Respiratory System Respiratory System Functions:

(Chapter 23) 1. External respiration (gas exchange)

2. Pulmonary ventilation (move air)
Lecture Materials
3. Protect respiratory surfaces from:
for -dehydration
-temp changes
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
-invasion by pathogens
Suffolk County Community College 4. Produce sound (communication)
5. Provide olfactory sensation (smell)
Eastern Campus

Primary Sources for figures and content:

Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin
Cummings, 2004.
Martini, F. H. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2004.

Anatomy of Respiratory System: Respiratory Mucosa (mucus membrane)

1. Upper respiratory system: -lines conduction portions
-functions to warm and humidify air -pseudostratified columnar epithelium
-nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx -usually ciliated
2. Lower respiratory system: -scattered goblet cells (mucin production)
A. Conducting portion:
-bring air to respiratory surfaces
-larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
B. Respiratory portion:
-gas exchange
-alveoli

-lamina propria = areolar CT with

-mucus glands (mucin) and
-serous glands (lysozyme)
Glands produce ~1 quart mucus fluid /day
-cilia move mucus to pharynx to be swallowed
(cilia beat slow in cold)

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 1 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes

Respiratory Defense Systems:
1. Mucus: from goblet cells and glands in
lamina propria, traps foreign objects
2. Cilia: mucus escalator: move carpet of
mucus with trapped debris out of
respiratory tract
3. Alveolar macrophages: phagocytose
particles that reach alveoli
Cystic fibrosis = failure of mucus escalator:
produce thick mucus which blocks airways
and encourages bacteria growth
Smoking ! destroys cilia
Inhalation of irritants ! chronic inflammation
! cancer e.g. squamous cell carcinoma
2. Nasal Cavity
-divided into right and left by nasal septum
-superior portion has olfactory epithelium
-nasal conchae (superior, middle, inferior
project into cavity on both sides
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
The Upper Respiratory System
1. Nose: only external feature
Functions:
1. Opening to airway for respiration
2. Moisten and warm entering air
3. Filter and clean inspired air
4. Resonating chamber for speech
5. Houses olfactory receptors
Features:
-external nares conduct air into vestibule
-vestibule = space in flexible part, lined with
hairs to filter particles, leads to nasal cavity
-nasal conchae cause air to swirl:
1. Increase likelihood of trapping foreign
material in mucus
2. Provide time for smell detection
3. Provide time and contact to warm and
humidify air
-hard and soft palate form floor
-internal nares open to nasopharynx
-mucosa has large superficial blood supply
(warm, moisten air) Epistaxis = nose bleed
-paranasal sinuses in frontal, sphenoid,
ethmoid and maxillay bones; lined with
respiratory mucosa, connected to nasal
cavity, aid in warming/moistening air
2 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes
Rhinitis = inflammation of nasal mucosa ! A. Nasopharynx : air only
" mucus production. -posterior to nasal cavity
Infection ! blockage of sinuses: headache -pseudostratified columnar epithelium
from negative pressure -closed off by soft palate and uvula during
3. Pharynx: swallowing
-chamber between internal nares and entrances -pharyngeal tonsil located on posterior wall
to larynx and esophagus (inflammation can block airway)
-Three parts -auditory tubes open here

B. Oropharynx: food and air

-posterior to oral cavity
-stratified squamous epithelium
-palatine and lingual tonsils in mucosa

C. Laryngopharynx: food and air

-lower portion
-stratified squamous epithelium
-continuous with esophagus

Lower Respiratory System -folds of epithelium over ligaments of elastic

4. Larynx (voice box) fibers create vocal folds/cords.
-hyaline cartilages around glottis = opening
from laryngopharynx to trachea

-vocal cords project into glottis

-air passing through glottis vibrates folds
producing sound
Pitch controlled by tensing/relaxing cords:
tense & narrow = high pitch
Volume controlled by amount of air
Functions of larynx:
Sound production = phonation
1. Provide continuous airway
Speech = formation of sound using mouth and
2. Act as switch to route food and air properly
tongue with resonance in pharynx,
3. Voice production
mouth, sinuses and nose
Laryngitis = inflammation of vocal folds due
-contains epiglottis = elastic cartilage flap,
to infection or overuse, can inhibit
covers glottis during swallowing
phonation

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 3 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes

5. Trachea -trachea branches into
-attached inferior to larynx right and left
-walls composed of three layers: primary bronchi
1. Mucosa: pseudostratified columnar
epithelium, goblet cells, lamina propria 6. Primary bronchi
with smooth muscle & glands -similar structure as
2. Submucosa: CT with additional mucus trachea (no
glands trachealis muscle)
3. Adventitia: CT with hyaline cartilage -right: steeper angle
rings (keep airway open): 15-20 C- -enter lungs at hilum
shaped, have opening toward esophagus (along with blood
(allow expansion), ends connected by and lymphatic
trachealis muscle vessels, nerves)

Inside lungs bronchi

branch, get smaller in
diameter:
branch ~23 times
creating the bronchial
tree

As bronchi get smaller, structure changes: Asthma = strong bronchoconstriction

1. less cartilage in adventitia activated by inflammatory chemicals
2. more smooth muscle in lamina propria (histamine), reduces airflow. Epinephrine
3. epithelium thinner, less cilia, less mucus inhaler mimics sympathetic (bronchodilate)
7. Terminal bronchiole -each terminal bronchiole delivers air to one
-smallest bronchi of pulmonary lobule (separated by CT)
respiratory tree -inside lobule, terminal bronchiole branches
-no cartilage into respiratory bronchioles: no cilia or
-last part of mucus
conducting portion -each respiratory bronchiole connects to
alveolar sac made up of many alveoli
Trachea, Bronchi and
Bronchioles innervated by
ANS to control airflow to
lungs:
Sympathetic = bronchodilation

Parasympathetic =
bronchoconstriction

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 4 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes

8. Alveoli -alveoli connected to neighbors by alveolar
-wrapped in capillaries pores (equalize pressure)
-held in place by elastic fibers -Gas exchange occurs across the
respiratory membrane (0.5m thick):
1. Type I cells of alveolus
2. Thin basal lamina (fusion)
3. Endothelial cells of capillary

-three cell types:

1. Type I cells: simple squamous epithelium,
lines inside , gas exchange
2. Type II cells: cuboidal epithelial cells,
produce surfactant
(phospholipids +
proteins), prevent
alveolar collapse
3. Alveolar Pneumonia = inflammation of lungs from
macrophages: infection or injury, fluid in alveoli
phagocytosis of prevents gas exchange
particles Pulmonary embolism = block in branch of
pulmonary artery, reduced blood flow
causes alveolar collapse

Gross Anatomy of Lungs Respiratory Physiology

3 steps of respiration:
1. Pulmonary ventilation
2. Gas Diffusion/Exchange
3. Gas Transport to/from tissues

-concave base, rests on diaphragm
-right: 3 lobes
-left: 2 lobes (accommodates heart)
-housed in pleural cavity
-cavity lined with parietal pleura
-lungs covered by visceral pleura
-both pleura produce serous pleural fluid to
reduce friction during expansion
Pleurisy = inflammation of pleura, can restrict
movement of lungs causing breathing
difficulty
1. Pulmonary Ventilation
= movement of air into/out of alveoli
-visceral pleura adheres to parietal pleura via
surface tension: altering size of pleural
cavity will alter size of lungs
Pneumothorax = injury of thoracic cavity, air
breaks surface tension, lungs recoil =
atelectasis (collapsed lung)
Mechanics of breathing:
-Boyles Law: gas pressure is inversely
proportional to volume
-Air flows from area of high pressure to low

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 5 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes

Contraction of Factors influencing pulmonary ventilation:
diaphragm pulls it 1. Airway resistance
toward abdomen: -diameter of bronchi
-lung volume " -obstructions
-air pressure # 2. Alveolar surface tension
-air flows in -surfactant (Type II cells) reduces alveoli
surface tension to allow inflation
Respiratory distress syndrome = too little
Relaxation causes surfactant, requires great force to open
diaphragm to rise in alveoli to inhale
dome shape: 3. Compliance
-lung volume # = effort required to expand lungs and chest
-air pressure " High compliance = expand easily (normal)
-air flows out Low compliance = resist expansion
Compliance affected by:
A. CT structure: loss of elastin/replacement
by fibrous tissue = # compliance
Emphysema = respiratory surface replaced by
Rib cage movements can also contribute: scars, # elasticity # compliance, and
-superior = bigger, air in have loss of surface for gas exchange
-inferior = smaller, air out

B. Alveolar expandability (vs. collapse) Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:

-"surface tension(#surfact.) = #compliance -a breath = one respiratory cycle
-fluid (edema) = # compliance (go to handout)
C. Mobility of thoracic cage
-less mobility = # compliance
Inspiration
-inhalation involves contraction of muscles to
increase thoracic volume
A. Quiet breathing = eupnea
-diaphragm: moves 75% of air
-external intercostals: elevate ribs, 25% more
B. Forced breathing = hyperpnea
-maximum rib elevation increases respiratory
volume 6X: serratus anterior, pectoralis Respiratory rate = breaths/min ~18-20 at rest
minor, scalenes, sternocleidomastoid Respiratory Minute Volume (RMV/MRV) =
Expiration respiratory rate X tidal volume ~ 6 L
A. Eupnea: passive, muscles relax, thoracic Not all reaches alveoli, some air remains in
volume decrease conducting portions = anatomic dead
B. Hyperpnea: abdominal muscles (obliques, space (~1ml / lb body weight)
transversus, rectus) contract forcing diaphragm Alveolar ventilation = air reaching alveoli /
up, thoracic volume further decreases min at rest ~ 4.2 L

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 6 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes

Both tidal volume and respiratory rate are
adjusted to meet oxygen demands of body
2. Gas Exchange
-Air = 79% N2, 21% O2, 0.5% H2O,
0.04% CO2, trace inert gasses
-Partial pressure of gas = concentration in air
-Gasses follow diffusion gradients to diffuse
into liquid: rate depends on partial
pressure and temperature
High Altitude Sickness = #PP O2 at high
altitude causes # diffusion into blood
Decompression Sickness = PP of air gasses
high underwater, high amounts of N2
diffuse into blood. If pressure suddenly
decreases, N2 leaves blood as gas
causing bubbles (damage, pain),
Hyperbaric chambers used to treat
3. Gas Transport
A. Transport of Oxygen
-1.5 % dissolved in plasma
-most bound to iron ions on heme of
hemoglobin in erythrocytes: 4 O2/Hb,
~280million Hb/RBC = 1 billion O2/RBC
Hemoglobin saturation = %hemes bound to O2
~ 97.5% at alveoli
@"PP O2 hemoglobin binds O2
@#PP O2 hemoglobin drops O2
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: CO out-
competes O2 for binding to Hb, even at
low PP CO, causes suffocation (no O2)
Other factors that affect Hb saturation:
1. Bohr effect: Hb releases O2 in acidic pH
(high CO2 creates carbonic acid)
2. Temperature: Hb releases O2 in " temp
3. BPG (2,3bisphosphoglycerate): produced
by healthy RBC during glycolysis,
"BPG = "O2 release
4. Pregnancy: fetal Hb = "O2 binding
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
Diffusion at respiratory membrane efficient:
1. Substantial differences in PP across the
membrane
2. Distance is small
3. Gasses are lipid soluble
4. Large surface area for diffusion
5. Coordination of blood and air flow: " blood
to alveoli with " O2
In Lung:
-PP O2 " in alveoli,
# in capillary:
diffuse into capillary
-PP CO2 # in alveoli,
" in capillary:
diffuse into alveoli
In Tissues:
Pressures and flow reversed:
O2 into tissues
CO2 into capillary
Hypoxia = inadequate O2 delivery to tissues
B. Transport of Carbon Dioxide
1. ~ 70% as Carbonic acid
-in RBCs and plasma
-carbonic anhydrase in RBCs catalyze
reaction with water:
CO2 + H2O $ H2CO3 $ H+ + HCO3-
-reaction reversed at lungs
2. ~23% as carbaminohemoglobin
-CO2 bound to amino groups of Hb
3. ~7% dissolved in plasma as CO2
Regulation of Respiration
(handout)
7 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes
Age Related Changes
1. Elastic tissue deteriorates:
# compliance, # VC
2. Arthritic changes in rib cage:
# mobility, # RMV
3. Emphysema, some degree
# gas exchange
Higher risk for smokers, dusty job, etc.

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 8 SCCC BIO132 Chapter 23 Lecture Notes