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Encyclopedia of Science and Technology Definition Submission

Neuron
Neurons are cells in the brain and spinal cord that relay messages through chemical and

electrical signals. They account for 86 billion cells in the human brain (Striedter, 2016). These

specialized cells form brain structures responsible for behavior and thoughts. The

communication between neurons allows for everyday functions to occur, such as eating and

deciding what to wear.

Structure

A neuron is anatomically different

from other animal cells. The basic

neuronal structure contains a cell body,

dendrites, and an axon (Goldstein,

2015, see Figure 1). The dendrites and

axon extend from the cell body to

communicate between cells. Dendrites

are branch-like structures that receive Figure 1. The basic composition of a neuron (Encyclopedia of
Creation Science, 2009).
information from other neurons. While

an axon, a single long extension, transmits information from the cell body to other neurons. The

axon is covered in a fatty substance known as the myelin sheath, which provides insolation. The

myelin sheath speeds up the information transmission. Axons can extend to great lengths; within

the spinal cord, axons cover the bodys extremities (Striedter, 2016). A neurons anatomical

structure differs based on its location and role. For instance, sensory neurons do not follow the
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standard neuron model. Within the eye there are at least five different neuron types that have

specialized functions and structures (Kalat, 2013, see Figure 2). This difference allows for the

complexity of visual perception.

Communication

Communication between neurons is executed through the extensions from the cell body.

The dendrites are the receivers, meaning that information from other neurons are accepted

through this extension. The axon transmits the

information to other neurons dendrites.

Communication between neurons is conducted

through chemicals called neurotransmitters

(Goldstein, 2015). One neurons axon releases

chemicals that attach to receptors on another

neurons dendrites. These neurotransmitters cause

an electrical reaction within the dendrites. An

Figure 2. The different neurons in the eye (Study

accumulation of electric stimulation is sent to the
Blue, 2017).
cell body. If enough activity reaches the axon,

there will be an action potential, the electrical current sent down the axon. If the electrical

stimulation does not reach a certain threshold, no activity will extend to the axon. Once an

electrical current reaches the end of the axon, neurotransmitters are released. These

neurotransmitters then attach to dendrites of another neuron, starting the cycle over.
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Protection and Damage

Neurons also differ from other animal cells as they do not replicate through mitosis (cell

division). Upon development, a mature neuron does not regenerate, or split. This means that it is

important to protect these cells from damage. The brain does this in many ways. First the brain is

contained in a salty substance known as the cerebrospinal fluid that allows it to float within the

skull without hitting the walls and

A.
damaging neurons upon regular

movement (Striedter, 2016). The

brain also has helper cells, known

B.
as glia cells, that eliminate toxins

and excess neurotransmitters in the

brain, and can repair axonal

Figure 3. A) Side and top views of a healthy brain. damage. Another defense mechanism
B) Side and top view of an alcoholics brain (Brain Pictures,
2017).
is the blood-brain barrier (Kalat,

2013). The blood-brain barrier is a filtration system that does not allow some molecules within

the blood to get in the brain. This prevents some harmful substances from reaching the brain. The

blood-brain barrier is not perfect though; for instance, alcohol is a drug that can pass the barrier

and affect the brain in numerous ways.

Constant exposure to drugs, such as alcohol, can have serious consequences to the brain.

Extensive alcohol abuse can lead to alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder, also known as

Korsakoffs Syndrome (Oscar-Berman, 2012). Alcohol consumption reduces the absorption of

thiamine. Thiamine deficiency leads to brain damage in various brain structures due to the death

of the neurons in those areas (Oscar-Berman, 2012). Korsakoffs Syndrome is characterized by

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the memory impairment that manifests. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new

memories upon the onset of heavy drinking, so the recent past and new information is forgotten

while memories prior to drinking are still established (Oscar-Berman, 2012). This damage is

permanent; the neurons lost cannot replaced. The brain can compensate for the loss of neurons

by rerouting connections between neurons, but some functions cannot be restored.

Nonhuman Research

Neurons are complex cells accumulated together that

make up an animals experience. The way we think and our

behavior is due to the communication between neurons. This

is the same across species. The difference between the mental

ability of humans and nonhumans is due to the number of

neurons and their connections that make up the brains

structure (Kalat, 2013, see Figure 4). Animals may share

structures, but the structures size can lead to more advance

behavior, such as communication and emotions. Humans, for

example, have a larger cerebrum than many mammals, which

allows for our advanced reasoning and learning abilities.

Despite the differences in brain size and functionality, less

complex animals, such as squids, snails, and rats, are used to

study human behavior (Striedter, 2016). Squids have fewer Figure 4. Brains of different
mammalian animals (Kalat, 2013).
and bigger neurons, which makes studying them easier.

Researchers can use the limited number of neurons to their advantage; researchers can accurately
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point to which neurons are related to behavior and directly manipulate the neurons in squids in

ways that are impossible in humans. Animal research has led to many discoveries about different

systems in the brain, such as vision, memory, and learning (Goldstein, 2015). This type of

research is limited in humans because of ethical concerns. Without animal models, the neurons

that dictate our every thought and move would be a mystery.

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References

Brain Pictures. (2017). Alcoholic Brain. Retrieved from http://brainpictures.org/Alcoholic-Brain-

Pictures.php

Encyclopedia of Creation Science. 2009. Neuron. Retrieved from http://creationwiki.org/Neuron

Goldstein, E. B. (2015). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday

experience (4th ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

Kalat, J. W. (2013). Biological Psychology (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage

Learning.

Oscar-Berman, M. (2012). Function and dysfunction of prefrontal brain circuitry in alcoholic

Korsakoff's syndrome. Neuropsychology Review, 22(2), 154-169. doi:10.1007/s11065-

012-9198-x

Striedter, G. F. (2016). Neurobiology: A functional approach. New York, NY: Oxford University

Press.

Study Blue. (2017). Exam 3 Questions. Retrieved from

https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/exam-3-questions/deck/10661352