenkonflikten, und daran wird sich vielleicht auch
knftig nichts ndern. Wir zumindest, wie immer wir auch persnlich
oder als Angehrige eines Staates ber die europischen Probleme denken,
arbeiten auf einem Gebiet, auf dem es keine Interessenskonflikte und
keine Hindernisse fr die Zusammenarbeit gibt. Deshalb hoffe ich, dass
wir knftig enger zusammenarbeiten, um unsere Aufgaben noch weit wir-
kungsvoller erfllen zu knnen, und dass dieses Symposium das Fundament
fr diese Zusammenarbeit bildet.
 534

DIE PERSOENLICHE SCHUTZAUSRUESTUNG PES MODERNEN FEUERWEHRMANNS

C.H.M. HAVER
Feuerwehr Velsen

Dieser Vortrag befasst sich mit der Problematik der Schutzkleidung des
Feuerwehrmanns. Dabei geht es vorrangig um Wrmeschutzkleidung, physiolo-
gische Eigenschaften und ergonomische Aspekte. Gleichzeitig soll untersucht
werden, ob die neuen, derzeit auf den Markt gebrachten Materialien
diejenigen sind, auf die die Feuerwehr solange gewartet hat. Daneben gilt
eine kritische Betrachtung der Frage, ob sich die erheblichen Unterschiede
bei den derzeitigen Erprobungsverfahren nicht strker vereinheitlichen
lassen.

EINLEITUNG

Thematisch wird das Gebiet deutlich eingegrenzt, was wegen der komplexen
Materie und der sehr unterschiedlichen Brandbekmpfungsaufgaben der
Feuerwehr auch unerlsslich ist. Aus diesem Grund werden folgende
Punkte bercksichtigt :
a) Wrmedmmungswert der Kleidung (Hautverbrennungen);
b) physiologische Aspekte (Wrmehaushalt des Feuerwehrmanns bei einem
Innenangriff);
c) ergonomische Aspekte (Anpassung der Kleidung an die Arbeitsbedingungen).

Als Ausgangspunkt fr Teil a dient das Schema von Coletta und Abbot.
Daneben werden verschiedene, aus der Praxis bekannte Graphiken herangezo-
gen, die den Zusammenhang zwischen Wrmestrahlung und Hautverbrennung
wiedergeben. Allerdings wird auch klargestellt, dass ausser dem Wrme-
dmmungswert der Kleidung auch weitere Faktoren wie Wasserdichtigkeit,
keine oder geringe Feuchtigkeitsaufnahme, Bestndigkeit gegen Chemikalien
oder brennbare Flssigkeiten und flssige Metalle wie Aluminium,
von Bedeutung sind.

b) Physiologische Eigenschaften.
Dieser Teil des Referats befasst sich mit einem Bericht des Instituut
voor Zintuigfysiologie, (Institut fr Physiologie der Sinnesorgane)
TNO,in dem drei Feuerwehranzge aus
1. Wolle
2. Nomex
3. PVC
auf ihre physiologischen Eigenschaften hin untersucht wurden.

c) Ergonomie
Dieser Teil befasst sich kritisch mit der Konzeption und Anfertigung der
Ein satzkleidung.
 535

Knftige Entwicklung der Schutzkleidung

Hier g i l t das I n t e r e s s e den M a t e r i a l i e n auf d e r Grundlage aromatischer

Polyamide cder p o l y h e t e r o z y k l i s c h e r Verbindungen (Namex, Kevlar, Kermel
und PBI-Gewebe).

Zustzlich e i n i g e Hinweise auf :

- Schutzhelm
- Handschuhe
- Stiefel.
RESUMES DES EXPOSES
 538

ORGANISATION DES SERVICES DE LUTTE CONTRE

L'INCENDIE, POSSIBILITES ET LIMITES.
K. SEEGERER
Commandant en chef des services de lutte
contre 1'incendie, Corps des sapeurs-pompiers
de la ville de Munich (capitale du land).

L'objectif de l'intervention des quipes de lutte contre le feu

est, dans le monde entier,partout le mme : "Sauver des vies humaines
et conserver des biens corporels".

Les formes d'organisation sont, elles aussi, partout sensiblement

les mmes : on connat un peu partout les pompiers professionnels, les
pompiers volontaires, les pompiers en service comment, mais
galement des pompiers d'usine, des pompiers d'entreprise et des
pompiers 'd'lots. Des diffrences existent toutefois entre les divers
pays quant aux fondements lgaux qui assignent aux divers corps de
pompiers la mission qui est la leur et d'o dcoulent la responsabili-
t de pollier les risques imminents d'incendies ou d'explosions et
celle de la lutte efficace contre le feu et ces fondements lgaux sont
galement trs diffrents dans les pays membres de la Communaut
europenne.

Les pompiers professionnels et les pompiers volontaires dans nos

pays ont eu subir une volution qui leur attribue de plus en plus de
missions, si bien que l'on est parfaitement en droit de se demander
si la dsignation de "pompier" est encore actuellement de mise. Les
corps publics de pompiers du moins, mais aussi les nombreux pompiers
d'usine et d'entreprise, exercent actuellement un grand nombre
d'activits qui incombaient autrefois tout au plus des corps de
sapeurs-pompiers professionnels assez importants. Ils sont chargs de
la protection de l'environnement au sens large du terme et il n'existe
gure de problme dont on ne leur demanderait pas de trouver la
solution.

Or les pompiers ne peuvent pas faire de miracle. Leur capacit de

travail est ncessairement limite - eu gard aussi au profond
changement dans la nature des risques auxquels ces hommes sont de plus
en plus frquemment confronts. Si l'on se reprsente les limites de
leur engagement, il apparat l'vidence quel point ils sont
dpendants de la nature et de l'importance du risque et de toute une
srie d'autres donnes d'espce. Ces limites ne sont pas seulement
dtermines par le nombre, l'quipement, la formation et la disponibi-
lit des hommes qui composent le corps des pompiers, mais trs large-
ment aussi par les mesures de prvention de l'incendie tant sur le plan
des immeubles que sur celui des entreprises et par d'autres conditions
concrtes auxquelles doivent rpondre les biens protger.
 539

Les corps de pompiers sont galement soumis aux lois de la nature

et il faut que soient respectes les possibilits limites de leur
action qui leur sont ainsi imposes.

Au cours du prsent symposium, il sera amplement question des

possibilits et des moyens d'largissement et d'extension des limites
de leur intervention. Il se peut aussi que la comparaison sur le plan
europen des mesures qui sont actuellement notre disposition auront
pour effet que, dans les divers pays de la Communaut, elles se
rapprocheront du standard qu'il est possible de raliser avec des
moyens financiers raisonnables.
 540

PRIORITES DANS LE DOMAINE DE LA LUTTE CONTRE LE FEU

G. CLARKE,
Chief Fire O f f i c e r , CBE, F i f i r e E, Hampshire F i r e Brigade, (UK)

La p r i n c i p a l e r a i s o n d ' t r e des corps de sapeurs-pompiers t a n t d ' a i d e r

a s s u r e r nos c i t o y e n s un environnement plus sr :

a) en r d u i s a n t au minimum l e r i s q u e d ' e c l o s i n d ' i n c e n d i e

b) en r d u i s a n t au minimum l e s p a r t e s en v i e s humaines e t l e s d g t s
provoqus par l e s incendies e t

c) en r d u i s a n t au minimum l e s p e r t e s en v i e s humaines e t l e s dgts

r s u l t a n t d ' a u t r e s dangers

l ' o n peut donc d i r e que l ' i n t e r v e n t i o n des sapeurs-pompiers d o i t t r e

prcde d'une somme importante de travaux p r p a r a t o i r e s .

Dans l e cadre de c e t t e communication (qui p o r t e spcifiquement sur l e s

incendies dans l e s btiments) j e d o i s p a r t i r de l ' h y p o t h s e que l e s
mesures e s s e n t i e l l e s e t fondamentales s u i v a n t e s o n t t p r i s e s par l e s
a u t o r i t s responsables en matire d ' i n c e n d i e dans chacun des pays membres ;
que c e t t e a u t o r i t s o i t l ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c e n t r a l e ou l ' u n e des d i v e r s e s
formes d ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s l o c a l e s e x i s t a n t dans l a Communaut europenne.

a) Existence d ' u n cadre s u f f i s a n t de t e x t e s l g i s l a t i f s en matire de

s c u r i t i n c e n d i e , v i s a n t g a r a n t i r l a q u a l i t de l a construction des
btiments e t l a bonne u t i l i s a t i o n de ces d e r n i e r s par l e s occupants.

b) Une tude e t une valuation des immeubles sous l ' a n g l e du r i s q u e

d ' i n c e n d i e d ' a p r s une c h e l l e dtermine l ' a v a n c e .

c) La mise d i s p o s i t i o n e t l a r p a r t i t i o n de r e s s o u r c e s s u f f i s a n t e s en
matire de l u t t e c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e (personnel, m a t r i e l e t connmunica-
t i o n s ) a f i n d ' i n t e r v e n i r l a f o i s rapidement e t avec des moyens s u f f i -
sants.

d) Le recrutement e t une formation approprie d'un personnel s u f f i s a n t et

de q u a l i t .

e) La mise en place d ' u n systme s a t i s f a i s a n t permettant aux quipes

d ' i n c e n d i e de r u n i r , bien avant 1 ' e c l o s i n d'un i n c e n d i e , des renseigne-
ments sur l e s l i e u x de l ' i n c e n d i e , ce q u i comprend des a s p e c t s t e l s que
l e s v o i e s d ' a c c s aux b t i m e n t s , l e s m e i l l e u r s p o i n t s d ' e n t r e , l e s
r e s s o u r c e s en eau, l a nature de l a c o n s t r u c t i o n , l ' u t i l i s a t i o n des
btiments e t l e type d ' o c c u p a n t s .

En d ' a u t r e s termes, j e d o i s p a r t i r de l ' h y p o t h s e que t o u t ce qui e s t

r a i s o n n a b l e a t f a i t pour f o u r n i r au commandant des pompiers e t son
quipe des renseignements e t des moyens s u f f i s a n t s pour l u i permettre de
prendre rapidement l e s bonnes d c i s i o n s s t r a t g i q u e s e t t a c t i q u e s quel
que s o i t l ' t a t du btiment ou du groupe de btiments l e u r a r r i v e
sur l e s l i e u x . Sans c e l a , l e m e i l l e u r des chefs se v o i t c o n f i e r une
tche impossible.
 541

ARRIVEE

Ds son a r r i v e sur l e s l i e u x , l ' o f f i c i e r responsable aura pour p r i n c i p a l

souci de combiner p l u s i e u r s n c e s s i t s : c e l l e s de sauver l a v i e des
personnes, d ' a s s u r e r l e u r s c u r i t , de c i r c o n s c r i r e e t d ' t e i n d r e l ' i n -
c e n d i e . P a r f o i s , ces p r i o r i t s ne sont pas f a c i l e s d i s t i n g u e r e t j e
peux vous a s s u r e r que ce n ' e s t pas du t o u t l a mme chose d'examiner
leur_importance r e s p e c t i v e dans l e cadre confortable d'une s a l l e de
confrences que de s ' e f f o r c e r de f a i r e l a p a r t d e s choses e t d ' e x c u t e r
un plan d ' a c t i o n sur p l a c e lorsque des gens o n t manifestement besoin de
s e c o u r s , l o r s q u e d ' a u t r e s se p r c i p i t e n t hors du btiment dans un t a t
de panique p l u s ou moins accentu, l o r s q u e l ' o n se trouve en prsence
d'une importante foule de badauds, tous formulant des c r i t i q u e s e t
prodiguant l e u r s c o n s e i l s e t lorsque l e d i r e c t e u r du btiment e s t
introuvable.

Bien s r , tous l e s incendies de btiments ne c o n s t i t u e n t pas un r i s q u e

pour un grand nombre de personnes, mais i l a r r i v e a u s s i que l ' o f f i c i e r
a i t des choses t r s d i f f r e n t e s prendre en c o n s i d r a t i o n selon q u ' i l
a r r i v e , par exemple, devant une r s e r v e s i t u e au s o u s - s o l d'o s'chappe
librement de l a fume ou devant une e n t r e p t v e r r o u i l l , aux premires
heures du j o u r , e t q u ' i l dcouvre c e t t e l u e u r r o u g e t r e , sans c l a t e t
i n q u i t a n t e chaque f e n t r e , q u i semble apparemment l e d f i e r de
p r a t i q u e r une ouverture dans l e btiment e t de f a i r e a i n s i e n t r e r assez
d'oxygne pour provoquer un embrasement i n s t a n t a n qui e n t r a n e r a i t l a
d e s t r u c t i o n t o t a l e de l'immeuble.

Pour que ses sapeurs p u i s s e n t t r e e f f i c a c e s d'une manire quelconque,

l ' o f f i c i e r s a i t , que l ' i n s t a r des mineurs t r a v a i l l a n t au front de
t a i l l e , i l s ne peuvent f a i r e du bon t r a v a i l que sur l e "front de l ' i n -
cendie" ; a u s s i d o i t - i l c o n s t r u i r e un plan d ' a t t a q u e qui l e u r permettra
de p n t r e r profondment dans l'immeuble avec l e u r m a t r i e l de manire
u t i l i s e r au mieux l ' a g e n t e x t i n c t e u r de l e u r choix. S ' i l s e trouve que ce
moyen e s t de l ' e a u , i l ne peut t r e u t i l i s avec l e maximum d ' e f f i c a c i t
que lorsque l ' e a u e s t soumise une a u t o v a p o r i s a t i o n , produisant a i n s i un
e f f e t de refroidissement maximal e t ne causant aucun dgt supplmentaire
l a s t r u c t u r e eu au contenu de l'immeuble, ce a u i s e r a i t l e cas s ' i l y
avait ruissellement.

SECOCRS AUX PERSONNES

Le moment l e p l u s dramatique e s t c e l u i o l ' o f f i c i e r ordonne d ' u t i l i s e r

l e s moyens d ' i n t e r v e n t i o n grande h a u t e u r , l e s c h e l l e s p i v o t a n t e s , l e s
plates-formes hydrauliques e t mme, exceptionnellement, l ' h l i c o p t r e ,
mais, s i on l u i donnait l e choix, t o u t o f f i c i e r c h o i s i r a i t une mthode de
sauvetage permettant d ' u t i l i s e r l e s moyens d j d i s p o n i b l e s dans l'immeu-
b l e . Un bon compartimentage du feu, des e x e r c i c e s d ' v a c u a t i o n h o r i z o n t a -
le e t des e s c a l i e r s bien conus r s i s t a n t au feu, v i t e r o n t t r s souvent
de devoir procder des sauvetages dramatiques e t d i f f i c i l e s depuis
l ' e x t r i e u r du btiment ou du t o i t .
 542

ARRET DE LA PROGRESSION DE L'INCENDIE

Tout d ' a b o r d , i l faut l o c a l i s e r l ' i n c e n d i e . Souvent l e s signes d ' i n c e n d i e

sont v i d e n t s m a i s , bien des f o i s , en r a i s o n de l'accumulation de fume
ou de l a propagation de l ' i n c e n d i e dans l e s c a v i t s caches ( c a n a l i s a -
t i o n s , cages d ' a s c e n s e u r s , e t c . ) , i l faut procder a des r e c h e r c h e s . Le
pompier ne v o i t souvent r i e n dans ce cas c a r i l p o r t e un a p p a r e i l r e s p i -
r a t o i r e e t i l d o i t a l o r s u t i l i s e r au mieux son o u e , son sens du toucher
, en a s s o c i a t i o n avec une t r s bonne connaissance de l a c o n s t r u c t i o n du
btiment e t de son comportement au feu. Les camras images thermiques
actuellement d i s p o n i b l e s , qui permettent aux pompiers de " v o i r " t r a v e r s
l a fume e t de d t e c t e r l e s sources de chaleur se r v l e n t t r s u t i l e s
dans ces c o n d i t i o n s .

D'un bout l ' a u t r e , l e responsable se proccupe de s a v o i r s ' i l peut

c i r c o n s c r i r e l ' i n c e n d i e l ' e n d r o i t o i l a d b u t , ou aux btiments,
ou l ' t a g e ou l a p i c e . Tout son o b j e c t i f e s t de r d u i r e au minimum
l a propagation de l ' i n c e n d i e e t l e r i s q u e de p e r t e s en fonction des
c i r c o n s t a n c e s e t de l ' v o l u t i o n de l a s i t u a t i o n .

EXTINCTION

Bien avant l ' a r r i v e des pompiers, c e r t a i n e s i n s t a l l a t i o n s fixes de l u t t e

c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e se trouvant dans l e btiment ont peut t r e d j
commenc fonctionner (par exemple s p r i n k l e r s , systmes au CO- ou
l ' h a l o n ) e t l e responsable des o p r a t i o n s d o i t d c i d e r dans q u e l l e mesure
ces d i s p o s i t i f s l ' a i d e n t ou l e gnent dans son t r a v a i l . Les s p r i n k l e r s
qui continuent dverser de l ' e a u aprs l ' e x t i n c t i o n d'un incendie
peuvent causer des d g t s q u i se r v l e r o n t financirement d'un cot
t r s lourd e t l e s s e c t e u r s dans l e s q u e l s des systmes gaz i n e r t e ont
t mis en s e r v i c e sont i n t e r d i t s au personnel q u i ne p o r t e pas d ' a p p a -
r e i l r e s p i r a t o i r e de p r o t e c t i o n . I l s ne doivent pas non p l u s t r e ars
avant que l ' o n a i t acquis l a c e r t i t u d e que l ' i n c e n d i e e s t t e i n t ou
matris.

Le choix de l ' a g e n t e x t i n c t e u r e t de son mode d ' u t i l i s a t i o n couvre

p r s e n t un v e n t a i l t r s l a r g e mais l a p l u p a r t des mthodes c o n s i s t e n t
toujours u t i l i s e r de l ' e a u avec ou sans a d d i t i f s . La p u l v r i s a t i o n
d'eau haute p r e s s i o n e s t de p l u s en p l u s p r i s e en r a i s o n de son e f f e t de
refroidissement remarquable e t de l'conomie d'eau a i n s i r a l i s e . Les
mousses f o r t e , moyenne e t f a i b l e expansion e t l a mousse "eau l g r e "
sont galement des s o l u t i o n s t o u t e s p r t e s . Dans tous l e s c a s , l e
responsable sera pouvant s i l ' o n v o i t de l ' e a u r u i s s e l e r sur l e s
planchers des btiments ou s ' c o u l a n t l ' e x t r i e u r , t a n t donn q u ' e n -
dehors de son manque d ' e f f i c a c i t m a n i f e s t e , c e t t e eau e n t r a n e des
dgts p l u s importants e t souvent une surcharge grave de l a s t r u c t u r e
du btiment avec l e r i s q u e d'effondrement prmatur.

AERAGE ET SAUVETAGE

La d c i s i o n de p r a t i q u e r une brche dans un btiment afin de r d u i r e l a

fume e t l a chaleur e s t t r s d i f f i c i l e prendre : s i e l l e e s t p r i s e t r o p
t t e t au mauvais e n d r o i t , l e feu peut facilement e t rapidement s ' t e n -
d r e ; s i e l l e e s t p r i s e t r o p t a r d , l e s quipes d ' i n c e n d i e t r a v a i l l a n t
dans l e btiment passeront t r o p de temps l o c a l i s e r l ' i n c e n d i e avec
pour consquences l ' e x t e n s i o n de l ' i n c e n d i e , l'augmentation de l a fume
e t l ' a g g r a v a t i o n des d g t s des eaux.
 543

Des e x t r a c t e u r s de fume mcaniques sont d i s p o n i b l e s mais l e u r u t i l i s a -

t i o n f a i t l ' o b j e t de v i v e s c o n t r o v e r s e s au sein des i n s t a n c e s responsa-
b l e s de l a l u t t e c o n t r e l e s i n c e n d i e s .

La p r o t e c t i o n e t l e dmnagement du contenu e n t r e n t gnralement dans l e

cadre des o p r a t i o n s de sauvetage e t i l e s t impratif d ' e n t r e p r e n d r e ce
t r a v a i l l e p l u s t t p o s s i b l e . De simples mesures comprises dans l a
conception du btiment (par exemple des planchers en pente l g r e
conduisant v e r s des r i g o l e s conues pour acheminer l ' e a u l ' e x t r i e u r du
btiment ; des a l v o l e s f a i s a n t s a i l l i e e n t r e l e s compartiments a f i n de
c o n t e n i r l'coulement des l i q u i d e s v o l a t i l e s ; des i n s t a l l a t i o n s de
dsenfumage) peuvent t o u t e s c o n t r i b u e r largement r d u i r e l e s p e r t e s e t
l e s d g t s . L' un des a s p e c t s e s s e n t i e l s de l a formation des quipes
d ' i n c e n d i e d o i t t r e l'enseignement des lments de base des techniques
de sauvetage.

LES CONSEQUENCES LES PLUS DRAMATIQUES

Manifestement, r i e n ne peut t r e p i r e que l a p e r t e de v i e s humaines,

mais malheureusement i l a r r i v e a u s s i que l e s quipes d ' i n c e n d i e s o i e n t
o b l i g e s de q u i t t e r l e btiment parce aue l a s i t u a t i o n e s t i n t e n a b l e e t
l ' o f f i c i e r responsable d o i t a l o r s d i r i g e r une opration de grande enver-
gure d e s t i n e c i r c o n s c r i r e l ' i n c e n d i e e t exigeant l e dversement
d ' i m p o r t a n t e s q u a n t i t s d ' e a u au moyen de pompes de grande c a p a c i t .
Souvent c e t t e s i t u a t i o n e n t r a n e 1'effrondrement p a r t i e l ou t o t a l du
btiment, pour l a p l u s grande motion des s p e c t a t e u r s e t des j o u r n a -
l i s t e s , mais au grand dsespoir t a n t du responsable des o p r a t i o n s que du
p r o p r i t a i r e du btiment.

LES MEILLEURS RESULTATS

Les i n c i d e n t s qui ne sont pas s p e c t a c u l a i r e s e t donnent presque l ' i m p r e s -
sion d'une r p t i t i o n g n r a l e avant " l a premire" sont frquemment ceux
qui apportent l e p l u s de s a t i s f a c t i o n au responsable parce que l e s
d i s p o s i t i o n s p r i s e s au p r a l a b l e se sont combines aux o p r a t i o n s s t r a t -
giques e t t a c t i q u e s sur l e s l i e u x pour apporter une s o l u t i o n rapide e t
e f f i c a c e une menace grave pour l e b i e n - t r e de l a communaut. Ces
i n c i d e n t s , l i m i t s l ' o b j e t ou l a pice o e s t n l ' i n c e n d i e , i l l u s -
t r e n t l a c i t a t i o n de Shakespeare :

"A l i t t l e f i r e quickly trodden out which being suffered r i v e r s cannot

quench"
(Un feu n a i s s a n t , rapidement t o u f f , q u e , l ' e u s s i o n s nous t o l r , t o u t e
l ' e a u d'une r i v i r e n ' a u r a i t r u s s i noyer"

OBSERVATION
J e concluerai mon expos en examinant environ sept p o i n t s sur l e s q u e l s i l
conviendrait de f a i r e p o r t e r l e s futures a m l i o r a t i o n s , e t notamment l e s
communications, l e s r e s s o u r c e s e t l e s techniques e t m a t r i e l de l u t t e
contre l e feu.
 544

LES PRIORITES EN PREVENTION

C. DIRMER (FRANCE)
L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l la D i r e c t i o n de l a S c u r i t Civile

Le thme t r a i t "Les p r i o r i t s dans la p r v e n t i o n " m r i t e quelques

commentaires b r e f s pour e x p l i c i t e r son t i t r e . I l va en e f f e t s ' a g i r de
dessiner le panorama des r i s q u e s et soucis p r i n c i p a u x dans l e cadre de
la p r v e n t i o n i n c e n d i e b t i m e n t a i r e , r i s q u e s et soucis contemporains
perus par les sapeurs-pompiers a u s s i b i e n pour la sauvegarde des occupants
que pour la p r s e r v a t i o n des b i e n s . Ces i n q u i t u d e s majeures sont d ' a b o r d
provoques par la c o n s t r u c t i o n et l ' u r b a n i s m e modernes. E n s u i t e i l sera
n c e s s a i r e d ' a b o r d e r l e s u j e t des r g l e m e n t a t i o n s de s c u r i t d i c t e s par
les p o u v o i r s p u b l i c s , en i n s i s t a n t sur les d i f f i c u l t s de l e u r l a b o r a t i o n
et sur c e l l e s de l e u r a p p l i c a t i o n dans nos s o c i t s p r i s e s de l i b e r t s
et qui ne sont pas f a v o r a b l e s aux c o n t r a i n t e s , encore moins aux s a n c t i o n s .
E n f i n i l faudra examiner d ' a u t r e s soucis provoqus par l'homme lui-mme.
Dans l a c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t u e l l e on peut d c e l e r des f a c t e u r s de r i s q u e s
vus sous l ' a n g l e du c o n t e n a n t , du contenu et des quipements t e c h n i q u e s ,
quel que s o i t l e t y p e de b t i m e n t .
Au niveau du contenant les dimensions des b t i m e n t s sont de p l u s en
p l u s i m p o r t a n t e s . La hauteur est s p e c t a c u l a i r e avec les immeubles de
grande hauteur q u i dpassent 100 ou mme 200 m, mais la s u r f a c e galement
s ' a c c r o t considrablement pour les immeubles de bureaux d'une hauteur
i n f r i e u r e 30 m, ou pour les e n t r e p t s de p l u s en p l u s gigantesques de
p l u s i e u r s d i z a i n e s de m i l l i e r s de mtres c a r r s sans aucun compartimentage.
Par a i l l e u r s les b t i m e n t s c o n t i e n n e n t des types d ' a c t i v i t s d i f f r e n t e s
(avec donc des r i s q u e s ingaux) en l i a i s o n l e s unes avec les a u t r e s , ce
qui r i s q u e de f a c i l i t e r la p r o p a g a t i o n de l ' i n c e n d i e s i une d i s c i p l i n e
de f e r ne v e i l l e au respect des sas et des p o r t e s c o u p e - f e u . Cette m i x i t
d ' e x p l o i t a t i o n s est en o u t r e aggrave par des formes a r c h i t e c t u r a l e s de
p l u s en p l u s complexes q u i mettent en communication d i r e c t e les d i f f r e n t s
niveaux par l ' i n t e r m d i a i r e de grands p u i t s de l u m i r e ou de p a t i o s
c o u v e r t s . E n f i n dans c e r t a i n s cas la s i t u a t i o n e s t encore p l u s d l i c a t e
par s u i t e de l ' e n f o u i s s e m e n t de nombreuses a c t i v i t s comme c e l l e s des
g a l e r i e s marchandes et des gares (chemins de f e r ou m t r o p o l i t a i n s ) . Un
dernier point r e l e v e r au niveau de l ' e n v e l o p p e du btiment : l e
problme des s t r u c t u r e s l g r e s . B i e n sr les occupants vacueront rapidement
en cas d ' i n c e n d i e et i l n ' y aura pas de v i c t i m e s , mais b i e n souvent l e
btiment s ' e f f o n d r e r a et les biens p a r t i r o n t en fume!
En ce qu^ concerne l e contenu des b t i m e n t s i l y a l i e u de s o u l i g n e r
l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n c o n t i n u e des charges c a l o r i f i q u e s et fumignes dans l e s
amnagements i n t r i e u r s , le m o b i l i e r , la d c o r a t i o n , les i s o l a t i o n s
thermiques et a c o u s t i q u e s . . . due e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t la p a r t prpondrante
occupe par les matriaux s y n t h t i q u e s . De plus avec c e r t a i n e s m a t i r e s
 545

p l a s t i q u e s des q u a n t i t s i m p o r t a n t e s de gaz t o x i q u e s , v o i r e c o r r o s i f s
(acides c h l o r h y d r i q u e e t cyanhydriques par e x e m p l e ) , peuvent t r e
gnres compliquant la f o i s l ' v a c u a t i o n des o c c u p a n t s , l ' i n t e r v e n t i o n
des secours et a c c r o i s s a n t les dommages m a t r i e l s . En o u t r e l e s marchan-
dises et les p r o d u i t s sont a u j o u r d ' h u i p l u s v u l n r a b l e s au p l a n thermique
cause de la f r a g i l i t de l e u r conditionnement ( base de f i l m s et mousses
p l a s t i q u e s notamment).
Pour t e r m i n e r avec le contenu i l f a u t i n s i s t e r sur les r i s q u e s p a r t i -
c u l i e r s ds aux quipements techniques q u i j o u e n t un r l e de p l u s en p l u s
i m p o r t a n t . D'abord i l f a u t s o u l i g n e r l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n i n e x o r a b l e des
puissances n e r g t i q u e s d i s t r i b u e s dans l e s b t i m e n t s ( l e c t r i c i t , g a z , . . . )
et e n s u i t e la c o m p l e x i t (et donc la f r a g i l i t correspondante) des rseaux
a r a u l i q u e s ( c h a u f f a g e , c l i m a t i s a t i o n , conditionnement d ' a i r , v e n t i l a t i o n
mcanique c o n t r l e , dsenfumage...) et des rseaux de s c u r i t eux-mmes.
En o u t r e l e r i s q u e n ' e s t pas mince en v o u l a n t a m l i o r e r des systmes de
s c u r i t i n c e n d i e , d ' i n t g r e r des t e c h n o l o g i e s n o u v e l l e s issues d ' h o r i z o n s
i n d u s t r i e l s v a r i s en o u b l i a n t l ' e s p r i t de s c u r i t o r i g i n e l qui a v a i t
prsid la c o n c e p t i o n des systmes a c t u e l l e m e n t en s e r v i c e (systme de
d t e c t i o n automatique d ' i n c e n d i e c e n t r a l i s e , m u l t i p l e x e , quipements
informatiss...).
Dans l e domaine de l ' u r b a n i s m e nous demandons aux concepteurs de b i e n
v o u l o i r p r v o i r , d'une p a r t , l ' a c c s des engins des s e r v i c e s d ' i n c e n d i e
et de secours dans l e cas des immeubles s i t u s sur des d a l l e s , d ' a u t r e
p a r t , des rseaux h y d r a u l i q u e s s u f f i s a n t s l o r s de l'amnagement de v i l l e s
n o u v e l l e s ou l o r s de l a r n o v a t i o n complte de q u a r t i e r s u r b a i n s . En
o u t r e dans le cas de zones " p i t o n n e s " i l f a u t galement penser l ' a c c s
des v h i c u l e s de sapeurs-pompiers.
Au p l a n des t e x t e s i l f a u t absolument s o u l i g n e r la d i f f i c u l t de
c o n c e p t i o n et d ' l a b o r a t i o n des r g l e s de s c u r i t , d'une p a r t , en
langage c l a i r et f a c i l e m e n t comprhensible, d ' a u t r e p a r t , cause de l a
r a p i d i t d ' i n v e n t i o n e t d ' a p p a r i t i o n sur le march des t e c h n o l o g i e s et
p r o d u i t s nouveaux. Par a i l l e u r s f a u t - i l se d i r i g e r v e r s des o b l i g a t i o n s
d ' o b j e c t i f s ou des o b l i g a t i o n s de moyens? E n f i n l a d i f f i c u l t d ' a p p l i c a -
t i o n des t e x t e s est accrue par l ' i n s u f f i s a n c e numrique des o f f i c i e r s et
i n g n i e u r s p r v e n t i o n n i s t e s en dehors des grandes v i l l e s .
Mais au c e n t r e de la c o n s t r u c t i o n i l y a a u s s i et s u r t o u t l'homme,
non p l u s en t a n t que concepteur ou r g l e m e n t e u r , mais en t a n t q u ' u t i l i s a -
t e u r , e x p l o i t a n t et p a r f o i s . , v i c t i m e . Au p l a n i n d i v i d u e l l'homme de nos
s c o i t s europennes " s u r s c u r i s " n ' e s t plus h a b i t u comme ses a n c t r e s
aux s i t u a t i o n s h o s t i l e s , a g r e s s i v e s , provoques par l'environnement et les
f l a u x c a l a m i t e u x . Au p l a n c o l l e c t i f l e comportement e r r a t i q u e et i r r a t i o n n e l
de quelques personnes peut provoquer ou r e n f o r c e r des phnomnes de panique
dans les f o u l e s i m p o r t a n t e s qui f r q u e n t e n t les grands immeubles modernes.
Nos soucis sont souvent accrus galement par la n g l i g e n c e (ou l ' i n c o n s c i e n c e ? )
des personnes charges de l a s c u r i t e t de la maintenance t e c h n i q u e
i n t e r n e s aux b t i m e n t s , s u r t o u t dans l e c o n t e x t e a c t u e l de l a c r i s e ou
l ' o n a tendance f a i r e des conomies "sur le dos de la s c u r i t " .
E n f i n les r i s q u e s p o u r r o n t galement t r e majors par s u i t e d'une
e x p l o i t a t i o n imprudente i g n o r a n t , sciemment ou non, les c o n t r a i n t e s l i e s
la permanence d ' u n niveau de s c u r i t r a i s o n n a b l e (changement d ' a c t i v i t s ,
stockages i n t e m p e s t i f s dans l e s c i r c u l a t i o n s , issues fermes c l ,
s i g n a l i s a t i o n masques, p o r t e s coupe-feu bloques en p o s i t i o n d ' o u v e r t u r e ,
degradations des quipements techniques y compris ceux de s c u r i t . . . ) .
Les i n q u i t u d e s des sapeurs-pompiers p r v e n t i o n n i s t e s sont donc
r e e l l e s et fondees. Leurs soucis dbouchent sur des besoins s a t i s f a i r e
qui p o u r r o n t t r e formuls dans l ' a t e l i e r N A p a r t i r des c o n s i d r a t i o n s
 546

ci-dessus.
IL f a u t a c c r o t r e nos connaissances s c i e n t i f i q u e s et e x p r i m e n t a l e s
sur Le comportement des s t r u c t u r e s , des fumes et des occupants Lors
d ' i n c e n d i e s i n t r e s s a n t de grands volumes. Au p l a n i n d u s t r i e l i l f a u t
essayer de m e t t r e au p o i n t des p r o d u i t s moins fumignes et moins t o x i q u e s
accepts par t o u s . I l f a u t absolument dvelopper la s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n , l ' i n f o r -
m a t i o n , et l ' d u c a t i o n du grand p u b l i c , des concepteurs et des responsables
d ' t a b l i s s e m e n t s en m a t i r e de s c u r i t i n c e n d i e , chacun en ce q u i les
concerne. Tous nous devons u n i r nos e f f o r t s pour d f i n i r un niveau de
s c u r i t r a i s o n n a b l e et raisonn pour chaque t y p e de btiment s i p o s s i b l e .
La f u t u r e recommandation de la C.E.E. r e l a t i v e la mise en s c u r i t
c o n t r e les r i s q u e s d ' i n c e n d i e dans les h t e l s e x i s t a n t s est un premier
pas. I l f a u t c o n t i n u e r dans la v o i e de l ' h a r m o n i s a t i o n malgr t o u t e s les
d i f f i c u l t s et v i t e r de g a s p i l l e r nos ressources en e f f e c t u a n t c o n t i n u e l l e -
ment dans chaque pays les essais et recherches d j r a l i s s dans un
a u t r e t a t membre de l a communaut.
 547

LE COOT DE L'INCENDIE

Ph. DE MOULINS-BEAUFOKT
Dlgu Gnral du Centre National de Prvention
et de Protection

INTRODUCTION

L'incendie est une calamit dont le cot est non seulement support
par celui qui en est la victime mais galement par la collectivit la-
quelle il appartient. Qu'il survienne ou non, il oote. Il cote par les
pertes qu'il occasionne, il cote par les moyens de prvention et de se-
cours qu'il ncessite, et ceci tous les niveaux : individu, collectivit
locale, nation.

COOT GLOBAL DE L'INCENDIE

Depuis l'tude faite par T. Wilmot pour le Centre Mondial de Statis-

tiques Incendie, il est d'usage en matire d'apprciation du cot des in-
cendies de considrer les sept critres suivants :
- cots directs
- cots indirects
- pertes humaines
- cot de l'assurance
- cot des secours
- cot de la prvention dans le btiment
- cot de la recherche et de l'information
Le rapport prcdermient cit faisait ressortir, pour la priode 1970/
1975, dans douze pays europens, un cot global de l'incendie approxima-
tivement gal 1 % du produit intrieur brut. Ce cot se dcoupe de la
faon suivante :
- cots directs 30 %
- protection des btiments 30 %
- pompiers 15 %
- assuran 15 %
- cots indirects 5%
- pertes humaines 5 %

100 % du cot global

Il est remarquer que le cot de la recherche et de l'information n'a
pas t estim en raison de son faible montant gnral.

- Cot des pertes

Dans ce chapitre, nous tudierons d'abord le cot des pertes tel qu'il
est calcul par les assurances, c'est--dire, risques directs plus risques
indirects couverts par les contrats pertes d'exploitation. Environ seule-
ment 6,5 % des entreprises industrielles tant assures en "Perte d'exploi-
tation" et ceci reprsentant environ 17 % des primes en risques industriels.
 548

nous ne pourrons pas en dduire le cot exact des risques indirects, nous
prendrons donc comme base de calcul le % donn par l'tude T. Wilmot soit
le quart des cots directs.
Le cot de l'assurance est reprsent par le montant des primes payes
par les assurs aux assureurs diminu des remboursements effectus.

- CoQt des secours

Le cot des secours est pratiquement impossible dterminer avec
prcision car il englobe :
- le cot des secours la charge de la collectivit :
. quipement, entretien et fonctionnement des corps de sapeurs
pompiers, dont seulement 10 % des interventions sont consa-
crs la lutte contre l'incendie.
. installation et entretien des rseaux d'eau, poteaux in-
cendie,
et qui sont rpercuts sur l'ensanble de la population au moyen de
l'impt.
- le cot des quipes de secours propres aux entreprises industrielles
et ccmnerciales.
En principe ce chiffre ne doit pas voluer de faon notable, les frais
tant fixes et sa variation dpendant plutt de la situation conomique
gnrale (inflation) que de l'volution de l'incendie.

COUT DE LA PREVENTION

La prvention procde de la sensibilisation des individus aux risques

d'incendie, entre autres par la formation, de l'adoption de dispositions
construct!ves adquates dans l'dification des btiments, quelle que soit
leur destination, et de l'installation de certains quipements de dtec-
tion et d'extinction automatique.
L'estimation des mesures constructives, est difficile car leur cot
dpend de nombreux facteurs :
- degr de protection recherch, selon la destination des btiments :
habitation, industrie, lieux publics, etc...
- stade de leur intgration : avant ou aprs la conception ou la cons-
truction.
Le CNPP titre d'exemple a procd il y a quelques annes une tude
de l'incidence de ce dernier critre sur un centre commercial, le rsultat
en a t de 9 18 % de plus-value sur le montant de 1'investissement selon
que la scurit a t intgre la conception ou aprs construction.
Toutefois, la prvention en gnral ne peut pas uniquement tre appr-
cie par rapport aux investissements, nous adopterons donc cette fois enco-
re le ratio prsent dans le rapport du Centre Mondial des Statistiques
Incendie, 30 % du cot global, soit environ 0,08 % du cot global.
A noter qu'en ce qui concerne la prvention des risques industriels,
les investissements, se traduisent par des rabais de primes mais aucune
diminution terme mme n'apparat dans le nombre ou le cot des sinistres.
Il semblerait que la variation du cot des sinistres dpende plus des
conditions conomiques que de la prvention et ceci pour toutes les cat-
gories : particuliers, entreprises, agriculture. En priode de crise tout
le monde oublierait-il la prudence ?
 549

ODNCLUSION

L'ide que nous allons dvelopper est que, d'une manire gnrale,
le cot de la scurit rapport au P.I.B. prsente des valeurs que les
pays industrialiss peuvent supporter. Par contre, les consquences des
sinistres qui se traduisent par des arrts de production et par l'aug-
mentation du chmage et qui reprsentent les vrais cots indirects ne
pourront jamais tre rellement approches et c'est pourtant ce qu'il y
a de plus important.
La complexit de l'approche du cot de la prvention fait qu'il
serait vain et faux, mme dangereux, de prciser un cot approximatif
ou moyen alors que le cot ne peut vraiment tre apprci qu'aprs une
tude cas par cas.
 550

COUTS, BENEFICES ET ANALYSE DU RISQUE D'INCENDIE

A. GRABER, Bureau VERITAS, Levallois-Perret

Cet e x p o s a pour a m b i t i o n de d r e s s e r un t a b l e a u s y n t h t i q u e d e s b u t s
e t d e s mthodes de l a p r v e n t i o n i n c e n d i e dans l e s c o n s t r u c t i o n s i m -
mobilires

1. D'abord l e rappel des consquences nfastes des incendies.

2. Ensuite l e rsum des moyens de prvention et de protection

habituellement prconiss.

3. Et e n f i n une r f l e x i o n c o n c e r n a n t l e c o t de l a p r v e n t i o n , e t
l e s moyens d e m i n i m i s e r c e coQt, g r c e d e s mthodes d ' i n v e s t i -
g a t i o n e t d ' v a l u a t i o n des r i s q u e s .

CONSEQUENCES DBS INCENDIES

L ' i n c e n d i e f a i t p a r t i e d e s grands f l a u x n a t u r e l s dont l e s c o n s q u e n -

c e s o n t t r e d o u t e s de t o u s t e m p s .
La c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a b i t u e l l e c o n s i s t e s p a r e r l e s c o n s q u e n c e s s u r
l e s personnes et c e l l e s sur l e s b i e n s .

1. On peut distinguer en premier l i e u l ' i n c i d e n c e sur la sant et la v i e

des hommes. Les incendies peuvent produire des brlures et des i n t o x i c a -
t i o n s dont l e s consquence sont souvent mortelles. A cet gard, des s t a -
t i s t i q u e s peuvent tre c i t e s , montrant que l a frquence des dcs cons-
c u t i f s aux incendies ne peut pas t r e n g l i g e .
On doit galement considrer l e s prolongements a f f e c t i f s et s o c i o l o -
giques, et plus particulirement l e sentiment d ' i n s c u r i t , ou l e besoin
de scurisation des individus.

2. En second l i e u , on doit s ' i n t r e s s e r la perte des biens matriels.

Elle peut r s u l t e r , s o i t de l a combustion, s o i t de phnomnes de
corrosion ou de mise hors d'usage l i s au feu.
Cette perte peut thoriquement s'exprimer en valeur d'argent. Toutefois,
c e t t e valeur e s t d i f f i c i l e a valuer car, l a valeur vnale doit s ' a j o u -
t e r l'ensemble des cots et des pertes indirectes n c e s s i t s par l a remi-
se en t a t du bien et par l e temps n c e s s i t pour y parvenir.
Dans certains cas d'quipements i n d u s t r i e l s , l a remise en t a t ne
sera pas souhaitable.
 551

3. Enfin l ' i n c e n d i e peut i n i t i e r des phnomnes ayant des consquences

sur l'environnement : incendie dans une c e n t r a l e atomique par exemple.

MOYENS DE PREVENTION DES INCENDIES

Le moyen l e plus ancien pour prvenir l e s consquences de l ' i n c e n -

d i e e s t probablement l a f u i t e .
Ce moyen e s t toujours u t i l i s , e t l ' a r c h i t e c t e d o i t concevoir l e s
moyens d ' v a c u a t i o n e t l e u r p r o t e c t i o n , notamment dans l e s immeubles de
grande s u p e r f i c i e ou de grande h a u t e u r .
Un a u t r e moyen presque a u s s i ancien c o n s i s t e prvoir l ' i n t e r v e n -
t i o n de secours e x t r i e u r s e t l ' a r r o s a g e des p a r t i e s s i n i s t r e s . Nous
avons toujours l e s s e r v i c e s de Sapeurs Pompiers e t l e s quipes d ' i n t e r -
v e n t i o n dans l e s u s i n e s e t l e s l i e u x p u b l i c s . On d i s t i n g u e gnralement
l a prvention p a s s i v e , l i e l a c o n s t r u c t i o n e t l a prvention a c t i v e ,
qui comprend l e s moyens de s e c o u r s . La prvention p a s s i v e , dont l ' i n -
fluence ne d o i t pas tre n g l i g e s ' a p p l i q u e aux matriaux de c o n s t r u c -
t i o n qui doivent former un barrage au feu e t S t r e peu inflammables ou
combustibles. Les quipements techniques qui peuvent m e t t r e en j e u des
nergies importantes ( l e c t r i c i t , f i o u l e t c ) doivent t r e conus e t
i n s t a l l s selon des mthodes permettant d ' v i t e r l e s i n c e n d i e s . La p r -
vention a c t i v e comprend tous l e s moyens d ' e x t i n c t i o n , automatiques ou
non, auxquels s ' a j o u t e n t des moyens plus labors f a i s a n t appel l a
s u r v e i l l a n c e l e c t r o n i q u e : d t e c t i o n , alarme, a l e r t e .

COUT DE LA PREVENTION

Bien entendu, l e s mesures de prvention sont coteuse, t a n t au n i -

veau des tudes qu'au niveau des r a l i s a t i o n s e t galement de l a main-
tenance. T o u t e f o i s , l ' a r s e n a l des mesures de prvention que l a t e c h n i -
que a mis n o t r e d i s p o s i t i o n permet d ' e f f e c t u e r des choix dont l e s
cots a u s s i b i e n que l ' e f f i c a c i t sont v a r i a b l e s . Une tude correctement
effectue d o i t permettre de minimiser l e s cots pour chaque a p p l i c a t i o n .
Bien que l e s mthodes d ' t u d e s o i e n t encore actuellement au s t a d e empi-
r i q u e , nous e s s a i e r o n s d ' e n a n a l y s e r l e s principaux lments de faon
t h o r i q u e . C e t t e analyse sera dcompose en t r o i s p a r t i e s :
I. D f i n i t i o n du niveau de p r o t e c t i o n s o u h a i t
I I . Evaluation du niveau de p r o t e c t i o n a s s u r par l e s moyens r e t e n u s
compte tenu de l a maintenance, des p o s s i b i l i t s d ' i n t e r v e n t i o n e t c
I I I . Evaluation des cots

I . DEFINITION DU NIVEAU DE PROTECTION SOUHAITE

La s c u r i t absolue n ' e x i s t a n t pas, i l e s t n c e s s a i r e de d f i n i r

un niveau de s c u r i t . Les approches s e r o n t d i f f r e n t e s selon q u ' i l s ' a -
g i t de l a s c u r i t des biens ou de l a s c u r i t des personnes. S ' a g i s s a n t
de l a s c u r i t des b i e n s , l ' o b j e c t i f peut s e rsumer une o p t i m i s a t i o n
conomique qui conduit minimiser l a somme de deux cots : c e l u i de l a
prvention e t c e l u i des p e r t e s par l ' i n c e n d i e . On d o i t e n t r e a u t r e f a i r e
i n t e r v e n i r l e montant des primes de l ' a s s u r a n c e i n c e n d i e . S ' a g i s s a n t de
l a s c u r i t des personnes, une approche purement m a t r i a l i s t e n ' e s t pas
p o s s i b l e . L'exigence de s c u r i t contre l ' i n c e n d i e dans l e s c o n s t r u c t i o n s
immobilires ( h a b i t a t i o n s ou ERF), t e l l e que r e s s e n t i e dans n o t r e s o c i t
e s t t r s leve : r i e n ne peut 8 t r e nglig pour sauver des v i e s humaines.
 552

Pratiquement, le niveau de scurit requis pour la sauvegarde des person-

nes est dfini par les textes lglementaires.
Des tudes r c e n t e s permettent d ' e n v i s a g e r une mthode d ' v a l u a t i o n
c h i f f r e du niveau de s c u r i t . Ce niveau s e r a i t d f i n i par l a p r o b a b i l i -
t d'occurrence d ' u n s i n i s t r e de g r a v i t dtermine. Par exemple : proba-
b i l i t de 10 ~9 par an pour l ' o c c u r r e n c e d ' u n dcs dans l ' t a b l i s s e m e n t .

I I . EVALUATION DU HIVEAU DE PROTECTION ASSURE PAR LES MOYENS RETENUS

La mthode gnralement u t i l i s e , de faon plus ou moins e x p l i c i t e

e s t une mthode de s c n a r i o s d ' i n c e n d i e . E l l e c o n s i s t e envisager tous
l e s incendies p o s s i b l e s dans une configuration donne, d ' e n imaginer l ' -
v o l u t i o n e t l e s consquences e t d ' e n dduire l e s mesures de prvention
n c e s s a i r e s . C e t t e mthode e s t taye par l ' o b s e r v a t i o n des incendies
r e l s ou exprimentaux. E l l e repose s u r l e bon sens e t s u r l ' a p p r c i a t i o n
i n t u i t i v e . d u niveau de s c u r i t . Une t e l l e mthode a l e mrite d ' v i t e r
des e r r e u r s g r o s s i r e s comme l ' o m i s s i o n de c e r t a i n s r i s q u e s , non p r o t g s ,
ou b i e n , l a surabondance de p r o t e c t i o n pour d ' a u t r e s r i s q u e s . T o u t e f o i s ,
l e c h i f f r a g e permettant de dterminer un niveau de r i s q u e n ' e s t pas p o s s i -
b l e du f a i t de l a m u l t i p l i c i t des s i t u a t i o n s envisageables, e t de l ' a b -
sence de donnes numriques. Seuls des systmes simples e t bien d f i n i s ,
comme par exemple, un systme de d t e c t i o n incendie i s o l , peuvent a c t u e l -
lement conduire des r s u l t a t s p a r t i e l s c h i f f r s .

III.EVALUATION DES COUTS

Seuls l e s cots d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n qui r s u l t e n t du devis de l ' e n t r e p r i s e

sont facilement a c c e s s i b l e s .
Toutefois, les autres cots ne peuvent pas tre ngligs. Signalons
cet gard :
- l e cot de l'tude d'architecture qui permet de prvoir les disposi-
tions et les matriaux qui rduiront les risques d'incendie,
- l e cot de la maintenance des i n s t a l l a t i o n s ,
- l e cot des quipes de scurit, de leur formation,
- l e cot de l'information en matire d'incendie,
- etc.

CONCLUSIONS

Les techniques de la prvention des incendies sont actuellement bien

dveloppes.
Par contre, les mthodes d'valuation du niveau de protection ainsi
que les mthodes d'optimisation des cots, sont encore au stade eapirique.
Des tentatives de rationalisation ont toutefois t abordes.
Leur dveloppement permettra de t i r e r l e meilleur parti des raoyenc dont
nous disposons
 553

L'IMPORTANCE DE LA SECURITE INCENDIE DANS LA PREVENTION DO FEU

Dr E. BAMERT,
Brand-Verhtungs-Dienst, Zurich

1. Objectif de l a s c u r i t incendie

Un coup d ' o e i l r t r o s p e c t i f sur l e dveloppement des mesures de s c u r i t

incendie pour r d u i r e l'ampleur des s i n i s t r e s permet de mieux comprendre
l e s p o i n t s sur l e s q u e l s p o r t e actuellement l a prvention du feu.

Des s i c l e s d u r a n t , l e feu a dvast l e s maisons de b o i s c o l l e s l e s unes

aux a u t r e s de nos v i l l e s e t v i l l a g e s . I l y a v a i t un r i s q u e c o n s t a n t que
l ' i n c e n d i e se propage une c o n s t r u c t i o n v o i s i n e inflammable.

L'hanme a d apprendre se protger des dangers r s u l t a n t de l a

c o n t i g u t . Dans l e s agglomrations, l e s immeubles d ' h a b i t a t i o n ont t
progressivement quips de murs e x t r i e u r s p a i s , de t o i t u r e s "en dur"
(p. e x . en t u i l e s ) e t de murs coupe-feu sparant l e s btiments c o n t i g u s .
On a a i n s i r u s s i diminuer notablement l ' t e n d u e des foyers d ' i n c e n d i e
en l e s ramenant de l a dimension de q u a r t i e r s e n t i e r s c e l l e d'un s e u l
btiment.

Au dbut du XXe s i c l e , l e bton arm a permis l a c o n s t r u c t i o n d ' u n i t s

compartimentes dont l e s systmes de p l a n c h e r s r s i s t a i e n t au feu. Les
zones d ' i n c e n d i e t a i e n t dsormais l e s t a g e s p r i s isolment e t l e s
d i v e r s e s p i c e s spares l e s unes des a u t r e s par des c l o i s o n s massives.
Le b u t p r i n c i p a l de l a p r v e n t i o n i n c e n d i e d a n s l e b t i m e n t t a i t
a t t e i n t : "Compartimenter" l ' i n c e n d i e pour en empcher l a propagation,
en l i m i t e r l ' a m p l e u r , protger l e s personnes e t l e s biens se trouvant
proximit e t f a c i l i t e r l ' i n t e r v e n t i o n des pompiers l ' i n t r i e u r du
btiment.

Le b o i s , j a d i s r e d o u t en r a i s o n de son infiammabili t , a peu peu t

abandonn dans l a c o n s t r u c t i o n . Ce matriau a t souvent remplac l o
i l ne p r s e n t a i t aucun danger. Cela a f a i t n a t r e d ' a u t r e s r i s q u e s q u i
dpassent de beaucoup ceux de l a c o n s t r u c t i o n en b o i s .

En f a i t , l a s c u r i t incendie s ' e s t dgrade au cours des v i n g t

d e r n i r e s a n n e s , en ce q u i c o n c e r n e d i v e r s t y p e s de c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Les t e c h n i q u e s de c o n s t r u c t i o n m o d e r n e s , l e s e x i g e n c e s de c o n f o r t
e t l e besoin de p r e s t i g e a i n s i que de nouvelles mthodes de
f a b r i c a t i o n e t d ' e n t r e p o s a g e compromettent c e r t a i n s acquis de l a
p r o t e c t i o n des btiments contre l ' i n c e n d i e .

Les problmes sont :

- l a c o n s t r u c t i o n de niveaux en espace o u v e r t , de grandes dimensions

usage de bureaux, d ' a t e l i e r s ou d ' e n t r e p t s ;
 554

- l'emploi de matriaux inflammables - savoir les plastiques -

pour 1'isolation et le revtement ?
- l a prsence de perces dans l e s btiments sous forme d ' o r i f i c e s ,
de puits et de conduites d'alimentation e t d'vacuation, d'espaces
destins des systmes de transport ainsi que de gaines de
climatisation.
I l en cote autant aujourd'hui pour reconstruire un grand
magasin ou un vaste entrept dvast par le feu que pour rdi-
f i e r une v i l l e i l y a cent a n s . Cela se comprend s i l ' o n considre
que les murs d'enceintes qui jadis, dans les v i l l e s , arrtaient
l a progression du feu ont t remplacs, sous l ' a s p e c t des t e c h n i -
ques de protection contre l'incendie, par les parois extrieures
de nos magasins, ateliers ou entrepts modernes en espace
ouvert.
C'est pourquoi, lorsqu'il n'est pas possible de faire autrement,
les objectifs de la protection contre le feu doivent dsormais
tre mis en oeuvre en combinant les nouvelles techniques de
prvention e t les anciennes mesures de protection des btiments
qui peuvent encore tre appliques.

2. Finalits de l a scurit incendie

La finalit des mesures de protection des btiments contre le
feu est essentiellement, suivant le type de construction et la
destination d'un btiment, de crer les conditions necessaires
pour que l ' u n e des deux missions suivantes puisse t r e accomplie :
1) Localisation rapide ou limination du danger et maintien des
objets et des personnes menaces dans un endroit stable et
l ' a b r i des flammes (loigner les personnes et les choses se
trouvant directement proximit des flammes) ou
2) Evacuation rapide des lieux, la s t a b i l i t du btiment ou,
selon le cas, la sret des itinraires de secours devant
tre assure pendant la dure de l'vacuation.
Le premier o b j e c t i f concerne la fois l a p r o t e c t i o n des personnes
et des biens, l ' a u t r e visant presque exclusivement l e sauvetage
des personnes.
Malheureusement, en pratique, le premier objectif est beaucoup
trop souvent nglig. On pense, en premier lieu, se sauver ce
qui est bien comprhensible. Dans les grands btiments, une
evacuation totale est toutefois souvent synonyme de risque impor-
tant (hpitaux, foyers d'accueil, htels, gratte-ciel).

C'est pourquoi jamais l'une ou l'autre de ces interventions ne

doit tre choisie sans que l'on a i t pralablement examin fond
 555

les questions suivantes

- Ccmpte tenu du type de construction et de ce qui s'y tourve, quelle
vitesse l'incendie se propagera-t-il tout l'tage ou, suivant l e cas,
l'ensemble du btiment?
- Combien de temps faut-il pour que les pompiers interviennent?
- Combien de temps f a u t - i l pour une vacuation t o t a l e ou p a r t i e l l e
dans des conditions dfavorables?
- Une vacuation empche-t-elle d'intervenir immdiatement pour
teindre l'incendie?
- Quelle doit tre la s t a b i l i t et la rsistance au feu du btiment?
La version complte de l'expos contient les critres selon lesquels les
diffrents types de constructions doivent tre classs en ce qui
concerne le risque de propagation du feu et l a faon dont le rapport
entre le temps de propagation du feu et le dlai d'intervention des
pompiers influence la conception d'difices "stables et rsistants au
feu".
Ces deux dernires notions - qui ne doivent pas tre confondues
avec l a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n de r s i s t a n c e au feu suivant l e s courbes de
tempratures ISO applicables aux lments de construction - sont ensuite
expliques et dfinies de manire plus d t a i l l e .
 556

L'INCENDIE ET LEUR BILAN ECONOMIQUE

D. BURNS
I n s t i t u t e for I n d u s t r i a l Research and Standards, Dublin, I r l a n d e

Le p r s e n t expos p o r t e sur la p r o t e c t i o n du contenu c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e ,

e t en p a r t i c u l i e r d e s l m e n t s s o u p l e s de l ' a m e u b l e m e n t . I l a b o r d e
galement 1 ' e c l o s i n e t l a propagation de l ' i n c e n d i e , l'embrasement e t l a
dcomposition,_et t u d i e en d t a i l l a p r o t e c t i o n l i m i t e c o n t r e l ' i n c e n -
d i e qui p e u t - t r e apporte ces lments s o u p l e s . Ces lments sont
considrs comme composant un ensemble d e s t i n t r e u t i l i s dans un
t y p e p a r t i c u l i e r de b t i m e n t , e t t u d i s d a n s c e t t e o p t i q u e p l u t t
que sparment.

L ' a u t e u r p r s e n t e une tude mise j o u r des p r o p r i t s ignifuges des

t i s s u s d'ameublement, a l l a n t des f i b r e s e t matriaux t e x t i l e s t r a d i t i o n -
n e l s aux f i b r e s s y n t h t i q u e s p l u s r c e n t e s . L'incidence des mlanges, du
poids e t de l a s t r u c t u r e sur l e s p r o p r i t s de r s i s t a n c e au feu e s t
galement examine. Un grand nombre des f i b r e s examines o n t des p r o p r i -
t s de r s i s t a n c e au feu t r s l i m i t e s e t l ' a u t e u r d c r i t un c e r t a i n
nombre de t r a i t e m e n t s d e s t i n s l e s a m l i o r e r . L ' a u t e u r d c r i t l e s
p r o p r i t s ignifuges du polyurthane e t de l a mousse de l a t e x . I l f a i t
g a l e m e n t m e n t i o n d e s gaz t o x i q u e s d g a g s au c o u r s d ' u n i n c e n d i e .

L'expos recense de manire t r s complte l e s lments souples d'ameuble-

ment u t i l i s s dans l e s btiments : r i d e a u x , t a p i s e t c a r p e t t e s , t e n t u -
r e s , m o b i l i e r rembourr ou t a p i s s , matelas e t a l s e s , l i t e r i e , t a p i s s e -
r i e murale e t " s a c c h i " . I l examine galement l e mode probable d'inflamma-
t i o n des d i f f r e n t s t i s s u s e t mousses, l e r i s q u e d ' i n c e n d i e p a r t i c u l i e r
a s s o c i chacun d'eux e t l e degr de sa c o n t r i b u t i o n v e n t u e l l e l a
propagation de l ' i n c e n d i e .

L ' a u t e u r examine l e s f a c t e u r s dterminant l e choix des lments souples

d'ameublement a y a n t d e s p r o p r i t s de r s i s t a n c e au f e u ; ce c h o i x
r s u l t e gnralement d'un compromis e n t r e l e s besoins de l a s c u r i t e t
l e s f a c t e u r s e s t h t i q u e s e t de c o t . I l passe en revue l e s c o t s des
t i s s u s e t mousses dans c e r t a i n s pays de l a CEE e t t a b l i t un c e r t a i n
nombre de comparaisons, en p a r t i c u l i e r e n t r e l e s t i s s u s analogues dont
c e r t a i n s ont des p r o p r i t s de r s i s t a n c e au feu e t d ' a u t r e s non. Ces
comparaisons sont e n s u i t e tendues d i v e r s lments souples d'ameuble-
ment. I l t a b l i t enfin une comparaison e n t r e des s e c t e u r s bien dtermins
o l a p r o t e c t i o n _du mobilier contre l ' i n c e n d i e e s t t r s probablement
n c e s s a i r e e t p r s e n t e un v e n t a i l de p o s s i b i l i t s considres sous
l ' a n g l e du c o t .

Si l a p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e conduit invitablement une augmenta-

t i o n des c o t s , p a r f o i s au dtriment des q u a l i t s e s t h t i q u e s , l ' a c h e -
t e u r p e u t , en c h o i s i s s a n t soigneusement son ameublement, o b t e n i r une
a m l i o r a t i o n t r s importante de l a p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e sans que
c e l a s'accompagne d'une augmentation indue du p r i x de r e v i e n t .

L ' a u t e u r souligne quel quel que s o i t l e degr d ' a m l i o r a t i o n s u s c e p t i b l e

d ' t r e apport sur l e plan de l a p r o t e c t i o n du contenu c o n t r e l ' i n c e n -
d i e , ces mesures sont secondaires par r a p p o r t aux mesures p r i s e s cet
gard concernant l e btiment lui-mme.
 557

IA DETECTION DU FEU : PREMIER PAS DES MESURES

ACTIVES DE LUTTE CONTRE L'INCENDIE.

F r i e d r i c h HEMME

En d p i t de tous l e s e f f o r t s de p r v e n t i o n , i l y aura toujours des

i n c e n d i e s . En cas de s i n i s t r e , l a d t e c t i o n rapide du feu e s t une c o n d i -
t i o n n c e s s a i r e pour en l i m i t e r l e p l u s p o s s i b l e l e s r a v a g e s . I l e s t
exceptionnel que l a d t e c t i o n se s u f f i s e elle-mme e t e l l e d o i t , en
g n r a l , t r e i n t g r e un systme de p r o t e c t i o n .

Un t e l systme de dfense d o i t o f f r i r une p r o t e c t i o n e f f i c a c e e t adapte

contre l e feu en combinant harmonieusement l e s d i f f r e n t e s t a p e s que
sont l a d t e c t i o n , l ' a l a r m e , l ' v a c u a t i o n e t l a l u t t e contre l e s flanmes.

Les c a r a c t r i s t i q u e s de d i v e r s systmes de p r o t e c t i o n sont voques, eu

gard p l u s p a r t i c u l i r e m e n t au sous-systme " d t e c t i o n " e t l ' o n indique
l e s o b j e c t i f s d'une a c t i o n f u t u r e . J u s q u ' p r s e n t , l a rglementation n ' a
pas entrav l e progrs technique. A l ' a v e n i r , e l l e d e v r a i t promouvoir
l ' v o l u t i o n technique e t a g i r plus efficacement pour que s o i e n t limines
l e s entraves techniques aux changes (rglementations n a t i o n a l e s ) .

Faute de s t a t i s t i q u e s , i l e s t t r s d i f f i c i l e de mesurer avec p r c i s i o n

l ' i m p a c t des mesures de prvention de l ' i n c e n d i e . Tel e s t l e cas p a r t i c u -
lirement pour l e s i n s t a l l a t i o n s de d t e c t i o n du feu. Or, c ' e s t souvent
grce e l l e s que des incendies sont rapidement l o c a l i s s e t t e i n t s
sans que l e p u b l i c l ' a p p r e n n e . Une m e i l l e u r e connaissance du succs de l a
prvention de l ' i n c e n d i e , p o u r r a i t dans c e r t a i n s cas f a i r e pargner
beaucoup d ' a r g e n t l'conomie n a t i o n a l e . Le but de deux travaux du
Building Research Establishment e t d'Euralarm c i t s dans l ' e x p o s e s t de
mieux informer de ce s u j e t .
 558

SYSTEMES AUTOMATIQUES DE LUTTE CONTRE L'INCENDIE: SYSTEMES SPRINKLERS

(SYSTEMES AUTOMATIQUES D'EXTINCTION PAR L'EAU)

R.A. YOUNG
Comit europen des Assurances (CEA)

Les systmes automatiques s p r i n k l e r s sont Le moyen a c t i f de p r o t e c t i o n

c o n t r e L ' i n c e n d i e Le pLus couramment empLoy l ' h e u r e a c t u e l l e . I l s ont
t i n t r o d u i t s simultanment en A n g l e t e r r e e t aux E t a t s - U n i s dans Les
annes 1880. Les c a r a c t r i s t i q u e s de Leur fonctionnement et de l e u r
c o n c e p t i o n ont t m o d i f i e s au cours des cent d e r n i r e s annes, ce q u i
en f a i t prsent un m a t r i e l extrmement e f f i c a c e et s r , d ' u n p r i x
raisonnable.
Bien que L ' e f f i c a c i t de c e t t e mthode de p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e
s o i t reconnue depuis Longtemps, iL a p p a r a t c l a i r e m e n t que dans une gamme
tendue de b i e n s exposs aux r i s q u e s d ' i n c e n d i e une plus Large u t i l i s a t i o n
des systmes s p r i n k l e r s p r s e n t e r a i t des a v a n t a g e s , la f o i s pour la
s c u r i t des v i e s humaines et du p o i n t de vue de La r e n t a b i l i t .
Pour envisager l ' u t i l i s a t i o n et l ' v o l u t i o n f u t u r e s des systmes
s p r i n k l e r s , iL i m p o r t e d'examiner ce dont on dispose en m a t i r e de
s t a t i s t i q u e s et de donnes de f o n c t i o n n e m e n t . Heureusement, les systmes
s p r i n k l e r s u t i l i s s dans Le monde sont de c o n c e p t i o n semblable, t a n t
donn que les codes d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n p u b l i s par Factory Mutual aux E t a t s -
Unis et Le F i r e O f f i c e s ' Committee au Royaume-Uni (dont la q u a s i - t o t a l i t
des codes n a t i o n a u x sont i n s p i r s ) sont eux-mmes de c o n c e p t i o n semblable.
L'quipement u t i l i s dans Les systmes o b i t l u i aussi une c o n c e p t i o n
commune dans l e monde e n t i e r , les c o n s t r u c t e u r s ayant cherch c o n c e v o i r
des d i f f u s e u r s , des soupapes, e t c , s a t i s f a i s a n t aux normes d ' e s s a i des
grands L a b o r a t o i r e s .
Les codes d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n et l'quipement ayant une conception commune
la base, i l e s t p o s s i b l e d ' e x p l o i t e r les r e g i s t r e s de fonctionnement
e x i s t a n t s des s p r i n k l e r s pour d t e r m i n e r l ' e f f i c a c i t et l a f i a b i l i t des
systmes automatiques d ' e x t i n c t i o n dans des locaux d e s t i n s des usages
d i f f r e n t s , et d ' t u d i e r Les avantages de changements de c o n c e p t i o n v i s a n t
a m l i o r e r les r s u l t a t s , ou r d u i r e Les c o t s . Les s t a t i s t i q u e s donnent
galement penser que, dans c e r t a i n s domaines, i l peut t r e avantageux de
r a l i s e r des "compromis" e n t r e l e systme de p r o t e c t i o n par s p r i n k l e r et
les mesures p a s s i v e s de p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e L ' i n c e n d i e .
Bien que l e s s p r i n k l e r s a i e n t depuis longtemps f a i t Leurs preuves
dans la p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e Les i n c e n d i e s , des recherches sont a c t u e l l e m e n t
en cours pour a m l i o r e r La p r o t e c t i o n q u ' i l s a p p o r t e n t t a n t aux i n s t a l l a t i o n s
i n d u s t r i e l l e s qu'aux v i e s humaines. Au cours des t r e n t e d e r n i r e s annes,
des changements c o n s i d r a b l e s sont i n t e r v e n u s dans Les mthodes de stockage
des marchandises et des matriaux e t , avec L ' i n t r o d u c t i o n massive des
p l a s t i q u e s , Les matriaux eux-mmes p r s e n t e n t un r i s q u e d ' i n c e n d i e beaucoup
 559

plus l e v . A i n s i , les F a c t o r y Mutual and U n d e r w r i t e r s L a b o r a t o r i e s aux

E t a t s - U n i s , le F.O.C, et le F i r e Research S t a t i o n (Centre de recherche
sur l ' i n c e n d i e ) au Royaume-Uni, et p l u s rcemment l e Comit europen des
Assurances ont r a l i s d ' i m p o r t a n t s travaux pour m e t t r e au p o i n t un
e x t i n c t e u r automatique assurant une p r o t e c t i o n e f f i c a c e c o n t r e l e s
incendies redoutables.
S ' a g i s s a n t de la s c u r i t des v i e s humaines, des travaux p a r a l l l e s
ont t r a l i s s des deux cts de l ' A t l a n t i q u e , gnralement l ' i n s t i g a -
t i o n des gouvernements. I l s dbouchent a c t u e l l e m e n t sur la conception de
s p r i n k l e r s dclenchement plus r a p i d e et ont des chances d ' a b o u t i r un
usage beaucoup p l u s rpandu des e x t i n c t e u r s automatiques dans les
b t i m e n t s usage non i n d u s t r i e l d ' i c i la f i n du s i e d e .
Depuis cent a n s , les systmes d ' e x t i n c t e u r s automatiques se r v l e n t
extrmement e f f i c a c e s dans l a p r o t e c t i o n des b i e n s et des personnes.
T o u t e f o i s , l e u r u t i l i t r e s t e t r s largement s o u s - e s t i m e , en p a r t i c u l i e r
en Europe. En 1983, quelque 2,2 m i l l i o n s de s p r i n k l e r s ont t i n s t a l l s
en Europe, c o n t r e 12 m i l l i o n s aux E t a t s - U n i s . Comme l ' i d e s'impose que la
p r o t e c t i o n o f f e r t e par les s p r i n k l e r s est p l u s e f f i c a c e , p l u s sre et moins
coteuse que les a u t r e s moyens de p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e , on peut
s ' a t t e n d r e ce que l e u r usage devienne beaucoup p l u s rpandu l ' a v e n i r .
 560

LES SYSTEMES AUTOMATIQUES E LUTTE CONTRE L'INCENCIE

SYSTEMES A AGENTS GAZEUS ET A POUDRE

A.E. DRINKWATER
The Walter Kidde Company Limited
Royaume-Uni
pour l e compte d'Eurofeu

Lorsqu'un c l i e n t achte un systme de p r o t e c t i o n contre l ' i n c e n d i e ,

en a - t - i l pour son a r g e n t , e t l e s dpenses d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n d'un t e l
systme p e r m e t t r o n t - e l l e s d ' v i t e r l e s consquences d s a s t r e u s e s d'un
grave incendie ?

La r e n t a b i l i t des systmes agents gazeux de l u t t e contre l ' i n c e n d i e

e s t i n d n i a b l e . L'argent dpens pour l e s acheter e s t bien employ.
Comment p u i s - j e l e prouver ? Les gens veulent des f a i t s e t des c h i f f r e s ,
c ' e s t l l a d i f f i c u l t . En e f f e t , ces donnes ne sont pas d i s p o n i b l e s en
Europe.

Chaque f a b r i c a n t de systmes de p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l e s incendies

t i e n t un r e g i s t r e des r s u l t a t s de s e s systmes dans l a p r a t i q u e . Par
exemple, deux des principaux f a b r i c a n t s de Halon 1301 p u b l i e n t r g u l i r e -
ment des d t a i l s des succs remports dans l ' e x t i n c t i o n d ' i n c e n d i e s par
des systmes u t i l i s a n t l e Halon 1301. A mon a v i s , ces f a b r i c a n t s se
f e r a i e n t srement un p l a i s i r d'envoyer l e u r s p u b l i c a t i o n s aux organismes
qui s e r a i e n t i n t r e s s s .

Par ce seul c a n a l , nous savons que, s u r une courte p r i o d e , p l u s de

100 incendies qui a u r a i e n t pu devenir graves o n t t d t e c t s e t t e i n t s
avec s u c c s .

La s o c i t qui m'emploie dispose d'une masse importante de r e n s e i -

gnements de ce t y p e . Depuis l e 1er j a n v i e r 1982, nous avons eu c o n n a i s -
sance de 70 incendies proprement d i t s qui ont t t e i n t s automatiquement
par des systmes u t i l i s a n t du 002, du Halon ou des poudres.

Nous ne connaissons pas l a v a l e u r comptable, d i r e c t e ou i n d i r e c t e ,

des "biens" sauvs par ces systmes. On peut seulement penser q u ' e l l e
d o i t r e p r s e n t e r p l u s i e u r s d i z a i n e s de m i l l i o n s de l i v r e s , notamment s i
l ' o n i n c l u t l a v a l e u r des biens s i t u s dans l e voisinage e t exposs aux
r i s q u e s p a r t i c u l i e r s en q u e s t i o n . Ces b i e n s a u r a i e n t eux-mmes couru de
bien grands r i s q u e s s i des systmes n ' a v a i e n t pas t i n s t a l l s e t , ce
qui e s t p l u s important, s i l e u r fonctionnement n ' a v a i t pas t a u s s i
efficace.

D'aprs une tude d t a i l l e r a l i s e aux E t a t s - U n i s , 60 % des

e n t r e p r i s e s dont l e s a c t i v i t s ont t p e r t u r b e s de faon importante
l a s u i t e d ' u n incendie ont d fermer l e u r s p o r t e s dans l e s q u a t r e
annes s u i v a n t l e s i n i s t r e .
 561

Ce n'est pas la chance qui permet d'viter une t e l l e issue. I l

s'agit de faire preuve de clairvoyance en reconnaissant un risque d ' i n -
cendie, et de bon sens en essayant de se prmunir.
Depuis 1918, des centaines de milliers de systmes agents gazeux
ont t installs et constanment amliors pour atteindre le maximum
d'efficacit q u ' i l s possdent aujourd'hui.
Quelle est la raison de leur succs grandissant ? Indubitablement,
i l s'explique, entre autres, par leur capacit ragir automatiquement
et rapidement en prsence d'un dbut d'incendie et l'teindre avant que
le feu a i t pu prendre vigueur et provoquer des dgts. Dans les cas
d'incendies graves, l o les pertes financires sont l e s plus grandes,
i l est clairement dmontr qu'on aurait pu viter l'ventualit d'une
destruction complte en intervenant efficacement dans les 60 premires
secondes, au stade de 1'eclosin. Les premires minutes d'un incendie
dans une usine sont cruciales. Si, des milliers d'incendies clatent
rgulirement, c'est cependant la faible proportion de grands incendies
qui est respon sable des plus gros dgts.
C'est le plus souvent l e retard intervenant avant la dcouverte de
l'incendie qui explique qu'un feu d un risque particulier dgnre
en un vaste brasier constituant un risque majeur.
Il est essentiel que la dtection soit rapide et efficace, afin de
garantir que les incendies soient dcouverts temps, pour sauver des
vies humaines et limiter les pertes quelques centaines au lieu de
quelques millions de l i v r e s .
On a mis au point des systmes agents qazeux et a poudre pour
risques particuliers, qui sont associs des dtecteurs a action rapide.
Quels sont les autres avantages des systmes agents gazeux ?
L'action extinctrice du C02 et du Halon tant tridimensionnelle,
ceux-ci pntrent dans les fissures et les recoins cachs que l'eau et la
mousse ne peuvent atteindre.
Comme ce sont des agents propres, i l n'y a pas de dbris dblayer
et l ' a r r t de la production est considrablement rduit.
Ils ne sont pas conducteurs d ' l e c t r i c i t et peuvent donc tre
u t i l i s s en toute scurit sur des appareils lectriques sous tension.
Le Halon 1301 est sans danger pour les personnes la concentration
voulue pour teindre un incendie.
Le 002 n'est pas cher.
1\3us deux ne dtriorent pas les matriaux q u ' i l s protgent.
Connaissant ces caractristiques, on peut former un jugement de
valeur pour aider choisir le systme le plus rentable dans des circons-
tances donnes. Par exenrole :
 562

Scurit : pour protqer un local normalement occupe par des personnes,

mieux vaut choisir le Halon 13U1.
Risques persistants : pour teindre des incendies o l'on a affaire
de grandes quantits de matriaux de la catgorie A , et o l'on doit
maintenir une certaine concentration du produit extincteur sur de
longues priodes, mieux vaut choisir le C02.
Contraintes de poids et d'espace : mieux vaut choisir le Halon 1301
ou 1211.
Proprits de refroidissement : si l'action de refroidissement
constitue un avantage, par exemple dans l'incendie d'un four, u t i l i s e r du
C02. S'il faut viter un refroidissement rapide, u t i l i s e r du Halon.
Rechargement frquent : si les incendies sont frquents et que l'on
veut limiter les frais de rechargement, u t i l i s e r du C02.
Rduction de la flamme : s ' i l importe de rduire rapidement l a
flamme et si l'on peut tolerer des dlais de dblaiement, u t i l i s e r
une poudre.
Dfaut d'isolation : s i les locaux comportent des ouvertures ne
pouvant tre fermes, mieux vaut u t i l i s e r le C02 ou une poudre.
Utilisation localise : pour une protection localise entre des
risques non delimites, mieux vaut u t i l i s e r le C02.
Cette l i s t e n'apporte de rponses qu' des problmes simples. Les
cas de figure possibles sont fort nombreux e t souvent trs complexes.
Aucun de ces systmes 'est en concurrence avec les autres, q u ' i l
s'agisse d'un systme automatique d'extinction a eau (sprinkler),
mousse, Halon ou C02, ou encore a poudre. I l existe un agent appropri
pour chaque u t i l i s a t i o n , mais i l est important de faire le bon choix.
Enfin, je voudrais aborder le sujet extrmement important des
normes, et de leurs effets sur le cot des systmes agents gazeux.
I l est impratif que les pays europens aient des normes communes,
notamment :
des normes de conception des systmes,
des nonnes de qualit de fonctionnement et de fabrication des
quipements,
des normes d'essais d'agrment,
des normes d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n , de contrle et d'entretien des systmes.
Dans le domaine de l a protection contre l'incendie, l'harmonisation
des normes, q u ' i l s'agisse de normes europennes ou internationales,
prend trop de temps. D'une faon ou d'une autre, on doit harmoniser les
positions et les rglementations sur lesquelles campent les Etats cour
former un ensemble acceptable de normes.
 563

LUTTE CONTRE LE FEU PAR LES OCCUPANTS

H. ARESU DE SEUI
Directeur de L'ANPI
(ASSOCIATION NATIONALE POUR LA PROTECTION CONTRE L'INCENDIE)

La Lutte contre Le feu est une Lutte contre Le temps.

L'occupant d'un immeubLe, du fait qu'iL est prsent sur Les Lieux et
qu'iL est sens Les connatre mieux que quiconque, a un rLe actif
jouer ds qu'iL est Le tmoin des premires manifestations du feu. A
ce moment, iL ne peut pas innover. IL doit connatre Les gestes
faire et ceux viter. Son action immdiate doit tendre, entre
autres, faciLiter L'intervention des services d'incendie qu'iL aura
immdiatement appeLs.
La sensibiLisation de L'occupant et, parfois, sa formation, constitue
une activit non negLigeabLe de La pLupart des associations nationaLes
pour La protection contre L'incendie groupes au sein du "CFPA (Europe)",
un des organisateurs de ce congrs.
 564

LE SAUVETAGE DES PERSONNES PRISONNIERES D'UN INCENDIE

H.L. MALHOTRA, B.Sc(Eng), M.I.C.E., F.I. Fire E.

Conseiller en matire de protection contre
l'incendie des structures

Le Problme
L exposition des habitants au risque d'incendie dans les
immeubles est un problme commun tous les pays membres de la CEE.
Ces incendies entranent parfois des accidents mortels, et il
arrive que le nombre des pertes soit si lev que le public rclame
corps et cris que des mesures supplmentaires de scurit et de
protection soient prises contre le risque d'incendie. Au cours des
quinze dernires annes, le nombre de ces tragdies a t tel qu'il
a fallu adopter une nouvelle lgislation ou modifier les rglements
en vigueur pour obtenir les garanties ncessaires. A la suite de
l'incendie de deux htels, l'un Bruxelles, l'autre Amsterdam en
1977, des questions ont t poses au Parlement europen et la Commi-
ssion a t invite tudier la scurit au feu des htels existants;
au dbut de l'anne un projet de recommandation dcrivant les normes
de scurit appliques aux htels dans la Communaut a t tabli
pour tre prsent au Conseil de ministres.
Un examen des statistiques publies par la NFPA pour 1979
montre que dans les pays de la Communaut pour lesquels l'information
a pu tre obtenue, en 1979/80 on a recens 279 500 incendies dans 6
des pays, soit un incendie toutes les 2 minutes. Le nombre des dcs
a t de 2 402, soit un toutes les quatres heures. La plupart des
incendies et des pertes auraient pu tre vits.

Approche de la scurit au feu

La plupart des pays europens disposent de rglements en matire
de scurit contre l'incendie. La scurit est considre comme un
lment important dans tous ces rglements, et c'est parfois, la
seule base sur laquelle ils s'appuient. En gnral, les rglements
prvoient la mise disposition de moyens appropris pour le sauvetage
des occupants, le contrle des matriaux utiliss pour constituer
les surfaces exposes, la rsistance au feu des lments de btiment
et la sparation des btiments les uns des autres. Les dispositions
prises en matire de secours partent de la notion que les occupants
d'un btiment doivent tre capables de se rendre dans un endroit sr
en cas d'incendie. Par cela l'on entend souvent qu'ils doivent le
faire "par leurs propres moyens", c..d. Sans l'assistance des services
de secours et l'on considre que l'abri dont il est question est
situ l'extrieur du btiment. Parfois les autorits tiennent dment
compte de la disponibilit de services d'incendie offrant des moyens
de secours autres ou accessoires et, dans certains cas, l'endroit
sr peut tre une partie protge du btiment.
Les tudes portant sur les incendies ont montr que, lorsque des
personnes n'ont pu chapper un incendie, cela s'explique pour l'une
ou plusieurs des raisons suivantes:
 565

a) elles ont tard se rendre compte qu'il y avait un incendie,

b) les voies de secours taient obstrues par la fume,
c) elles ne connaissaient pas d'autres voies de secours,
d) les voies de secours taient inadquates pour des raisons de
nombre, de dimensions ou de conception,
e) les sorties taient obstrues ou masques.

Conception des moyens de sauvetage

La conception des itinraires de secours s'articule normalement
autour des lments suivants :
a) Planification des itinraires nombre, emplacement, distances
parcourir, largeur, sorties, corridors, couloirs, escaliers,
abris;
b) Protection des itinraires lutte contre la fume, rsistance
l'incendie, sprinklers (?)
c) Choix des itinraires indications, directions, clairage
d) Alerte au feu systmes de dtection et d'alarme.
Pour l'heure, on 'observe aucune cohrence dans l'ventail des
divers lments utiliss par les autorits des diffrents pays, les
dispositions prcises prendre pouvant mme varier d'un organisme
l'autre dans un mme pays. La publication de la Commission sur les
htels montre clairement quelques unes d'entre elles. La principale
raison de ces diffrences se situe peuttre au niveau de l'labora
tion fragmentaire de divers "rglements" dans diffrents pays la
suite de tragdies dues au feu. Les organismes responsables de la
scurit incendie ont depuis peu envisag de rationaliser les
dispositions en la matire, mais jusqu'ici aucun systme complet
n'est disponible.
Tout systme rationnel doit prendre en considration les risques
inhrents aux diffrents types d'occupations sur la base des facteurs
humains, du type de risque d'incendie, de la taille, de la hauteur
et de la complexit de l'immeuble ainsi que du rle probable des
pompiers. Certains immeubles peuvent tre vacus rapidement, mais
dans d'autres l'vacuation prend tellement de temps qu'il n'est pas
possible de procder rapidement une vacuation totale, et que cette
dernire n'est peuttre mme pas ncessaire. Dans certains
immeubles, les occupants connaissent la disposition des lieux, dans
d'autres, les dparts et les rentres se succdent, certains
rsidents sont valides alors que d'autres seraient incapables de
s'chapper sans aide. La prise en compte systmatique de facteurs si
diffrents exige la mise au point de modles d'itinraires de secours
dans lesquels des lments quantifiables peuvent tre introduits.
Un certain nombre d'tudes ont t entreprises dans diffrents
instituts et des modles sont l'tude. Certains traitent des
problmes poss par la configuration d'coulement de la circulation
dans les couloirs et les escaliers, d'autres portent sur l'closion
et la croissance de l'incendie, la diffusion de la fume dans les
diffrentes parties d'un btiment et l'efficacit des mthodes de lutte
contre la fume.
L'une des approches les plus utiles consiste considrer les
problmes de sauvetage en relation avec le temps; plus prcisment,
le temps ncessaire pour que les occupants se rendent jusqu' un en
droit sr, situ l'intrieur ou l'extrieur de l'immeuble, ne
doit pas tre suprieur au temps ncessaire pourque les conditions
deviennent insoutenable pour les occupants. Le temps dont ils dis
posent dpend du rythme de dveloppement de l'incendie, du taux de
 566

production de fume et de l'efficacit des mesures de lutte contre

la fume. Le temps ncessaire dpendra des facteurs humains et de la
conception des itinraires de secours. Tous deux peuvent tre
quantifis et cela devrait conduire la conception de moyens de
sauvetage meilleurs et fiables, ce qui devrait entraner une dimi-
nution sensible des pertes de vies humaines lors d'incendies.
 567

SAUVEGARDE LORS DE L'INTERVENTION

G. KARRAN, FIFIreE
Chief F i r e O f f i c e r , West Yorkshire F i r e S e r v i c e , UK

L ' a u t e u r se propose de dmontrer que, pour l i m i t e r au maximum'les dgts

c a u s s p a r l e s i n c e n d i e s dans l e s b t i m e n t s , i l f a u t a v o i r un p l a n
d ' a c t i o n bien d f i n i comprenant t r o i s grandes tapes :

1re tape - Mesures prendre par l ' o c c u p a n t du btiment dans l e cadre

de l a p l a n i f i c a t i o n des secours en cas d ' i n c e n d i e

2me tape - Mesures prendre par l e s sapeurs-pompiers l e u r a r r i v e e t

pendant l e s o p r a t i o n s de l u t t e c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e

3me tape - Mesures prendre conjointement aprs l ' i n c e n d i e par l e s

sapeurs-pompiers e t l ' o c c u p a n t du btiment

1re tape : l ' o n s ' e f f o r c e de dmontrer q u ' e n observant des p r c a u t i o n s

simples mais r a i s o n n a b l e s c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e au niveau de l ' e n t r e p o s a g e
des marchandises e t des matires premires, de l a r p a r t i t i o n des marchan-
d i s e s entreposes dans l e btiment e t des mthodes de manipulation, l e s
dgts s e r o n t r d u i t s en cas d ' i n c e n d i e . En o u t r e , l ' a c c e n t e s t mis sur
c e r t a i n e s transformations fondamentales du btiment qui f a c i l i t e r o n t l a
mise en oeuvre de l a deuxime t a p e .

2me tape : l ' o n dmontre que pour r u s s i r l e u r t c h e , l e s sapeurs-pompiers

doivent commencer l e s o p r a t i o n s de sauvegarde ds l e u r l ' a r r i v e , en
r e s p e c t a n t un plan bien d f i n i , en u t i l i s a n t l e minimum de m a t r i e l
simple, car des tudes ont montr que s i des mesures appropries ne sont
pas p r i s e s t r s v i t e , l e s mesures de sauvegarde p r i s e s u l t r i e u r e m e n t
sont voues l ' c h e c .

3me tape : l ' o n dmontre que s i l e s premire e t deuxime tapes ont t

r e s p e c t e s , i l e s t p o s s i b l e de r d u i r e considrablement l a g r a v i t des
dgts e t de rcuprer l e s marchandises entreposes endomnages par l e
feu ou de sauvegarder l e s principaux o u t i l s de t r a v a i l e t d o s s i e r s .

P o i n t s examiner

1re tape

1._ Le niveau des planchers d e v r a i t permettre l ' e a u s u p e r f i c i e l l e de

s ' c o u l e r v e r s l e s p o r t e s donnant s u r l ' e x t r i e u r . I l ne d e v r a i t pas y
avoir de rampes ou de marches pour empcher c e t coulement, moins que
des c a n a l i s a t i o n s n ' a i e n t t mises en place c e t e f f e t .
 568

2. Aucune marchard ise ne devrait tre entrepose sur la partie suprieu-

re des ouvertures des conduites d'vacuation des eaux, situes
l ' i n t r i e u r des btiments.
3. I l conviendrait d'envisager la mise en place de puisards ou de pompes
dans les sous-sols dpourvus de bouches d'vacuation des eaux.
4. Des dispositifs d'arage appropris destins vacuer les fumes des
locaux devraient tre prvus.
5. Mise en place de portes anti-fume.
6. Les appareillages de coupure ne devraient pas tre fixs directement
aux parois mais sur des l a t t e s .
7. Rpartition et volume des marchandises entreposes.
8. Les vannes de commande de l ' l e c t r i c i t , de l'eau, du gaz et des
sprinklers doivent tre d'accs facile et leur emplacement clairement
indiqu.

2me tape
1. Couvrir le contenu avec des feuilles en PVC ou des bches de protec-
tion.
2. Evacuer le contenu des locaux.
3. Protger les marchandises ou le mobilier qui ont t emports.
4. Enlever des "barrages" au niveau des entres et des tages pour viter
que l'eau se rpande.
5. Mettre en place des bches de protection pour dtourner l'eau des
portes et des fentres.
6. Pratiquer des ouvertures dans les planchers pour l'coulement de
l'eau.
7. Recueillir dans des seaux, e t c . l'eau dgouttant des plafonds.
8. Ouvrir l e s bouches d'vacuation des eaux e t l e s empcher de se
boucher.
9. Arer afin de rduire les dgts causs par la fume.
10 Limiter la propagation de la fume en fermant les portes anti-fumes.
 569

Schage des locaux :

1. Enlever les tapis

2. Enlever et vacuer les dbris en recherchant les objets de valeur

3. Evacuer l'eau des planchers

4. Panper l'eau contenue dans les sous-sols
5. Scher les locaux par une aration ou par le recours des installa-
tions de chauffage
6. Recouvrir les objets sauvs prcdemment r e t i r s
7. Retirer les emballages humides des marchandises entreposes pour
viter leur dtrioration
8. Scher et huiler les machines
9. Faire les premires rparations d'urgences aux t o i t s , lucarnes et
fentres
10.Prendre des mesures pour que des intrus ne puissent pntrer dans les
locaux endommags
 570

PREVENTION DE IA CORROSION ET RENOVA TION DES BA TIMENTS ET DE LEUR CONTENU

Dr. . WEISS,
Assurance Winterthur, Munich

Lorsqu'on considre l ' i n t r i e u r de btiments n ' a y a n t pas directement

t d t r u i t s par des i n c e n d i e s , mais "seulement" s a l i s par l a suie e t l e s
condensats de fume, i l ne faut pas n g l i g e r l e s d g t s qui peuvent
s ' e n s u i v r e . I l s ' a g i t des p o s s i b i l i t s de corrosion des surfaces m t a l l i
ques e t du r i s q u e pour l e f e r r a i l l a g e du bton arm d aux composants
a g r e s s i f s des condensats de fume en p a r t i c u l i e r l ' a c i d e chlorhydrique.

Depuis environ v i n g t a n s , ces r i s q u e s e x i s t e n t peu p r s p a r t o u t aprs

un i n c e n d i e , cause de l ' e m p l o i de p l a s t i q u e s halognes en p a r t i c u l i e r
de chlorure de polyvinyle (PVC) pour de nombreux usages e t non p l u s
seulement pour l e gainage des c b l e s , ce p r o d u i t jouant en cas d ' i n c e n
d i e l e r l e d ' a c i d i f i a n t . I l e s t v r a i q u ' i l e x i s t e aujourd'hui un grand
nombre de p l a s t i q u e s exempts d'halognes qui peuvent remplacer l e PVC, l a
s e u l e transformation de l a m a t i r e premire importante q u ' e s t l e s e l
gemme (NaC1 ) exige que l e chlore p r o d u i t s o i t recycl dans l a f a b r i c a t i o n
d'un p r o d u i t de grande consommation canme l e PVC.

. A quoi r e c o n n a t o n un dbut de corrosion par l ' a c i d e chlorhydrique?

Le symptme c a r a c t r i s t i q u e reconnaissable souvent d j dans l e s

quelques heures q u i suivent l ' i n c e n d i e e t au p l u s tard un ou deux j o u r s
aprs l e s i n i s t r e e s t l e dpt uniforme d'une couche de r o u i l l e sur l e s
surfaces m t a l l i q u e s nues qui ont e t e au c o n t a c t des fumes. Une comparai
son avec l e s surfaces m t a l l i q u e s identiques i n a c c e s s i b l e s aux fumes
pendant l ' i n c e n d i e a p p o r t e , en g n r a l , confirmation. Les condensats
d ' a c i d e chlorhydrique donnent aux lments en cuivre ou en l a i t o n une
couleur v e r t e a l o r s que l e z i n c e t l'aluminium se couvrent d ' e f f l o r e s c e n
ces b l a n c h e s . Par c o n t r e , l e r i s q u e de corrosion des ronds bton n ' e s t
pas p e r c e p t i b l e l ' o e i l nu e t ne p e u t t r e dtermin que par analyse
d ' c h a n t i l l o n s d e f i n e s de f o r a t i o n .

. Mesures immdiates empchant l a p r o g r e s s i o n de l a c o r r o s i o n .

La r o u i l l u r e des mtaux, comme l a p n t r a t i o n d ' a c i d e chlorhydrique dans

l e bton n c e s s i t e l a prsence d'eau qui se trouve normalement en q u a n t i t
s u f f i s a n t e sous forme d'humidit atmosphrique ou d'eau servant t e i n d r e
l e feu. La progression de l a r o u i l l e sur l e s surfaces m t a l l i q u e s e s t
a r r t e en y p u l v r i s a n t des h u i l e s a n t i c o r r o s i v e s qui a g i s s e n t en
enrobant l e s condensats de fume c o r r o s i f s d'une couche h u i l e u s e p r o t e c t r i
c e . I l e s t cependant p l u s e f f i c a c e de ramener l e taux d'humidit r e l a t i v e
de l ' a i r environ 40% au moyen de d e s s i c a t e u r s modernes condensation,
c i r c u l a t i o n d ' a i r . Cela e s t r a l i s a b l e a u s s i bien pour des machines
i s o l e s , en l e s recouvrant d'une f e u i l l e mince de p o l y e t h y l e n e , que pour
des pices t o u t e n t i r e s , pour a u t a n t que l e plafond e t l e s murs ne
 571

prsentent pas d'ouvertures bantes conscutives l'incendie. La dessi-

cation de 1'atmosphre qui peut-tre obtenue rapidement et presque sans
aucun personnel est hlas beaucoup trop rarement employe, en particulier
pour les parties de btiments laisses intactes par le feu e t dans
lesquelles les fumes corrosives se sont infiltrees par des portes
ouvertes, des puits de service ou, suivant le cas, des gaines de climati-
sation. En outre, la dessication de l'atmosphre prsente galement
l'avantage d'empcher l'acide chlorhydrique de continuer pntrer
dans le bton.

. Travaux de rnovation des machines, stocks et btiments

Pour qu'un projet de rnovation soit efficace, adapt l'ampleur des
dgts et aussi, en fin de compte, pour en limiter le cot, i l faut
tout d'abord dterminer la quantit d'acide chlorhydrique (chlorure) que
l'incendie a dpos sur les surfaces et qui s ' e s t i n f i l t r dans le bton.
Cette tche, de mme que l'tablissement conscutif d'un projet de
rnovation, incombent (gnralement) en Allemagne, des experts officiels.
A ce propos, l'Association des Assureurs de biens(VdS) a rcemment
arrt les exigences minimales auxquelles doivent satisfaire les
expertises assorties d'un projet de rnovation.
Les surfaces mtalliques corrodes d'installations non dmontables, de
machines etc. doivent tre drouilles par essuyage et passives, puis
traites au moyen d'un agent conservateur. Pour les installations transpor-
tables, les stocks, e t c . , le procd d'immersion en cinq phases maximum
(nettoyage/dgraissage, passivation, rinage, schage, conservation) a
fait ses preuves. Nombreux sont les anti-corrosifs et les produits de
rnovation pour lesquels i l existe des directives VdS conformes l ' t a t
actuel des connaissances. L'emploi de produits conformes aux directives
offre l'avantage q u ' i l s ' a g i t de produits chimiques dont l'action est
connue, dont l ' u t i l i s a t i o n peut, en consquence, tre adapte chaque
type de dgts et dont l'limination ne soulve aucune difficult
(protection de l'environnement).

Pour la remise en tat des appareils lectriques et particulirement

lectroniques, i l existe, en dehors des produits chimiques, de plus en
plus de procds de nettoyage liquide base de solvants organiques.
Indpendamment de cela, le savoir-faire technique de l'entreprise de
rnovation dans ce domaine est particulirement important.
La rnovation du bton arm est conteste. Ceci concerne tant le champ
d'application, la mise en oeuvre et l'efficacit des procds possibles
t e l s que le sablage, l'application de plusieurs couches de chaux coustique,
le lavage chaud sous haute pression, combin ou non la dessication de
l'atmosphre que la question de savoir jusqu' quel point l'acide chlorhy-
drique est dangereux pour les armatures. L'une des raisons de ce fait
pourrait tre que, jusqu' prsent, les entreprises de rnovation n'ont
pas effectu de contrle personnel, de mme que l'absence quasi
totale de contrle a posteriori, c'est--dire d'une vrification
par l'expert de la russite de l'intervention.
 572

ASSURANCE CONTRE L'INCENDIE

E.C. WESSELS
Technisch Bureau t e r B e v o r d e r i n g van S c h a d e p r e v e n t i e , Baarn (NL)

Le mcanisne de L'assurance n ' e s t pas t o u j o u r s vident pour les

p r o f a n e s ; l e present document montre donc l ' i n t r t que revt l ' a s s u r a n c e -
i n c e n d i e dans la p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e les i n c e n d i e s , en s ' e f f o r a n t de m e t t r e
en lumire la p o s i t i o n p a r t i c u l i r e du s e c t e u r des assurances dans l ' e n -
semble que forment les a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , les e n t r e p r i s e s , les i n s t i t u t i o n s
et les c i t o y e n s concerns par les i n c e n d i e s dans les b t i m e n t s .
En o u t r e , dans une analyse o r i g i n a l e v i s a n t mieux f a i r e comprendre
les cots et les avantages de la p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e , L'auteur
a t t i r e l ' a t t e n t i o n sur le r a p p o r t e n t r e Le cot des mesures de p r o t e c t i o n
contre l ' i n c e n d i e et l e u r s e f f e t s sur La r d u c t i o n des r i s q u e s et sur Les
barmes de l ' a s s u r a n c e - i n c e n d i e . La concLusion e s t que Les mthodes de
p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e L ' i n c e n d i e ne p o u r r o n t jamais t r e entirement finances
par des conomies sur Les primes d ' a s s u r a n c e .
 573

LEGISLATION ET CONTROLE

P. CANOVAN,
Heme O f f i c e , London (UK)

INTRODUCTION - OBJECTIF DE L'EXPOSE

1. L'expos comprend deux p a r t i e s . La premire p a r t i e d c r i t quelques

unes des mesures l g i s l a t i v e s e t a u t r e s actuellement p r i s e s dans l e s pays
europens pour c o n t r l e r l a s c u r i t incendie dans l e s btiments
o c c u p s . La s e c o n d e p a r t i e p r s e n t e de n o u v e l l e s r f l e x i o n s s u r l e
c o n t r l e des mesures de prvention de l ' i n c e n d i e , q u i se dgagent en
Grande-Bretagne dans l e contexte des r v i s i o n s de l a p o l i t i q u e e t de l a
l g i s l a t i o n en m a t i r e d ' i n c e n d i e (comprenant une t u d e d e s c o t s
r e s p e c t i f s des mesures p r i s e s pour s ' y conformer e t de mesures d ' e x c u -
t i o n ) . Mention e s t galement f a i t e des r v i s i o n s l g i s l a t i v e s e n t r e p r i s e s
par d ' a u t r e s pays europens.

PREMIERE PARTIE - SITUATION ACTUF.r.r.P

C o n t r l e d e s m e s u r e s de p r v e n t i o n de l ' i n c e n d i e dans l e s btiments
p u b l i c s occupes

2. Les mesures de c o n t r l e v a r i e n t d'un pays l ' a u t r e . En Allemagne,

l e s sapeurs-pompiers i n s p e c t e n t l e s btiments haut r i s q u e e t font des
recommandations en matire de s c u r i t i n c e n d i e . L ' a p p l i c a t i o n de ces
recommandations peut t r e impose par l e s A u t o r i t s l o c a l e s . En France,
l e s immeubles de grande hauteur e t l e s l i e x de runion p u b l i c s font
l ' o b j e t d ' i n s p e c t i o n s p r i o d i q u e s , dont l a frquence dpend du degr de
r i s q u e . En I t a l i e , l e corps n a t i o n a l des sapeurs-pompiers i n s p e c t e un
l a r g e v e n t a i l de b t i m e n t s e t d l i v r e d e s c e r t i f i c a t s ( l e s f r a i s
d ' o b t e n t i o n e t de renouvellement des c e r t i f i c a t s sont l a charge de l a
personne responsable des l o c a u x ) . Au Danemark, l e s a u t o r i t s responsables
des q u e s t i o n s d ' i n c e n d i e ont t a b l i des rglements concernant l e s h t e l s ,
l e s lieux de runion p u b l i c s , l e s hpitaux, l e s foyers des personnes
ges e t locaux analogues.

3 . En Grande-Bretagne, l e c o n t r l e des mesures de prvention des

incendies v a r i e selon l ' a f f e c t a t i o n des b t i m e n t s . Le p r i n c i p a l i n s t r u -
ment de c o n t r l e e s t l a l o i de 1971 sur l e s mesures de prvention des
incendies. Les procdures de c e r t i f i c a t i o n fixes aux termes de l a l o i
sont d c r i t e s a i n s i que l e s types d'immeubles rgulirement c o n t r l s
ce t i t r e ( l a p l u p a r t d e s h t e l s , u s i n e s , b o u t i q u e s , b u r e a u x , e t c . )
D ' a u t r e s types de locaux, par exemple l e s l i e u x de runion p u b l i c s e t l e s
t a b l i s s e m e n t s de s o i n s , sont c o n t r l s dans l e cadre de l ' a u t o r i s a t i o n
d l i v r e l o r s de 1 ' e n r e g i s t r e m e n t , l e s e r v i c e d ' i n c e n d i e t a n t appel
i n s p e c t e r l e s locaux e t recommander l ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n concerne l e s
mesures de prvention d ' i n c e n d i e a d a p t e s .
 574

C o n t r l e d e s m e s u r e s de p r v e n t i o n d ' i n c e n d i e d a n s l e s logements du
secteur prive

4. L'on considre gnralement que l a l g i s l a t i o n c o n s t i t u e une mthode

inadquate de c o n t r l e de l a s c u r i t incendie dans l e s logements du
s e c t e u r p r i v o c c u p s p a r un s e u l mnage c a r l e s o c c u p a n t s s o n t en
mesure d ' a s s u r e r eux-mmes l e u r s c u r i t dans ce domaine. C ' e s t
pourquoi, en Grande-Bretagne, ces logements sont spcifiquement exclus
du cadre d e _ l a l o i de 1971 ( q u o i q u ' i l e x i s t e une l g i s l a t i o n en matire
de s c u r i t d e s c o n s o m m a t e u r s ) . L ' a t t i t u d e n ' e s t pas l a mme en ce
q u i c o n c e r n e l e s m a i s o n s l o g e m e n t s m u l t i p l e s . Le c o n t r l e de l a
s c u r i t incendie e s t a l o r s exerc dans l e cadre de l a l g i s l a t i o n sur
l e s logements.

5 . Bien que l e s c o n t r l e s c o n c e r n a n t l a s c u r i t i n c e n d i e d a n s l e s
logements p r i v s i n d i v i d u e l s , prvus par l a l g i s l a t i o n , s o i e n t minimes,
l e s gouvernements europens n ' e n a t t a c h e n t pas moins une grande impor-
tance l a s c u r i t incendie au foyer. La Grande-Bretagne e s t p a r t i c u l i -
rement consciente que l a p l u p a r t des incendies e t a c c i d e n t s dans l e s
immeubles occups surviennent justement dans ce type de logement. Les
gouvernements s ' e f f o r c e n t de r d u i r e l e s incendies e t l e s a c c i d e n t s
l a maison, e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t par l ' i n t e r m d i a i r e de programmes d ' d u c a t i o n
e t de p u b l i c i t . Les e f f o r t s dploys dans ce s e c t e u r dans d i f f r e n t s
pays d'Europe sont p r s e n t s ( S u i s s e , Allemagne, Sude, Pays-Bas,
Grande-Bretagne) a i n s i que l e d t a i l des c r d i t s octroys c e t t e fin
en Angleterre e t au pays de G a l l e s .

DEUXIEME PARTIE - L'AVENIR

6. De nombreux europens, ccmme l e s Pays-Bas, l a France e t l ' I t a l i e

s ' a t t a c h e n t actuellement r e v o i r ou remplacer l e s t e x t e s l g i s l a t i f s
concernant l a s c u r i t i n c e n d i e . L ' a u t e u r prsente une brve d e s c r i p -
t i o n des mesures p r i s e s dans ces pays.

Rvision par l a Grande-Bretagne de l a l g i s l a t i o n concernant l e s

m e s u r e s de p r e v e n t i o n des incendies e t p r o p o s i t i o n s concernant l ' a v e n i r

7. La r v i s i o n de l a p o l i t i q u e en m a t i r e d ' i n c e n d i e r a l i s e par l e
m i n i s t r e de l ' i n t r i e u r e t p u b l i e en 1980, t a i t une importante tude
de l a r p a r t i t i o n des r e s s o u r c e s a f f e c t e s l a l u t t e c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e .
Une p a r t i e de l ' t u d e a t consacre l ' a n a l y s e des c o t s e t
avantages de l a l o i de 1961. L'tude s ' e s t efforce d ' a n a l y s e r e t de
comparer l e s c o t s d e s m e s u r e s d ' e x c u t i o n de l a l o i e t l e s c o t s
des mesures p r i s e s pour^ se conformer l a l o i ( c ' e s t - - d i r e l e s f r a i s
encourus p a r l e s p r o p r i t a i r e s / o c c u p a n t s de locaux pour s a t i s f a i r e aux
normes de c e r t i f i c a t i o n ) . Elle conclut que l a l o i t a i t un instrument
t r o p r i g i d e e t extravagant : l e s cots des mesures d ' e x c u t i o n
t a i e n t , en p o u r c e n t a g e , ^ t r o p l e v s p a r r a p p o r t aux s e c o n d s e t l e
systme de c o n t r l e adapt aux locaux haut r i s q u e , t a i t appliqu
de nombreux locaux plus p e t i t s e t f a i b l e r i s q u e . Les auteurs de
l ' t u d e maintenaient q u ' i l t a i t n c e s s a i r e de modifier l e systme a f i n
de permettre aux a u t o r i t s responsables en matire d ' i n c e n d i e de
dterminer e t de chercher l e v e r l e s niveaux de s c u r i t incendie
dans l e s locaux haut r i s q u e , sans devoir consacrer l a mme a t t e n -
t i o n aux locaux f a i b l e r i s q u e .
 575

8. Un comit de p l a n i f i c a t i o n / l g i s l a t i o n comprenant des r e p r s e n t a n t s

des a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s c e n t r a l e e t l o c a l e e t des s e r v i c e s d ' i n c e n d i e ,
e n t r e p r i t une r v i s i o n complte de l a l o i de 1971, q u i fut acheve en
1982. Le comit c o n s i d r a i t que l e s procdures de c e r t i f i c a t i o n prvues
p a r l a l o i e n t r a n e r a i t une u t i l i s a t i o n i n e f f i c a c e d e s r e s s o u r c e s
fournies par l e s sapeurs-pompiers. I l dtermina l e s c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i s e s
pour t o u t nouveau systme e t p r s e n t a des p r o p o s i t i o n s d t a i l l e s en ce
s e n s . L ' a u t e u r p r s e n t a l a p o s i t i o n a c t u e l l e en l a m a t i r e .

CONCLUSIONS

9. L'auteur estime que l'orientation fondamentale des nouvelles proposi-

tions lgislatives est bonne e t que la responsabilit de la scurit
incendie doit reposer, en fin de compte, sur la collectivit elle-mme
e t sur l e s services d ' i n c e n d i e s . I l considre que l e v r a i rle des
services d'incendies est d'encourager e t , seulement en dernier ressort,
d'obliger la collectivit prendre des prcautions adquates en matire
de scurit incendie dans les immeubles occups.

10. I l espre que cette prsentation des nouvelles rflexions portent sur
l a lgislation concernant les mesures de prvention d'incendie en Grande-
Bretagne sera intressante et i l espre que, pendant les a t e l i e r s , les
autres participants lui feront connatre leur avis et formuleront des
observations a l a lumire de l ' e x p r i e n c e acquise dans leur propre
pays.

Aspects de l'expos qui seront vraisemblablement i l l u s t r s par des

diapositives et des tableaux
1. Exemple du matriel u t i l i s dans le programme d'ducation/publicitaire
en matire de prvention des incendies tabli par le ministre de l ' i n t -
rieur (paragraphe 5 du rsum).
2. Tableaux, extraits de la revue critique de la politique en matire
d'incendie, montrant le rapport entre les cots des mesures d'excution
de la loi de 1971 sur les mesures de prvention des incendies et les
cots des mesures prises pour s'y conformer (paragraphe 7 du rsum).
3. Liste des caractristiques essentielles du nouveau systme de contrle des
mesures de prvention de l'incendie proposes pour la Grande-Bretagne par
le Comit de planification/lgislation (paragraphe 8 du rsum).
 576

MESURES DE SECURITE CONTRE L'INCENDIE CRIMINEL

C. Douglas WOODWARD,
D i r e c t o r of t h UK F i r e P r o t e c t i o n Association

L ' i n c e n d i e criminel e s t devenu un problme grave dans t o u s l e s pays

d'Europe, de mme que dans l'ensemble des pays dvelopps. Des tudes
d t a i l l e s e n t r e p r i s e s au Royaume-Uni e t aux Pays-Bas indiquent que l a
frquence des incendies c r i m i n e l s dans ces deux pays a t m u l t i p l i e par
quinze du dbut des annes soixante l a fin des annes soixante d i x .

Dans l a p l u p a r t des p a y s , l e s s t a t i s t i q u e s en matire d ' i n c e n d i e , y

compris c e l l e s r e l a t i v e s aux incendies c r i m i n e l s , ne correspondent pas
l a r a l i t . Bien p l u s , peu de pays en Europe peuvent d i r e , sans aucun
doute p o s s i b l e , combien d ' i n c e n d i e s sont d ' o r i g i n e c r i m i n e l l e . T o u t e f o i s ,
nous pouvons d i r e , d ' a p r s l e s c h i f f r e s dont nous disposons, que l e
c o t d e s i n c e n d i e s c r i m i n e l s d a n s l e s pays e u r o p e n s r e p r s e n t e au
moins 15% e t peut a t t e i n d r e 50%, selon l e s pays, de l a t o t a l i t des
cots d ' i n c e n d i e .

En Europe l a p l u p a r t des pays considrent que l ' i n c e n d i e criminel r e p r -

s e n t e au moins 20 30% du cot t o t a l des i n c e n d i e s . Au Royaume-Uni,
nous savons que dans l e cas des grands incendies dont l ' o r i g i n e a pu
t r e t a b l i e , 44% ont t allums d l i b r m e n t .

L'incendie criminel e s t l ' u n des crimes l e s plus d i f f i c i l e s d t e c t e r e t

r a r e s en sont l e s a u t e u r s qui f i n i s s e n t par t r e p r i s . I l s sont encore
moins nombreux t r e condamns.

Nous comprenons sous l a rubrique "Incendies c r i m i n e l s " tous l e s incendies

allums dlibrment e t par m a l v e i l l a n c e , q u e l s que s o i e n t l e s m o t i f s . En
Europe, nous considrons que l a p l u p a r t des incendies c r i m i n e l s sont
a s s o c i s au vandalisme.

La p l u p a r t des a c t e s de vandalisme sont connus p a r des jeunes de moins de

18 ans e t l e r i s q u e d ' i n c e n d i e d l a m a l v e i l l a n c e e s t p l u s important
l o r s q u e des e n f a n t s a d o l e s c e n t s c o n s t i t u e n t une f o r t e proportion des
personnes p r s e n t e s .

L'expos se poursuivra par des recommandations p o r t a n t sur l e s mesures

prendre contre l ' i n c e n d i e criminel e t abordera brivement l e s mesures
longue chance qui doivent t r e p r i s e s au niveau n a t i o n a l , e t p e u t - t r e
mme au niveau europen, pour o b t e n i r un changement du comportement des
g e n s . I l f a u d r a i t d i s p o s e r de s t a t i s t i q u e s p l u s compltes sur l ' i n c e n d i e
e t notanment l ' i n c e n d i e c r i m i n e l . Ce d e r n i e r d e v r a i t t r e t u d i d'un
p o i n t de vue technique e ". une information e t des c o n s e i l s fournis ceux
qui en ont b e s o i n . Des moyens p l u s e f f i c a c e s d e v r a i e n t t r e mis l a
d i s p o s i t i o n des personnes charges d ' e n q u t e r sur l e s i n c e n d i e s .
 577

Le reste de l'expos sera consacr faire des propositions d'ordre

pratique concernant les mesures pouvant tre prises dans les diffrentes
entreprises afin de rduire le risque d'incendie criminel et de limiter
le cot des incendies allums volontairement. Ce sujet sera t r a i t sous
les rubriques suivantes :
Conception des locaux
Amnagement (quais de chargement, entreposage, ramassage de dchets).
Contrle de l'accs aux locaux (loges de garde, barrires, tlvision
en circuit ferm).
Mesures prises pour se garder des intrus lorsque le btiment est ferm
(murs, cltures, barrires, utilisation de peinture non siccative).
Portes et fentres (serrures, verrous, volets, double vitrage).
Comptabilit entre les conditions requises pour viter ou matriser les
incendies et les conditions requises en matire de scurit.

Equipements et systmes de scurit

Signal d'alarme en cas d'intrusion
Dtecteur automatique d'incendie
Installation de sprinklers
Tlvision en circuit ferm
Eclairage de scurit
Problmes d'assurance
Protection de l'quipement de scurit contre le vandalisme.

Organisation de la scurit
La scurit considre dans le cadre de la gestion de la scurit incendie
Surveillance des personnes venant d'tre embauches
Contrles spciaux du personnel temporaire, du personnel de nettoyage,
du personnel travaillant en rgie
Apprendre l'ensemble du personnel tre sur ses gardes
Rglements applicables aprs la fermeture du btiment le soir
Identification des visiteurs
Patrouilles de scurit
Cls - Comment s'assurer qu'elles ne tombent pas entre de mauvaises
mains
Recours des socits de garde extrieures pour surveiller les locaux et
faire des rondes.
 578

Sources possibles de combustibles

Entrepts

Liquides et gaz inflamables

Stockage en plein air

Dchets, matriaux d'emballage.

Collaboration avec les sapeurs-pompiers de la polie

 579

FONDEMENTS DE IA PROTECTION CONTRE L'INCENDIE

D i p l . - I n g . D i e t r i c h STEINHOFF
S e n a t s r a t beim Senator fr Bau- und Wohnungswesen, B e r l i n

Situation de d p a r t
3
our v i t a l q u ' i l s o i t , l e feu p e u t m e t t r e en d a n g e r l'homme e t son
nvironnement a i n s i que l e prouvent l e s nombreux i n c e n d i e s . D'o l a
c e s s i t de l a p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e .

j u ' e s t - c e que l a p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e ?

i s t i n c t i o n e n t r e l a l u t t e contre l e feu e t l a prvention de l ' i n c e n d i e ,

jhilosophie de l a l u t t e c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e , l i m i t e s de l ' a c t i o n prventive
:n ce qui concerne l a p r o t e c t i o n des personnes e t des b i e n s .

Porte de l a prvention de l ' i n c e n d i e

- S p c i f i c a t i o n s des matriaux, lments de c o n s t r u c t i o n e t du m a t r i e l

d'exploitation.

Hauteur e t configuration des btiments e t du systme i t i n r a i r e s de

secours.

Implantation du b t i m e n t , accessibilit pour l e s pompiers, distance

des a u t r e s immeubles.

- Matriel de l u t t e c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e .

- S p c i f i c a t i o n s concernant les dcorations et le mobilier (meubles,

rideaux, e t c . ) .

Comportement des personnes.

- Pompiers ( v o l o n t a i r e s e t p r o f e s s i o n n e l s ) .

Xanaines rglements de l a p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r e l ' i n c e n d i e

ile de l ' E t a t dans l a p r o t e c t i o n de l a c o l l e c t i v i t ou de l ' i n d i v i d u

xsntre l e s dangers. F i x a t i o n de r g l e s n a t i o n a l e s de d r o i t p u b l i c d ' a u t a n t
jlus svres que l e type de c o n s t r u c t i o n e s t dangereux.

)termination de r g l e s dans l e cadre de l o i s , rglements, ordonnances

l ' a p p l i c a t i o n , nonnes/standards.
 580

Procdure administrative
Porte de l'examen prventif - procdure d'autorisation, surveillance de
certaines parties des locaux industriels.

Assurances
Assurance-incendie - spcifications fondamentales - abattements de primes
l i s l'adoption de certaines mesures de prvention.

Conclusion

En dpit de certaines diffrences lies l'volution historique et aux

habitudes de vie de chaque Etat, i l existe de nombreux points communs
dans le domaine de la protection contre l'incendie et en ce qui concerne
les buts atteindre. Un grand nombre d'organismes agissent au niveau
international. L'objectif est de crer un systme uniforme de protection
contre l'incendie et d'y intgrer toutes les mesures prventives compte
tenu des contingences pratiques.
 581

EXIGENCES A LA CONCEPTION DES BATIMENTS

G. FERENCZY
CHEF DE SERVICE TECHNIQUE SOCOTEC EXPORT

INTRODUCTION

La plupart des dispositions de scurit vis--vis de l1incendie peuvent

tre - et normalement devraient tre - prvues ds la conception du btiment.
C'est en particulier le cas des dispositions constrictives, qui touchent
l'Architecture du Btiment parmi lesquelles nous analyserons :
- les moyens d'accs des Pompiers
- la protection vis--vis des constructions voisines
- le compartimentage l'intrieur du btiment
- l'vacuation des occupants.
Pour complter ces dispositions, il faut galement mentionner :
- la rsistance au feu des lments de construction
- l'vacuation des fumes
qui seront abords dans d'autres communications du Symposium.
D'autre part, on n'envisage pas ici les quipements du btiment, comme
les moyens de lutte contre l'incendie, les groupes lectrognes, les chauf-
feries galement lis la scurit incendie et dont l'tude sera fai-
te par ailleurs.

1. MOYENS D'ACCES DES POMPIERS

Les voies d'accs aux btiments (en particulier lorsqu'ils sont en re-
trait des voies publiques) l'amnagement de leurs abords et la conception de
leurs faades ont des incidences sur l'accs des Pompiers et la mise en oeu-
vre de leur quipement.
C'est pourquoi ces aspects sont gnralement examins par les Services
Pompiers Locaux qui prescrivent des mesures adaptes leur quipement. Mais
cet aspect sera approfondi par ailleurs dans le Symposium.

2. PROTECTION VIS-A-VIS DES CONSTRUCTIONS VOISINES -

La transmission d'un incendie entre des btiments voisines peut se faire

principalement par :
- les faades en vis--vis ou les murs mitoyens
- les toitures
En-dessous d'une distance d'loignement minimum entre btiments, les R-
gles de protection dfiniront donc des exigences de comportement au feu, pour
les parois et les toitures en vis--vis. Elles pourront galement consister
limiter, ou protger, les ouvertures en vis--vis.
 582

3. COMPARTIMENTAGE

Comme les compartiments tanches des bateaux qui limitent les consquences
d'une entre d'eau, l'ide est ici de recouper les btiments par plusieurs murs
et planchers beaucoup plus rsistants au feu, de manire empcher la progres-
sion de l'incendie.
Le dcoupage de ces compartiments et la rsistance au feu de leurs parois
dpendent de la nature des risques, de la nature et de la taille des btiments
ainsi que de la disposition des moyens d'vacuation l'intrieur des btiments.
De mme, des dispositions visant empcher la transmission du feu d'un
niveau sur l'autre par les faades sont prvoir.

4. MOYENS D'EVACUATION DES OCCUPANTS

L'vacuation des occupants d'un btiment ou d'un compartiment de ce bti-

ment lorsqu'un incendie s'y est dclar, est un lment fondamental de scurit.
Il y a donc lieu de prvoir des cheminements intrieurs (issues de locaux,
couloirs, escaliers, sorties de btiments) conduisant le plus rapidement l'ex-
trieur et :
- ayant une capacit en rapport avec le nombre d'occupants
- offrant toujours, dans la mesure du possible, une alternative d'vacuation
(culs de sac de longueur rduite)
- prsentant une bonne protection contre le feu et les fumes.

5. EXAMEN DES REGLES EXISTANTES

Lorsque des Rgles de protection contre l'incendie existent dans les diff-
rents Pays de la Communaut, il s'agit d'abord de voir si elles traitent des as-
pects voqus ci-dessus et ensuite de comparer les dispositions prescrites.
Ces diffrentes mesures de protection peuvent tre gradues suivant :
- la destination des btiments,
- l'effectif des occupants
- l'tendue et
- la hauteur desbtiments
 583

EXIGENCES POUR LES ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTION, MATERIAUX

ET CONTENU

E r i k PEDERSEN
Dansk Brandvaerns K o m i t , B i r k e r o d (DK)

Entrepreneurs du btiment et a r c h i t e c t e s f o n t souvent v a l o i r que L'un

des p r i n c i p a u x problmes ou o b s t a c l e s aux changes dans l e secteur de la
c o n s t r u c t i o n est la r g l e m e n t a t i o n en m a t i r e de s c u r i t / i n c e n d i e pour les
btiments dans les pays de la CEE. T o u j o u r s e s t - i l que t r s peu d ' t u d e s
( s ' i l en e s t ) ont t r a l i s e s et p u b l i e s sur ce s u j e t j u s q u ' p r s e n t .
D'un a u t r e c t , i l p a r a t surprenant que les p r e s c r i p t i o n s de s c u r i t
en m a t i r e d ' i n c e n d i e dans les b t i m e n t s v a r i e n t dans une t e l l e mesure t o u t
en assurant un degr q u a s i - g a l de s c u r i t pour les usagers des b t i m e n t s
et la p r o t e c t i o n des biens et des personnes, ce qui c o n s t i t u e une r e c o n n -
aissance du f a i t que les r g l e s de la physique et les paramtres concernant
l ' c l o s i o n et l ' e x t e n s i o n du f e u sont plus ou moins indpendants des
f r o n t i r e s e n t r e pays et de l a n a t i o n a l i t .
Le t o u r d ' h o r i z o n de la r g l e m e n t a t i o n i n c e n d i e pour les m a t r i a u x ,
les composants et les s t r u c t u r e s prsent c i - a p r s montre que, mme s ' i l
e x i s t e des d i f f r e n c e s e n t r e les d i v e r s rglements nationaux en m a t i r e
d ' i n c e n d i e , l e p r i n c i p a l problme semble t e n i r aux d i f f r e n c e s dans l a
faon de f o r m u l e r et de p r s e n t e r des p r e s c r i p t i o n s par a i l l e u r s analogues.
I l semble aussi que l e s d i f f r e n c e s q u i s u b s i s t e n t nanmoins t i e n n e n t
e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t aux t r a d i t i o n s l o c a l e s en m a t i r e de c o n s t r u c t i o n et aux
matriaux d i s p o n i b l e s ( b r i q u e s , a c i e r et b o i s ) dans l e s pays de l a CEE.
Cette s i t u a t i o n s ' e x p l i q u e galement par l ' a b s e n c e de n o r m a l i s a t i o n des
fours et des i n s t a l l a t i o n s pour les essais de comportement au f e u l o r s q u e
la r g l e m e n t a t i o n en m a t i r e de s c u r i t i n c e n d i e a cess de f i x e r les
dimensions a c c e p t a b l e s de m a t r i a u x , composants et s t r u c t u r e s pour d i c t e r
des p r e s c r i p t i o n s concernant la tenue au f e u par r f r e n c e des mthodes
plus ou moins b i e n d f i n i e s et des f o u r s pour les essais de r s i s t a n c e
au f e u .
 584

LA MODELISATION DU DEVELOPPEMENT DU FEU

P.H. THOMAS
F i r e Research S t a t i o n , Borehamwood CUK)

Depuis quelques annes, des i n g n i e u r s s p c i a l i s t e s chargs de tches

de c o n c e p t i o n , sont capables de procder l ' a n a l y s e q u a n t i t a t i v e des essais
et des expriences f a i t s sur des feux ayant a t t e i n t l e u r p l e i n dveloppement.
Malgr c e r t a i n e s r e s t r i c t i o n s , on prend gnralement comme base la n o t i o n
de temprature uniforme pour c a l c u l e r la d e n s i t du f l u x de chaleur et
la r a c t i o n des lments de c o n s t r u c t i o n qui en r s u l t e .
Le dveloppement du f e u , en revanche, p r s e n t e des d i f f i c u l t s . Les
tempratures ne sont pas uniformes dans l ' e s p a c e et v a r i e n t aussi p l u s
rapidement dans le temps. La faon dont dmarre l e f e u et l e m a t r i a u auquel
i l s ' a t t a q u e , ont une i n c i d e n c e sur son dveloppement. Du p o i n t de vue
physique et c h i m i q u e , i l e s t d i f f i c i l e de f a i r e des p r v i s i o n s q u a n t i t a t i v e s
et i l f a u t f a i r e i n t e r v e n i r de nombreuses r e l a t i o n s de t r a n s f e r de c h a l e u r ,
d ' n e r g i e et de c o n t i n u i t pour a n a l y s e r le problme. I l y a d i x a n s , p e u t -
t r e mme moins, i l ne v a l a i t pour a i n s i d i r e pas la peine d'examiner le
problme en d t a i l , t a n t t a i e n t grandes les d i f f i c u l t s de c a l c u l . Mais
a c t u e l l e m e n t , ce n ' e s t plus l e c a s . I l e x i s t e d i f f r e n t s modles de dve-
loppement du feu s e l o n l e niveau de p e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t et l ' o b j e c t i f p o u r s u i v i .
Le prsent expos a pour but de d c r i r e brivement d i f f r e n t e s s o r t e s
de m o d l i s a t i o n des feux n ' a y a n t pas encore a t t e i n t l e stade de l ' e m b r a s e -
ment et quelques-unes des r a l i s a t i o n s connues dans ce domaine. I l i n d i q u e
les aspects de la m o d l i s a t i o n sur lesquels i l e x i s t e une recherche a c t i v e
et montre que l a c o o p r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e , p r a t i q u e ds p r s e n t , a
besoin d ' u n s o u t i e n p l u s o f f i c i e l . Ceci est p a r t i c u l i r e m e n t n c e s s a i r e a f i n
d ' o b t e n i r des donnes concernant un l a r g e v e n t a i l de s i t u a t i o n s , de
manire m e t t r e les essais en r a p p o r t avec des s c n a r i o s r e l s et c r e r
une banque de donnes pour valuer les p r o b a b i l i t s sur \ l e s q u e l l e s repose
une m o d l i s a t i o n s t o c h a s t i q u e .
A l o r s que pour concevoir des moteurs ou des f o u r s commercialisabLes,
on ne peut s'appuyer sur la dynamique des f l u i d e s i n f o r m a t i s e , dont les
bases ne sont pas encore suffisamment s o l i d e s , l ' e x a c t i t u d e semble d j
presque s u f f i s a n t e pour p l u s i e u r s o b j e c t i f s ayant t r a i t la c o n c e p t i o n
et l ' v a l u a t i o n de la s c u r i t i n c e n d i e des systmes de c o n t r l e des
fumes.
Dans c e r t a i n s c a s , des mthodes t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s p l u s simple peuvent
mme f a i r e l ' a f f a i r e . L o r s q u ' i l s ' a g i t , par exemple, d ' e s t i m e r la c a p a c i t
d ' u n systme d ' a r a t i o n par le t o i t , d'vacuer la fume dgage par un f e u
ayant une p r o d u c t i o n n e r g t i q u e donne, ou lorsque l ' o n veut valuer le
temps n c e s s a i r e la couche de gaz chauds pour retomber au niveau de la
t t e , on peut a c t u e l l e m e n t l e f a i r e avec une p r c i s i o n r a i s o n n a b l e .
Lorsque l ' o n associe ces mthodes d ' a u t r e s processus que comporte l e
dveloppement du f e u , par exemple l e t r a n s f e r t de c h a l e u r par rayonnement,
q u i enflamme l e s m a t i r e s inflammables s e c o n d a i r e s , ou l e r e t o u r de la
chaleur v e r s les c o m b u s t i b l e s , q u i a c t i v e l e u r combustion ou a c c l r e la
 585

p r o p a g a t i o n des flammes, c e t t e p r c i s i o n n ' e s t pas encore s u f f i s a n t e .

L ' v a l u a t i o n q u a n t i t a t i v e t r o u v e ses l i m i t e s dans les d e s c r i p t i o n s en
termes q u a n t i t a t i f s des matriaux r e l s (par o p p o s i t i o n aux m a t r i a u x
mathmatiquement simples) e t de l e u r s p r o d u i t s de combustion, plus
p a r t i c u l i r e m e n t la suie ( q u i dterminent le r l e du rayonnement t h e r m i q u e ) .
Ceci pose un problme aux chercheurs s p c i a l i s t e s du f e u , a l o r s que la
dynamicue des f l u i d e s a s s i s t e par o r d i n a t e u r c o n s t i t u e un s u j e t de
recherche pour la t e c h n i q u e des f o u r s , la m t o r o l o g i e , e t c . .
Sans un e f f o r t d ' a p p r o f o n d i s s e m e n t et de q u a n t i f i c a t i o n dans la
comprhension des phnomnes, on v o i t mal comment p o u r r a i t t r e t r o u v e une
s o l u t i o n s c i e n t i f i q u e long terme (par o p p o s i t i o n une s o l u t i o n ad hoc)
capable d'harmoniser les essais d ' i n c e n d i e dans l e domaine de l a r a c t i o n
au f e u . On peut a l l e r j u s q u ' a f f i r m e r q u ! i l ne sera pas p o s s i b l e
d'harmoniser les essais s ' i l s ne mesurent pas des q u a n t i t s ayant une
s i g n i f i c a t i o n en dehors des c o n d i t i o n s de l ' e s s a i , et seule une bonne
comprhension du problme p e r m e t t r a de d t e r m i n e r ce que d o i t t r e c e t t e
s i g n i f i c a t i o n . Les essais mis au p o i n t par l e TC82 de l ' I S O sont d e s t i n s
f o u r n i r , en ce qui concerne les q u a n t i t s reconnues comme p r s e n t a n t
un i n t r t , une i n f o r m a t i o n qui ne s o i t pas f o n c t i o n de l'quipement
u t i l i s (comme c ' e s t le cas dans de nombreux essais e x i s t a n t s ) , et l e CIB
recommande l ' I S O de propager c e t t e manire de c o n c e v o i r les essais
d ' i n c e n d i e . N ' e s t i l pas tonnant qu'une grandeur reconnue comme ayant
une importance fondamentale dans la p r o d u c t i o n de gaz et de vapeurs
inflammables provenant de c o m b u s t i b l e s , s a v o i r la c h a l e u r e f f e c t i v e de
dcomposition ou de p y r o l y s e , ne fasse l ' o b j e t d'aucun essai normalis? On
ne mesure pas non p l u s d i r e c t e m e n t kpc, ou k = c o n d u c t i b i l i t t h e r m i q u e ,
= d e n s i t et c = chaleur s p c i f i q u e une p r o p r i t composite en r a p p o r t
avec l ' i n f l a m m a t i o n et la p r o p a g a t i o n de la flamme. On s ' e f f o r c e de v o i r
s i des v a l e u r s e f f e c t i v e s de ces p r o p r i t s peuvent t r e d d u i t e s des
r s u l t a t s d ' e s s a i s e x i s t a n t s q u i ne sont pas conus pour c e l a .
Nous en sommes donc dj une phase ou l ' t u d e s c i e n t i f i q u e du
dveloppement du feu en est a r r i v e l ' i n t e r a c t i o n avec l e s essais en
m a t i r e d ' i n c e n d i e . A l ' a v e n i r , c e u x c i devront s e r v i r non seuleme/it au
l g i s l a t e u r , mais aussi l ' i n g n i e u r d ' t u d e s et au responsable de la
scurit incendie.
L'expos t r a i t e de ces q u e s t i o n s d ' o r d r e g n r a l , de quelques problmes
de recherche et de c e r t a i n e s r a l i s a t i o n s connues ce j o u r dans l e domaine
des modles de dveloppement du f e u .
 586

ESSAIS DE CLASSIFICATION DES ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTION

P. VANDEVELDE
Rijksuniversiteit Gent

Cette c o n t r i b u t i o n e s t le r a p p o r t d'une tude e f f e c t u e par Mr. Dekker

du T.N.O. ( P a y s - B a s ) , Mr. K l i n g e l h f e r de M.P.A. - N.W. (AL lemagne) et m o i -
mme, La demande de La Commission Europenne. Le but est L ' h a r m o n i s a t i o n
des essais de c L a s s i f i c a t i o n des lments de c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Le p o i n t de dpart de L'tude t a i t le document 1202 e x i s t a n t e t r d i g
par un groupe d ' e x p e r t s n a t i o n a u x , comme un compromis e n t r e la norme ISO
834, t r o p peu d t a i l l e , et les normes n a t i o n a l e s e x i s t a n t e s .
Le document 1202 a t p u b l i en 1977 et a t refus par les a u t o r i t s
n a t i o n a l e s p u i s q u ' i l t a i t considr i n c a p a b l e de g a r a n t i r une r e p r o d u c t i -
b i l i t i n t e r l a b o r a t o i r e et i n t e r n a t i o n a l e .
Le groupe de t r a v a i l a t u d i les aspects s u i v a n t s du problme :
- l'quipement e x i s t a n t dans 15 l a b o r a t o i r e s europens et La p o s s i b i -
l i t m a t e r i e l l e de s u i v r e la procdure d c r i t e au document 1202;
ceci comprend :
* la c o n s t r u c t i o n des f o u r s e t de l ' q u i p e m e n t de mise en charge;
* L'quipement de mesure et de r g l a g e ;
* La c a p a c i t des b r l e u r s , e t c . ;
- L ' i n t e r p r t a t i o n et la comprhension du document 1202 par chaque
L a b o r a t o i r e , y compris :
* la c o n c e p t i o n de La p i c e d ' p r e u v e ;
* la r a l i s a t i o n des c o n d i t i o n s thermiques et mcaniques aux
extrmits;
* la corrptence du p e r s o n n e l ;
* Les r a p p o r t s d ' e s s a i concernant l ' i n f o r m a t i o n f o u r n i e ;
* L ' i n t e r p r t a t i o n des c r i t r e s de c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
Les c o n c l u s i o n s de l ' t u d e sont rsumer comme s u i t :
- A quelques e x c e p t i o n s prs pour l'quipement de mise en c h a r g e ,
l'quipement ne d o i t pas s u b i r des m o d i f i c a t i o n s s u b s t a n t i e l l e s .
- Le document 1202 est absolument i n s u f f i s a m m e n t d f i n i e t Laisse t r o p
de l i b e r t l ' i n t e r p r t a t i o n . Les d i f f r e n c e s obtenues dans la
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sont en premier l i e u dues des d i f f r e n c e s d ' i n t e r -
p r t a t i o n de La norme. Le document 1202 d o i t t r e beaucoup plus
dtailL.
La q u a l i t a i n s i que La q u a n t i t de L ' i n f o r m a t i o n f o u r n i e dans les
r a p p o r t s d ' e s s a i d o i v e n t t r e a m l i o r e s a f i n de Les rendre v a l a b l e s au
plan i n t e r n a t i o n a l .
La c o n c l u s i o n l o g i q u e de cet examen t a i t q u ' i l f a l l a i t r d i g e r une
n o u v e l l e v e r s i o n du document 1202. Cette t c h e a t accorde au groupe
de t r a v a i l .
Le nouveau document c o n t i e n t t r o i s p a r t i e s :
- la premire p a r t i e donne l ' i n f o r m a t i o n gnrale pour les essais sur
 587

t o u t e s les f a m i l l e s d ' l m e n t s de c o n s t r u c t i o n ;
- la deuxime p a r t i e donne l ' i n f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c u l i r e pour les f a m i l l e s
d'lments s u i v a n t e s :
* murs et c l o i s o n s non p o r t a n t s
* murs et c l o i s o n s p o r t a n t s
* colonnes
* p l a n c h e r s a t t a q u s par le f e u sur la f a c e i n f r i e u r e
* poutres
- la t r o i s i m e p a r t i e donne la d e s c r i p t i o n du r a p p o r t d ' e s s a i
standardis.
Le nouveau document donne des s p c i f i c a t i o n s d t a i l l e s sur tous l e s
aspects de la procdure d ' e s s a i . I l en s u i t que l a mthode d e v i e n t p l u t t
un essai d ' a c c e p t a t i o n , t a n d i s que l ' a s p e c t recherche d i s p a r a t .
Comme i l t a i t le cas pour le document 1202 l e champ d ' a p p l i c a t i o n
du nouveau document r e s t e seulement l i m i t quelques c a t g o r i e s d ' l m e n t s
de c o n s t r u c t i o n .
P l u s i e u r s l m e n t s , q u i f o n t plus souvent l ' o b j e t d'changes i n t e r n a t i o n a u x ,
r e s t e n t e x c l u s . Nous c i t o n s les p o r t e s et les p l a f o n d s suspendus.
Pour d ' a u t r e s l m e n t s , dans beaucoup de p a y s , des mthodes d ' e s s a i n a t i o n a l e s
n ' e x i s t e n t pas encore ou sont en dveloppement : des c o n d u i t e s de v e n t i l a t i o n ,
des c l a p e t s c o u p e - f e u , des t r a v e r s e s de cbles et de t u y a u x .
De t o u t e urgence un e f f o r t c o n s i d r a b l e sera n c e s s a i r e pour a r r t e r une
dsharmonisation imminente.
A cause des consquences conomiques extrmement i m p o r t a n t e s , ce seront
p l u t t des r a i s o n s conomiques que t e c h n i q u e s qui empcheront l ' h a r m o n i s a -
t i o n des essais de c l a s s i f i c a t i o n des lments de c o n s t r u c t i o n dans la
Communaut Europenne.
 588

APPROCHES DE IA SECURITE/TECHNIQUES DE PROTECTION

CONTRE L'INCENDIE EN EUROPE

M. Kersken-Bradley
D r . - I n g . , c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r , Munich

Le p r s e n t expos, qui t r a i t e de l a s c u r i t au feu des s t r u c u r e s e n v i s a -

ge sous l ' a n g l e des problmes techniques q u ' e l l e pose l ' i n g n i e u r - c o n -
c e p t e u r , e s t principalement consacr deux a s p e c t s d i s t i n c t s :
1. Les modles destins valuer l'exposition de la structure la
chaleur d'un feu en compartiment tanche;
2. Les mthodes ayant pour but d'valuer le risque d'incendie et l ' i n t e r -
action qui s'ensuit entre les conditions imposes pour les structures et
les considrations relatives au risque.
Ad 1.: En Europe, pour ne pas dire dans le monde entier, t r o i s grands
types d'approche sont u t i l i s s pour modliser l'exposition la chaleur :
i . Exposition suivant une courbe normalise temprature-temps, la dure
d'exposition tant le temps minimum fix dans les codes ou rglements de
construction par le biais de classes de rsistance au feu.
i i . Exposition suivant une courbe normalise temprature-temps, la dure
d'exposition tant drive d'un modle de temps quivalent mettant en
rapport les effets d'un incendie naturel en compartiment tanche et ceux
de l'exposition un incendie normalis.
i i i . Exposition suivant une courbe temprature-temps, simulant un
incendie naturel en compartiment tanche.

Ces trois approches sont prsentes comme tapes successives du perfection-

nement de la modlisation et sont brivement compares sous l'angle de
leurs avantages et de leurs inconvnients.
Ad 2 : Le systme traditionnel consistant prvoir dans les codes et
rglements de construction des classes de rsistance au feu suppose une
valuation empirique du risque, d i f f i c i l e formuler en termes quantitatifs
tant donn que les aspects physiques et les considrations de scurit
ne sont pas clairement distingus. Les mthodes prsentes ci-dessous
constituent des tentatives pour amliorer l'valuation des riques :
i . Une approche de la scurit au feu des structures dans laquelle la
protection contre l'incendie repose sur un modle volu d'exposition
la chaleur et les factures de scurit se dduisent des analyses courantes
de la f i a b i l i t des structures prenant en considration:
- la probabilit d'eclosin d'incendies assez graves pour entraner des
dgts aux structures, compte tenu de la nature de l'occupation du
compartiment tanche et de l'efficacit des mesures prises pour dtecter
et matriser les incendies.
- la probabilit de dfaillance des structures pendant leur dure de vie,
compte tenu des considrations de scurit de la collectivit et des
consquences d'un non-respect des critres de comportement des strucures
en cas d'exposition un incendie (cf. projet de manuel de conception du
CIB, rglement-type allemand.)
i i . Une approche fonde sur un systme de points, utilisant une mesure
normalise du risque d'incendie et considrant de manire surtout empiri-
que:
 589

- l'effet de majoration ou de minoration de cette mesure du risque que

peuvent avoir diffrents facteurs (p.ex. la charge d'incendie, la toxicit,
l a grandeur du compartiment tanche) et les dispositions en matire de
protection contre l'incendie, de dtection et de matrise de l'incendie.
- le risque acceptable, compte tenu des considrations de scurit de l a
collectivit, de la catgorie d ' u t i l i s a t i o n du compartiment tanche et de
son emplacement, ainsi que du ncmbre de personnes menaces par l'incendie,
(cf projet de norme suisse).
i i i . Une analyse sous forme d'arbre de dcision, dans laquelle le degr
possible de dveloppement d'un incendie est tudi et quantifi en termes
de probabilit. Ces probabilits se prsentent sous la forme de courbes:
- qui dcroissent avec, p.ex., les dimensions de l ' a i r e susceptible de
devenir la proie des flammes, le nombre d'obstacles pouvant tre
djous par le feu, e t c . , et dont la pente est fonction de l'efficacit
des mesures prises pour dtecter et matriser les incendies et concevoir
les obstacles.
- et peuvent tre compares avec les niveaux de probabilit acceptables,
compte tenu des considrations de scurit de l a collectivit, (cf
publications des Etats-Unis).
Ces mthodes sont prsentes e t compares et une attention particulire
est porte l'interaction entre les mesures actives prises. La question
de l'quivalence des mesures actives et passives est examine en dtail
sous l'angle du risque l i aux tches confies aux sapeurs-pompiers.
 590

COMPOSANTS ININFLAMMABLES
(STRUCTURES EN BETON ET EN MAONNERIE)

Prof. D r . - I n g . E.H. Karl KORDINA

I n s t i t u t fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz
Lehrstuhl fr Massivbau

On s a i t que toutes les tentatives faites depuis des annes pour harmoniser
au niveau international ou, au moins, europen, les mesures de protection
contre l'incendie dans le btiment se sont constamment heurtes des
difficults. Cela se comprend aisment s i l'on considre que les spcifi-
cations techniques concernant la protection des btiments contre le feu
ont t formules dans chaque pays sur la base de nombreuses annes
d'exprience. Ceci tant, en raison de cette dmarche empirique, i l est
quasi impossible de dterminer le niveau de scurit existant. I l se peut
q u ' i l s o i t , en gnral, considr comme suffisant, mais i l peut aussi,
dans t e l ou t e l cas, et cela dpend aussi de l'observateur, sembler trop
lev ou trop bas. Cela s'applique la situation du pays dans lequel on
se trouve ; apprcier les normes de scurit du pays voisin est encore
chose plus difficile et i l ne faut gure s'attendre une acceptation
rciproque de ces normes dans ce domaine.
Pour se faire une ide du niveau actuel, des renseignements concernant
les normes de scurit incendie relatives aux lments en bton et en
maonnerie entrant dans la construction d'immeubles d'habitation de
t r o i s , six et dix tages ont t demands un certain nombre de pays
d'Europe.
I l est d'abord apparu que les questions qui, du ct allemand, taient
considres cornue claires et appelant une rponse simple, ont mis dans
l'embarras un certain nombre de nos collgues trangers et que la comparai-
son directe recherche n ' t a i t pas toujours possible. On a, en fin de
compte, obtenu des donnes comparables grosso modo concernant les compo-
sants en bton arm pour la Belgique, la rpublique fdrale d'Allemagne,
la France et la Grande-Bretagne. En ce qui concerne les murs et les
soutnements en maonnerie, nous n'avons reu aucun renseignement exploita-
ble.

Pour ce qui est des spcifications de contrle technique des constructions,

l a situation s ' e s t rvle la suivante :
Pour les immeubles d'habitation t r o i s tages, rien n'est exig en
Belgique et la dure de rsistance au feu rglementaire est de 30 minutes
en France, 60 minutes en Grande-Bretagne et 30 minutes en Allemagne pour
les composants horizontaux (90 minutes pour les lments verticaux).
Pour les imneubles d'habitation six tages, la dure de rsistance au
feu exige est de 60 minutes en Belgique, en France et en Grande-Bretagne
e t de 90 minutes en Allemagne.
 591

Pour les immeubles d'habitation de dix tages, l a dure de rsistance au

feu exige en Allemagne, en France e t en Grande-Bretagne e s t de 90
minutes et de 120 minutes en Belgique.
Les c r i t r e s de conformit des composants ne se basent pas sur l e s
mmes rglementations. A t i t r e d'exemple, l'paisseur minimale rglemen-
t a i r e des dalles de plancher en bton arm pour les immeubles d'habitation
de six tages est de :

- 70 nm en France
pour une dure de rsistance au feu
- 100 mm en Grande-Bretagne
de 60 minutes
- 150 mm en Belgique

- 100 mm en Allemagne pour une dure de rsistance au feu

de 90 minutes
I l e s t vident que l e point de dpart de l'harmonisation d o i t t r e
d'uniformiser les critres de rsistance au feu des composants pour des
dures pralablement dtermines. Ce n'est qu'alors que l'on disposera
d'une base partir de laquelle on pourra verifier e t , l e cas chant,
adapter les spcifications de contrle technique des constructions. La
premire mesure est cependant la plus importante pour la suppression des
entraves commerciales qui concernent les produits des divers pays voisins.

Dans le domaine de l a construction en bton et de la construction mtalli-

que, des groupes d'experts de l a Convention europenne de la construction
mtallique (CECM) et du Comit europen du Beton (B) s'occupent de
cette question depuis des annes. Ces deux organismes ont dj mis des
recommandations. Les recommandations du CEB sont par exemple, une rfren-
ce importante pour l a refonte des rglementations nationales en cours
pour le moment en Belgique et en Grande-Bretagne. Partant de la norme ISO
834, les recommandations proposent diverses mthodes de dtermination de
la dure de rsistance au feu d'lments de construction, par exemple des
diagrammes et des tables de mesure, mais aussi des mthodes de calcul
simplifies.

Pour tous les lments de construction qui ne se prtent pas cette

possibilit d'apprciation, i l faut en revenir aux essais de rsistance
au feu. Le groupe d'experts ILDA (Inter Laboratory Data Acceptance) s ' e s t
efforc de faire reconnatre les rsultats de ces essais au-del des
frontires du pays qui les a raliss et la Communaut europenne a
galement entrepris une action dans ce sens. Ce sont principalement les
activits du Comit technique ISO 192 qui ont t renforces ces dernires
annes pour atteindre cet objectif.
 592

STRUCTURES EN ACIER

M. LAW
Ove Arup P a r t n e r s h i p , Londres (R.U.)

1. La scurit incendie

Il n'y a aucune raison de croire que dans les btiments conus

selon les critres modernes de construction, le matriau de constrction
lui-mme contribue mettre en danger la vie humaine. En effet rien ne
permet de croire qu'une personne se trouvant dans un immeuble moderne
ossature en acier court plus de risque d'tre blesse ou tue dans in
incendie qu'une personne se trouvant dans un immeuble moderne en bton,
briques, bois ou maonnerie. De mme, il n'y a aucune raison de croire
que le choix de la construction mtallique est susceptible d'entraner
des pertes plus importantes en cas d'incendie, la plupart des pertes
importantes portant sur les biens, et imputables aux incendies, s'observe
dans les immeubles industriels - entrepts et grandes aires de produc-
tion et de stockage - et c'est la perte du contenu ou les dgts subits
qui constituent le cot principal de l'incendie. Les causes de la
propagation des incendies sont aussi bien les matriaux conbustibles
recouvrant les parois et le toit que le retard dtecter l'incendie,
l'absence de compartimentation et la mdiocrit de la finition aux
jonctions des compartiments.

2. Comportement de l'acier expos au feu

L'acier lui-mme n'est pas combustible et lorsqu'il n'est pas

utilis en tant que structure, par exemple dans les portes et dans les
cloisons porteuses, il se comporte de manire satisfaisante dans les
incendies de btiment, sans ncessit de protection. Comme pour les
autres matriaux de construction ses proprits mcaniques (rsistance
la traction, limite lastique, module de Young) dcroissent avec la
temprature. Selon la charge, le degr de contrainte, l'tat des extr-
mits et le type d'acier, il est possible de dfinir une temprature
critique de l'acier partir de laquelle il faut s'attendre ce que la
structure ne supporte plus sa charge ou plie excessivement. En raison de
sa conductivit thermique leve, l'acier s'chauffe rapidement lors des
incencdies de btiment et, qu'il n'atteigne pas cette temprature
critique, il faut gnralement le protger. Les mthodes de protection
sont diverses : isolement par revtement, protection par membrane,
refroidissement par eau - et elles peuvent tre utilises pour maintenir
la temprature de l'acier en dessous de la valeur critique pendant la
priode spcifique d'exposition au feu.

3. Mthodes de conception

Les proprits thermiques et mcaniques de l'acier ont t codifies

pour faciliter les travaux de conception et il existe des manuels indiquant
des mthodes d'valuation du comportement des structures. L'exposition
1'incendie considre correspond normalement 1'incendie normalis parce
que c'est sur la base de ce dernier que les prescriptions rglementaires
sont tablies. Toutefoirs, quoique utile en tant qu'instrument de mesure
aux fins de l'tablissement des rglements, l'essai de rsistance
l'incendie normalis n'est pas trs bien adapt aux travaux portant sur
la conception des structures.
 593

En tenant compte des matriaux combustibles disponibles par rapport

la taille et la ventilation du btiment, l'on peut souvent dmontrer
que l'exposition des structures l'incendie est diffrente de l'incendie
normalis ou est moins intense. Un exemple qui a fait ses preuves est le
garage pour automobiles ouvert sur un ct.

L'exposition des lments situs l'extrieur de la faade des

btiments est galement trs diffrente de l'incendie normalis, car
elle farie en fonction de l'emplacement de l'lment par rapport aux
fentres. En ce qui concerne les structures en acier, il serait
souvent utile que les autorits acceptent gnralement la conception
base sur les incendies "naturels" plutt que sur l'incendie normalis.

4. Rglements de construction

Le niveau de protection requis par les autorits en ce qui concerne

les structures des btiments tient compte d'autres facteurs en dehors
de la virulance de l'incendie, tel que le risque couru par les personnes
et par les biens, les consquences de l'effondrement des structures et le
risque couru par les pompiers, mais le niveau de comportement des struc-
tures n'est considr que sous un seul angle, celui de la dure d'exposi-
tion l'incendie dans le cadre de l'essai de rsistance l'incendie
normalis. Il n'y a pas, ou gure, de place pour la reconnaissance ou la
quantification des effets positifs de la dtection automatique et des
systmes d'extinction, des systmes automatiques d'extraction ou de
contrle des fumes, ou encore de la surveillance humaine, aux fins de
remplacer en partie ou en totalit les condition requises en matire de
rsistance l'incendie. Les objectifs des rglements ne sont pas
clairement prciss, ils visent parfois uniquement la protection de la
vie, mais trs souvent ils comnbinent une protection de la vie et des
biens.

Il ressort clairement d'un questionnaire envoy un certain nombre

de centre d'information sur l'acier en Europe (1) que l'absence de
prescriptions clairement nonces en matire de comportement des struc-
tures dans les rglements de construction est considre comme un problme
grave. Le mme questionnaire a galement rvl des divergences entre
les attitudes des pays dans des situations comparables. Quelques pays
sont plus restrictifs que d'autres en ce qui concerne l'utilisation des
structures mtalliques non protges pour les btiments un suel
tage. Tous les pays n'acceptent pas l'acier non protg pour les
structures des toits ou pourries garages pour voitures, mais il n'existe
aucune preuve que la scurit du public ait en btir dans les pays
qui se ontrent moins restrictifs.

5. Suppression des obstacles

Pour le moment, bien que l'essai de rsistance l'incendie normalis

repose, dans chaque pays, sur la mme norme internationale, ISO34,
toutes les autorits comptentes au niveau national font preuve de
rticence lorsqu'il sagit d'accepter les conclusions d'un essai ralis
dans l'un des autres pays. Cela ne fait qu'augmenter les dpences et les
dlais imposs aux consommateurs. La plupart des centres d'essai four-
nissent a prsent des valuations des proprits d'isolement thermique
des matriaux utiliss dans les essais normaliss aux fins de protger
l'acier, mais il arrive souvent que mme ces donnes soient diffici-
 594

lement acceptes dans les autres pays. Dans des cas extrmes, il
arrive que l'on refuse d'accepter une mthode de calcul sur laquelle les
ingnieurs de toutes les nationalits se sont mis d'accord, sous le
prtexte qu'elle est "europenne".

L'on considre que les exigences formules par les assurances

dcouragent l'utilisation de l'acier dans la plupart des pays, sauf en
Grande-Bretagne; des tudes ont montr que cette discrimination n'est pas
justifie si l'on considre la perte des biens dans les btiments
ossature mtalliques.

6. Conclusions

Des mthodes de conception de la scurit au feu des structures

mtalliques ainsi que des structures composites en acier et en bton ont
t mises au point et publies dans des manuels de conception pouvant
tre utiliss par les ingnieurs de mtier de toutes les nationalits.
Sur un plan technique, l'acceptation de l'exprience acquise dans les
autres pays ne pose aucun problme. Les ingnieurs concepteurs spciali-
ss dans l'acier aimeraient que cette acceptation se fasse galement au
niveau de l'administration tant donn que l'exprience pratique des
incendies de btiments montre que les analogies observes sont beaucoup
plus nombreuses que les diffrences.

REFERENCES

1. BEHETS, J.F. et LAW, Margaret (1980). Etude des recherches sur le

comportement des lments de construction acier exposs l'incendie.
Rapport la Communaut Europenne du charbon et de l'acier. CBLIA,
Bruxelles et Ove Arup and Partners, London.
 595

LE COMPORTEMENT AU FEU DES OUVRAGES EN BOIS

E. SAUVAGE
Directeur du Centre Technique de l'Industrie du Bois

Dans le prsent expos, l'on met en vidence les phnomnes en rapport

avec le comportement au feu du bois, et les rgles qui en dcoulent en
vue d'une prvision du niveau de performance des ouvrages, quant leur
rsistance au feu. En outre l'on indique comment procder pour augmenter
les performances d'un lment, en vue de satisfaire un niveau
exigentiel donn.

0. INTRODUCTION

Dans la construction, le bois est le seul matriau qui sert raliser

des lments de construction dont le comportement au feu, doit tre examin
sous le double aspect de la rsistance au feu et de la raction au feu.
Nous n'examinerons ici que l'aspect rsistance au feu, la raction au
feu tant au programme d'un autre panel.
Bien souvent les lments d'ouvrages en bois doivent tre vrifis non
pas uniquement en tant qu'lments seule fonction portante ou sparante,
mais bien simultanment eu gard aux deux fonctions.

1. DESTRUCTION DU BOIS PAR LE FEU

Dans le cas de structures en bois, l'action du feu entrane la

carbonisation de la matire ligneuse qui se poursuit jusqu'au moment o la
section de la pice la plus faible est devenue insuffisante pour qu'elle
puisse continuer remplir sa fonction.
La dure de la rsistance au feu est donc conditionne par la quantit
de matire ligneuse en excs, susceptible d'tre dtruite par carbonisation,
avant que le feu n'attaque la section minimale restante et ncessaire pour
assurer la fonction envisage.
Attaqu par le feu, le bois se carbonise une vitesse relativement
constante depuis la temprature d'ignition du bois c'est dire vers les
275 300C, jusqu' la temprature prvue par les normes pour l'essai de
rsistance au feu (environ 1200C).
La vitesse de carbonisation dpend dans une large mesure de la masse
par volume du bois. Dans le cas des bois rsineux dont la masse volumique
est de l'ordre de 400 500 kg/m3 par exemple sapin rouge du Nord, pica,
Douglas, Oregon, etc. ... elle est de l'ordre de 0,6 mm/min. minimum et
n'excde pas 1,1 mm/min. maximum.
Par contre, dans le cas de bois feuillus plus denses, par exemple le
chne dont la masse par volume varie de 600 800 kg/m3 cette vitesse est
ramene environ 0,3 mm/min. minimum 0,6 mm/min. maximum.
 596

Les vitesses cites ici sont considrer comme des ordres de

grandeur car, en plus de la masse par volume, d'autres facteurs inter-
viennent galement. Il s'agit principalement de la forme, des dimensions
et de l'orientation dans l'espace.
I l e s t n o t e r que l e f a i t d ' i g n i f u g e r l e b o i s , e s t presque sans
influence sur l a v i t e s s e de c a r b o n i s a t i o n . L ' i g n i f u g a t i o n ayant pour seul
e f f e t p r a t i q u e de r e t a r d e r l ' a p p a r i t i o n de flammes l a surface du b o i s ,
e t d'en I m i t e r l a v i t e s s e de p r o p a g a t i o n . En d ' a u t r e s mots, l ' i g n i f u g a t i o n
a g i t sur l a r a c t i o n au feu, e t peu ou pas sur l a r s i s t a n c e au feu.

2. LES CONSEQUENCES DE L'ORIENTATION DES ELEMENTS PAR RAPPORT A

L'ATTAQUE DU FEU.

Des recherches systmatiques effectues principalement en Allemagne

et au Royaume-Uni ont permis de constater que la vitesse de carbonisation
d'un lment en bois est influence par son orientation. Ainsi, les
valeurs cites au dbut de cet expos, sont le rsultat d'essais effectus
sur des poutres et des colonnes.
La vitesse la plus faible est observe dans le cas des colonnes; une
vitesse lgrement plus leve est observe pour les faces latrales et la
face suprieure des poutres, la carbonisation la plus rapide tant observe
la face infrieure des poutres.
Enfin dans certains cas, il peut tre ncessaire de tenir compte de la
carbonisation des artes qui trs rapide au dpart, se ralentit progressive-
ment jusqu' arrondissement de la section considre.

3 . RENFORCEMENT DE LA RESISTANCE AU FEU.

Si l'on ne dispose pas de la possibilit d'utiliser des pices de

section suffisante, ou bien si l'on se trouve en prsence d'un lment
structure "lgre", on peut atteindre la rsistance au feu souhaite en
protgeant le bois par un bouclier thermique. Celui-ci a pour effet de re-
tarder l'apparition du phnomne de carbonisation.
Le bouclier "thermique" peut tre constitu par un revtement minral,
ex. du pltre, ou combustible, ex. des panneaux base de bois. Massifs ou
contreplaqus, les bois de mme espce ont sensiblement la mme vitesse de
carbonisation, puisque le contreplaqu n'est en fait qu'une variante struc-
turelle du bois massif.
En ce qui concerne le panneau de particules, il y a lieu de noter que
la vitesse de carbonisation dpend directement de la masse par volume, qui
peut varier de 400 jusqu' 800 kg/m3. En pratique, les panneaux les plus
utiliss ont 600 kg/m3, et se carbonisent une vitesse de l'ordre de
1 mm/minute, c'est dire plus rapidement que le bois de mme densit.
Le cas chant on peut encore envisager de renforcer l'effet du bou-
clier thermique en plaant l'arrire de celui-ci, un isolant thermique
adquat.
Ce systme renforc est surtout recommand dans le cas des lments
fonction sparante.
 597

4. L'INFLUENCE DES ASSEMBLAGES.

Pour terminer il est indispensable d'attirer l'attention sur la

ncessit de concevoir des assemblages qui soient bien entendu aussi
rsistants que les lments assembls.
Vu la complexit de cet aspect du problme il n'est pas possible de
l'aborder mme sommairement dans le cadre du prsent expos.
 598

ETUDE DU COMPORTEMENT AU FEU DE BATIMENTS D'HABITATION

COLLECTIVE A OSSATURE BOIS

CHEF DE BATAILLON AYMARD

Directeur departemental des Services
d'Incendie et de Secours des Hautes-Alpes

La ralisation d'immeubles d'habitation collective ossature bois

a conduit rechercher des solutions permettant de satisfaire aux exigences
de comportement au feu, solutions adaptes au procd de construction dit
colombage.

Comme il n'existe pas de procdure normalise permettant par un

essai de laboratoire de dterminer la stabilit au feu des btiments dans
leur ensemble, ce comportement au feu est apprci soit par l'interprtation
analogique, soit par le calcul.

Les immeubles concerns abritent :

. pour l'un, HUIT logements sur trois niveaux avec des locaux communs,
. pour l'autre, SEIZE logements sur quatre niveaux.

Dans les deux cas, le plancher bas du niveau le plus lev est situ
moins de huit mtres du sol.

Les lments de construction de ces btiments doivent donc prsenter

une stabilit gnrale au feu de dure une demi-heure, pour les lments
porteurs, et un coupe-feu de mme dure pour les lments fonctions
sparantes.

Les paliers et voles d'escaliers doivent quant eux prsenter une

stabilit au feu de une heure.

Ces objectifs ont t acquis par la conjugaison des solutions tenant

. la ralisation de "boucliers" thermiques,
. le surdimensionnement de l'ossature,
. le remplissage des vides du colombage par des matriaux isolants.

L'effet majeur a t obtenu par la protection thermique de l'ossature.

Le remplissage des vides effectu avec de la laine de verre, bien

que primordial pour viter l'effet de chemine, de mme que le surdimension-
nement des pices ne sont pris en compte qu'en mesure complmentaire.

La protection thermique apporte par le parement intrieur est

constitue
. pour les parois verticales par une association entre plaques de parement
pltre et panneaux de particules
. pour les parois horizontales par la mise en place d'une double paisseur
de plaques de parement pltre fixes sur rail mtallique
. pour les paliers et voles d'escaliers par la prsence en sous face d'un
complexe panneau de particules, plaque de parement pltre "spciale feu".
 599

Une a t t e n t i o n toute particulire a t apporte aux joints et raccorde-

ments des plaques qui constituent les points faibles potentiels du bouclier
thermique.

De mme, tous les interstices au niveau des raccordements de parois

ont t bourrs de laine de verre pour viter la fois les ponts thermiques
et phoniques et le passage du feu.

Enfin, parmi les autres lments de scurit, i l convient de signaler

. l'installation d'une bavette mtallique hauteur de chaque plancher, destine
recouper la laine d'air en paroi v e r t i c a l e extrieure.

La mise en oeuvre de ces solutions simples a permis de satisfaire

aux exigences de scurit en cas d'incendie au regard du btiment pris dans
son ensemble mais isolment.

Par contre, la prsence d'un important potentiel calorifique inhrent

au contenant, posera le problme de l'isolement des constructions entre
elles lors de la ralisation d'ensembles de btiments de c e t t e nature.
 600

LA DIVERSITE DES ESSAIS DE COMPORTEMENT AU FEU

DANS LA C.E.E.

G. BLACHERE
Auxirbat, Paris

Les essais u t i l i s s dans La C.E.E. pour c a r a c t r i s e r Le comportement

au feu des matriaux u t i L i s s dans Le btiment s o n t , sauf u n , des essais
ou L'on s ' e f f o r c e de s i m u l e r Les c i r c o n s t a n c e s d ' u n f e u r e l . I L s n ' o n t
pas pour o b j e t de mesurer des c a r a c t r i s t i q u e s p h y s i c o - c h i m i q u e s de base:
Ce que l ' o n c o n s t a t e ce sont des temps, des d i s t a n c e s et des t e m p r a t u r e s .
I l y a dans La C.E.E. 30 e s s a i s d i f f r e n t s , et c e r t a i n s pays u t i l i s e n t
les essais d ' a u t r e s p a y s .
Les essais d ' i n f l a m m a t i o n u t i l i s e n t comme n e r g i e d ' i n f l a m m a t i o n :
Le rayonnement ( d ' u n panneau, ou d ' u n f o u r )
ou La flamme d ' u n b r l e u r .
Les essais de p r o p a g a t i o n sont sauvent d i f f i c i l e s d i s t i n g u e r des
prcdents car i l s comportent ncessairement une phase d ' i n f l a m m a t i o n -
La p r o p a g a t i o n se f a i t sans apport d ' n e r g i e ou sous rayonnement ou sous
b r l e u r - e l l e se f a i t dans c e r t a i n s essais dans Le sens v e r t i c a l , La
flamme c o n t r i b u a n t sa p r o p a g a t i o n .
C e r t a i n s essais p l u s complexes encore c o n s t a t e n t l ' i n f l a m m a t i o n et la
p r o p a g a t i o n sur un c h a n t i l l o n (ou p l u s i e u r s ) expos au rayonnement d ' u n
premier c h a n t i l l o n .
Les essais de d t e r m i n a t i o n de L ' a l i m e n t du f e u ne sont c a l o r i m t r i q u e s
que dans Le cas de la bombe; dans Les a u t r e s cas i l s f o n t une synthse de
p o u v o i r c a l o r i f i q u e (spcialement des gaz de p y r o l y s e ) d'chauffement et
d ' i n f Lammabi l i t .
Ces essais donnent l i e u des classements, u t i l i s s dans l e s
rglements de s c u r i t . On n'a pas j u s q u ' i c i pu mesurer L ' e f f i c a c i t des
rglements i n t r i n s q u e m e n t ou par comparaison. L o r s q u ' o n souponne une
i n s u f f i s a n c e , ou l o r s q u ' u n nouveau r i s q u e se p r s e n t e (matriaux nouveaux)
de nouveaux essais sont c r s , q u i s ' a j o u t e n t aux a n c i e n s . Chaque pays
a nanmoins son essai de base (pi r a d i a t e u r , b r a n d s c h a c h t , panneau r a d i a n t ,
etc.).
Parmi Les essais nouveaux, i l f a u t s i g n a l e r Les essais d ' o p a c i t et
de t o x i c i t des p r o d u i t s de la combustion.
Des e f f o r t s ont t f a i t s pour c o r r l e r les r s u l t a t s d ' e s s a i s avec
l e comportement en i n c e n d i e s r e l s , ce q u ' o n n'a pu pratiquement f a i r e ,
et avec des essais en g r a n d e u r , ce q u i a montr q u ' i l n'y a v a i t pas
c o r r l a t i o n . De mme, i l n ' y a pas c o r r l a t i o n e n t r e les classements
s u i v a n t les d i v e r s e s s a i s .
P o u r t a n t Les grandeurs p h y s i c o - c h i m i q u e s de base qui i n t e r v i e n n e n t
dans les d i v e r s essais sont Les mmes. Mais Leur i n f l u e n c e sur les grandeurs
 601

c o n t r l e s (temps, d i s t a n c e , temprature) e s t d i f f r e n t e , dont Les

classements.
Cette s i t u a t i o n p r s e n t e pour les i n d u s t r i e l s la gne de l ' o b l i g a t i o n
d ' e s s a i s m u l t i p l i s , m a i s , plus e n c o r e , de la n c e s s i t de m o d i f i e r les
p r o d u i t s vendus dans les d i f f r e n t s pays pour o b t e n i r le classement q u i
ouvre l e march.
Deux remdes sont p o s s i b l e s , q u i reposent tous deux sur une m e i l l e u r e
connaissance de ce qui se passe r e l l e m e n t dans l e s e s s a i s .
1) A l a demande de l a C.E.E. l ' I R B a t s ' e s t a t t a c h v o i r s i l ' o n
p o u v a i t t i r e r d ' e s s a i s f a i t s dans un pays des enseignements permettant de l e
f a i r e accepter pour un emploi donn dans un a u t r e pays: c ' e s t plus ou moins
f a c i l e s u i v a n t que les e s s a i s des deux pays sont de mme i n s p i r a t i o n (par
exemple: e s s a i s sous panneaux r a d i a n t s d i f f r e n t s ) .
La premire p a r t i e de l ' t u d e p o r t a n t sur 6 pays seulement ( B e l g i q u e ,
France, Grande B r e t a g n e , I r l a n d e , I t a l i e , Luxembourg) a conduit au succs
immdiat dans 50% des c a s , et a montr que dans 25% de cas supplmentaires
on p o u v a i t esprer r u s s i r au p r i x de c e r t a i n e s mesures d e s t i n e s
c a r a c t r i s e r la c o n t r a i n t e thermique i n t e r v e n a n t dans les e s s a i s .
La deuxime p a r t i e , q u i tendra l ' t u d e la t o t a l i t des 10 pays
et qui est en c o u r s , l a i s s e esprer un succs comparable, mme s i un peu
plus f a i b l e .
2) Les e f f o r t s e n t r e p r i s pour t a b l i r un classement europen, sur la
base d ' e s s a i s communs ont t d c e v a n t s .
E f f e c t u e r des mesures c a r a c t r i s a n t les phnomnes qui gouvernent l e
comportement des matriaux dans les d i v e r s essais p e r m e t t r a i t p e u t - t r e
de mieux les comprendre, et s ' a b o u t i r la p r a t i q u e de mesures ou essais
basiques communs d e s q u e l s , dans chaque pays, on p o u r r a i t d d u i r e le
comportement p r v i s i b l e aux essais nationaux et le classement n a t i o n a l .
I l f a u t e n f i n s o u l i g n e r que mme l o r s q u e p l u s i e u r s pays u t i l i s e n t un
mme e s s a i , les p r a t i q u e s d i f f r e n t par des c a r a c t r e s annexes comme l e
type de s u p p o r t , le nombre de t h e r m o - c o u p l e s , l e nombre d ' p r e u v e s , e t c .
Ce s e r a i t une preuve de bonne v o l o n t europenne des l a b o r a t o i r e s q u ' i l s
parviennent u n i f i e r tous ces c a r a c t r e s .
 602

RISQUES TOXICOLOGIQUES DANS L'INCENDIE

Claire HERPOL
Dr. sci., Chef de Travaux au Laboratoire de Zoophysiologie de l'Universit
de l'Etat Gand, Belgique

1. INTRODUCTION

En ces dernires dcnies le problme de la toxicit des fumes d'in-

cendie fait l'objet d'une attention croissante, tant de la part du public
alarm par quelques grandes catastrophes, que de la part des autorits et
de tous les milieux concerns par ce risque.

2. EVALUATION DP RISQUE

Des tudes systmatiques d'autopsies ont permis d'tablir que la majo-

rit des victimes meurent parce que l'effet des fumes libres par l'in-
cendie leur fait perdre conscience, ce qui les empche de fuir et de se
soustraire au contact direct des tempratures leves et des flammes.
Des tmoignages, tant de sapeurs-pompiers que de survivants, sont une
autre source d'information mais l'tude scientifique du comportement humain
en cas d'incendie en est encore ses dbuts.

3. METHODES D'ESSAI

L'analyse chimique des gaz effluents par les mthodes analytiques mo-
dernes est la premire approche qui se prsente l'esprit. Mais l'inter-
prtation des rsultats se heurte des difficults quasi insurmontables
dues la complexit des atmosphres gnres par la pyrolyse et la combus-
tion incomplte des matriaux.
La valeur limite de l'analyse chimique pour l'valuation des risques
toxicologiques a donn lieu au dveloppement de mthodes, faisant usage
d'animaux de laboratoire, pour valuer la rponse globale tous les toxi-
ques prsents.
Ces mthodes appartiennent deux catgories principales :
- dans les mthodes "statiques" les produits de la dcomposition thermique
sont gnrs dans la chambre d'exposition des animaux;
- dans les mthodes "dynamiques" les fumes sont produites en dehors de
l'endroit d'exposition et transfres vers celui-ci l'aide d'un courant
d'air.
Les rsultats de chaque mthode n'ont qu'une signification plus ou
moins limite, en rapport avec les conditions d'incendie que le modle
thermique est capable de reproduire.

4. RECHERCHES

4.1. Recherches par voie analytique

De nos jours une information considrable est disponible, tant sur la
nature, que sur les quantits de produits plus ou moins toxiques suscepti-
bles d'tre prsents dans une atmosphre d'incendie. La majorit des pro-
duits toxiques identifis appartiennent deux catgories:
- les narcotiques, tel le monoxyde de carbone;
- les irritants, tel l'acide chlorhydrique.
Par le technique dite des "empreintes digitales" (comparaison de chro-
matogrammes) il est actuellement possible d'tablir la signification des
modles par rapport aux diverses phases d'un incendie rel.
 603

4.2. Recherches par voie biologique

La majorit des travaux a t effectue en utilisant des rongeurs. R-
cemment des tudes ont galement t faites sur des primates.
Les divers effets toxiques qu'il est possible d'adopter comme critres
d'valuation de la toxicit sont passs en revue. Gnralement les toxico-
logues recommandent une valuation globale, les systmes biologiques ne
pouvant pas tre caractriss de faon adquate par une seule valeur num-
rique.
La comparaison de la toxicit relative des produits de pyrolyse ou de
combustion incomplte peut se faire de diverses faons:
- en utilisant la relation concentration/effet pour une dure d'exposition
donne (p.ex. CL-. = concentration mortelle, en un temps donn, pour 50%
des animaux exposes);
- en utilisant la relation temps/effet pour une concentration donne (p.ex.
TL- = dure d'exposition pour que la concentration donne soit mortelle
pour 50% des animaux exposs);
- en utilisant les courbes concentration/dure d'exposition, suivant la loi
de Haber.
Quoi qu'il en soit, de nombreux essais sont ncessaires pour obtenir
les valeurs voulues et il semble difficile d'envisager de telles approches
pour des essais de routine
Entretemps, avec les quelques dizaines de mthodes pour gnrer les
atmosphres et la multitude de critres biologiques possibles, la littra-
ture offre un nombre norme de rsultats qui ont le grand inconvnient de
ne pas tre comparables entre-eux. C'est la raison pour laquelle 1'ISO a
cre ds 1976 un groupe de travail en vue d'une harmonisation ventuelle.

4.3. Recherches sur des primates

Ces recherches sont effectues avec des doses sublthales de produits
de dcomposition thermique, administrs des singes jusqu' ce qu'appa-
raissent les premiers signes d'intoxication.
Malgr la complexit chimique des atmosphres, les effets sur les sin-
ges sont relativement simples et toujours domins par un aspect parmi les
trois qui ont t identifis: - l'effet narcotique du monoxyde de carbone;
- l'effet narcotique de l'acide cyanhydrique;
- l'effet combin d'irritants.
Ceci n'exclut pas la possibilit de la production de substances to-
xicit inaccoutume puisque la prsence de telles substances a effective-
ment t dmontre.
Ces recherches sur des primates sont importantes puisqu'elles permet-
tent une meilleure comprhension des voies d'intoxication et elles auront
des implications certaines sur les perspectives futures de la toxicologie
de la combustion.

5. NORMALISATION ET LEGISLATION

Jusqu'ici fort peu de pays ont pris des mesures en ce qui concerne la
toxicit des fumes. Les pays suivants sont concerns:
- la Rpublique Fdrale Allemande (norme DIN 53436);
- la France (Arrt Ministriel du 20 janvier 1977);
- le Japon (Ordonnance n 1231 du Ministre des Travaux Publics);
- l'Union Sovitique (GOST 12.1.017-80).
En outre la dtermination de la toxicit par l'analyse chimique de
certains gaz effluents est recommande dans des domaines particuliers com-
me 1'lectrotechnique (France UTE/C20-454) ou l'aronautique (Industrie
Airbus).
 604

Au RoyaumeUni un document (BSIPD6503:1982) clarifie la rticence des

experts en ce qui concerne la normalisation d'essais de toxicit et exprime
des recommandations sur la mise au point de tels essais.
Dans d'autres pays, comme la Belgique, la toxicit des fumes est pri
se en considration en des termes assez vagues tels que "action physiologi
que tolerable" mais il n'y a aucune spcification la concernant.
Il ne faut cependant pas oublier que des exigences de compartimentage
ou de protection des voies d'vacuation concernent aussi la toxicit mais
n'entrent pas dans le cadre du prsent expos.

6. TRAVAUX DE L'ISO ET FUTURES PERSPECTIVES

En 1976 le CT 92 de l'ISO a mis sur pied le GT 12 "Risques d'intoxi

cation par le feu". Lors de la rorganisation du CT 92 en 191 ce groupe
a t reconverti en un souscomit (SC 3) qui compte 4 GT's.
La premire tche du GT 12 a t de rdiger un rapport technique don
nant un aperu des diverses recherches en cours. Ce rapport, publi en
1979, recommande que priorit soit done au dveloppement d'une mthode
permettant 1'identification de matriaux produisant une atmosphre toxique
inaccoutume.
Deux mthodes ont t prises en considration pour une tude plus ap
profondie: une mthode "dynamique", la mthode DIN 53436;
une mthode "statique", la mthode NBS dite Pott's pot.
En ce moment les travaux des nouveaux GT's sont en cours et des docu
ments techniques remplaant le prcdent sont en prparation. Ceuxci ti
ennent compte des progrs enregistrs dans la recherche.
La technique dite des "empreintes digitales" a permis de comparer les
atmosphres gnres dans les deux modles tudis des atmosphres ren
contres dans l'incendie rel et de conclure qu'ils produisent des atmos
phres qui correspondent des circonstances d'incendie diffrentes. Le
GT 1 s'efforce d'tablir une liste de critres auxquels un modle incendie,
candidat la normalisation, devrait rpondre. Le GT 2 tablit un inven
taire des mthodes analytiques pour les gaz courants tandis que le GT 3
s'occupe des critres pour le modle animal.
Grce aux recherches effectues sur des primates, l'effet des gaz nar
cotiques (CO et HCN) commence tre bien connu. Ceci permet de concevoir
que l'on pourra effectuer une prslection des matriaux sur base de l'ana
lyse de la vlocit d'apparition de ces gaz dans les fumes produites en
des circonstances bien dfinies. Si l'on peut prdire qu'une atmosphre se
ra insoutenable par la seule prsence des gaz narcotiques il est inutile
d'y soumettre des animaux de laboratoire. Dans le cas contraire il faut
s'assurer de l'absence d'autres agents toxiques en effectuant un essai bio
logique .
Aujourd'hui pratiquement tous les experts du SC 3 sont conscients du
fait que le risque toxicologique associ l'incendie n'est qu'une partie
du risque total. Ils estiment que l'usage de rsultats toxicologiques doit
rte limit l'apport de donnes qui doivent tre intgres dans une ana
lyse raliste du risque global. Ces rsultats ne peuvent en aucun cas tre
utiliss comme un critre indpendant de l'ensemble.
Malgr cet accord les avis des experts restent partags quant l'op
portunit de proposer, au stade actuel de nos connaissances, une mthode
d'essai biologique comme projet de norme internationale. Le GT 4 rdige
des commentaires sur les divers points de vues et aspects concernant le
problme.
 605

PRODUITS EN BOIS
G.S. HALL
TRADA (Timber Research & Development Association) , UK

Le feu ignore les frontires nationales, et pourtant il existe d'un

pays l'autre d'importantes diffrences entre les lgislations
destines en assurer la matrise et limiter les dgts qu'il peut
causer. Le prsent expos a pour but de prsenter succintement les
effets que ces lgislations peuvent avoir sur l'utilisation de
revtements base de bois dans les immeubles des pays de la CEE. Vu
la complexit de la lgislation, l'information a t recueillie et
prsente du point de vue des produits et matriaux dont l'utilisation
est autorise pour la confection de revtements employer dans
diffrentes situations. Cette approche est facilite par la rgularit
des rsultats obtenus aux essais d'incendie par le bois et les panneaux
base de bois. Cependant, la possibilit d'appliquer des traitements
aprs fabrication ou d'incorporer, en cours de fabrication, des
produits chimiques retardant la propagation de la flamme et amliorant
ainsi la tenue au feu de ces produits, soulve immdiatement le
problme des mthodes d'essai et des niveaux de performance. Ceux-ci
sont d'ailleurs trs diffrents et une comparaison dtaille est
impossible du fait que de nombreuses mthodes d'essai nationales
donnent des rsultats dpendant largement de la nature de l'essai. On
a cependant tent d'valuer les possibilits accrues d'utilisation des
produits base de bois que permettent certains traitements disponibles
dans le commerce.
 606

TEXTILES ET REVETEMENTS DE SOLS

L. BENISEK
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Wool S e c r e t a r i a t , Development Centre,
I l k l e y , West Yorkshire, Angleterre

Le 17 j a n v i e r 1984, l a Commission des Communauts europennes a

p r s e n t au Conseil une p r o p o s i t i o n de recommandation fonde sur des
normes n a t i o n a l e s concernant l a s c u r i t incendie dans l e s h t e l s . En
ce qui concerne l e s revtements de s o l s , de murs e t de plafonds, ces
normes sont rsumes au tableau 1. Le but du p r s e n t expos e s t d ' a p p r -
c i e r l e s d i f f r e n t e s mthodes d ' e s s a i s d ' i n f l a m m a b i l i t au niveau n a t i o n a l
e t d ' v a l u e r l a p o s s i b i l i t d'harmoniser l e s mthodes d ' e s s a i s l ' i n t -
r i e u r de l a CEE.

Les mthodes d ' e s s a i s au niveau n a t i o n a l peuvent t r e d i v i s e s en

e s s a i s simulant une p e t i t e source d'inflammation (flamme d'un b r l e u r )
ou une importante source d ' inf lamnation (chaleur rayonnante e t / o u flammes).

E s s a i s bass sur de p e t i t e s sources d'inflammation

PIN 54332/DIN 66081 - La surface d'un c h a n t i l l o n s i t u dans un plan

v e r t i c a l e s t expose l a flamme d'un b r l e u r . La norme DIN 66081
c l a s s e l e s matriaux en t r o i s c a t g o r i e s (Ta,Tb, Te) selon l e temps de
combustion e t l a v i t e s s e de propagation de l a flamme.

CSE RF2,75 - C e t t e norme i t a l i e n n e e s t t r s s i m i l a i r e DIN 54332.

E s s a i s bass sur des sources importantes d'inflammation

BS 476 6e p a r t i e , 1981 - Cet e s s a i mesure l a q u a n t i t e t l a v i t e s s e de

dgagement de c h a l e u r , par un c h a n t i l l o n s i t u dans un plan v e r t i c a l ,
expos des flammes p i l o t e e t une chaleur rayonnante dans une chambre
ferme. Le comportement e s t exprim sous forme d ' u n indice numrique.

BS 476 7e p a r t i e , 1971 - On c h a n t i l l o n s i t u dans un plan v e r t i c a l

p e r p e n d i c u l a i r e a un panneau r a d i a n t lumire s i t u dans un p l a n v e r t i c a l ,
e s t expos une i n t e n s i t maximale de chaleur r a d i a n t e d ' e n v i r o n 4 W/cm2
e t une flamme p i l o t e l ' e n d r o i t l e p l u s chaud de l ' c h a n t i l l o n . Les
matriaux sont c l a s s s en q u a t r e c a t g o r i e s selon l a v i t e s s e de propaga-
t i o n de l a flamme.

CSE RF3,75 - C e t t e norme i t a l i e n n e e s t base sur un panneau r a d i a n t s i t u

dans un plan v e r t i c a l , p r o d u i s a n t un flux de chaleur de 6,2 W/cm2.
L ' c h a n t i l l o n peut t r e expos l a chaleur rayonnante e t une flarnne
p i l o t e dont l a p o s i t i o n correspond c e l l e des revtements de s o l s ,
murs ou plafonds, p a r rapport au panneau. On mesure l a v i t e s s e de
propagation de l a flamme, l a longueur de l ' c h a n t i l l o n endommage e t l e
temps de p e r s i s t a n c e de l a flamme.

PIN 4102 1re p a r t i e - Les revtements de murs e t de plafonds sont

evalues dans l ' e s s a i Brandschacht. Quatre c h a n t i l l o n s s i t u s dans un
plan v e r t i c a l , p e r p e n d i c u l a i r e s l e s uns par r a p p o r t aux a u t r e s , sont
exposs aux flammes d ' u n brleur j e t s m u l t i p l e s sous un courant d ' a i r
 607

ascendant d b i t a n t 10 m3/min, dans une chambre. Les matriaux sont

c l a s s s en deux c a t g o r i e s selon l a v i t e s s e de propagation de l a flamme
e t l a temprature des p r o d u i t s de combustion.

Les revtements de s o l s sont valus dans l e NBS FLOORING RA DIA NT PANEL

TEST ( e s s a i s de revtements de s o l s au panneau r a d i a n t du NBS) (A STME
64878). L ' c h a n t i l l o n p l a c sur l e sol d'une chambre d ' e s s a i e s t expos
l a chaleur rayonnante provenant d ' u n panneau r a d i a n t , i n c l i n de 30
par rapport l ' c h a n t i l l o n , e t une flamme p i l o t e . La r p a r t i t i o n ,
gueur (100 ) de
un minimum
de 0,1 W/cm . La longueur d ' c h a n t i l l o n b r l e j u s q u ' e x t i n c t i o n de
l a flamme e s t c o n v e r t i e en W/cm e t d f i n i t l e flux r a d i a n t c r i t i q u e .

NEN3883 C e t t e norme nerlandaise e s t analogue au BS 476 6e e t 7e

parties.

NFP 92501 ( E p i r a d i a t e u r ) L ' c h a n t i l l o n , d'une paisseur s u p r i e u r e

5mm i n c l i n e a 45 , l a surface expose t a n t tourne v e r s l e b a s , e s t
soumis une chaleur rayonnante de 3 W/cm dans une chambre d ' e s s a i .
Les matriaux sont c l a s s s en q u a t r e c a t g o r i e s (M1M4) en fonction du
temps d'inflammation, de l a longueur de l a flamme e t du dgagement de
chaleur.

NFP 92503 (Brleur l e c t r i q u e ) Des c h a n t i l l o n s d'une p a i s s e u r gale

ou i n f e r i e u r e a 5mm, i n c l i n e s a 30 par r a p p o r t l ' h o r i z o n t a l e , l a
surface expose t a n t tourne v e r s l e b a s , sont soumis une chaleur
rayonnante e t une flamme p i l o t e i n t e r v a l l e s r g u l i e r s . Les matriaux
sont c l a s s s en q u a t r e c a t g o r i e s (M1M4 ) en fonction du temps de p e r s i s
tance de l a flamme, de l a longueur e t de l a l a r g e u r de l a p a r t i e carbo
n i s e a i n s i que du comportement l a fusion.

NFP 92506 I l s ' a g i t d'un e s s a i au panneau r a d i a n t analogue BS 476 7e

partie.

Nordtest NT F i r e 007 Echantillon f a i s a n t un angle de 30 sur l ' h o r i

z o n t a l e dont 1 ' e x t r m i t i n f r i e u r e e s t expose l ' a c t i o n d'un bcher
enflamm (42gr) e t plac dans un courant d ' a i r de 2 m/s. La v i t e s s e de l a
flamme e t l ' i n t e n s i t du dgagement de fume sont mesures.

Ce bref rsum indique q u ' i l e x i s t e des analogies e n t r e l e s d i v e r s e s

normes n a t i o n a l e s e t l ' h a r m o n i s a t i o n s u i v a n t e peut t r e propose.

Revtements de s o l s

Comitextil propose de r e c o u r i r l ' e s s a i Tablet (ISO 6925, BS 6307)

simulant une p e t i t e source d'inflammation, a f i n d ' i d e n t i f i e r l e s matriaux
p r s e n t a n t un r i s q u e d ' i n c e n d i e i n a c c e p t a b l e . Les matriaux s a t i f a i s a n t
cet e s s a i peuvent t r e u t i l i s s dans des zones r i s q u e normal, p a r
exemple l e s chambres e t l e s bureaux.

En ce qui concerne l e s zones r i s q u e lev par exemple l e s

c o r r i d o r s e t l e dgagements, l ' e s s a i au panneau r a d i a n t pour revtements
de s o l s du NBS (A STM 64878) e s t propos. Cet e s s a i a t v a l i d par des
incendies de c o r r i d o r s en v r a i e grandeur e t a permis d ' i d e n t i f i e r l e s
revtements de s o l s impliqus dans des incendies r e l s , comme t a n t l e
premier matriau s'enflammer e t propager la flamme.
 608

I l existe dans le carneree des moquettes, composes de diffrentes

fibres, et satisfaisant aux exigences les plus rigoureuses en matire de
comportement (flus radiant critique 0,45 W/cm ) ce qui dpasse les
valeurs fixes pour les revtements en bois.
Four que le comportement au feu des moquettes soit r a l i s t e et
exact, i l est essentiel d ' u t i l i s e r les moquettes avec leur thibaude, et
de mesurer la propagation de la flamme au moment de l'extinction de l a
flamme (flame out) et non pas aprs 30 minutes, comme cela a t propos
rcemment par ISO/TC38/SC19/W35 (comportement au feu des moquettes). Si
ces deux conditions de base ne sont pas observes, l ' e s s a i risque de ne
pas permettre l'identification des moquettes suceptibles de s'enflammer
facilement.
Revtements de murs

Bour simuler de petites sources d'inflammation, un essai analogue

DIN 54332 et/ou CSERF2,75 pourrait tre u t i l e . ISO/TC38/SC19/VJG5
soumet un essai analogue l'valuation de plusieurs laboratoires. Pour
les zones risque plus lev, par exemle les corridors, les dgagements,
les grandes salles accessibles au public, l'chantillon doit tre situ
dans un plan vertical e t soumis une source de chaleur rayonnante
extrieure, ce qui permet de mesurer la propagation de l a flamme et/ou le
dgagement de chaleur, comme dans BS 476 6e et 7e parties, NEN 3883, CSE
RF3,75 et NFP 92-506. Des normes analogues sont dj applicables dans
six pays de la CEE (B, GB, GR, I , IRL, NL).
Revtements de plafonds

Pour une simulation r a l i s t e , l'chantillon devrait tre plac

dans une position reproduisant celle d'un plafond. Seule la norme
italienne CSE FR3,75 remplit cette condition. L'utilisation de mthodes
d'essais bases sur des chantillons situs dans un plan vertical exige-
r a i t une mise en corrlation avec des incendies en vraie grandeur afin de
valider l ' ( l e s ) essai(s) en laboratoire.
Cette tude montre que l'harmonisation des mthodes d'essais d'inflam-
mabilit des revtements de sols et de murs, l ' i n t r i e u r de l a CEE,
est techniquement et conomiquement possible. Cette harmonisation doit
tre ralise de toute urgence afin de f a c i l i t e r les changes entre
Etats au sein de la CEE et d'viter les obstacles inutiles aux changes.
Par a i l l e u r s , elle entranerait une diminution sensible du cot des
essais et des dlais ncessaires, qui pour l'heure, sont inutilement
coteux et trop longs, e t ce, parce que l a plupart des pays de l a CEE
ont des normes diffrentes.
Comitextil est activement engag dans le domaine de l'harmonisation des
mthodes - justes et ralistes - d'essais d'inflammabilit des t e x t i l e s ,
afin d'encourager les changes au sein de la CEE et d'liminer les
obstacles actuels, et inutiles, aux changes.
Le contenu des btiments peut tre galement une source d'incendie,
d'o l'importance des essais d'inflammabilit des siges rembourrs et
des rideaux. Une mthode d'essai ISO appliqu aux siges rembourrs est
base sur une source d'inflammation constitue par une cigarette et une
 609

allumette est en cours d'tablissement dans l e cadre d'ISO/TC136/SC1/WG4

(inflanmabilit du mobilier). ISO 6940 e t 6941 valuent la f a c i l i t
d'inflammation e t la vitesse de propagation de l a flamme des rideaux
exposs une source d ' inflammation constitue par une flamme courte.

Outre la f a c i l i t d'inflammation et la propagation de la flamme, i l

-ion et du contenu, afin de permettre d'valuer globalement le risque
d'inflanmabilit d'un matriau. ISO/TC92/SC1 e t SC3 touchent ce domaine

TABLEAU 1

PRINCIPAUX ESSAIS D ' INFLAMMABILITE DES REVETEMENTS DE SOLS, MURS ET

PLAFONDS DANS LA CEE

Mthodes d'essais/normes Produit

1. BS 476 6e partie 1981 c,w B, GB, GR, IRL

2. BS 476 7e partie 1971 c,w B, GB, GR, IRL
3. C.S.E. RF 2,75 F,W I
4. C.S.E. RF 3,75 C,F,W I
5. DIN 4102 1re partie
Essai Brandschacht C,W D,L
DIN 54332/DIN 66081 F D,L
Panneau radiant pour F D,L
les revtements de
sols du NBS
6. NEN 3883 C,F,W NL
7. NFP 92-501 C,F,W B,F
8. NFP 92-503 C,W F
9. NFP 92-506 C,F,W F
10. Nordtest NT Fire 007 F DK

C - Revtements de plafonds
F - Revtements de sols
W - Revtements de murs
 610

PANNEAUX DE MATERIAUX MINERAUX POUR LA CONSTRUCTION

Dr G. NEUHAUSER

Gebr. Knauf, Westdeutsche Gipswerke, Iphofen (D)

Le rapport traite de la tenue au feu des panneaux suivants:

1. panneaux de silicate de calcium
2. panneaux de pltre
3. panneaux de vermiculite
4. panneaux de periite.

Les panneaux minraux purement inorganiques comme les panneaux

d'amiante -ciment ou les plaques murales de pltre ne sont pas traits.
Incontestablement, ils sont considrs dans tous les pays comme des
matriaux de construction ininflammables et ne sont soumis aucune
restriction.

Les panneaux voqus ici sont essentiellement composs de matriaux

minraux inorganiques. Ils contiennent une faible proportion de substances
organiques inflammables. S'agissant de la tenue au feu, ils sont de ce
fait trs intressants, car il recouvrent le domaine qui se situe entre
les matriaux de construction ininflammables "classiques" et les matriaux
inflammables.

1. Panneaux de silicate de calcium

Le silicate de calcium, qui est un liant, est produit a partir de

la raction chimique de la chaux teinte et du quartz. Les panneaux
contiennent en outre des agrgats minraux lgers (mica, perlite) et des
fibres (fibres cellulosiques, fibres minrales). Application dans des
structures anti-feu. Divers types sont fabriqus. La densit apparente
des panneaux va de 200 1 200 kg/m . De ce fait, les proportions
respectives de granulats et de fibres varient.

En dpit de la multiplicit des types, la tenue au feu est tout

fait uniforme. Dans tous les Etats, ces panneaux sont reprsents dans
les catgories suprieures de matriaux de construction. Si on les classe
selon les critres "inflammable" et "ininflammable", la grande majorit
d'entre eux se situent dans cette dernire catgorie. D'aprs les normes
britanniques, cependant, les types de panneaux contenant de plus fortes
proportions de fibres cellulosiques (jusqu' 10%) sont considrs comme
inflammables.

Concernant la tenue au feu, il n'existe aucune restriction pour les

panneaux de silicate de calcium dans les Etats membres de la Communaut
europenne. Pour ces panneaux, une harmonisation dans le cadre communau-
taire ne pose aucun problme.
 611

2. Panneaux de pltre
Les plus importants sont de loin les panneaux de plaoopltre. I l s
consistent en une me de pltre gaine de chaque ct d'un carton
solidement fix. Leur paisseur est de 9,5-25 mm, leur densit apparente
d'environ 750-1 000 kg/m . Du point de vue de la scurit incendie, la
caractris tique l a plus marquante est la concentration de l'ensemble de
la partie organique (masse 3-8 % selon l'paisseur) sur les parois ext-
rieures. C'est seulement en Allemagne que les panneaux de placopltre
ayant fait l'objet d'un procs-verbal d'essai sont expressment considrs
comme matriaux de construction ininflammables. I l s appartiennent la
classe A2 -DIN 4102. Aux termes de la norme ISO-1182 (1979) ou de la
rsolution IMO A 472 (XII), i l s ne satisferaient pas aux critres d'inin-
flammabilit. Dans la plupart des Etats d'Europe, i l s sont quasiment ou
pleinement assimils aux matriaux de construction ininflammables "clas-
siques", tel est le cas au Danemark et aux Pays-Bas. En Grande-Bretagne
et en Irlande, les panneaux de placopltre sont "quivalents" aux
matriaux de construe tion de l a classe 0 et aux matriaux ininflammables.
I l existe des restrictions pour les locaux et les parties coupe-feu dont
le volume est suprieur 7 000 m .
C'est en France que les panneaux de placopltre ont la cote la
plus dfavorable; i l s y sont classs dans la catgorie M2. Leur u t i l i s a -
tion dans les constructions de grande hauteur et les btiments forte
frquentation du publique n'est pas autorise. A l'origine, i l existait
une restriction leur emploi comme revtement des cloisons pour
quipements dans les locaux d'habitation, restriction qui a ensuite t
leve.
Pour ce qui concerne l'harmonisation, les panneaux de placopltre
devraient tre considrs comme des matriaux de construction quasi
ininflammables, et leur utilisation n'tre soumise a aucune restriction.
3. Panneaux de vermiculite
Les panneaux de p e t i t format de vermiculite agglomrs du
s i l i c a t e de sodium sont purement inorganiques e t , bien entendu, ininflam-
mables. Les panneaux de grand format contiennent de petites quantits de
rsine formo-phnolique ou de rsine formaldehyde servant de l i a n t s . La
classification varie selon la densit apparente (400-800 kg/m ) et la
proportion de l i a n t s . Les fabricants cherchent offrir des panneaux
ininflammables. I l s ont donc plus d'un type leur catalogue pour s a t i s -
faire aux diffrents critres d'ininflammabilit ou aux exigences imposes
la meilleure catgorie de matriaux de construction. Ceci vaut pour les
panneaux de vermiculite destins la construction navale.
4. Panneaux de periite
Ces panneaux sont fabriqus partir de p e r l i t e s expanses, de
fibres et de l i a n t s . I l s ont une densit apparente de 170-220 kq/m et
servent comme panneaux poreux, entre autres, pour isoler les toitures. En
Allemagne, la qualit standard est 31 (difficile enflammer); i l existe
aussi un type de la classe A2 (ininflammable). Le type de qualit B1 est
class M1 en France, et 0 en Grande-Bretagne.
 612

On remarque une c o n t r a d i c t i o n propos des matriaux de c o n s t r u c t i o n

voqus i c i : l e s panneaux de p e r l i t e de l a c a t g o r i e B1 - DIN 4102 sont
c l a s s s en M1, l e s panneaux de p l a c o p l t r e de l a c a t g o r i e A2 en M2
seulement.

Suggestions pour l ' h a r m o n i s a t i o n

- Les matriaux de c o n s t r u c t i o n "quasi ininflammables" doivent t r e

a s s i m i l s aux matriaux ininflammables, ou moins dans une l a r g e mesure.
- L ' e s s a i d ' i n i n f l a m m a b i l i t aux termes de l a norme ISO-1182 ne permet
pas l u i seul pour c l a s s i f i e r l a tenue au feu.
- Des examens globaux (par exemple avec l ' E p i r a d i a t e u r du CSTB) sont
inappropris pour valuer l a tenue au feu.
- La tenue au feu t a n t l a somme de d i f f r e n t s phnomnes, on d o i t
procder p l u s i e u r s t e s t s . La norme ISO IC 92 va dans ce sens, de mme
que l a Grande-Bretagne e t l'Allemagne au niveau n a t i o n a l .
- L'exprience p r a t i q u e de p l u s i e u r s annes d o i t e n t r e r en l i g n e de
compte pour l ' v a l u a t i o n . I l f a u d r a i t a u s s i prendre en considration l e s
r s u l t a t s d ' e s s a i s sur des "matriaux p i l o t e s " au moment de f i x e r des
valeurs l i m i t e s .
 613

FIBRES MINERALES

J.P. LEROY
Isover Saint-Gobain
Rantigny (F)

Les produits isolants, thermiques et acoustiques, en fibres minrales, de

verre ou de roche, sont largement utiliss dans les btiments, sans ou avec
revtement selon l'application prvue.

Les isolants en fibres minrales, sans revtement, peuvent tre considrs

comme des produits offrant aux utilisateurs une scurit trs grande en cas
d'incendie. En effet, bien que ces produits soient gnralement deux cons-
tituants :
l'un : Minral : verre ou roche, par nature non combustible
l'autre : Organique : encollage gnralement phnolique thermodurcissable,
par nature combustible,
la proportion du constituant organique par rapport au constituant minral
est choisie de telle sorte que le produit de base "fibres minrales plus
liant" est, dans la plupart des cas, non combustible.

Nous illustrons le bien fond de cette affirmation :

"les isolants en fibres minrales, non surfaces, sont des produits srs vis-
-vis du feu" par une rapide revue des rsultats obtenus par ces produits
lorsqu'ils sont soumis aux essais de raction au feu officiels de trois
grands pays de la Communaut Europenne : Angleterre, Allemagne, France.

Dans le cas actuel des produits nus, nous nous intressons aux rsultats de
mesures de non combustibilit selon les normes :
- B.S. 476 Part 4 et ISO 1182 (1979)
- DIN 4102 pour classement Al et A2
- N.F. M. 03005 et N.F. P. 92507

Nous situons ainsi, selon les diffrentes normes, les limites hautes de te-
neur en encollage (en % ou en masse volumique kg/m3) pour que l'isolant en
fibres minrales considr reste non combustible.

Si ce seuil est dpass, il est intressant de vrifier l'incidence de ce

dpassement sur les autres proprits de raction au feu : Inflammabilit,
propagation de flammes, opacit des fumes.

Nous verrons enfin que les revtements des isolants en fibres minrales
-adopts pour confrer au produit la possibilit de respecter d'autres
exigences que celle de la scurit feu : exigences mcanique, thermique,
acoustique, esthtique, etc...- s'ils dgradent parfois les performances
feu du produit isolant de base, peuvent tre choisis pour apporter celui-
ci un complment apprciable en matire de protection contre l'incendie :
ces dernires annes nous avons vu apparatre sur le march du btiment des
complexes isolants base de fibres minrales et de revtements trs per-
formants vis--vis du feu.
 614

LES MOUSSES MATIERES PLASTIQUES

J . TROITZSCH
Dr. Troitzsch Brandschutz S e r v i c e , Wiesbaden (D)

Les r g l e s de p r o t e c t i o n des btiments contre l ' i n c e n d i e a p p l i c a b l e s

aux matriaux de c o n s t r u c t i o n e t aux lments p r f a b r i q u s , de mme que
l e s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s e t l e s mthodes d ' e s s a i s q u i s ' y r a p p o r t e n t sont t r s
volues dans chacun des E t a t s membres de l a Communaut europenne (faute
de renseignements, l a Grce n ' a pas pu t r e p r i s e en compte). L ' o b j e c t i f
commun t o u t e s l e s rglementations e s t de l i m i t e r au minimum l e r i s q u e
d ' i n c e n d i e e t d ' v i t e r t o u t p r i x que l e feu ne prenne l e s proportions
d'un s i n i s t r e t o t a l pour que l e s gens p u i s s e n t vacuer l e btiment e t
que l e s pompiers p u i s s e n t a g i r efficacement.

Une mesure p a r t i c u l i r e m e n t importante de s c u r i t incendie c o n s i s t e

adapter l ' e m p l o i de matriaux e t d'lments prfabriqus inflammables au
r i s q u e couru. I l e x i s t e , dans l e s d i v e r s pays de l a Communaut europenne,
des normes de s c u r i t d i s t i n c t e s pour l e s matriaux e t l e s lments
prfabriqus e n t r a n t , par exemple, dans l a c o n s t r u c t i o n de btiments de
type p a r t i c u l i e r ou vocation s p c i f i q u e , ou d ' imneubles dpassant une
c e r t a i n e hauteur. Les r g l e s r e s p e c t e r en matire de prvention du feu
e t l e s mthodes d ' e s s a i s auxquelles ces matriaux sont soumis v a r i e n t
considrablement d ' u n pays l ' a u t r e . Les systmes nationaux, q u i sont
une mosaque de s p c i f i c a t i o n s e t de c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s mises en place
p a r t i r de mthodes d ' e s s a i s , se r f r e n t cependant des r i s q u e s compara-
bles.

Tous l e s pays membres de l a C E . s ' a c c o r d e n t u t i l i s e r , pour c e r t a i n s

degrs de r i s q u e , des matriaux de c o n s t r u c t i o n peu inflammables. On entend
par l des matriaux combustibles q u i ne s'enflanment pas au contact de
sources de combustion d ' i n t e n s i t f a i b l e ou moyenne, mais uniquement de
f o r t e i n t e n s i t . En o u t r e , comme i l s se consument lentement, ces matriaux
ne c o n t r i b u e n t que faiblement a c c r o t r e l a v i t e s s e de propagation des
flammes.

L'emploi de m a t i r e s p l a s t i q u e s c e l l u l a i r e s dans l a c o n s t r u c t i o n e s t
largement rpandu. E l l e s servent principalement l ' i s o l a t i o n thermique.
Les mousses l e s p l u s frquemment employes dans ce domaine sont l e s
mousses r i g i d e s de p o l y s t y r n e , de polyurthane e t de r s i n e phnolique.
Une i g n i f u g a t i o n c o r r e c t e donne ces t r o i s matriaux une bonne r s i s t a n c e
au feu, p a r exemple cerane composants de systme d ' i s o l a t i o n thermique
pousse. I l s sont donc conformes aux d i f f r e n t e s s p c i f i c a t i o n s techniques
n a t i o n a l e s de p r o t e c t i o n contre l ' i n c e n d i e de c e r t a i n s s e c t e u r s haut
risque.

Une t u d e c o m p a r a t i v e de l ' e m p l o i d e s mousses comme r e v t e m e n t de

p a r o i s e x t r i e u r e s dans l e s d i f f r e n t s E t a t s membres de l a Communaut
europenne p a r t i r de l'exemple de d i f f r e n t s systmes d ' i s o l a t i o n
thermique pousse employant l e p o l y s t y r n e , l e polyurthane e t l a r s i n e
phnolique a t r a l i s e .
 615

Le tableau 1 donne la l i s t e des diffrentes spcifications et classifica-

tions nationales ainsi que des mthodes d'essais sur lesquelles e l l e s
reposent. Suivant ce tableau, l'emploi des trois types de mousses est
l i c i t e dans tous les pays membres de la Communaut. I l existe une r e s t r i c -
tion au Danemark o, pour tre admis dans la classe 1, comme la loi
l'exige, la tenue au feu du matriau agglomr est mesure aprs 10
minutes, suivant la courbe unique de variation de la temprature dans le
temps, conformment la norme DS 1060, pratiquement comme pour l ' e s s a i
d'un lment de construction. Cette norme exige que les systmes d ' i s o l a -
tion thermique pousse contiennent une paisseur minimale dtermine de
matriaux ignifuges.
Les tudes comparatives montrent que tous les pays membres de la Communau-
t europenne appliquent des spcifications techniques svres en matire
de prvention d'incendie concernant l'emploi des mousses dans le btiment
et que tous ces matriaux peuvent respecter ces spcifications. Bien que
les rglementations et les classifications nationales soient parfois t r s
divergentes tout comme les mthodes d'essais, on peut dire que le niveau
de scurit est comparable partout. L'harmonisation communautaire des
spcifications et mthodes d'essais applicables aux matriaux de construc-
t i o n e t lments prfabriqus inflammables c o t e r a i t normment de
temps et d'argent. C'est la raison pour laquelle, au vu du niveau lev
de scurit qu'offre l'emploi des mousses dans les pays membres, une
harmonisation ne semble pas ncessaire pour le moment, au moins dans ce
domaine. ,
 616

LE COMPORTEMENT DES PRODUITS PLASTIQUES RIGIDES

Umberto FLISI - MONTEPOLIMERI CSI

Avenue Lombardia, 20 - 20021 B o l l a t e (MI) I t a l i e

L ' u t i l i s a t i o n des m a t i r e s p l a s t i q u e s dans l e btiment s ' e s t r g u l i r e -

ment accrue au cours des deux d e r n i r e s dcennies e t , dans l e s h a b i t a t i o n s
de type c l a s s i q u e , e l l e gale p r s e n t ou mme dpasse c e l l e d ' a u t r e s
m a t i r e s organiques t e l l e s que l e b o i s , l e s p e i n t u r e s e t l e s t e x t i l e s
dans l e u r ensemble.
Leur gamme d ' u t i l i s a t i o n couvre un t r s l a r g e v e n t a i l , comme l ' o n peut
l e v o i r dans l e t a b l e a u s u i v a n t , qui comprend non seulement l e s p l a s t i q u e s
en t a n t que t e l s mais galement l e s l a s t c m r e s , l e s f i b r e s synthtiques
e t l e s composites.
Les composites o n t t galement p r i s en c o n s i d r a t i o n dans ce p r s e n t
rapport car i l s absorbent une bonne p a r t du march e t contiennent une
q u a n t i t importante de m a t i r e s p l a s t i q u e s . I l s vont des composs fibreux
t e l s que l e p o l y e s t e r renforc l a f i b r e de v e r r e (GRP) aux s t r a t i f i s
e t matriaux sandwiches qui ont gnralement un noyau en mousse p l a s t i q u e
e t aux matires p a r t i c u l a i r e s t e l l e s que l e bton l g e r ou l e bton
polymre.
Du point de vue de l e u r comportement au feu, l e s m a t i r e s p l a s t i q u e s
doivent t r e d i v i s e s en deux grandes c a t g o r i e s au moins: l e s m a t i r e s
thermoplastiques e t l e s m a t i r e s p l a s t i q u e s thermodurcissables.
Les premires s ' a d o u c i s s e n t e t coulent facilement sous l ' i n f l u e n c e de l a
c h a l e u r , ce comportement pouvant p r s e n t e r des avantages c a r i l peut l e s
empcher de s'enflammer s ' i l s sont vacus temps. Par c o n t r e , en
r a i s o n de l e u r c o n s t i t u t i o n en rseau t r i d i m e n s i o n n e l l e s m a t i r e s
p l a s t i q u e s thermodurcissables ont moins tendance l i b r e r des p r o d u i t s
gazeux e t ont davantage tendance se c a r b o n i s e r , ce q u i peut l e u r v i t e r
de s'enflammer.
A l ' i n t r i e u r de chaque c a t g o r i e , chaque m a t i r e , en raison de sa nature
chimique d i f f r e n t e , peut avoir e n s u i t e des comportements d i f f r e n t s , qui
peuvent t r e eux-mmes modifis par l'emploi d ' a d d i t i f s v a r i s .
En conclusion, l ' o n peut a t t e n d r e des m a t i r e s p l a s t i q u e s q u ' e l l e s
r a g i s s e n t de t o u t e s l e s faons p o s s i b l e s au feu, en fonction de l e u r
n a t u r e e t des modifications e t combinaisons p o s s i b l e s avec d ' a u t r e s
matires.
I l e s t par consquent n c e s s a i r e de c o n n a t r e l e u r s p r o p r i t s e t de
l e s u t i l i s e r correctement afin d ' o b t e n i r un comportement o p t i m a l .
 617

LES MATIERES PLASTIQUES DANS LE BATIMENT

Domaine d ' a p p l i c a t i o n

Murs e x t e r i e u r s
1.1 Paroi e x t r i e u r e : bardage c l i n s PVC ( l a fois mousse compacte et
e t revtement, espaces pour s t r u c t u r e l l e ) , ABS,
aration GRP, PMMA. Bton lger (EPS).
1.2 Ame i s o l a n t e ou intermdiaire Mousse p l a s t i q u e s : PS,PU, PE, ?VC,
ure-formaldehyde, phnoliques.
Composites bass sur l ' a r g i l e ex-
pans ou l e v e r r e , l i aux polyu-
rthanes, p o l y e s t e r s ou phnoliques.
1.3 Ecrans pare-vapeur F n s en PVC, PE, PP.
1.4 Paroi i n t r i e u r : revtement PVC, ABS, GRP, acrylioue (PMMA).
mural, lambrissage, panneaux
avec raccords
1.5 Allges, balcons PMMA, PVC extrude, GRP, mousses
structurelles.
1.6 Encadrements de fentres e t PVC, PU (mousses s t r u c t u r e l l e s ) ,
de p o r t e s s t r a t i f i s en mlamine.
1.7 Tles t r a n s l u c i d e s PC, PMMA, GRP, c e l l u l o s i q u e s .
2. Cloisons
2.1 Couche unique PVC (mousse' compacte et s t r u c t u -
r e l l e ) , PMMA.
2.2 Ame isolante ou intermdiaire Voir point 1.2.
2.3 Couches extrieures, doublage, PVC, ABS, GRP, PMMA ; r s i n e s
lambrissage, stratifis dcoratifs phnoliques, d'ure et de mlamine.
3. Plafonds
3.1 Revtements PVC, PS e t PU expanses, beton l e c e r .
3.2 Couche i n t e r m d i a i r e (espaces EPS, PVC.
e n t r e l e s poutres)
3.3 Matriaux i s o l a n t s EPS, PE et PU expanses.
3.4 Plafonds suspendus PVC, ABS, PMMA.
3.5 Luminaires Acrylique, PVC, PS, PC, cellulosiques.
4. Revtements de sol PVC, elastomeres, poxydes, fibres
synthtiques, mousse de polyurtnane
( "thioaude ). Mlanges bton-plastique.
5. Toiture
5.1 Couverture tanchisation PVC, GRP. FVC plastifi, elastomeres
5.2 Isolation EPS, PU.
5.3 Vitrage e t c l a i r a g e znithal PC, PMMA, GRP.
5.4 Lucarnes GRP (prfabriqus).
5.5 Gouttires et tuyaux de PVC, GRP.
descente pluviale
6. Equipement
6.1 C a n a l i s a t i o n s i n t r i e u r e s pour PVC, HDPE, PP, GRP.
coulement des eaux de pluie et
d'gout
6.2 Equipement s a n i t a i r e GRP, PMMA, ABS.
6.3 Arage conduites PVC, GRP.
isolation EPS, PU et XPE expanss.
6.4 Isolation des canalisations PE, PU, et elastomeres expanss ; EPS.
6.5 Canalisations pour combustibles Elastomeres.
liquides
6.6 Rservoirs pour combustibles GRP, PE.
liquides
6.7 Ascenseurs Profils en PVC, stratifis en mlamine.
 618

CONTENU DES BATIMENTS

M. J. FISHBEIN , H. CREYF
British Research Materials Association (BRMA), Londres

1. Introduction

I l est vident qu'une confrence sur les "incendies dans les b t i -

ments" mettra l'accent sur la rsistance au feu de plusieurs mat-
riaux de construction. Le contenu des btiments n'en revt pas
moins une importance considrable.
On connat l a faveur dont jouissent les polyurthanes pour le confort
q u ' i l s procurent dans la l i t e r i e et les garnitures de siges.
Les polyurthanes entrent pour une large part dans la fabrication de
ces articles et s ' i l est vrai que ce sont les caractristiques de base
des composites qui dterminent l e comportement au feu du mobilier et
de la l i t e r i e , les producteurs de polyurthane ont quant eux le
souci du comportement au feu de ce polymre. De nombreux travaux
scientifiques, techniques et commerciaux ont t effectus, pour
aboutir une protection efficace de l ' u t i l i s a t e u r dans des circonstan-
ces d'incendie rel.
2. Principes de la rsistance au feu
Les premires tentatives de fabrication de mousse ignifuge taient
bases sur l ' u t i l i s a t i o n d'additifs chimiques, l'effet synergique du
phospore et des halognes tant exploit pour rendre plus difficile
l'inflammation du matriau. Ce principe t a i t certainement trs
valable et continue d'tre appliqu dans certains cas. Toutefois, on
lui a reconnu certains dsavantages (p.ex. le dgagement de fume) et
d'autres techniques ont par la suite t explores.
Une seconde approche a consist mettre au point des polymres
modifis qui ont permis l a production d'une nouvelle classe de matriaux.
Il s ' e s t agi des types de mousse haute resilience ou durcis froid.
Leur tenue au feu t a i t meilleure certains gards; p.ex. elles se
recroquevillaient en s'cartant de la source de flaimte, mais des
particules en combustion pouvaient l'occasion provoquer la propaga-
tion de la flamme.
S'il est indniable que l a haute resilience et les additifs amliorent
la tenue au feu quand i l s'agit de petites sources d'inflammation, i l
est facile de dmontrer qu'aucune de ces deux mthodes ne peut
assurer une protection intgrale de la mousse non recouverte en
prsence d'un foyer d'incendie de grande ampleur: par exemple, feuilles
de papier journal, caisses en bois et autres sources majeures d'incendie.
Au fur et mesure que des essais plus svres ont t mis au point
pour tenter de dresser la carte des potentialits d'incendie dans les
zones haut risque, l'industrie a recherch des mesures encore plus
draconiennes pour protger ses produits contre ces sources plus
intenses.
La mthode la plus rpandue au cours de ces dernires annes a consist
incorporer des quantits massives de matires inorganiques, essentiel-
 619

leirent de l'hydrate d'aluminium. Ce produit possde dans sa structure

molculaire de grandes quantits d'eau de c r i s t a l l i s a t i o n qui se
dcomposent en librant de l'eau dans une raction endothermique la
temprature correspondant approximativement celle des incendies
rels.
Le fait q u ' i l s'agisse de matire inorganique est le garant d'une
faible contribution au dgagement de fume. Le mlange de substances
ignifuges peut tre incorpor dans la mousse soit par injection
directe en cours de fabrication de la mousse (technique d'ignifugeaae
dans l a masse) soit par traitement subsquent des couches de mousse
(technique d'imprgnation, conduisant l ' u t i l i s a t i o n comme doublure).
L'utilisation de ces mousses ne diminue pas le confort normalement
attendu des mousses polyurthane.
3. La thorie des composites
Au cours de la dernire dcennie, l'effort de recherche scientifique a
privilgi de plus en plus les situations d'incendie relles.
La nature des composites, savoir, le revtement de la mousse et
les combinaisons de conceptions semblent avoir davantage d'importance
que les composants isols (tels que la mousse) dans la dtermination
de la facilit d'inflammation, de la vitesse de combustion et de la
quantit de fume et de gaz toxiques dgags.
Une tude de ces caractristiques est absolument essentielle pour
rduire les risques en situations d'incendie r e l .
4. Importance de l'environnement

L'analyse rcente des risques dans les grands incendies a galement

fait apparatre l'importance extrme de l'environnement en cours
d'incendie. I l faut tenir compte non seulement de la nature du mobilier
mais aussi des produits qui l'entourent et des catactristiques du
btiment. Tous ces facteurs influencent l'incendie d'une faon qui
ne peut tre prvue par une tude des matriaux ou composants
isols.

5. Recherche fondamentale supplmentaire

Paralllement toutes les tudes susmentionnes, des recherches

fondamentales se poursuivent sur la rduction des dgagements de fume
et de gaz toxiques. En ce qui concerne l'industrie de l a mousse, ces
travaux sont effectus au QMC (Universit de Londres) et donnent des
rsultats prometteurs.
 620

SPRINKLERS - C02, HALONS

H. BINEAU
Centre N a t i o n a l de P r v e n t i o n et de P r o t e c t i o n

Les i n s t a l l a t i o n s d ' e x t i n c t i o n automatique eau et gaz ont des

domaines d'empLoi t r s d i f f r e n t s l i s la n a t u r e de l ' a g e n t e x t i n c t e u r
et au fonctionnement de l a p a r t i e d t e c t i o n d ' i n c e n d i e . S ' i l n ' y a pas
i n c o m p a t i b i l i t e n t r e l e c o m b u s t i b l e e t un des agents e x t i n c t e u r s , e l l e s
sont remarquablement complmentaires.
H i s t o r i q u e m e n t les p l u s a n c i e n s , les s p r i n k l e r s ont pour but de
d t e c t e r un dbut d ' i n c e n d i e par dclenchement d'une t t e sous l ' a c t i o n
de la c h a l e u r , m e t t r e un s i g n a l d ' a l a r m e , et t e i n d r e ou c o n t e n i r l ' i n c e n d i e ,
par arrosage l ' e a u , pendant un temps s u f f i s a n t pour p e r m e t t r e l ' i n t e r v e n -
t i o n humaine. I l s p r o t g e n t gnralement la t o t a l i t de l ' t a b l i s s e m e n t .
Sous l e t i t r e gnrique : i n s t a l l a t i o n s d ' e x t i n c t i o n automatique gaz
(C02 ou h a l o n ) , on t r o u v e des systmes p l u s ou moins complexes depuis une
p e t i t e b o u t e i l l e d ' a g e n t e x t i n c t e u r avec une buse et un mcanisme de
dclenchement a c t i o n n par un f u s i b l e , j u s q u ' des i n s t a l l a t i o n s de p l u s i e u r s
tonnes d'agent e x t i n c t e u r s p r o t g e a n t p l u s i e u r s l o c a u x , avec une i n s t a l l a -
t i o n de d t e c t i o n d ' i n c e n d i e , des vannes d i r e c t i o n n e l l e s , des automatismes
a r r t a n t la c l i m a t i s a t i o n et fermant des p o r t e s et v o l e t s . . .
Les i n s t a l l a t i o n s d ' e x t i n c t i o n automatique gaz remplissent g n r a -
lement les f o n c t i o n s :
d t e c t i o n automatique d ' i n c e n d i e (avec s i g n a l i s a t i o n d ' a l a r m e ) e t
mission d'une q u a n t i t d f i n i e d ' a g e n t e x t i n c t e u r , en un temps d f i n i ,
dans un volume ou sur une s u r f a c e d f i n i e . D ' a u t r e s f o n c t i o n s peuvent t r e
n c e s s a i r e s pour la s c u r i t du personnel : s i g n a l d ' v a c u a t i o n , r e t a r d
l'mission, , ou pour o b t e n i r l ' t a n c h i t des l o c a u x . E l l e s c o n s t i t u e n t
une p r o t e c t i o n p a r t i e l l e de l ' t a b l i s s e m e n t en p r o t g e a n t :
- un l o c a l ou p l u s i e u r s l o c a u x , pour les i n s t a l l a t i o n s d i t e s
noyaae t o t a l ou de p r o t e c t i o n d'ambiance;
- une machine dangereuse ou une p a r t i e de l o c a l (exemple : cabine de
p e i n t u r e ) pour les i n s t a l l a t i o n s d i t e s p o n c t u e l l e s ou l o c a l i s e s .
Tous les types de d t e c t e u r s peuvent t r e u t i l i s s (fume, flamme,
c h a l e u r ) et i l c o n v i e n t de c h o i s i r , en f o n c t i o n du r i s q u e , ceux qui donnent
la d t e c t i o n la p l u s r a p i d e .
On peut c l a s s e r les i n s t a i l a t icns d ' e x t i n c t i o n automatique gaz par :
- l ' a g e n t e x t i n c t e u r : C02 qui a g i t par t o u f f e m e n t , halons (1301 et
1211) qui a g i s s e n t par i n h i b i t i o n .
- la c o n c e p t i o n de l ' i n s t a l l a t i o n e t , en p a r t i c u l i e r , l e mode de
stockage : i n s t a l l a t i o n s d i t e s c e n t r a l i s e s et i n s t a l l a t i o n s
modulai r e s .
 621

- pour Le C02 : i n s t a l l a t i o n s haute p r e s s i o n et i n s t a l l a t i o n s basse

pression.
Pour les u t i l i s a t e u r s , une i n s t a l l a t i o n d ' e x t i n c t i o n automatique
eau ou gaz, est un moyen de p r o t e c t i o n d e s t i n t e i n d r e ou c o n t e n i r le
s i n i s t r e dans les c o n d i t i o n s p r v u e s . I l n ' e s t cependant pas p o s s i b l e de
f i x e r aux i n s t a l l a t e u r s de ces systmes une o b l i g a t i o n de r s u l t a t , e n t r e
a u t r e s r a i s o n s , parce que c e l u i - c i dpend beaucoup de l ' e x p l o i t a t i o n de
l ' t a b l i s s e m e n t et de son o r g a n i s a t i o n g n r a l e de l a s c u r i t .
Pour a v o i r la m e i l l e u r e p r o b a b i l i t d ' o b t e n i r l e s e r v i c e a t t e n d u les
organismes p r e s c r i p t e u r s des d i v e r s pays (gnralement les a s s u r e u r s )
peuvent u t i l i s e r d i v e r s moyens ou mthodes :
- des r g l e s d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n s q u i c o n s t i t u e n t en quelque s o r t e , pour
les i n s t a l l a t e u r s , une o b l i g a t i o n de moyens;
- des r g l e s ou des normes sur les composants et organes c o n s t i t u t i f s
de ces i n s t a l l a t i o n s ;
- la q u a l i f i c a t i o n des composants, c ' e s t - - d i r e l a v r i f i c a t i o n de la
c o n f o r m i t ces r g l e s , organise sous forme d'agrment ou de
marque de q u a l i t , q u i s ' a p p u i e gnralement sur des essais de
l a b o r a t o i r e e t , ventuellement des c o n t r l e s en u s i n e ;
- l'agrment des i n s t a l l a t e u r s ;
- la r c e p t i o n de chaque i n s t a l l a t i o n , qui c o n s i s t e v r i f i e r la
c o n f o r m i t aux r g l e s d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n s , par les assureurs ou par
un organisme v r i f i c a t e u r lui-mme agr par les a s s u r e u r s ;
- e n f i n les c o n t r l e s p r i o d i q u e s ( q u ' i l ne f a u t pas confondre avec
la maintenance p r i o d i q u e ) excuts s o i t par l ' i n s t a l l a t e u r s o i t par
un organisme v r i f i c a t e u r a g r .
Les d i v e r s pays de l a CEE u t i l i s e n t d'une faon p l u s ou moins dveloppe
ces procdures e t , dans un mme pays c e l l e s - c i ne sont gnralement pas au
mme niveau de mise en p l a c e s u i v a n t l e t y p e d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n ( s p r i n k l e r s -
e x t i n c t i o n automatique C02 - e x t i n c t i o n automatique h a l o n ) .
Sur le p l a n purement t e c h n i q u e , les r g l e s d ' i n s t a l l a t i o n s et l e s
r g l e s (ou normes) concernant les composants ne sont pas t r s d i f f r e n t e s ,
d r i v a n t des codes NFPA, des recommandations du Comit Europen des
Assurances e t / o u des t r a v a u x de l ' I S O . Cependant, pour les i n s t a l l a t i o n s
d ' e x t i n c t i o n gaz, les r g l e m e n t a t i o n s n a t i o n a l e s sur la p r o t e c t i o n des
personnes peuvent i n t r o d u i r e des d i v e r g e n c e s , en p a r t i c u l i e r dans l e
domaine d ' e m p l o i ou l ' a u t o r i s a t i o n de fonctionnement en a u t o m a t i q u e .
Malgr c e l a , au moins pour les composants, des e f f o r t s d ' u n i f o r m i s a t i o n
p o u r r a i e n t t r e e n t r e p r i s et une reconnaissance r c i p r o q u e des organismes
c e r t i f i c a t e u r s des d i v e r s pays de l a C.E.E. p o u r r a i t t r e envisage. Mais
i l ne s u f f i t pas, pour c e l a , que l e s l a b o r a t o i r e s agrs u t i l i s e n t les
mmes mthodes d ' e s s a i s avec des moyens d ' e s s a i s analogues. I l f a u t q u ' e n
p l u s , au niveau de chaque pays, les exigences sur les " c o n t r l e s q u a l i t "
des f a b r i c a t i o n s s o i e n t homognes et que l e s v r i f i c a t i o n s qui en sont
f a i t e s soient quivalentes.
 622

SYSTEMES DE CAPTAC-E DES FUMEES ET D'EVACUATION DE LA CHALEUR

W. HALPAAP
Chef du Service "Scurit i n d u s t r i e l l e " de l a S.A. Bayer

Suivant l e u r t y p e , l e u r dimension e t l e u r emploi, l e s c a p t e u r s de fumes

e t l e s vacuateurs de chaleur s e r v e n t l a p r o t e c t i o n des personnes ou
des biens ou poursuivent un o b j e c t i f d i r e c t de r e n t a b i l i t l o r s q u ' i l s
remplacent d ' a u t r e s d i s p o s i t i f s de s c u r i t i n c e n d i e .

Le p r s e n t expos p o r t e r a p l u s p a t i c u l i r e m e n t sur l e s c a p t e u r s de fumes

e t l e s vacuateurs de chaleur e f f e t aromoteur thermique. En dehors de
c e l a , l a q u e s t i o n de l a dimension e t du p o t e n t i e l d ' a c t i o n e t , p a r
consquent, de l a r e n t a b i l i t des c a p t e u r s mcaniques de fumes sera
galement voque. Une norme allemande (DIN 18 232) concernant l e s
c a p t e u r s de fumes e t l e s vacuateurs de chaleur e s t actuellement en
p r p a r a t i o n . I l e x i s t e des d i f f r e n c e s c o n s i d r a b l e s e n t r e l e s c a p t e u r s
de fumes - q u i sont en gnral des trappes commande spare - e t l e s
vacuateurs de chaleur dont l e p r i n c i p e r s i d e dans l ' e m p l o i de matriaux
facilement d e s t r u c t i b l e s par l e f e u . L ' a s s o c i a t i o n allemande des assureurs
de biens a p a r t i c u l i r e m e n t t u d i l ' i d e du captage des fumes e t l e
r s u l t a t de s e s r f l e x i o n s s ' e s t t r a d u i t dans d e s d i r e c t i v e s du Comit
Europen des Assurances (CEA). La norme DIN 18 230 - e t p a r consquent
a u s s i , l e p r i n c i p e de l ' v a c u a t i o n de l a c h a l e u r - a t entretemps
adopt carme code d e rfrence (Model Code) " S c u r i t incendie dans l e
btiment" dans l e CIB (W 14).

Introduction

Les installations de captage des fumes et d'vacuation de l a chaleur

sont des instruments dont l'importance est loin d ' t r e ngligeable pour
l a prvention du feu. I l ne faut cependant pas surestimer leur action.
Suivant leur type, leur dimension et leur emploi, les installations de
captage des fumes et d'vacuation de l a chaleur servent

- la protection des personnes en empchant la fume d'envahir les

i t i n r a i r e s de secours,

- la protection des biens en f a c i l i t a n t l'intervention des pompiers e t en

empchant l a fume d'occasioner des dgts supplmentaires de mme
qu'elles

- sont immdiatement rentables en permettant d'amnager des espaces

ooupe-feu plus importants tout en employant des matriaux moins
r s i s t a n t s au feu pour les structures portantes.
 623

Suivant leur mode d'action, on distingue les capteurs de fumes et les

vacuateurs de chaleur
- fonctionnant par effet aromoteur thermique et les
- installations ventilation force ou, suivant le cas, les capteurs de
fumes mcaniques (ventilateurs).
Le prsent expos portera plus particulirement sur les capteurs de
fumes et les vacuateurs de chaleur effet aromoteur thermique. En
outre, la question de la dimension et du potentiel d'action ainsi que,
par consquent, de la rentabilit des capteurs mcaniques de fumes sera
voque.
Une norme allemande (DIN 18 232) concernant les "installations de captage
des fumes et d'vacuation de la chaleur" est actuellement en prparation
et contient les chapitres suivants :
Premire partie : dfinitions et emploi (septembre 1981)
Deuxime partie : capteurs de fumes - dimension, spcification et
montage (actuellement sous presse)
Troisime partie : capteurs de fumes - essais (actuellement sous presse)
Quatrime partie : vacuateurs de chaleur (prvue)
Cinquime partie : capteurs de fumes mcaniques (prvue)
Le contenu de cette norme est prsent dans cet expos. Les installations
qui, par exemple, empchent les itinraires de secours d'tre envahis
par la fume de l'incendie de locaux voisins ne sont pas t r a i t e s . I l est
fait rfrence la l i t t r a t u r e spcialise existant ce sujet. L'expos
n'voque pas non plus les installations mobiles mises en service par les
pompiers pour vacuer les fumes aprs avoir dj matris l'incendie.
L'objectif principal des capteurs (fixes) de fumes est de permettre aux
pompiers de matriser plus facilement un dbut d'incendie et d'viter
que ce dernier s'tende ou mme n'essaime (flash over). L'emploi des
capteurs de fumes doit donc tre envisag notamment dans le contexte
d'un dbut d'incendie.
Les vacuateurs de chaleur servent, en particulier dans le cas d'incendie
violents, vacuer le plus possible de chaleur pour viter l'essaimage
(flash over). La quantit de chaleur qui peut tre vacue sans surchar-
ger la structure est estime.
Les capteurs de fumes sont, en gnral, constitus de trappes commandes
par un dispositif spcial et rpondant des spcifications dtermines
alors que, pour les vacuateurs de fumes, i l suffit d ' u t i l i s e r des
"matriaux facilement destructibles par le feu".
Compte tenu de leur cot nettement plus lev, les capteurs de fumes
ne peuvent pas tre mis en service en nombre i l l i m i t . Des orifices
 624

correspondants 1 - 3% de la surface de l a toiture sont gnralement

considres comme suffisantes pour dgager un espace libre de fumes et
f a c i l i t e r ainsi l'intervention des pompiers.
Pour que l'vacuation de l a chaleur soit efficace, les orifices doivent
avoir une surface beaucoup plus importante. L'vacuation s'effectue
suivant la mthode de calcul de l a rsistance au feu ncessaire suivant
la norme DIN 18 230. C'est ainsi, par exemple, que selon ce calcul, des
orifices correspondant environ 8% de la surface de l a toiture diminuent
de moiti la dure de rsistance au feu ncessaire. Le choix entre les
capteurs de fumes et les vacuateurs de chaleur s'effectue en comparant
l'action de ces deux dispositifs et en valuant le cot de leur instal-
lation.
Les capteurs de fumes mcaniques peuvent, en principe, vacuer aussi
bien la fume que la chaleur lorsque les appareils^ rpondent aux spcifi-
cations requises. Toutefois on commence seulement dbattre de questions
de principe importantes. En particulier, i l ne semble gure possible
d'vacuer au moyen de capteurs de fumes mcaniques les mmes quantits
d ' a i r ou de fumes qu'avec des dispositifs effet aromoteur thermique.
Un point l ' a c t i f des capteurs mcaniques est cependant q u ' i l s peuvent
galement extraire l a "fume refroidie" et que l o r s q u ' i l s sont convenable-
ment rgls, i l s entrent en action beaucoup plus tt que les capteurs
de fumes thermiques qui doivent attendre que l'incendie ait dgaq
suffisamment de chaleur.
La premire partie de l a norme DIN 18 232 contient des recommandations
d'emploi. A t i t r e d'exemple, les capteurs de fumes devraient tre
employs dans le cas de surfaces suprieures la normale. Rfrence est
faite ici aux indications des notes explicatives de l a norme DIN 18 230
concernant la grandeur admissible des surfaces coupe-feu. Les vacuateurs
de chaleur devraient tre employs pour une surface minimum dterminer
selon l ' i n t e n s i t de l'incendie.
Indications concernant les tableaux

Les tableaux 1 e t 2 de la norme DIN 18 232, deuxime p a r t i e , contiennent

les rgles appliquer pour calculer la dimension des capteurs de fume.
La surface d'ouverture devra tre d'autant plus grande que l'on s'attend
ce que l e feu prenne des proportions importantes, que la vitesse de
propagation du feu prvue est importante et que l'espace d i t libre de
fume devra tre grand.
Si l'on considre les rapports d'interdpendance entre les valeurs du
tableau, on constate quel point l e systme est sensible, ce qui, selon
moi, rpond l'exprience, la pratique.
Le tableau 2 de l a norme DIN 18 230, premire partie, contient les
facteurs w pour l'valuation de l a surface des vacuateurs de chaleur. En
dehors de l a surface des orifices qui peuvent tre pratiqus sur la
surface globale, l'emplacement de ces derniers est galement pris en
compte. Les facteurs dpassant 1,0 indiquent des efforts et des contraintes
supplmentaires dus l'accumulation thermique. D'aprs la fig. 1 de la
norme DIN 18 230, premire p a r t i e , le facteur k,d'valuation de la
surface des orifices pratiquer dans l a toiture (1,5 - k f < 4,0) peut
tre calcul.
 625

Renseignements concernant des conventions internationales

La mthode de calcul de l a dimension des capteurs de fumes figurant dans
l a norme DIN 18 232 a t dveloppe p a r t i r des rsultats des tudes de
lhanas et Hinkley. Ces valeurs ont, en particulier, t reprises par
l'association allemande des assureurs de biens pour servir de rfrence
dans l e cadre des directives adoptes par les assureurs au niveau
europen (directives CEA ). I l faut respecter ces directives pour bnfi
cier de l'abattement de primes consenti pour l ' i n s t a l l a t i o n de capteurs
de fumes.

La norme DIN 18 230 e t , par consquent, la mthode de calcul de l a

surface des vacuateurs de chaleur qu'elle contient a entretemps t
reprise comme code de rfrence (Model Code) "Scurit incendie dans le
btiment" dans l e CIB (W 14).
En ce qui concerne l ' e s s a i des capteurs de fumes (suivant la deuxime ou
respectivement la troisime partie de la norme) un certificat d'preuve
dlivr aprs plusieurs essais va tre t a b l i . Ce certificat sera
obligatoire pour pouvoir employer ces dispositifs en rpublique fdrale
d'Allemagne.

Annexes

PIN 18 232, deuxime partie

Tableau 1 : catgories de dimension

Dure previsible du Categorie de dimension
feu
(cf. paragrap.2.4) Vitesse de propagation du feu
particulire particuli
ment faible 1) rement grande
moyenne
5^
S. 10
< 15
< 20
5 25

1) Valeurs moyennes n'ayant pas t spcifiquement prouves

 626

DIN 18 232, deuxime partie

Tableau 2 : pourcentage arodynamiquement efficace de la surface d'ouver-

ture

Epaisseur de la Pourcentage arodynamiquement efficace

couche libre de de la surface d'ouverture A
fume d ou, suivant
le cas.
(cf. paraqrap.
raqr 2.3.) Catgorie de dimension
1 I 2 I 3 4 5 6 I

I
0,5 0,3 I 0,4 I 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 I 1,4
0,55 0,351 0,5 I 0,7 1,0 1,2 1,5 I 1,7
0,6 0,4 | 0,6 I 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 | 2,1
0,65 0,5 | 0,7 I 1,0 1,5 1,8 2,2 | 2,5
0,7 0,7 | 0,9 I 1,3 1,8 2,2 2,7 | 3,0
0,75 0,851 1,1 I 1,5 2,1 2,6 3,2 | 3,6
I
Il est possible de proceder a une interpolation lineaire des
valeurs

PIN 18 230, premire partie

Tableau 3 : facteur w d'vacuation de la chaleur

1 I 4 5 1 6 1 7 8 9 I

A + b/A
Emplacement I jus- y entre sup-l
des Schma Iqu'a entre|entre|entre 0,20 rieur I
Section 0,05 10,10 10,15 et
orifices I
|0,05 et | et | et 0,25 0,25 I
0,10 10,15 |0,20
Locaux
ouverts
d'un ct I 3,2 2,0 | 1,5 | 1,2 1,0 0,9 |
SSS5SS5S

Locaux
ouverts au
moins de
2 cts I 2,2 1,5 | 1,0 | 0,9 0,7 0,6 |

Locaux
ventils
par le
toit I 1,8 1,2 | 0,9 | 0,7 0,6 0,5 |
 627

SYSTEMES D E D ETECTION

F. D E COSTER
EURALARM

Le dveloppement r a p i d e de l a t e c h n i q u e et de l ' a u t o m a t i s a t i o n a s t i
mul l ' a p p l i c a t i o n des systmes de d t e c t i o n automatique d ' i n c e n d i e .
Suite c e t t e e v o l u t i o n , dans p l u s i e u r s pays a l a b o r e des rglemen
tations.
Des normes i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s ont t rdiges sur le p l a n Europen et
M o n d i a l , mais ce t r a v a i l n ' e s t pas encore t o u t f a i t a c c o m p l i .
De ce f a i t , nous sommes c o n f r o n t s une q u a n t i t c o n s i d r a b l e de normes
et de r g l e m e n t a t i o n s .
D i f f r e n t e s o r g a n i s a t i o n s s'occupent de l a p u b l i c a t i o n de ces normes:
le CEA : Comit Europen des Assurances
le CEN : Comit Europen de N o r m a l i s a t i o n
l e CENELEC : European Committee f o r E l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n
1'IEC : I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l Commission
I'ISO : I n t e r n a t i o n a l Standard O r g a n i z a t i o n
Malgr que c e r t a i n s c o n t a c t s e x i s t e n t e n t r e l e s d i f f r e n t s groupes de
t r a v a i l , i l est c r a i n d r e que les r s u l t a t s montreront quelques d i v e r
gences.
Les assurances t a i e n t l e s premiers p u b l i e r des r g l e m e n t a t i o n s pour
la d t e c t i o n . I l s p o s s ^ n t p l u s i e u r s l a b o r a t o i r e s (VD S, STELF, FIRTO, ANPI)
ou i l s f o n t des essais sur des a p p a r e i l s q u i l e u r sont prsents par les
c o n s t r u c t e u r s a f i n d ' o b t e n i r un agrment.
En p r i n c i p e l o r s q u ' u n c o n s t r u c t e u r veut i n t r o d u i r e un nouveau d t e c t e u r
sur le march Europen, les mmes essais d o i v e n t t r e rpts dans chaque
laboratoi re.
Les p r e s c r i p t i o n s de la CEA sont r e p r i s e s dans l e s n o u v e l l e s normes
Europennes (EN5A) rdiges par le CEN. D i f f r e n t e s p a r t i e s sont prvues:
1. Introduction
2. Equipement de c o n t r l e et de s i g n a l i s a t i o n
3. D i s p o s i t i f s d'alarme f e u
4. Sources d ' a l i m e n t a t i o n
5. Dtecteurs ponctuels de chaleur contenant un lment statique
6. Dtecteurs velocymtriques, ponctuels de chaleur sans lment
statique
7. Dtecteurs de fume
8. Dtecteurs de chaleur seuil de temprature lev
9. Foyers types
10. S p e c i f i c a t i o n s des systmes
11. Essais d'environnements
12. D clencheurs manuels d ' a l a r m e s
13. D tecteurs de flammes
 628

Les p a r t i e s 1 et 5 sont p u b l i e s . Les p a r t i e s 6 9 d e v r a i e n t t r e

p u b l i e s au mois de j u i l l e t 1984.
Ces normes seront r e p r i s e s par les pays membres comme normes
n a t i o n a l e s . Sur l e p l a n n a t i o n a l , i l s e x i s t e n t t r s peu de r g l e m e n t a t i o n s
ou d e ' l o i s . Le plus s o u v e n t , ce sont Les a u t o r i t s l o c a l e s q u i f o r m u l e n t
rts o b l i g a t i o n s mais de faon a r b i t r a i r e .
I l e x i s t e un besoin c e r t a i n chez les c o n s t r u c t e u r s , les i n s t a l l a t e u r s
et les u t i l i s a t e u r s de possder des r g l e m e n t a t i o n s p l u s compltes,
qui t i e n n e n t comptes des p o i n t s s u i v a n t s :
1) l e systme de d t e c t i o n d o i t t r e conu de s o r t e q u ' i l t i e n n e
compte des a u t r e s prvoyances qui s'imposent pour se p r o t g e r
c o n t r e l e f e u ; par exemple la s t r u c t u r e du b t i m e n t , la d i v i s i o n
en c o m p a r t i m e n t s , e t c . Une d t e c t i o n est i n u t i l e s i l ' o n n'a p l u s
l e temps d'vacuer ou d ' i n t e r v e n i r aprs que l e s i g n a l d'alarme
s o i t donn.
2) l ' e x c e p t i o n de la France et l ' A l l e m a g n e , les rglements ne
p r v o i e n t pas q u i peut i n s t a l l e r des systmes de d t e c t i o n s . On
d o i t essayer d ' v i t e r que des i n s t a l l a t e u r s q u i ne possdent pas
les connaissances n c e s s a i r e s , r a l i s e n t de t e l s systmes.
3) i l f a u t des p r e s c r i p t i o n s c l a i r e s et n e t t e s pour l ' e n t r e t i e n et Le
c o n t r l e des systmes.
4) i l f a u t n o r m a l i s e r les i n s t r u c t i o n s pour l ' v a c u a t i o n et l'inter
vention.
5) i l f a u t Laisser de l ' e s p a c e dans Les r g l e m e n t a t i o n s a f i n de
p e r m e t t r e l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de t e c h n i q u e s n o u v e l l e s .
 629

INNOVATION DANS LES TECHNIQUES DE PROTECTION CONTRE LE FEU

SYSTEMES ELECTRONIQUES DE DETECTION, D'ALARME ET
DE LUTTE CONTRE LES INCENDIES

A.A.M. BORREMA NS
Ingnieur d i r e c t e u r a d j o i n t
Siemens Nederland N.V., La Haye

Cela f a i t p r s e n t p l u s de 130 ans que l e premier d i s p o s i t i f

d ' a l a r m e d ' i n c e n d i e , q u i ne comportait encore que d e s a v e r t i s s e u r s
manuels, a t mis en s e r v i c e . Les premiers d t e c t e u r s automatiques
f o n c t i o n n a n t selon l e p r i n c i p e thermique, o n t t i n s t a l l s v e r s l a f i n
du 19 s i c l e . Si l ' o b j e c t i f premier de c e s d i s p o s i t i f s , q u i t a i t de
d t e c t e r temps l e s d a n g e r s , de p r s e r v e r l e s v i e s humaines e t de
l i m i t e r l e s d g t s m a t r i e l s , n ' a gure chang, par contre l ' e f f i c a c i t
des moyens de d t e c t e r automatiquement l e s incendies s ' e s t accrue de
manire gigantesque au cours d e s annes. A ctuellement, nous entrons
nouveau dans une nouvelle r e de l ' h i s t o i r e de l a d t e c t i o n d e s incendies
g r c e l ' a p p l i c a t i o n de l a m i c r o l e c t r o n i q u e .

C e t t e technique ouvre d e s v o i e s entirement nouvelles v e r s d e s

systmes encore p l u s f i a b l e s , comme on peut s ' e n rendre compte dans l e
c a s du systme d ' a v e r t i s s e m e n t p a r codage d ' i m p u l s i o n s .

Au nom d'Euralarm, groupement professionnel d ' e n t r e p r e n e u r s europens

en m a t i r e de techniques de s c u r i t , j ' a b o r d e r a i l e s deux a s p e c t s
suivants :

1. L'alerte au feu suivant l a dtection.

2. La s i g n a l i s a t i o n automatique d e s p e r t u r b a t i o n s comme s u r v e i l l a n c e
fonctionnelle.

STU SYSTEME
D'EXTINCTION
DETEC
TEURS D
COMMUNICATION
CENTRALE EVACUATION
CAP
TEURS D D'ALERTE
ICENTHALU D ' A L A M !
D'INCENDIE Lipte spcialise DU
sTTPVrrnr. '.
CONTAC _
TEURS CENTRALE DE SIGNA L:
Rseau AutoCommut SATION DES FERTUR
BATIONS
 630

C'est donc dessein que je ne t r a i t e r a i pas, dans le temps qui

m'est imparti, des innovations ralises par de nombreux techniciens
hautement qualifis dans l'industrie de la scurit, en matire de
construction et de forme, par exemple en ce qui concerne l'accessibilit
des dtecteurs la fume.
Je ne t r a i t e r a i pas non plus des possibilits de rglage de la
sensibilit la fume dans le cas, notamment, de l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de
dtecteurs dans des locaux de grande hauteur ou des locaux grand dbit
d'aration, ni des systmes d'identification de dtecteurs.
Je tiens cependant signaler dans ce contexte la possibilit
d'optimiser la f i a b i l i t de la dtection par une intgration des avertis-
sements d'un dtecteur, le signal n'tant transmis la centrale d'alerte
d'incendie que lorsque la prsence de fume est constate pendant un
certain temps dans l e dtecteur. Un examen des possibilits offertes par
les micro-ordinateurs de simuler de nombreux aspects des incendies et des
risques nous entranerait aussi trop loin. Mais i l est vident que
de nombreux travaux sont raliss dans ce domaine.
Grce la micro-lectronique, i l est devenu possible, ces dernires
annes, de raliser de grands progrs dans des conditions conomiquement
rentables. Avec des algorithmes d'apprciation "intelligents", la
micro-lectronique permet de dtecter rapidement et sans erreur possible
les phnomnes d'incendie et rduit les risques de fausse alerte. Cette
technique nous aide en outre dterminer le trajet le plus rapide
jusqu'au lieu de l'incendie et formuler des propositions d'intervention.

L'application de la micro-lectronique - avec les algorithmes

qu'elle comporte - peut conduire des systmes dont le fonctionnement
est trs fiable et l ' u t i l i s a t i o n conomiquement rentable. Le systme
fond sur la technique d'avertissement par codage impulsions, qui est
indubitablement l e plus moderne ce jour et est dj appliqu grande
chelle, en fournit un exemple.
L'intelligence d'un tel systme est localise dans la centrale
d'alerte d'incendie (salle de signalisation). Quelques avantages :
- des facteurs ambiants tels que l a temprature, l'humidit relative,
la pression de l ' a i r , ainsi que certaines incidences de la pollu-
tion, peuvent tre compenss;
- la sensibilit du capteur peut tre rgle la centrale;
- l'influence de phnomnes d'induction peut tre vite.
Eh bref, la f i a b i l i t est optimise.
Un signal de dtection t r a i t la centrale, entrane diverses
actions intgres :
- commande de systmes d'extinction notamment
- communication/alarme d'vacuation
- alerte directe des pompiers,
toute mesure tant prise en fonction d'une organisation d'alerte clairement
dfinie selon le projet/risque.
 631

Les perturbations des systmes de scurit ainsi, bien sr, que

des dispositifs de dtection d'incendie sont manifestes par des signaux
qui assurent en ralit une surveillance fonctionnelle. Dans la pratique
l ' i n t r t port en Europe cet aspect extrmement important n'est
encore que trs limit.
A mon avis - un avis que l'on peroit toujours plus clairement dans
les milieux d'Euralarm - en optimisant la f i a b i l i t de la dtection des
incendies, on ne peut en aucun cas ngliger la fonction de signalisation
automatique des perturbations.
 632

TECHNIQUES NOUVELLES D'INTERVENTION

R.C. PARAMOR

Chief Fire Officer, Corps des Sapeurs Pompiers du Comte d'Essex (R.U.)

Les nouvelles techniques d'intervention et les innovations qui

conduisent leur adoption ont leur place ici pour les mmes raisons -
ou peu s'en faut - que les autres progrs dont nous avons entendu parler
au cours de ce symposium.
L'augmentation du risque d'incendie et la nature des oprations
prsent confies aux pompiers rsultent des nouvelles techniques de
construction et de conception des iirmeubles, ainsi que des risques
prsents par les matriaux dont les immeubles et leur contenu sont
f a i t s . En outre, les risques l i s l'industrie et ses procds se
prsentent maintenant pour les pompiers sous de nombreuses formes et
la plupart des matriaux et produits qui en sont l'origine se retrouvent
galement dans nos rseaux de transport t e r r e s t r e , maritime, arien. Ces
problmes font partie du prix payer pour les progrs raliss en vue de
satisfaire de nombreuses exigences, certaines sociales et techniques,
d'autres conomiques. L'importance des problmes et des progrs raliss
augmente chaque jour un rythme de plus en plus rapide.

Les efforts dploys pour rduire au maximum l'augmentation des

risques d'incendie et en attnuer les consquences, en particulier la
perte de vies humaines, occupent largement les esprits des responsables
de la scurit incendie et une grande place dans les travaux de recherche
e t autres activits mens dans ce domaine. Ces travaux bnficient d'un
certain degr de p r i o r i t , bien q u ' i l s soient gnralement en retard sur
les progrs l'origine des problmes e t , bien sr, i l s sont soumis
certaines contraintes financires. Occasionnellement, i l s bnficient d'un
degr de priorit accru la suite de catastrophes et souvent uniquement
parce que l'opinion publique, peut-tre aiguillonne par la presse,
rend la vie d i f f i c i l e aux hommes politiques qui s'activent alors pour
amliorer les l o i s et rglements afin d'essayer de prvenir le retour
d'une semblable tragdie.
I l est normal que les ressources servent en priorit prvenir les
incendies, v e i l l e r au sauvetage des personnes e t ralentir la propaga-
tion du feu grce la conception des btiments et l'emploi de
matriaux de construction appropris. I l existe une certaine coopration
europenne et internationale cet gard, mme s i , naturellement,
beaucoup reste encore faire e t , de ce point de vue, la tenue de ce
symposium constitue une tape importante sur la voie de la coopration
europenne.

En consquence, l'innovation dans l e s techniques d'intervention vient en

second lieu et ne fait pas partie des proccupations de ceux qui ne s'y
intressent pas directement; i l s'ensuit que les progrs raliss dans ce
domaine ont pris une forme trs diffrente. Historiquement, en particulier
en Europe, les progrs ont t le fait de pompiers et d'ingnieurs
s'intressant particulirement aux oprations de lutte contre le feu et
au matriel u t i l i s cette fin. Souvent, ces innovateurs ont travaill
 633

seuls et parfois leurs propres frais, aiguillonns par leur seule foi
dans leur entreprise.
En tant que panpier et officier suprieur, j ' a i la conviction que
nous continuons travailler de cette manire dans nos p e t i t s cercles,
sans beaucoup nous soucier ou mme bnficier des efforts analogues
dploys dans d'autres parties de l a Communaut ou mme dans nos
propres pays. Nous ne gaspillons pas seulement notre talent collectif,
mais les ressources, en particulier les crdits, dont i l semble que nous
soyons tous court.

I l existe galement une autre manire d'apporter des innovations

dans ce domaine, et c'est aux socits commerciales que nous en sommes
redevables. Les effets sont doubles: Le premier est positif: Comme un
grand nombre de ces socits oprent sur le march international, leurs
ides sont plus largement diffuses. Le second n'est pas aussi positif
parce que ces socits gardent pour elles leurs ides tant qu'elles ne
sont pas dveloppes et qu'elles risquent d'tre copies. Cela r a l e n t i t
souvent le dveloppement et, bien sr, augmente les prix, notamment
ceux du matriel produit.

Les ides nouvelles dans le domaine des techniques d'intervention

revtent galement de nombreuses formes. Certaines sont d'un cot
financier trs faible et les changements apports dans le domaine de l a
technique applique aux oprations de l u t t e contre le feu en sont un bon
exemple. Dans la Communaut europenne, quelques brigades choisissent
prsent de constituer de petites quipes spcialises qui viennent
s'ajouter aux sapeurs forms aux innombrables tches d'ordre gnral,
dans le but d'amliorer l'efficacit des oprations spcialises.
Certaines brigades ont galement essay de mettre sur pied de
petites units d'intervention, parfois mme cyclomotorises, pour
rsoudre le problme pos par la circulation et ses encombrements.
D'autres techniques d'intervention ont t mises au point pour permettre
l'application des mesures de scurit incendie intgres dont nous avons
dj entendu beaucoup parler. Des escaliers pressuriss, destins essen-
tiellement f a c i l i t e r le sauvetage, sont galement u t i l i s s pour aider
les pompiers entrer dans un btiment afin d'teindre l'incendie et la
tactique applique est modifie pour u t i l i s e r ces dispositifs au mieux.
D'autres nouvelles techniques d'intervention sont naturellement beaucoup
plus chres - par exemple l ' u t i l i s a t i o n d'hlicoptres. Les innovations
ne varient pas seulement dans cette direction, elles sont galement
diffrentes origines qui influent sur leur caractre, la rapidit avec
laquelle elles sont adoptes et, l encore, le cot qu'elles reprsentent
pour les sapeurs pompiers.
Je suis certain que certaines nouvelles ides sont trouves par
hasard, mme si cela n'est pas courant ou dment signal. Par ailleurs,
dans l ' t a t actuel des connaissances des lois de la physique et de la
chimie, je ne crois pas q u ' i l soit possible de dcouvrir un nouveau moyen
de lutte conte le feu qui soit efficace 100%, aussi je crois q u ' i l ne
faut pas compter sur la chance pour nous aider cet gard. Au contraire,
la plupart des innovations dans notre domaine sont le rsultat d'un
perfectionnement lent, mais continu, des pratiques et du matriel actuels.
Cela peut tre en partie d au fait que nous avons une conception
 634

trs traditionnelle de notre tche. La plupart des innovations sont le

fait de sapeurs-pcmpiers ingnieux e t les autres sont trouves par les
ingnieurs que j ' a i cits prcdenment et qui s'intressent particulire-
ment notre domaine d'action. Certaines de ces ides sont galements
relativement peu coteuses, mais ce n'est pas le cas des autres.
Un exemple rcent a t l'apparition sur le march d'un extincteur
manuel universel utilisant la mousse AFFF et quipe d'une buse de
pulvrisation spciale destine viter les dangers d'origine lectrique.
La conception de l'extincteur, de la mousse AFFF et du gicleur, qui, je
crois, a d'abord t u t i l i s en France, t a i t connue: i l suffisait de les
associer. L'extincteur semble rsoudre les problmes poss par la poudre
en tant qu'agent universel et i l devrait amliorer considrablement les
possibilits d'intervention rapide par les personnes avant l'arrive des
sapeurs pompiers. Ce matriel est par ailleurs relativement peu coteux,
ce qui permet d'esprer q u ' i l sera progressivement adopt.
I l existe de nombreux exemples de cette volution progressive. Des
perfectionnements ont t rgulirement apports, en particulier aux
pompes, aux chelles et au matriel de sauvetage spcial. L'exemple le
plus connu est peut-tre la manire dont l'application de la mousse et
l'amlioration des composs ont volu. Alors qu'autrefois, tous les
incendies de liquides inflamnables taient combattus au moyen de mousse
base de protines de stockage et de manipulation d i f f i c i l e , i l existe
prsent plusieurs types de composs diffrents faciles stocker et les
liquides inflammables sont prsent combattus avec des moyens diffrents
selon les caractristiques q u ' i l s prsentent l o r s q u ' i l s sont en feu. Ces
modifications ont t apportes par des gens ayant des connaissances
spcialises en chimie et des objectifs commerciaux, mais elles n'ont pu
l ' t r e qu'en s'appuyant sur l'exprience acquise par les pompiers.
Un autre domaine important d'innovation, qui est gnralement
beaucoup plus coteux, est l'adaptation de la technologie et du matriel
conu l'origine pour d'autres fins.
Les progrs raliss en matire de technologie spatiale et de
communications ont t u t i l i s s dans de nombreux domaines et le ntre
ne fait pas exception. La technique des vhicules spcialiss s ' e s t
galement impose chez nous: l'exemple le plus vident est la plate-forme
hydraulique conue l'origine d'autres fins, mais adapte pour rsoudre
nos problmes de hauteur et l a ncessit de disposer d'une plate-forme de
travail stable. Le travail en hauteur a toujours proccup les pompiers
et ingnieurs responsables des questions d'incendie et l ' u t i l i s a t i o n et
l'adaption d'hlicoptres, en particulier pour les oprations de sauvetage,
sont actuellement mises au point dans le but de l u t t e r plus rapidement
contre le feu dans les immeubles de grande hauteur; le systme, driv du
programme spatial, consistant manoeuvrer en tant suspendu en l ' a i r ,
est actuellement u t i l i s dans cette optique.

De nombreuses ralisations sont stimules par les vnements, certaines

malheureusement par des conflits m i l i t a i r e s . La l u t t e contre l'incendie
au moyen de robots dans des situations trs priculeuses est le rsultat
des progrs raliss dans l e maniement des bombes par les t e r r o r i s t e s ,
alors que la l u t t e contre l'incendie sur les navires au cours de la
guerre des Falklands a prcipit la mise au point dfinitive des camras
 635

image thermique. I l se pourrait bien que ces camras soient la plus

grande innovation en matire de lutte contre l'incendie depuis de nomb-
reuses annes car, pour la premire fois, un pompier peut prsent voir
travers l a fume. De nouveaux perfectionnements dj apports font que
le commandant situ l'extrieur du btiment sera galement en mesure
de voir ce qui se passe en mme temps que le pompier; nous avons tous
d rver d'un tel dispositif lorsque nous attendions des rapports et
des informations de l ' i n t r i e u r afin de pouvoir prendre des dcisions de
nature tactique.
Les perfectionnements apports la technologie des communications
et l ' u t i l i s a t i o n des micro-chips ont galement des rpercussions trs
nettes sur nos oprations. Bien q u ' i l ne s'agisse pas proprement parler
d'une technique d'intervention, je connais une brigade qui possde
prsent un simulateur oprationnel. Les pilotes de j e t s sont entrans
sur des simulateurs depuis plusieurs annes et cette utilisation se
rencontrera de plus en plus frquemment chez les sapeurs pompiers dans la
mesure o l'acquisition de l'exprience ne peut plus se faire par les
voies les plus dures et o i l faut en trouver d'autres. L'amlioration
des communications et l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de p e t i t s ordinateurs signifient que
nous pouvons recueillir l'information qui permettra d'atteindre le plus
rapidement l e lieu de l'incendie, de voir, en appuyant sur un bouton, la
disposition des btiments et de leur contenu et de dterminer les
mthodes qui permettront de rsoudre les problmes chimiques.
Ibutes ces innovations dans le domaine de l'intervention sont
actuellement u t i l i s e s , ainsi que d'autres, par les corps des sapeurs
pompiers en Europe et n'en sont qu' leurs balbutiements. Les possibilits
sont grandes de mme que le risque de voir les cots atteindre un
niveau susceptible d'avoir un effet fcheux sur la rgularit des
progrs r a l i s s . Nous pourrions rduire ces cots si nous devenions
un seul et unique u t i l i s a t e u r et non pas des petites units individuelles,
ce qui permettrait en mme temps de maintenir le rythme de l a progression.
Malgr ces exemples, les innovations dans notre domaine ne sont pas
le fruit de l a recherche et de la pense "latrale" mries dans ce seul
contexte et c'est peut-tre un domaine dont il conviendrait de nous
proccuper aprs le prsent symposium. Il y a des qens parmi nous dont
l ' e s p r i t est orient vers ce type de pense futuriste et l ' i l l u s t r a t i o n
que j ' e n donne provient d'un article t i r de la revue "Fire International".
Il s'agit d'un systme de l u t t e contre l'incendie port par une fuse et
destin teindre les incendies provoqus par les catastrophes ariennes,
systme ncessaire pour rduire les dlais d'intervention et que la
technologie disponible aujourd'hui rend possible. Je ne sais pas si cela
fonctionnerait, mais c'est ce type de projet que nous devrions encourager
l'avenir.

Enfin, je voudrais dire que nous avons tous des ides et une sonine
d'exprience qui nous permet de perfectionner les techniques d'intervention
et q u ' i l suffirait que nous partagions nos connaissances pour obtenir une
norme audience. La Communaut europenne rsonne souvent des discordes
dues aux conflits d'intrt et i l en sera peut-tre toujours ainsi.
 636

En ce qui nous concerne, quels que soient nos sentiments personnels ou

nationaux propos de ces problmes, nous travaillons dans un omaine
qui pargne les conflits d'intrt et o i l n'y a aucun obstacle la
coopration; aussi j'espre que nous pourrons travailler beaucoup plus
troitement l'avenir de manire a assurer le succs de toutes nos
interventions et j'espre que ce symposium sera le fondement de cette
collaboration.
 637

VETEMENTS DE PROTECTION POUR LES SAPEURS-POMPIERS

C.H.M. HAVER
Service d ' I n c e n d i e de Velsen

Dans l e p r s e n t expos, q u i t r a i t e r a des problmes r e l a t i f s aux

vtements de p r o t e c t i o n pour l e s sapeurs-pompiers, l ' a t t e n t i o n se
concentrera sur l a v a l e u r i s o l a n t e du vtement, s e s p r o p r i t s p h y s i o -
logiques e t ses a s p e c t s ergonomiques. On examinera galement s i l e s
nouveaux matriaux que l ' o n trouve p r s e n t sur l e march sont bien ceux
que l e s pcmpiers a t t e n d e n t depuis longtemcs. En o u t r e , on examinera
d'une manire c r i t i q u e s i l e s e s s a i s extrmement d i v e r s actuellement
e f f e c t u s ne peuvent t r e rglements de t e l l e manire q u ' i l s permettent
une m e i l l e u r e a p p r c i a t i o n .

INTRODUCTION

Le sujet t r a i t est nettement dlimit. Ceci s'impose, vu la

complexit de la matire et les domaines trs divers dans lesquels
s'exercent les tches des pompiers en matire de rpression du feu.
L'attention se concentrera donc sur les points suivants:
a. valeur isolante du vtement (brlure de la peau);
b. aspects physiologiques (le bilan thermique du pompier au cours de
l'attaque intrieure;
c. aspects ergonomiques (adaptation du vtement aux conditions de
travail).
En ce qui concerne le point a., l'expos est fond sur le schma de
Coletta et Abbot et u t i l i s e en mme temps divers graphiques, rsultant
de l a pratique, qui montrent la relation entre le rayonnement thermique
et la brlure de la peau. I l apparatra cependant avec vidence qu'
ct de la valeur isolante du vtement, des facteurs tels que l ' t a n -
chit, le caractre totalement ou fortement hydrofuge, la rsistance aux
produits chimiques ou aux liquides inflammables et aux mtaux liqufiables
t e l s que l'aluminium sont galement importants.
b. Proprits physiologiques.
A ce stade de l'expos, on examinera un rapport de 1'Instituut
voor Zintuigfysiologie TNO, traitant des aspects physiologiques de trois
tenues de pompiers en :
1.laine
2. nomex
3. p . v . c .
Les consquences de la couche impermable d'une tenue de pompier
t r o i s paisseurs seront galement considres.
c. Ergonomie
Sous ce t i t r e , on examinera de manire critique la coupe et la
confection de la tenue d'intervention.
 638

L'avenir en matire de vtements

Des matriaux base de polyamides aromatiques ou de composs

polyhtrocycliques (Nomex, Kevlar, Kermel et fibres P.B.I.) seront
examins.

Et l'attention se portera aussi, sur : - le casque

- les gants
- les bottes.
 639

TEILNEHMERLISTE
LIST OF PA RTICIPA NTS
LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS

ADOLPHS, W. ARESU DE SEUI, H.

Thyssen A G Directeur de
KonzernBrandschutz l ' A s s o c i a t i o n Nationale pour l a
Postfach 110561 P r o t e c t i o n contre l ' I n c e n d i e
D 4100 DUISBURG 11 Parc s c i e n t i f i q u e
Bote P o s t a l e 1A
ADRIANI, . 1348 OTTIGNIES LLNEUVE
Inqeqnere
Impreset S.p..
ARNAULT, P.
(Grupeo SIR Finanziaria S.p.A.)
Ingnieur Directeur Labo. CTICM
Via Grazioli, 33
C.T.I.C.M.
I 20161 MILANO
20, rue Jean Jaurs
F 92807 PUTEAUX
ALLARD, V.
Capitaine (A .E.)
AYMARD, M.
Service d ' I n c e n d i e Officier de SapeursPompiers
6 3 , rue S t T h i e b a u l t Direction Dpartementale
F 28100 DREUX des Services d'Incendie et
de Secours des Hautes Alpes
ALOJZ, M. Hotel du Dpartement
Architecte Rue St Arey
Facult d'Architecture, Ljubljana F 05000 GAP
Vtozdarhitektura
Cojzova 5
YU 61000 LJUBLJANA BACKHAUS, W.J.
Dipl.Ing., Architekt
ANCILLOTTI, P. Gerling Institut
Commandant (A.E.) Bereich Brandschutz
Service d'Incendie Friesenwall 89
6, Via Procaccini D 5000 KOELN 1
I 20153 MILANO
BAMERT, A.E.
ANDERSON, W.G. Brandverhtunqsdienst fr
Chairman of the P r o t e c t i v e & Industrie und Gewerbe
General Services Committee Nuschelerstrasse, 45
Fife Reqional Council CH 8001 ZURICH
24, T h i s t l e S t r e e t
UK COWDENBEA TH FIFE KY4 8NF
Scotland BARBIER, J.
Adjoint du Chef du
ANNEMAIER, . Dpartement Incendie
Dipl.Chem. La Belgique Industrielle
Chemische Fabrik Grnau GmbH Association d'Assurances Mutuelles
Postfach 1063 2728, quai Marcellis
D 7918 ILLERTISSEN 4020 LIEGE
 640

BEAN, M. BINEAU, H.
Vice President Euralarm Directeur Technique
Honeywell Control Systems Ltd. Centre National de
Charles Square Prvention et de Protection
GB BRACKNELL, Berkshire, RG12 1EB 5, rue Daunou
F 75002 PARIS
BECKER, W.
Dipl.Inq., Direktor (.E.) BIRSCHEIDT, H.
RASF Aktiengesellschaft
Inspecteur Principal (A .E.)
Aweta Brandschutztechnik, HRS/B Ministre de l'Intrieur
6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN/RHEIN 62, rue Principale
L LINTGEN
BEENKEN, ..
Dipl.Inq.
BLACHERE, G.
Colonia Versicherung A G
Ingnieur
Postfach 80 50 50
IRBAT
D 5000 KOELN 80
242 bis, bd St.Germain
BELCK, L.H. F 75007 PARIS
Technical Coordinator
Dupont de Nemours BLASS, H.
International S.A. A.W. ANDERNACH KG
Case postale Maarstrasse 48
CH 1211 GENEVE 24 D 5300 BONN 3
BEN DHIAB, T.
Ingnieur Conseil BOECKLY, .
OPCIE Vereinigte Versicherungsgruppe
B.P. 941 Abteilunq peb
Postfach 20 25 22
TN 1045 TUNIS RP
D 8000 MUENCHEN 2
BENISEK, L.
Manager BOISSY, G.
International Wool Secretariat Socit RHOVYL
Development Centre F 55310 TRONVILLE EN BARRDIS
Valley Drive
GB LKLEY, West Yorks. LS29 8PB BORREMANS, A.M.
AdjunctDirecteur
BERTOLINO, E. Siemens Nederland .V.
Consulente Postbus 16068
CE..T.A. (Centro Nazionale di NL 2500 BB DEN HAAG
Tecniche Antincendio)
Via V. Vela 17 BOUILLETTE, J.P.
I 10128 TORINO Ingnieur
BERTRAND, J. O.T.U.A. (Office Technique
pour l ' U t i l i s a t i o n de l ' A c i e r )
Ingnieur Civil de Recherches
5 b i s , rue de Madrid
Universit de Lige
F 75008 PA RIS
Institut du Gnie Civil
6, quai Banninq
4000 LIEGE BRAUN, F.
Director General
BIEBUYCK, G. Commission of the European
Capt.Commandant (A .E.) Communities, DG Internal Market
Service d'Incendie and Industrial Affairs
4, Academiestraat 200, rue de la Loi
9000 GENT B 1049 BRUSSELS
 641

BREDIMUS, . CANOVAN, P.
SousChef de Service Government Service
Le Foyer S.A . Heme Office
Cie Luxembourgeoise d'A ssurances Queen Anne's Gate
6, rue Albert Borschette GB LONDON SWIH 9AT
L 2986 LUXEMBOURG
CARAMELLE, G.
Responsable Scurit
BREESCH, L.
et Services Gnraux
Inspecteur en Chef
RCWNTREE MACKINTOSH
Service de Scurit
Rue De Cluj
de Lige
F 21000 DIJON
4, rue des Combattants
4200 OUGREE CARL, W.
Dipl.Chem.
BRIDGES, R. Bayer AG
Fire Officer (.E.) FS Anwendungstechnik
Fire Brigade Postfach 1140
Essex County D 4047 DORMAGEN
303, Roman Road
GB BRENTOCOD, E s s . C M 5 OUI CARLIER, V.
Conseiller, Service Scurit
BROUWER, B.H. Ministre de l'Education Nationale
(A.E.) Secrtariat Gnral
104, Aaltje Noordevierstraat 67, rue Royale
NL 2551 GA ' SGRAVENHAGE 1000 BRUXELLES
CARRASCON, R.
BRUGGHEMANS, L.
Rnqineer
SousOfficier SapeurPompier
CEPREVEN
SapeurPompier de Londerzeel
Sagasta, 18
Mechelsestraat 72
2900 LONDERZEEL E 28004 MADRID

CASSO, J.M.
BRUHWILER, R.
Ingnieur Conseil
Oberleutnant (A .E.)
Cabinet Casso Gaudin et Cie
Berufsfeuerwehr
85, rue de Saussure
Seminarstrasse 107
CH 8057 ZURICH F 75017 PARIS
CHAMPEAUX, A.
BRUN, M. Lieutenant (A .E.)
Responsable de la Scurit Incendie Service d'Incendie
Manufacture Franaise 2, rue Henri de Ranconval
des Pneumatiques Michelin F 57000 METZ
Place des Carmes Dechaux
F 63040 CLERMONT FERRAND CEDEX CHAPMAN, J.F.
Technical Director
BURNS, . British Rigid Urethane Foam
Institute for Industrial Manufacturers' Association
Research & Standards 206 C o m Exchange
Ballvmun Road Hanging Ditch
IR DUBLIN 9 GB MANCHESTER M4 3BQ

CANDRIES, J. CHAVEE, M.
Inqnieur Textile Lieutenant (A .E.)
Comitextil Service d'Incendie
24, rue Montoyer 3, rue de l'Ancre
R 1040 BRUXELLES 6000 CHARLEROI

CHERIX, J.P.
Inspecteur des services
d'incendie de Genve
Inspection cantonale du
service du feu
C.P. 176
CH 1211 RENEVE 8
CHRISNACH, P.
Exoert Judiciaire auprs
du Parquet Luxembourg
15, bvd. Royal
L LUXEMBOURG
CLAEYS, R.
Assistent ir.
Rijksuniversiteit Gent
Laboratorium voor Aanwending
der Brandstoffen en
WarmteOverdracht
Afdeling Brandveiligheid
Ottergemsesteenweg 711
9000 GENT
CLARKE, G.
(.E.)
Fire Service College
Firth Avenue
GB MORETONinMARSH.
Glos. GL56 ORH
CLAUS, P.G.
Director
(A ssociation of Plastics
Manufacturers in Europe)
250, ave Louise, box 73
1050 BRUSSELS
CLOARD, R.
Ingnieur
Manufacture Franaise
des Pneumatiques Michelin
Place des Carmes Dechaux
F 63040 CLERMONT FERRAND CEDEX
COLLIGNON, D.
Lieutenant (A .E.)
Service d'Incendie
27, rue de la Ferme
4300 ANS
COLOT, A.
Adjoint Chef SHE
Conseil Bruxelles
170, rue de la Loi
1048 BRUXELLES
642
CREYF, H.
DRSC
P.R.B. Div. Recticel
Damstraat 2
B 9200 WETTEREN
CUISENAIRE, Y.
Ingnieur Principal
SECO
53, rue d'ArIon
B 1040 BRUXELLES
CULER, L.
Ingnieur Conseil S Prsident de
Fire Control, Asbl.
46, ave des Villas
B 1060 BRUXELLES
DACHY, D.
Commandant (A .E.)
Service d'Incendie
6, rue des Brasseurs
B 5400 MARCHEENFAMENNE
DAHM, V.
Officiercommandant adj. (A.E.)
Service d'Incendie
22, rue Ausone
L LUXEMBOURG
DALIGAND, D.
Secrtaire Gnral
Syndicat National des
Industries du Pltre
3, rue Alfred Roll
F 75849 PARIS CEDEX 17
DAN, E.
Senior Chief Engineer
Dantest, National Institute for
Testing and Verification
115, Amager Boulevard
DK 2300 COPENHAGEN S
DANIELSEN, U.
Civil Engineer
The Norwegian Fire
Research Laboratory
Sintef Division 25
7034 TRONDHEIM NTH
DANO, E.
Secrtaire Adjoint
Fechiplast c/o Fdration des
Industries Chimiques de Belgique
49, square Marie Louise
1040 BRUXELLES
 643

DAUBENFELD, J.G. DE MOULINS, P.

Dipl.-Inq. Prsident de la
Ing.-Bro Bauinqenieurwesen CF.P.A./Europe
116, rue Emile Metz 5, rue Daunou
L - 2149 LUXEMBOURG F - 75002 PARIS

DAVID, H. DE PRYCK, C.
Ingnieur, APSAIRD Inspecteur, Alarmas Manager (A.E.)
Assemble Plnire des Socits Securicor S.A.
d'Assurance contre l'Incendie et 8, rue de Bitbourg
les Risques Divers L - 1269 LUXEMBOURG
11, rue Pillet Will
DE SMEDT, J.C.
F - 75009 PARIS
Colt International N.V.
DAY, T. General de Wittelaan 3
Head of Construction Division - 2800 MECHELEN
Fire Insurers' Research and
Testing Organisation (F IRTO) DE SMET, M.
Melrose Avenue Directeur des Ventes
GB - BOREHAMWOOD, Herts.WD6 2BJ Somai
Protection Incendie
DE BROGLIE, R. 3e Industriezone
Responsable du Comit Scurit - 9440 EREMBODEGEM, Aalst
Feu de la Commission Technique
G.I.E. INFOPLAST DECANNIERE, J.P.
65, rue de Prony Schade Expert
F - 75854 PARIS CEDEX 17 Expertisebureau Decannire
R. Declercqlaan 8
DE COSTER, F.
- 8710 KORTRIJK
Securitas
Engerstraat, 87 DECLERCK, M.
- 3071 ERPS-KWERPS Exp., Adm., Directeur
Expertises Industrielles Job et Cie
DE JONG, J.M. 54, rue J.B. Esch
(.E.) L - 1473 LUXEMBOURG
Brandweer
359, Orionweg DEHANDSCHUTTER, J.
NL - 1974 TK IJMUIDEN Major (A.E.)
Service d'Incendie
DE KEERSMAEKER, C.
Aggio, de Bruxelles
Juriste
1, Moortebeekstraat
Office de la Prvention - 1710 DILBEEK
et de la Scurit
602, Chaussee de Louvain
DEL PLATO, S.
- 1030 BRUXELLES
Dott. Arch.
Centro Comune di Ricerca
DE LAMINNE, E.
Divisione Costruzioni e
Directeur
Infrastrutture
Office de la Prvention et
Stabilimento di Ispra
de la Scurit
I - 21020 ISPRA (Varese)
602, chausse de Louvain
- 1030 BRUXELLES
DELESDERRIER, J.M.
DE MARTINO, G. Prsident de l'A.E.
Ingegnere Major-chef de Service
Nuova Italsider S.p.A. Service d'Incendie
Via Corsica 4 Case postale 98
I - 16128 GENOVA CH - 1211 GENEVE 8
 644

DENBLYDEN, J . L . DOHERTY, M.
Head of FireBriqade Fire Officer
C.E.R.N. London Fire Brigade
CH 1211 GENEVE 23 Headquarters
c/o Mrs J. BOETTGER
DENNEY, E.J. Albert Embankment
Chief Technical Officer GB LONDON SEI 7SD
Fire Protection Association
140, Aldersqate Street DONDERS, W.
GB LONDON EC1A 4HX
Service des Btiment
d'Etat
DEPIESSE, P.
Groothertoginnelaan 152
(A.E.)
NL 2517 EM 's GRAVENHAGE
Glaverbel S.A .
166, eh. de la Hulpe
DRINKWATER, .
1170 BRUXELLES
Fire Protection Engineer
The Walter Kidde Co. Ltd.
DESCOUTORES, J . J . Belvue Road
O f f i c i e r ( A .E.) GB NORTHOLT, Middlesex UB5 5QW
Service Departemental
d'Incendie
12, r u e A raqo DUBAY, P.
F 44240 LA CHA PELLE/ERDRE Ingnieur
Ministre de l'Intrieur Belge
DEWIT, D. 1, rue de Louvain
Ingnieur 1000 BRUXELLES
Ministre de l'Intrieur Belge
1, rue de Louvain DUBOIS, N.
1000 BRUXELLES DG Employment, social affairs
and education
DIGMAN, R. L 2920 LUXEMBOURG
Civil Engineer
Fire Offices' Committee
DUFFY, G.M.
Aldermary House
Reinsurance Broker
Queen Street Oakeley Vaughan & Co Ltd.
GB LONDON RC4N 1 New London Bridge House
London Bridge Street
DIRMER, C. GB LONDON SEI 9TH
Officier des SapeursPompiers
prventionniste
DUHOUX,
Ministre de l'Intrieur
Ingnieur principal
Direction de la Scurit Civile
Forges de Clabecq
1, place Beauveau
1361 TUBIZE (Clabecq)
F 75800 PARIS

DOBBERTIN, H.W. DUJARDIN, C.

Kaufm. Angestellter Lieutenant (A .E.)
C.H. Erbslh Service d ' I n c e n d i e
Postfach 29 26 115, che de Namur
D 4000 DUESSELDORF 1 1301 WA VRE

DOERING, G. DURAND, M.Y.

Phvsiker Docteur Ingnieur Civil
Hoechst AG Facult Polytechnique de Mons
Postfach 80 03 20 9, rue de Houdain
D 6230 FRANKFURT 7000 MONS
 645

EBNETH, . FANAL, C.
Dipl.Chem. Service scurit
Bayer AG Conseil des ministres de la C.E.E.
Abteilung ZFANP 170, rue de la Loi
Gebude 207 1040 BRUXELLES
D 5090 LEVERKUSEN
FARRAND, A.
ECOFFEY, P.
Fire Officer (A .E.)
Directeur Fire Brigade
Etablissement cantonal d'Assurance County Council
des Btiments de canton de Fribourg GB BARNSLEY S70 2TN
GrandRue 27
CH 1700 FRIBOURG
FASSOTTE, W.
EGRESI, M. Charg de Recherches principal
Or.techn. Ingnieur
BASF Aktiengesellschaft INIEX (Institut National des
Aweta Brandschutztechnik, HRS/B Industries Extractives)
D 6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN/RHEIN 200, rue du Chra
4000 LIEGE
ELEVELD, H.
Direkteur
FAVRE, J.P.
A.C.I. B.V.
Dipl.Ing. /SIA
P.O. Box 10
Gebudevers icherung
NL 9600 AA HOOGEZAND
des Kantons Bern
ENGDAHL, O. Viktoriaplatz 25
Oberingenieur CH 3000 BERN 25
Norsk Brannvern Forening
Postboks 6703 St. Olavs PI. FELIX, F.
0130 OSLO 1 Responsable de la Scurit W.T.C.
Ministre des Travaux Publics
ESMEYER, . Rgie des Btiments
Commission of the European Direction BruxellesCapitale
Communities, DG Personnel and Section III, Serv. de Gestion W.T.C.
Administration Service Scurit 158, Bd E. Jacqmain
L 2920 LUXEMBOURG 3 1000 BRUXELLES

EULENBURG, P. FERENCZY, G.
Dipl.Chem., Direktor der Ingnieur
Berufsfeuerwehr Essen Socotec Exporte
(A.E.) 1, ave du Parc
Eiserne Hand 45 F 78180 MONTIGNY LE BRETONNEUX
D 4300 ESSEN
FERRETTI, G.
EVANS, 0.
Ingegnere
General Manager Fire
Calcestruzzi Spa
Aritech Europe S../.v.
Via R. Gessi 20
Excelsiorlaan 9
I 48100 RAVENNA
1930 ZAVENTEM

FABIAN, . FERRON, J.
Fire Officer (A .E.) Commission of the European
Fire Briqade Communities DG Science,
26, Thorndale Rise Research and Development
Kings Road 200, rue de la Loi
GB BRADFORD BD2 1NU 1049 BRUXELLES
 646

FIRMIN, P. GIJSENBERG, F.J.

Capitaine Comandant (.E. ) Adjoint Chef SHE
Service d ' I n c e n d i e Conseil Bruxelles
30, rue Simon Lobet 170, rue de la Loi
- 4800 V ERV IERS - 1048 BRUXELLES
FISHBEIN, J.
GILBERT, A.
Director
Dipl.-Ing.
c/o BRMA Headquarters
90/91 Tottenham Court Road
Grnzweig & Hartmann
GB - LONDON W1P OBR
und Glasfaser Ag
Dr. Albert-Reimann-Strasse 20
FIVET, J. D - 6802 LADENBURG
Inqnieur Civil
C.E.R.N., Div. T.I.S. GIOMI, G.
CH - 1211 GENEVE 23 Ingegnere (N ational Corps
of Fireman)
FLISI, U. Direzione Generale Servizi
Monteraiimeri spa. CSJ Antincendi-Ministero dell' Interno
Via Lombardia 20 Viale Cesare Pavese 50
I - 20021 I - 00144 ROMA
FOSTER, N.
GOESAERT, P.
Industry Liaison Manager
Manager
British Gypsum Ltd.
GRADA BE-LUX
East Leake
Toekomstlaan 18
GB - LOUGHBOROUGH, Leics LE12 6JQ
- 9100 LOKEREN
FRAEYS DE VEUBEKE, B.
GRABER, .
Analytical and Testing
Bureau Veritas Civil Engineering
Services Manager
Inspection and Safety
ICI EUROPA Ltd.
Department Overseas Service
Everslaan 45
35, rue Paul Vaillant Couturier
- 3078 EVERBERG (Kortenberg)
B.P. 248
F - 92307 LEVALLOIS-PERRET CEDEX
FRIEDRICH, L.
Colt International GmbH
GRAF, M.
Briener Str. 186
Inspecteur du Service de Defense
D - 4190 KLEVE
contre l'Incendie
GAILLY, R. Etablissement cantonal d'assurance
Capitaine (.E.) contre l'incendie pour le
Service d'Incendie canton de Vaud
3, rue de l'Ancre 56, ave du Gnral-Guisan
- 6000 CHARLEROI CH - 1009 PULLY

GEBOERS, B.H.A. GRAHAM, R.A.

(A.E.) Assistant County Fire Officer
Brandweer Greater Manchester Fire Service
Postbus 103 Fire Service Headquarters
NL - 5700 AC HELMOND 146 Bolton Road
GB - SWINTON, Manchester M27 2US
GERGER, G
I n g . - Brandschutztechniker GRARD, G.
L a n d e s s t e l l e fr Brandverhtung Product Manager
in Steiermark Chicago Metallic Contineantal N.V.
Roseggerkai 3 Oude Sluisstraat 5
A - 8010 GRAZ - 2110 WIJNEGEM
 647

GREFF, M. HARGREAVES, V.A.

Officier Sapeur Bonpier Editor
CSP Nancy "Fire" - "Fire International"
35, rue Gambetta Unisaf Publications
F - 54000 NANCY Queensway House
GB - REDHILL, Surrey RH1 1Q5
GRIMBERT, R.
Manaqer
ZYX Concept S c u r i t HAURUM, G.
30/32 ave de l a Rsistance Generalinspektor der Feuerwehren
F - 77500 CHEL L ES Staatliche Brandinspektion
Kongevejen 207
GROENEWOLD, D.J.
(A.E.) DK - 2830 VIRUM
Brandweer
HAUSHOFER, .
398, Pr. Beatrixlaan
NL - 2273 XZ VOORBURG A.W. Andernach KG
Maarstrasse 48
GUIGNARD, J . R . D - 5300 BONN 3
Directeur
Etablissement cantonal d ' a s s u r a n c e HAVER, C.H.M.
contre l ' i n c e n d i e pour l e (A.E.)
canton de Vaud Brandweer
56, ave du Gnral-Guisan 20, Velserduinweg
CH - 1009 PUL L Y NL - 1971 ZE IJMUIDEN
HALFKANN, K.H.
HAYEZ, J . P .
Brandschutz inqen ieur
Commandant IR
Deutscher Stahlbau-Verband DSTV
S e c r t a i r e de L 'AE
Ebertplatz 1
Service d ' I n c e n d i e
D - 5000 KOELN 1
Aggio, de Bruxelles
11, av. de l ' H l i p o r t
HALLER, R.
- 1000 BRUXEL L ES
Ingenieur
BERTIN & Cie
B.P. no 3 , .D.
F - 78373 PLAISIR Cedex Engineering en lments de
HALL, G.S. construction coupe-feu
11, rue Derrire-l'Eau
Doctor of Forestry,
Head of Technology - 4890 MALMEDY
Timber Research & Development
HELLWIG, M.
Association
Ingenieur
Stocking Lane
Konrad Hornschuch AG
Hughenden Valley
D - 7119 WEISSBACH
GB - HIGH WYCOMBE HP14 4ND

HALPAAP, W. HEMME, F.
Dipl.-Ing. Siemens AG SI SMT L
Bayer A.G. Hofmannstrasse, 51
Abt. Arbeitssicherheit LE/CI D - 8000 MUENCHEM 70
D - 5090 LEVERKUSEN-BAYERWERK
HERPOL, C.
HAMMER, H. Dr. - Senior Scientist
Dipl.-Ing. Rijksuniversiteit Gent
Verband der Schversicherer e.V. Laboratorium Zoofysiologie
Riehler Strasse 36 K.L. Ledeganckstraat, 35
D - 5000 KOELN 1 - 9000 GENT
 648

HERTEL, H. HOOGAKKER, B.
Bauinqenieur General Manager
Institut Fr Bautechnik ADT Security Systems
Reichpietschufer 7276 Safi Tower
D 1000 BERLIN 30 326, ave Louise
1050 BRUSSELS
HERTEL, F.C.
Dipl. Engineer HORAK, E.
De Boer B.V., Ajax Segretario Generale AITA
Brandbeveiliging/ SNIA Fibre
Industrietecnniek/Isolatie Via Friuli 55
Cruqulusweg 118 I 20031 CESANO Maderno (MI)
NL 1019 AK AMSTERDAM
HOTPON, M.
HINRICHS, H.G. Responsable "Service Scurit
et Hygine
Schadenverhtungsdienst
Fonds des btiments scolaires
R & V Allgemeine
de l'Etat
Versicherung AG
3 A, rue Courteroie
Taunusstrasse 1
6600 LIBRAMOOT
6200 WIESBADEN

HOFFMANN, F. HOURLAY, P.
Dipl.Ing. Inspecteur des Services d'Incendie
Kreisverwaltuno Ministre de l'Intrieur
Ludwigshafen a.Rh. 24, Hotchamps
Hauptstr. 46 4960 LOUVEIGNE
D 6717 HESSHEIM
HUNT, M.
HOFMANN, K. Nuaire Limited
Dipl.Ing. Western Industrial Estate
BASF Aktiengesellschaft GB CAERPHILLY CF8 1XH
Aweta Brandschutztechnik, HRS/B
D 6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN/RHEIN JACOBSEN, U.
Chem.Ing.
HOGG, .. Rhm GmbH
FireOfficer Kirschenallee
Federation of British D 6100 DARMSTADT
Fire Organisations JAGFELD, P.
Fire Service HQ Dipl. Holzwirt
GB HETHERSETT, Norfolk Forschungs und
Materialprfungsanstalt
HOGNON, B. BadenWrttemberg
Ingenieur de Recherche OttoGrafInstitut
sur l ' i n c e n d i e Pfaffenwaldring 4
CS.T.B. D 7000 STUTTGART 80
Centre de Recherche de
Marne la Vallee JEDLER, B.G.
84, ave Jean Jaurs The Swedish Plastics Federation
Champs sur Marne B.P. 02 Sveavgen 3537
F 77421 MARNE LA VALLEE CEDEX 2 S 111 34 STOCKHOLM

HOLT, J.E. JENTZSCH, D.

Group Technical Director Brandschutzsachverstndiger
Colt International Ltd. Regierungsprsidium Stuttgart
New Lane Dresdner Strasse 22
GB HAVANT, Hampshire, P09 2LY D 7120 BIETIGHEIMBISSINGEN
 649

JOHANNSON, G. KERSKENBRADLEY, M.
Dr.Phys. Bauingenieur
Rhm GmbH Lamontstr. 1
Kirschenallee D 8000 MUENCHEN 80
D 6100 DARMSTADT
KINDERMANN, P.
JONKMAN, R. Geschftsfhrer, D i p l . I n g
IVPtJ, Industrieverband
Officier des S.P.
PolyurethanHartschaum e . v .
Brandweer Den Haag
K r i e g e r s t r a s s e 17
A. Noordewierstraat 154
D 7000 STUTTGA RT 1
NL 2551 GC DEN HAAG

JONKMAN, R. KINDT, G.
Expert
(A.E.)
Brandweer S.A. Bureau d ' E x p e r t i s e s
Olympiaweg 2511 van S t e e n k i s t e
NL 1076 VM AMSTERDAM Fnteingoeddreef 10
8630 GULLEGEM

JORIS, E. KLEMENT, E.
Chef du Dpartement Incendie Dipl.Ing.
La Belgique Industrielle Bundesanstalt fr
Association d'Assurances Mutuelles Materialprfung (BAM)
2728, quai Marcellis Unter den Eichen 87
4020 LIEGE D 1000 BERLIN 45

JUNALIK, H. KLOSE, G.D.

Ingnieur c/o Deutsche Rockwool
Platres Lafarge Mineralwoll GmbH
5, ave de l'Egalit Bottroper Str. 241
F 84800 L'ISLESURSORGIIE D 4390 GLADBECK

KLOUWENS, F.T.
KAMPHUIS, .
Plv. Commandant (A .E.)
(A.E.)
Service d'Incendie
Brandweer
(Brandweer)
30, Meidoornlaan
427, Kralingseweg
NL 3319 HR DORDRECHT
NL 3065 RE ROTTERDAM
KARRAN, G.
KLUYSKENS, B.
Chief Fire Officer
Ingenieur
West Yorkshire Fire Service
SECO
Oakroad Hall
GB BIRKENSHAW, West Yorks BD11 2DY 53, rue d'Arlon
B 1040 BRUXELLES

KELLY, S. KNIEBEL, M.
Senior Scientific Officer Direktor, Dipl.Volkswirt
Institute for Industrial Gotbaer, Versicherungsbank W a G
Research and Standards KaiserWilhelmRing 2325
Ballymun road D 5000 KOELN 1
IR " DUBLIN 9
KNOWLTON, R.J.
KENDIK, E. ChiefOfficer Inspector (A.E.)
Dipl.Arch. Fire Brigade
Argentinierstr. 28/10 42, Newmills Cresent
A 1040 WIEN GB SALERNO EH14 5SX
 650

KONNEGEN, . LAMBERT, R.
Brandd irektor (A .E.) (A.E.)
Berufsfeuerwehr Service d ' I n c e n d i e
89, Bolohstrasse 30, rue Sinon Lobet
D 5800 HAGEN 4800 VERVIERS

LAMBRECHT, T.
KOEDINA, .
Directeur
Professor
Promat S.A .
Technische Universitt Braunschweig
Kuiermansstraat 1
Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau
2920 KA PELLEOPDENBOS
und Brandschutz
Beethovenstr. 52 LARSEN, J.
D 3300 BRAUNSCHWEIG Master of Science
Byggestyrelsen
KRAMPF, K. The National Building Agency
Dipl.Ing. Stormgate 10
Technische Universitt Braunschweig DK 1470 COPENHAGEN .
Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau
und Rrandschutz LAW, M.
Beethovenstr. 52 Fire Engineer
D 3300 BRAUNSCHWEIG Ove Arup Partnership
13 Fitzroy Street
KUEHN, G. GB LONDON W1P 6BQ
Kre isbrand inspektor
LAY, D.
Kreisausschuss des Landkreises
Dipl.Ing, Leiter der Laboratorien
MarburgBiedenkopf
Verband der Sachversicherer e.V.
Im Lichtenholz 60 Amsterdamer Strasse 176178
D 3550 MARBURGCAPPEL D 5000 KOELN 60
KURTZ, .
LEGERET, 0.
Exp. Manager
Capitaine (A .E.)
Ziegler Giengen
Service d'Incendie
Meimiinqer Str.
86, av de la Foretaille
D 7928 GIENGEN
CH 1292 CHAMBESY/Genve

LA CLAVIERE, M.C. LEGROS, M.

Ingnieur
Laboratoire Central
de la Prfecture de Police
39 bis, rue de Dantzig
F 75015 PARIS
LAMBERT, J.L.
Group Leader, Marketing
Technical Service
Plasticizer
Monsanto Technical Center
Rue Laid Burniat
1348 LOUVA TNLA NEUVE
LAMBERTS VA M ASSCHE, L.
Commandant SapeurPompier
SapeursPompiers de Londerzeel
Mechelsestraat 72
2900 LONDERZEEL
Commandant ir (A.E.)
Service d'Incendie
77, rue Homvent
4500 LIEGE
LEHNEN, .
Institutsdirektor
Deutsches Teppich
Forschungs institut
Germannsstrasse 5
D 5100 AACHEN
LEMMERS, M.J.L.
Ing. Civil
Secrtaire General de l'A.I.
Association Internationale
de l'Etanchit
3, ave de l'Ermitage
1420 BRATNE L'A LLEUD
 651

LENOBLE, G. LOESCH, A.
Chef de scurit Ingnieur
Centre Oscar Lambret Btiments Publics
B.P. 307 10, rue du St. Esprit
F 59020 LILLE DEDEX L LUXEMBOURG

LENOIR, J.
Inqnieur en Chef, Directeur
Fonds de Construction
d'Institutions Hospitalires
et MdicoSociales
Cit Administrative de l'Etat LUMB, W.
Quartier Vsale
1010 BRUXELLES
LEROY, J.P.
Ingnieur Chef du Laboratoire
Mcanique Feu du CRIR
IsoverSa intGoba in
C.R.I.R.
B.P. 19
F 60290 RANTIGNY
LIARD, P.
Chef de Scurit Adjoint
ASSUBEL
3539, rue de Laeken
1000 BRUXELLES
LICKES, A .
Of f iciercommandant (A .E.)
Service d ' I n c e n d i e
36, rue de Montmdy MAILLET, M.
L LUXEMBOURG
LIENHARD, J . P .
Capitaine (A .E.)
Service d ' I n c e n d i e
67, r t e du V i l l a g e
CH 1066 EPA LINGES
LINANDER, W.
Secretary General
EURIMA
Algade 57
DK 4000 ROSKILDE
LINDEN, G.
Riehier Strasse 36
D 5000 KOELN 1
LOCK, . MALTERRE, R.
Greater London Council
Building Regulation Division
20, Vauxhall Bridge Road
GB LONDON SW1V
LUEDER, G.
Director
Felix Schush & Co GmbH
D ESSEN
Fire Brigade Officer
Essex County Fire Brigade
Fire Brigade Headquarters (BTO)
Rayleigh Close, Hutton
GB BRENTOCOD, Essex CM13 1AL
MAHIEU, J.C.
Chef du Service Scurit et Hygine
Socit des Transports
Intercommunaux
de Bruxelles
15, ave de la Toison d'Or
1060 BRUXELLES
MAHIEU, P.
Ingnieur en Scurit
Boels & Begault S.N.C.
13, rue des Chevaliers
1050 BRUXELLES
Secrtaire Gnral
St Cerberus Guinard
B.P. 20
Z.I. rue Fourny
F 78530 BUC
MALBO, P.
Colonel (A .E.)
Service d'Incendie
Prfecture
76, bd A lexandreMartin
F 45000 ORLEA NS
MALHOTRA, H.L.
Fire Protection Association
Bergholmen
44 Goodyers Avenue
GB RADLETT WD7 8BB, Herts
Lieutenant (A .E.)
Service d ' I n c e n d i e
4 , bd A . Maginot
F 57000 METZ

MARCHAL, J.
Chef de Service de Scurit
Province de Namur
2, rue Martine Bourtonbourt
5000 NAMUR
MARQUES, A.
Ingnieur Electrotechnique
Servio Nacional de
Proteco Civil
Av. da Republica 23
1000 LISBOA
MASSET, J.P.
Chef de Scurit
GBINNOBM
20, ave des Olympiades
1140 BRUXELLES
MATHEZ, J.
Chef du Service Feu du Centre
Scientifique et Technique
du Btiment
4, av du Recteur Poincar
F 75782 PARIS CEDEX 16
MATTONE, R.
Professore associato
Facolt di Architettura
Politecnico di Torino,
Dipartimento Scienze e
Tecniche per i processi di
insediamento
Viale Mattioli, 39
I 10125 TORINO
MECKEL, L.
Direktor und Professor
Bundesanstalt fr
Materialprfung
Unter den Eichen 87
D 1000 BERLIN 45
MEISEN, K.
Techniker
ColtInternational NLS
Sddeutschland
Dammweg 14
D 7915 ELCHINGEN/ULM
MERANO, G.
Reprsentant de l'Union
des Industries Textilles
CELIBRIDE
Secrtariat Gnral
8, place du March
F 69172 TARARE CEDEX
652
MERLE, K.
Stadtbrandinspektor
Stadt Marburg
Im Lichtenholz 60
D 3550 MARBURGCAPPEL
MEURS, G.
Ausbildungsleiter
ColtInternational GmbH
Briener Strasse 186
D 4190 KLEVE
MILES, C.B.
General Manager
Chubb Fire Security Limited
Pyrene House
Sunbury on Thames
GB MIDDLESEX TW16 7AR
MINCHER, .
Divisional Officer (.E.)
Fire Brigade
Fournival House
4246, Fournival Gate
GB SHEFFIELD S1 4QT
MINNE, R.
Professeur dr. ir. Directeur
Rijksuniversiteit Gent
Laboratorium voor Aanwending
der Brandstoffen
SintPietersnieuwstraat 41
9000 GENT
MOERS, J.P.
Chef de Service
Radiodiffusion Tlvision Belge
de la Communaut Franaise
52, bd Auguste Reyers
Local R. 9M49
1040 BRUXELLES
MOMESSO, L.A.
Bradesco Seguros
Barao Itapagipe, 225
Brazil 20261 RIO DE JANEIRO RJ
MORATTI, F.
Enichimica
Boldrini Place
I 20097 SAN DONATO MILANESE MI
MOURAREAU, R.
Commission of the European
Communities, DG Internal Market
and Industrial Affairs
200, rue de la Loi
1049 BRUSSELS
 653

MOYANO, D. OSTMAN, .
Ets R. Heinen N.V. Swedish Institute for Wood
11, rue Derrirel'Eau Technology Research
4890 MALMEDY Box 5609
S 114 86 STOCKHOLM
MUELLER, W.K.
Dipl.Inq. (FH) OSTYN, M.R.
& E Mller Responsable bureau Luxembourg
Rothenburqer Str. 87 Expertises Industrielles
D 8502 ZIRNDORF Job S Co.
54, rue J . B . Esch
L 1473 LUXEMBOURG
NECK, t).
Dipl.Ing. OTT, E.
Forschungsinstitut Thyssen AG
der ZementIndustrie Ingenieurabteilung
Tannenstrasse 2 Konzern Brandschutz
Postfach 30 10 63 Postfach 110561
D 4000 DUESSELDORF 30 D 4100 DUISBURG 11
OTT, K.H.
NEERACHER, J.O.
Dipl.Ing.
Bauingenieur HTL
Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft
Gebudevers icherung Verkauf Fasern
des Kantons Zrich Postfach 80 03 20
Kurvenstrasse 31 D 6230 FRANKFURT AM MAIN 80
CH 8090 ZUERICH
STBY, A.
Overingenir
NELSON, J.
Statens Branninspeksjon
Prsident de la Commission
Postboks 498, Sentrum
Feu de l'Association Europenne
OSLO 1
des Calandreurs
21, rue du Gnral Foy
STRUP, I.
F 75008 PARIS
Engineer
Rockwool International A/S
NEUHAUSER, G.
Hovedgaden 501
Gebr. KNA UF
D 2640 HEDEHUSENE
Postfach 10
8715 IPHOFEN
PAJMER, .
Research Scientist
NICOLAY, D.
Head, Fire Research Station
Commission of the European
Melrose Avenue
Communities, DG Information
GB BOREHAMWOOD, Herts WD6 2BL
Market and Innovation
L 2920 LUXEMBOURG PARAMOR, R.C.
Chief Fire Officer (A .E.)
NINO MARTINEZ, E. Essex County Fire Brigade
Dr. Chemistry Rayleigh Close
Union Explosivos Rio Tinto, S.A. Rayleigh Road, Hutton
Paseo de la Castellana 20 GB BRENTWOOD, Essex CM13 1 AL
E MADRID 1
PAUWELS, E.
NITZSCHE, H.P. Ingenieur
Geschftsfhrer Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Felix Schuh & Co GmbH Dienst VHV
WilhelmReckmannStr. 6 Pleinlaan 2
D 4300 ESSEN 13 B 1050 BRUSSEL
 654

PEDERSEN, E. RASBASH, D.J.

Civiliraenir Fire Safety Consultant
Dansk Brandvaerns Komite 3, Wilson Road
Datavej 48 GB EDINBURGH EH16 5NX
DX 2610 ROEDOVRE
REMACLE, H.
Ingnieur
PINCHN, R. Institut National du Logement
Commandant (A .E.) 10, boulevard St. Lazare
Service d'Incendie 1030 BRUXELLES
17, rue Rabelais
F 69003 LYON ROACH, A.P.
Architect
POSADA ESCOBA R, J . L . Bickerdike Allen Partners
Architect 121 Salesbury Road
Ministerio de Obras Publicas GB LONDON NW6 6RG
y Urbanismo
ROCHAT, F.
Servicio de Normativa
Prsident Eurofeu
Pza San Juan de la Cruz
45, rte des Acacias
(Planta 7)
CH 1211 GENEVE 26
E MADRID
ROLAND, C.
POSTMA, H.W.J. Ingnieur en ChefDirecteur
(A.E.) Ministre de l'Emploi et du
Brandweer Travail, Administration de la
66, Disneystraat Scurit du Travail, Inspection Techn.
NL 2726 ST ZOETERMEER 18, rue Victor Lefvre
1040 BRUXELLES
PRAGER, F.H. ROUSSEAU, S.
Dipl.Ing. Responsable du Bureau d'Etudes
Bayer AG Expertises Industrielles Job et Cie
ZFDZA Brandtechnologie, 54, rue J.B. Esch
Geb. 411 L 1473 LUXEMBOURG
D 5090 LEVERKUSEN 3
ROUX, J.C.
PROESSDORF, T. Ingnieur
Leiter des Allianz APSAIRD (A ssemble Plnire des
Brandschutz Service Socits d'Assurance contre
Allianz VersicherunqsAG l'Incendie et les
Generaldirektion Risques Divers)
Kniginstr. 28 11, rue PilletWill
D 8000 MUENCHEN 44 F 75009 PARIS

RUPPRECHT, H.
PRUEFER, H.
Dipl.Ing.
Commission of the European
Communities DG Science, Research BASF Aktiengesellschaft
and Development Aweta Brandschutztechnik, HRS/B
200, rue de la Loi D '6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN/RHEIN
1049 RRUXELLES RUSHTON, I.L.
General Manager
RAHIER, J. Royal Insurance (UK) Ltd.
Commandant ir (A.E.) P.O. Box 144
Service d'Incendie New Hall Place
5b, rue Laiwisse Old Hall Str.
4571 ST ANDRE GB LIVERPOOL L69 3EN
 655

SALVADOR MARTIN, S. 9CHRADER, L.

Ministerio de Sanidad Dipl.Chem.
y Consuma DesowaqBayer Holzschutz GnbH
Paseo del Prado 18 20 Schwengerstrasse 10
E 28071 MADRID D 4150 KREFELD 11

SANDERS, R. SCHWERS, J .
Fire Brigade Officer Responsable Division Enseignement
Essex County Fire Brigade . . P . I . A sbl
Ranleigh Close, Hutton Parc Scientifique
GB BRENTWOOD, Essex CM13 1AL 1348 LOUVAINLANEUVE

SAUVAGE, E. , SEEGER, P.G.

Directeur Dr.Ing. (.E.)
Centre Technique de Forschungsstelle fr
l'Industrie du Bois Brandschutztechnik an der
830, en. d'Alsemberg Universitt Karlsruhe (TH)
1180 BRUXELLES Hertzstrasse 16
D 7500 KARLSRUHE 21
SCHACHT, I.
Vers icherungskaufmann SEEGERER, K.
Hamburger Internationale Oberbrandd irektor
Rckversicherung AG Branddirektion der
Steckelhrn 5 Landeshauptstadt Mnchen
D 2000 HAMBURG 11 Blumenstrasse 34
D 8000 MUENCHEN 2
SCHALLIER, P.
Assistant Planning Manager SELES, .
Cours U.L.B. S.H.. Niveau 1 Ingnieur Industriel
S.A. ASCO STYFABEL
Leuvenbaan 520 Geerdegem Schonenberg 317
1930 ZAVENTEM 2800 MECHELEN

SCHEIDWEILER, G. SETTI, P.
(A.E.) Assisstant Professor
M i n i s t r e de l ' I n t r i e u r Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Service d ' I n c e n d i e Strutturale
19, rue Beaumont Politecnico di Milano
L LUXEMBOURG Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32
I 20133 MILANO (I)
SCHERJON, J.W.
Inspectie voor het Brandweerwezen SHIELDS, T.J.
Ministerie van Binnenlanse Zaken Lecturer
Postbus 20011 Ulster Polytechnic
NL 2500 EA 's GRAVENHAGE School of Building
Jordanstown
SCHNITZLER, R. Co. Antrim, BT37 OQB
Commission of the European GB NORTHERN IRELAND
Communities, Statistical Office
L 2920 LUXEMBOURG SICX, B.
SousChef de Service
SCHOUTEN, P.H.B.J. Socit des Transports
Colt International B.V. Intercommunaux de Bruxelles
Korte Oyen 4 15, ave de la Toison d'Or
NL CUIJK B 1060 BRUXELLES
 656

SIMENKO, P. STAMBOLIS, A.
Program Manager Officier des pompiers
Iskra Avtomatika, Ljubljana Etat Major de Pompiers
7 Julija 11, Trzin de Grce
YU - 61234 MENGES 4, rue Mouronzi
GR - 10172 ATHENES
SIMON, N.
Ingenieur
STEER, H.G.M.
Le Foyer S.A.
(A.E.)
Cie Luxembourgeoise
Brandweer
d'Assurances
9, Stijn Streuvelshoven
6, rue Albert Borschette
NL - 2726 CD ZOETERMEER
L - 2986 LUXEMBOURG

SIMON, . STEINHAUS, F.R.

Obit. Berufsfeuerwehr Zrich Riskmanager
Feuerwehr Zrich Beratungsgesellschaft fr
Weststrasse 4 Risikovorsorge im
CH - 8003 ZUERICH industriellen Bereich mbH
Beethovenstrasse 65
SISTERMANN, K. D - 6000 FRANKFURT AM MAIN 1
Grnzweig + Hartmann und
Glasfaser AG
STEINHOFF, D.
Dr. Albert-Reimann-Str. 20 Senator fr Bau- und Wohnungswesen
D - 6802 L ADENBURG Wrttembergische Str. 6-10
D - 1000 BERLIN 31
SMISSAERT, L.
Recherche
Centexbel STEUR, G.G.
Sint Pietersnieuwstraat 41 Technical Sales Executive
- 9000 GENT A.C.I. B.V.
P.O. Box 10
SMITH, D.A. NL - 9600 AA HOOGEZAND
Director
QMC - Wolfson Fire and
STRACKS, J.
Materials Centre
Inspecteur-Instructeur (A.E.)
229 Mile End Road
Ministre de l'Intrieur
GB - LONDON E1 4AA
15, rue Michel Rodange
L - 4776 PETANGE
SOERENSEN, H.C.
Vice President
Rockwool International A/S TARTE, M.P.
Hovedgaden Charg de Recherches principal
DK - 2640 HEDEHUSENE Ingnieur
INIEX (Institut National des
SOJA, E. Industries Extractives)
Fire Engineer 200, rue du Chra
Yarsley Technical Centre Ltd. B - 4000 LIEGE
Trowers Way
GB - REDHILL, Surrey RH1 2JN
THILTGES, M.
SPASCIANI, A. Sous-Chef de Service
Inspecteur General e.r. Le Foyer S.A.
(A.E.) Cie Luxembourgeoise d'Assurances
22, Via Castel Mortone 6, rue Albert Borschette
I - 20129 MILANO L - 2986 LUXEMBOURG
 657

THOMAS, J. TRCTZSCH, J.
Chairman - Kent Fire & Public Brandschutz Service
Protection Conmittee Rheinstrasse, 21
Kent County Council Postfach 5662
Kent Fire Brigade D - 6200 WIESBADEN
County Headquarters
The Godlands, Tovil
TULLY, W.
GB - MAIDSTONE, Kent ME15 6XB
Head of Division
Commission of the European
THOMAS, M. Comminities - DG Internal
Commission of the European Market and Industrial Affairs
Communities, DG Internal 6, Rond-Point Schuman
Market and Industrial Affairs - 1040 BRUXELLES
200, rue de la Loi
- 1049 BRUSSELS
TURNER, O.L.
Architect
THOMAS, P. Department of
Fire Research S t a t i o n U.K. Environment London
Melrose Ave Room 154, Romney House
GB - BOREHAMWOOD, Herts WD6 2BL
43 Marsham Street
GB - LONDON
THOMSON, J.
Fire Officer (A.E.) TWILT, L.
Fire Brigade Head Technical Centre
Strathore Road for Fire Prevention
UK - FIFE, Scotland TNO
Postbus 49
THORUP, S.
NL - 2600 AA DELFT
Fire officer
Kobenhavns Brandvaesen
H.C. Andersens Boulevard 23 UNGER, .
DX - 1553 COPENHAGEN V. Fire Brigade Officer
Essex County Fire Brigade
Fire Brigade Head Quaters (BID)
TINCANI, M.
Rayleigh Close, Hutton
Centre Commun de Recherche ISPRA
GB - BRENTWOOD, Essex CM13 1AL
Service de Scurit et Antincendie
I - 21020 ISPRA (Varese)
VAN BENNEKCM, G.
TOSI, P. Office for Official Publications
Lieutenant (A.B.) of the European Communities
Service d ' I n c e n d i e 5, rue du Commerce
4 , bd A. Maginot L - 2985 LUXEMBOURG
F - 57000 METZ
VAN BENNEKOM, G.
TREPTE, P. Office for Official Publications
C.I.T.T.A. of the European Communities
Domagkweg 8 5, rue du Commerce
D - 5600 WUPPERTAL 1 L - 2985 LUXEMBOURG

TROTTEIN, Y. VAN DEN MEERSSCHAUT, J.

Ingnieur Capt.-Comment (A.E.)
Aux IRBat Service d'Incendie
242 bis, bid St. Germain 29, Galglaan
F - 75007 PARIS - 9000 GENT
 658

VAN HET, R. VERDIANI, D.

Marketing Technical Support Manager Director
Bayer Owens/Corning Glasswool Commission of the European
95, rue de Maestricht Communities, DG Internal Market
B 4540 VISE and Industrial Affairs
200, rue de la Loi
VAN MECHELEN, A. B 1049 BRUSSELS
Brandweerchef
AgfaGevaert Mortsel, Abd. 1190 VERTESSEN, J.
Septestraat 27 Ingnieur Industriel
B 2510 MORTSEL Gestionnaire W.T.C.
Ministre des Travaux Publics
VAN RILLAER, A. Rgie des Btiments,
Journalist Service Gestion
"Alle Risico's" Onafhankelijk 158, Bd. E. Jacqmain
Verzekeringsblad B 1000 BRUXELLES
Louizalaan 485
B 1050 BRSSEL VINCENT, R.
Lieut. Colonel
VAN ROUWENDAAL, H. VicePrsident de l'A.E.
Hoofd Brandveiligheidsdienst Service d'Incendie
Nederlandse Philips Bedrijven BV 4, bd AndrMaginot
Heesakkerstraat 1, geb. OBG F 57000 METZ
NL 5616 SL EINDHOVEN

VANDERGHINSTE, A. VIS, W.C.

Adjunct VHV Raadgevend ingenieur
Vrije Universiteit Brussel Ingenieursbureau
Dienst VHV Ir W.C. vis B.V.
Pleinlaan 2 Postbus 13
B 1050 BRUSSEL NL 3760 AA SOEST

VANDEVELDE, P. VODDEN, .
Dr. ir. Chef de Travaux Fire Officer (A .E.)
Rijksuniversiteit Gent Fire Brigade
Laboratorium voor Aanwending der County Hall
Brandstoffen en WarmteOverdracht GB BARNSLEY S70 2TN
Ottergemsesteenweg 711
B 9000 GENT VON BONIN, W.
VANGEEL, R. Dipl.Chem.
Major e.r. (A .E.) Bayer AG
Service d'Incendie Abteilung ZFANP
38, St. Corneliusstraat Gebude 207
B 3500 HASSELT D 5090 LEVERKUSEN

VANHERREWEGEM, J. VON WEDEL, W.

Ing Brandbeveiliging Kaufmann
O.B.A.S.I. vzw Promot
Ark van Nostraat 1 Grunnerstr. 33
3300 TIENEN D 4000 DUESSELDORF

VANNESTE, L. WALKISE, R.
Ingnieur Principal Adjoint Chef S.H.E.
Ministre de l'Intrieur Belge Conseil Bruxelles
4, place de Louvain 170, rue de la Loi
1000 BRUXELLES 1048 BRUXELLES
 659

WEGMUELLER, R. WITTEVEEN, M.
Direktor c/o ..O. DELFT
Gebudeversicherung des Lange Kleiweg, 5
Kantons B a s e l S t a d t NL 2288 GH RIJSWIJK
Hirschgsslein 2 1 , Postfach
CH 4010 BA SEL WOICHE, C.
WEISS, A. Responsable SHE
ULB Hpital Erasme
Stellvertretender Direktor
808, route de Lenik
WinterhurVersicherungen
1070 BRUXELLES
Direktion fr Deutschland
Leopoldstrasse 204 WOODWARD, C D .
D 8000 MUENCHEN 40 Director
Fire Protection Association
WESSELS, E.C.
Aldermary House
Director
Queen Street
TBBS
GB LONDON EC4N 1TJ
P.O. Box 54
NL 3740 AB BAARN
XAPELLI I PALA, J.
WHITWORTH, G.D.N. Ingnieur
Chief Fire Officer BASF Espaola S.A.
Kent Fire Brigade P. de Gracia 99
County Headquarters E 08008 BARCELONA
The Godlands, Tovil
GB MAIDSTONE, Kent ME15 6XB YOUNG, R.A.
Chief Technical Officer
WILDGEN, R. Fire Offices' Committee
Chef de service techn. (A.E.) Aldermorg House
Securitas S.A. Queen Street
14, rue du Pre Raphal GB LONDON, EC4N 1TT
L LUXEMBOURG
ZIMMERMANN, H.
WILLIAMS, M.J.
Dr.Ing.
Loss Prevention Specialist
Institut fr Baustoffkunde
Continental Insurance Company
und Materialprfung
Navigation House
der Universitt Hannover
1 Aldgate
Nienburger Strasse 3
GB LONDON EC3
D 3000 HANNOVER 1
WILMOT, R.T.D.
ZUCKA, J.
World Fire Statistics Centre
Conseiller
12, Kyle Strome House, Cundy Street
Centre belgoluxembourgeois
GB LONDON SW1W 9JT
d'Information de l'Acier
47, rue Montoyer
WISNIEWSKY, G.K.
1040 BRUXELLES
Geschftsfhrer, Dipl.Ing.
Studiengesellschaft fr
Anwendungstechnik von Eisen
und Stahl e.V.
Kasernenstr. 36
D 4000 DESSELDORF
WITTE, H.
Dr.Ing., Geschftsfhrer
Instruct Ingenieur GmbH
Liebenaustrasse 11 A
D 6200 WIESBADENSONNENBERG
 661

INDEX OF AUTHORS

ARESU DE SEUI, ., 110 KARRAN, G., 126

AYMARD, M., 245 KERSKENBRADLEY, M., 213
KORDINA, ., 223

BAMERT, .E., 69
BENISEK, L., 287 IAW, M., 234
BINEAU, H., 342 LEROY, J.P., 308
BIACHERE, G., 252
BODEN, F., 2
BORREMANS, A.A.M., 374 MALHOTRA, H.L., 115
BRAUN, F., 5
BURNS, D., 86
NEUHAUSER, G., 295

CANOVAN, P., 147

CIARKE, G., 21 PARAMOR, R.C., 383
CREYF, H., 337 PEDERSEN, E., 184

DE DSTER, F., 369 SAUVAGE, E., 243

DE MOULINSBEAUPORT, P., 51 SEEGERER, ., 12
DELESDERRIER, J.M., 7, 400 STEINHOFF, D., 165
DIRMER, C , 37
DRINKWATER, .E., 103
THOMAS, P.H., 187
TRDITZCH, J., 322
FERENCZY, G., 172
FISHBFJN, J., 337
FLISI, U., 326 VANDEVELDE, P., 201
VERDIANI, D., 430

GRABER, ., 59
WEISS, ., 132
WESSELS, E.C., 140
HALL, G.S., 277 WHTEVEEN, J., 163
HALPAAP, S., 350 WOODWARD, CD., 50, 154
HAVER, C.H.M., 390
HEMME, F., 94
HERPOL, C , 261 YOUNG, R.A., 99
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This volume represents the proceedings of a European
Symposium held in Luxembourg, 18-21 September 1984.
Fire in buildings, and the protection of buildings from fires, is
enormously expensive in economic as well as human terms.
The totality of the costs associated with fire have been
estimated to be as high as 1%of GDP. Of this figure, 30% alone
is accounted for by measures for the protection of buildings
against fire.
The symposium reported in this volume was held in order to
assess the social, technical and economic aspects of fire
prevention and the protection of buildings against fire, and on
this basis to determine the measures that can be taken to cut
costs and reduce risks. Of the various possible measures,
particular stress was laid on the harmonization of standards and
regulations with a view to ensuring the free movement of the
relevant products and technologies throughout the European
Community market, and also on research, innovation and the
use of advanced products and techniques.
More than 400 participants attended the symposium, which
included a series of four working groups dealing with
economics, tests and classification, regulations, and the
problems of fire services.
The symposium marks a turning point in the approach to fire
safety in buildings, initiating a new, European Community,
attack on the economic burden of fire in buildings.

ISBN 0 85334 381 0