Partition of India
Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the disso-
British Indian Empire in The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909.
British India is shaded pink, the princely states yellow.
The prevailing religions of the British Indian Empire based on
the Census of India, 1901
The Partition of India was the division of British In-
dia[lower-alpha 1] in 1947 which accompanied the creation
of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan.[1] The
Dominion of India is today the republic of India, and
the Dominion of Pakistan the republics of Pakistan and
Bangladesh. The partition involved the division of two
provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise
Hindu or Muslim majorities. The boundary demarcat-
ing India and Pakistan became known as the Radclie
Line. It also involved the division of the British In-
dian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Ser-
vice, the railways, and the central treasury, between the
two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the
1
lution of the British Raj, as the British government there
was called. The two self-governing countries of Pak-
istan and India legally came into existence at midnight
on 14th August-15th August 1947.[2]
The partition displaced between 10 and 12 million peo-
ple along religious lines, creating overwhelming refugee
crises in the newly constituted dominions; there was
large-scale violence, with estimates of loss of life ac-
companying or preceding the partition disputed and
varying between several hundred thousand and two
million.[3][lower-alpha 2] The violent nature of the partition
created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between
India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to the
present.
The term partition of India does not cover the secession
of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the ear-
lier separations of Burma (now Myanmar) and Ceylon
(now Sri Lanka) from the administration of British
India.[lower-alpha 3] The term also does not cover the
political integration of princely states into the two new
dominions, nor the disputes of annexation or division
arising in the princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh,
and Jammu and Kashmir, though violence along religious
lines did break out in some princely states at the time
of the partition. It does not cover the incorporation of
the enclaves of French India into India during the period
19471954, nor the annexation of Goa and other districts
of Portuguese India by India in 1961. Other contempo-
raneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim,
Bhutan, Nepal, and the Maldives were unaected by the
partition.[lower-alpha 4]
1 Background
1.1 Partition of Bengal (1905)
Main article: Partition of Bengal (1905)
In 1905, the viceroy, Lord Curzon, in his second term,
divided the largest administrative subdivision in British
India, the Bengal Presidency, into the Muslim-majority
province of East Bengal and Assam and the Hindu-
majority province of Bengal (present-day Indian states of
West Bengal, Bihr, Jharkhand and Odisha).[7] Curzons
act, the Partition of Bengalwhich some considered ad-
ministratively felicitous, and, which had been contem-
2 1
plated by various colonial administrations since the time
of Lord William Bentinck, but never acted uponwas to
transform nationalist politics as nothing else before it.[7]
The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned
land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peas-
ants, protested fervidly. The large Bengali Hindu middle-
class (the Bhadralok), upset at the prospect of Bengalis
being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Bi-
haris and Oriyas, felt that Curzons act was punishment
for their political assertiveness.[7] The pervasive protests
against Curzons decision took the form predominantly
of the Swadeshi (buy Indian) campaign led by two-time
Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, and involved
boycott of British goods. Sporadicallybut agrantly many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, Bande
the protesters also took to political violence that involved
attacks on civilians.[8] The violence, however, was not ef-
fective, as most planned attacks were either preempted
by the British or failed.[9] The rallying cry for both types
of protest was the slogan Bande Mataram (Bengali, lit:
Hail to the Mother), the title of a song by Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee, which invoked a mother goddess,
who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu
goddess Kali.[10] The unrest spread from Calcutta to the
surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-
educated students returned home to their villages and
towns.[11] The religious stirrings of the slogan and the po-
litical outrage over the partition were combined as young
men, in groups such as Jugantar, took to bombing pub-
lic buildings, staging armed robberies,[9] and assassinat-
ing British ocials.[10] Since Calcutta was the imperial
capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became na-
tionally known.[10]
The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest
against the partition of Bengal and the fear, in its wake,
of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, now led the
Muslim elite in India, in 1906, to meet with the new
viceroy, Lord Minto, and to ask for separate electorates
for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded propor-
tional legislative representation reecting both their sta-
tus as former rulers and their record of cooperating with
the British. This led, in December 1906, to the found-
ing of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca. Although
Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dis-
pute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned
to England, the League was in favour of his partition
plan. The Muslim elites position, which was reected
in the Leagues position, had crystallized gradually over
the previous three decades, beginning with the 1871 Cen-
sus of British India, which had rst estimated the popu-
lations in regions of Muslim majority.[12] (For his part,
Curzons desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had
arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census
and in light of the history of Muslims ghting them in
the 1857 Mutiny and the Second Anglo-Afghan War
about Indian Muslims rebelling against the Crown.[12] )
In the three decades since that census, Muslim lead-
ers across northern India, had intermittently experienced
public animosity from some of the new Hindu politi-
BACKGROUND
cal and social groups.[12] The Arya Samaj, for example,
had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their
agitation,[13] but alsodistraught at the 1871 Censuss
Muslim numbersorganized reconversion events for
the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu
fold.[12] In UP, Muslims became anxious when, in the
late 19th century, political representation increased, giv-
ing more power to Hindus, and Hindus were politically
mobilized in the Hindi-Urdu controversy and the anti-
cow-killing riots of 1893.[14] In 1905, when Tilak and
Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the
Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around symbol-
ism of Kali, Muslim fears increased.[12] It was not lost on
Mataram, had rst appeared in the novel Anand Math
in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors.[15]
Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among it Dacca Nawab,
Khwaja Salimullah, who hosted the Leagues rst meeting
in his mansion in Shahbag, was aware that a new province
with a Muslim majority would directly benet Muslims
aspiring to political power.[15]
1.2 World War I, Lucknow Pact: 1914
1918
World War I would prove to be a watershed in the impe-
rial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million
Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army
would take part in the war and their participation would
have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers ght-
ing and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers
from dominions like Canada and Australia, would travel
to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by
the new medium of the radio.[16] Indias international pro-
le would thereby rise and would continue to rise dur-
ing the 1920s.[16] It was to lead, among other things, to
India, under its own name, becoming a founding mem-
ber of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating,
under the name, Les Indes Anglaises (British India),
in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.[17] Back in
India, especially among the leaders of the Indian Na-
tional Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-
government for Indians.[16]
The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the
venue of an unanticipated mutual eort by the Congress
and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was pro-
vided by the wartime partnership between Germany and
Turkey. Since the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifah, had also
sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy
sites of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, and since the
British and their allies were now in conict with Turkey,
doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims
about the religious neutrality of the British, doubts that
had already surfaced as a result of the reunication of
Bengal in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to
Muslims.[18] In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the
Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that
1.4 Two nation theory
was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in re-
turn, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Mus-
lims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Impe-
rial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League
had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did
not yet have its wider following among Indian Mus-
lims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did
not have unanimous backing, having largely been nego-
tiated by a group of Young Party Muslims from the
United Provinces (UP), most prominently, two brothers
Mohammad and Shaukat Ali, who had embraced the Pan-
Islamic cause;[18] however, it did have the support of a
young lawyer from Bombay, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who
was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League
and the Indian independence movement. In later years,
as the full ramications of the pact unfolded, it was seen
as beneting the Muslim minority lites of provinces like
UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab
and Bengal; nonetheless, at the time, the Lucknow Pact,
was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and
was seen so by the British.[18]
1.3 MontaguChelmsford Reforms: 1919
Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord
Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long
fact-nding trip through India the previous winter.[19] Af-
ter more discussion by the government and parliament in
Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions
Committee for the purpose of identifying who among
the Indian population could vote in future elections, the
Government of India Act of 1919 (also known as the
MontaguChelmsford Reforms) was passed in Decem-
ber 1919.[19] The new Act enlarged both the provin-
cial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the
Government of Indias recourse to the ocial major-
ity in unfavorable votes.[19] Although departments like
defence, foreign aairs, criminal law, communications,
and income-tax were retained by the Viceroy and the
central government in New Delhi, other departments
like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-
government were transferred to the provinces.[19] The
provinces themselves were now to be administered un-
der a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like ed-
ucation, agriculture, infrastructure development, and lo-
cal self-government became the preserve of Indian minis-
ters and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates,
while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons,
and control of media remained within the purview of the
British governor and his executive council.[19] The new
Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the
civil service and the army ocer corps.
A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised,
although, for voting at the national level, they consti-
tuted only 10% of the total adult male population, many
of whom were still illiterate.[19] In the provincial leg-
islatures, the British continued to exercise some con-
3
trol by setting aside seats for special interests they con-
sidered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural can-
didates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less
confrontational, were assigned more seats than their ur-
ban counterparts.[19] Seats were also reserved for non-
Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college grad-
uates. The principle of communal representation, an
integral part of the Minto-Morley Reforms, and more re-
cently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact,
was rearmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims,
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and domiciled
Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative
councils.[19] The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms oered
Indians the most signicant opportunity yet for exercising
legislative power, especially at the provincial level; how-
ever, that opportunity was also restricted by the still lim-
ited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets avail-
able to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural
and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of
British control.[19]
1.4 Two nation theory
Main article: Two-nation theory
The two-nation is the ideology that the primary identity
and unifying denominator of Muslims in the South Asian
subcontinent is their religion, rather than their language
or ethnicity, and therefore Indian Hindus and Muslims
are two distinct nations, regardless of ethnic or other
commonalities.[20][21] The two-nation theory was a found-
ing principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology
of Pakistan as a Muslim nation-state in South Asia), and
the partition of India in 1947.[22]
The ideology that religion is the determining factor in
dening the nationality of Indian Muslims was under-
taken by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the
awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan.[23] It
is also a source of inspiration to several Hindu nation-
alist organizations, with causes as varied as the redef-
inition of Indian Muslims as non-Indian foreigners and
second-class citizens in India, the expulsion of all Mus-
lims from India, establishment of a legally Hindu state in
India, prohibition of conversions to Islam, and the promo-
tion of conversions or reconversions of Indian Muslims to
Hinduism.[24][25][26][27]
There are varying interpretations of the two-nation the-
ory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can
coexist in one territory or not, with radically dierent im-
plications. One interpretation argued for sovereign auton-
omy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority
areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer
of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue
to live together). A dierent interpretation contends that
Hindus and Muslims constitute two distinct, and fre-
quently antagonistic ways of life, and that therefore they
4 1 BACKGROUND

cannot coexist in one nation.[28] In this version, a trans- dia.[37] In its manifesto the Congress maintained that re-
fer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from ligious issues were of lesser importance to the masses
Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims than economic and social issues, however, the election
from Hindu-majority areas) is a desirable step towards revealed that the Congress had contested just 58 out of
a complete separation of two incompatible nations that the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in only
cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship.[29][30] 26.[37] In UP, where the Congress won, it oered to share
Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The power with the League on condition that the League stop
rst is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hin- functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which
the League refused.[37] This proved to be a mistake as it
dus and Muslims are two intertwined communities.[31]
This is a founding principle of the modern, ocially sec- alienated the Congress further from the Muslim masses.
In addition, the new UP provincial administration pro-
ular, Republic of India. Even after the formation of
Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are mulgated cow protection and the use of Hindi.[37] The
Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw
distinct nationalities or not continued in that country as
well.[32] The second source of opposition is the concept chaotic scenes of the new Congress Raj, in which ru-
ral people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in
that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Mus-
lims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the Government buildings, were indistinguishable from the
relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subconti- administrators and the law enforcement personnel.[38]
nent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty; The Muslim League conducted its own investigation
this view has been presented by the Baloch,[33] Sindhi,[34] into the conditions of Muslims under Congress-governed
and Pashtun[35] sub-nationalities of Pakistan. provinces.[39] The ndings of such investigations in-
creased fear among the Muslim masses of future Hindu
domination.[39] The view that Muslims would be un-
1.5 Muslim homeland, provincial elec- fairly treated in an independent India dominated by
tions, World War II, Lahore Resolu- the Congress was now a part of the public discourse
tion: 19301945 of Muslims.[39] With the outbreak of World War II
in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war
Although Choudhry Rahmat Ali had in 1933 produced a on Indias behalf without consulting Indian leaders,
pamphlet, Now or never, in which the term "Pakistan", leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in
[39]
the land of the pure, comprising the Punjab, North protest. The Muslim League, which functioned un-
[40]
West Frontier Province (Afghania), Kashmir, Sindh, and der state patronage, in contrast, organized Deliver-
Balochistan, was coined for the rst time, the pamphlet ance Day, celebrations (from Congress dominance) and
[36]
did not attract political attention. A little later, a Mus- supported Britain in the war eort.[39] When Linlithgow,
lim delegation to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to
Constitutional Reforms gave short shrift to the Pakistan Jinnah as he did to Gandhi, and a month[40]later described
idea, calling it chimerical and impracticable.[36] the Congress as a Hindu organization.

Two years later, the Government of India Act 1935 in- In March 1940, in the Leagues annual three-day session
troduced provincial autonomy, increasing the number of in Lahore, Jinnah gave a two-hour speech in English, in
voters in India to 35 million.[37] More signicantly, law which were laid out the arguments of the Two-nation the-
and order issues were for the rst time devolved from ory, stating, in the words of historians Talbot and Singh,
British authority to provincial governments headed by that Muslims and Hindus ... were irreconcilably opposed
Indians.[37] This increased Muslim anxieties about even- monolithic religious communities and as such no settle-
tual Hindu domination.[37] In the Indian provincial elec- ment could be imposed that did not satisfy the aspira-
tions, 1937, the Muslim League turned out its best perfor- tions of the former.[39] On the last day of its session, the
mance in Muslim-minority provinces such as the United League passed, what came to be known as the Lahore
Provinces, where it won 29 of the 64 reserved Muslim Resolution, sometimes also Pakistan Resolution,[39] de-
seats.[37] However, in the Muslim-majority regions of manding that the areas in which the Muslims are nu-
the Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed the merically in majority as in the North-Western and East-
League.[37] In the Punjab, the Unionist Part of Sikandar ern zones of India should be grouped to constitute inde-
Hayat Khan, won the elections and formed a government, pendent states in which the constituent units shall be au-
with the support of the Indian National Congress and the tonomous and sovereign. Though it had been founded
Shiromani Akali Dal, which lasted ve years.[37] In Ben- more than three decades earlier, the League would gather
gal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed support among South Asian Muslims only during the Sec-
by A. K. Fazlul Huq, the leader of the Krishak Praja ond World War.[41]
Party.[37] In March 1942, with the Japanese fast moving up
[40]
The Congress, on the other hand, with 716 wins in the to- the Malayan Peninsula after the Fall of Singapore,
tal of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form and with
[42]
the Americans supporting independence for
governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces of British In- India, Winston Churchill, the wartime Prime Minis-
1.6 1946 Election, Cabinet Mission, Direct Action Day, Plan for Partition, Independence: 19461947 5

ter of Britain, sent Sir Staord Cripps, the leader of the Sir Staord Cripps, who had visited four years before.
House of Commons, with an oer of dominion status to It failed because Congress and the Muslim League could
India at the end of the war in return for the Congresss not agree.[48]
support for the war eort.[43] Not wishing to lose the sup- In early 1946, new elections were called in India. Ear-
port of the allies they had already securedthe Muslim lier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial govern-
League, Unionists of the Punjab, and the Princesthe ment had announced the public trial of three senior o-
Cripps oer included a clause stating that no part of the cers of Subhas Chandra Bose's defeated Indian National
British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post- Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials be-
war Dominion. As a result of the proviso, the proposals
gan, the Congress leadership, although it never supported
were rejected by the Congress, which, since its found- the INA, chose to defend the accused ocers.[49] The
ing as a polite group of lawyers in 1885,[41] saw itself as
subsequent convictions of the ocers, the public outcry
the representative of all Indians of all faiths.[43] After the against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the
arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the preeminent strategist of In-
sentences created positive propaganda for the Congress,
dian nationalism,[44] the Congress had been transformed which only helped in the partys subsequent electoral vic-
into a mass nationalist movement of millions.[41] In Au- tories in eight of the eleven provinces.[50] The negotia-
gust 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India Res- tions between the Congress and the Muslim League, how-
olution which asked for drastic constitutional changes, ever, stumbled over the issue of the partition.
which the British saw as the most serious threat to their
The British rule had lost its legitimacy for most Hin-
rule since the Indian rebellion of 1857.[43] With their re-
dus and conclusive proof for this came in the 1946 elec-
sources and attention already spread thin by a global war,
tions with the Congress winning 91 percent of the vote
the nervous British immediately jailed the Congress lead-
in non-Muslim constituencies, thereby gaining a major-
ers and kept them in jail until August 1945,[45] whereas
ity in the Central Legislature and forming governments
the Muslim League was now free for the next three
in eight provinces, and becoming the legitimate succes-
years to spread its message.[40] Consequently, the Muslim
sor to the British government for most Hindus.[51] The
Leagues ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah him-
Muslim League won the majority of the Muslim vote as
self admitting, The war which nobody welcomed proved
well as most reserved Muslim seats in the provincial as-
to be a blessing in disguise.[46] Although there were other
semblies and it also secured all the Muslim seats in the
important national Muslim politicians such as Congress
Central Assembly. Recovering from its performance in
leader Abul Kalam Azad, and inuential regional Mus-
the 1937 elections, the Muslim League was nally able to
lim politicians such as A. K. Fazlul Huq of the leftist
make good on the claim that they and Jinnah alone repre-
Krishak Praja Party in Bengal, Sikander Hyat Khan of
sented Indias Muslims[52] and Jinnah quickly interpreted
the landlord-dominated Punjab Unionist Party, and Abd
this vote as a popular demand for a separate homeland.[53]
al-Ghaar Khan of the pro-Congress Khudai Khidmat-
However, tensions heightened while the Muslim League
gar (popularly, red shirts) in the North West Frontier
was unable to form ministries outside the two provinces
Province, the British were to increasingly see the League
of Sind and Bengal, with the Congress forming a min-
as the main representative of Muslim India.[47]
istry in the NFWP and the key Punjab province com-
ing under a coalition ministry of the Congress, Sikhs and
1.6 1946 Election, Cabinet Mission, Direct Unionists.[54]
Action Day, Plan for Partition, Inde- Britain wanted India and its army to remain united for
pendence: 19461947 the purpose of keeping India in its system of 'imperial
defence'.[55] With Indias two political parties unable to
Further information: Indian general election, 1945 and come to an agreement, Britain devised the Cabinet Mis-
Indian provincial elections, 1946 sion Plan. Through this mission, Britain hoped to pre-
Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee had been deeply serve the united India which they and the Congress de-
interested in Indian independence since the 1920s, and sired, while concurrently securing the essence of Jinnahs
for years had supported independence. He now took demand for a Pakistan through 'groupings.[56] The Cab-
charge of the government position and gave the is- inet Mission was composed of three Cabinet ministers
sue highest priority. Some Indian writers assume that from England. The Cabinet Mission engaged with var-
localised mutinies in the Royal Indian Navy in 1946 ious Indian political parties for three weeks but could
prompted his actions, but historians nd little evidence not reach an agreement. Finally, the mission released
from the British records. The mutiny was repressed with its own recommendations on May 16, 1946. In its rec-
force by British troops and Royal Navy warships. To- ommendations the Cabinet Mission rejected the idea
tal casualties were 8 mutineers dead and 33 wounded. of a separate Pakistan and favored an undivided, al-
Only the Communist Party supported the strikers; the though decentralized, India. The Cabinet Mission recom-
Congress and the Muslim League condemned it. Attlee mended groupings of Muslim-majority provinces, sepa-
sent a Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of rate from Hindu-majority provinces, which were to be
State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including provided almost complete autonomy. The Congress, hav-
6 1 BACKGROUND

ing wanted a strong centre, rejected the proposals con- Muslim civil war of disastrous consequences. The contin-
cerning decentralization.[57] uation of a divided and weak central government would
After the Cabinet Mission broke down, Jinnah pro- in Patels mind, result in the wider fragmentation of In-
claimed 16 August 1946 Direct Action Day, with the dia by encouraging [63] more than 600 princely states to-
stated goal of peacefully highlighting the demand for a wards independence. Between the months of Decem-
Muslim homeland in British India. However, on the ber 1946 and January 1947, Patel worked with civil ser-
morning of the 16th, armed Muslim gangs gathered at the vant V. P. Menon on the latters suggestion for a separate
Ochterlony Monument in Calcutta to hear Huseyn Sha- dominion of Pakistan created out of Muslim-majority
provinces. Communal violence in Bengal and Punjab in
heed Suhrawardy, the Leagues Chief Minister of Ben-
gal, who, in the words of historian Yasmin Khan, if he January and March 1947 further convinced Patel of the
soundness of partition. Patel, a erce critic of Jinnahs de-
did not explicitly incite violence certainly gave the crowd
the impression that they could act with impunity, that mand that the Hindu-majority areas of Punjab and Ben-
gal be included in a Muslim state, obtained the partition
neither the police nor the military would be called out
and that the ministry would turn a blind eye to any ac- of those provinces, thus blocking any possibility of their
inclusion in Pakistan. Patels decisiveness on the parti-
tion they unleashed in the city.[58] That very evening, in
Calcutta, Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim cel- tion of Punjab and Bengal had won him many supporters
ebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier show- and admirers amongst the Indian public, which had tired
ing a clear connection between violence and the demand of the Leagues tactics, but he was criticised by Gandhi,
for Pakistan, and implicating the celebration of Direct Nehru, secular Muslims and socialists for a perceived ea-
Action Day directly with the outbreak of the cycle of gerness to do so. When Lord Louis Mountbatten formally
violence that would be later called the Great Calcutta proposed the plan on 3 June 1947, Patel gave his approval
Killing of August 1946.[59] The next day, Hindus struck and lobbied Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept
back and the violence continued for three days in which the proposal. Knowing Gandhis deep anguish regarding
approximately 4,000 people died (according to ocial proposals of partition, Patel engaged him in frank dis-
accounts), Hindus and Muslims in equal numbers. Al- cussion in private meetings over the perceived practical
though India had had outbreaks of religious violence be- unworkability of any Congress-League coalition, the ris-
tween Hindus and Muslims before, the Calcutta killings ing violence and the threat of civil war. At the All India
was the rst to display elements of "ethnic cleansing", Congress Committee meeting called to vote on the pro-
in modern parlance.[60] Violence was not conned to the posal, Patel said:
public sphere, but homes were entered and destroyed and
women and children attacked.[61] Although the Govern- I fully appreciate the fears of our broth-
ment of India and the Congress were both shaken by ers from [the Muslim-majority areas]. No-
the course of events, in September, a Congress-led in- body likes the division of India and my heart
terim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru is heavy. But the choice is between one divi-
as united Indias prime minister. sion and many divisions. We must face facts.
We cannot give way to emotionalism and sen-
The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims
timentality. The Working Committee has not
were attacked by Hindus), to Noakhali in Bengal (where
acted out of fear. But I am afraid of one thing,
Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in Garhmukteshwar
that all our toil and hard work of these many
in the United Provinces (where Muslims were attacked by
years might go waste or prove unfruitful. My
Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which
nine months in oce has completely disillu-
Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.[62]
sioned me regarding the supposed merits of the
Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the rst Congress leaders Cabinet Mission Plan. Except for a few honor-
to accept the partition of India as a solution to the ris- able exceptions, Muslim ocials from the top
ing Muslim separatist movement led by Muhammad Ali down to the chaprasis (peons or servants) are
Jinnah. He had been outraged by Jinnahs Direct Ac- working for the League. The communal veto
tion campaign, which had provoked communal violence given to the League in the Mission Plan would
across India and by the viceroys vetoes of his home de- have blocked Indias progress at every stage.
partments plans to stop the violence on the grounds of Whether we like it or not, de facto Pakistan
constitutionality. Patel severely criticised the viceroys already exists in the Punjab and Bengal. Un-
induction of League ministers into the government, and der the circumstances I would prefer a de jure
the revalidation of the grouping scheme by the British Pakistan, which may make the League more re-
without Congress approval. Although further outraged at sponsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to
the Leagues boycott of the assembly and non-acceptance 80 percent of India, which we can make strong
of the plan of 16 May despite entering government, he with our own genius. The League can develop
was also aware that Jinnah did enjoy popular support the rest of the country.[64]
amongst Muslims, and that an open conict between
him and the nationalists could degenerate into a Hindu- Following Gandhis denial[65] but Congress approval of
 7

the plan, Patel represented India on the Partition Coun- 2 Geographic partition, 1947
cil, where he oversaw the division of public assets, and se-
lected the Indian council of ministers with Nehru. How-
2.1 Mountbatten Plan
ever, neither he nor any other Indian leader had foreseen
the intense violence and population transfer that would
take place with partition.
Late in 1946, the Labour government in Britain, its ex-
chequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War
II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947
Britain announced its intention of transferring power no
later than June 1948. However, with the British army
unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the
new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for
the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for
a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947,
the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam
Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing
the Muslim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the
Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh repre-
senting the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country
along religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhis views.
The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned
to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the
new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of
the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal.
The communal violence that accompanied the announce- Mountbatten with a countdown calendar to the Transfer of
ment of the Radclie Line, the line of partition, was even Power in the background
more horric.
Of the violence that accompanied the Partition of India, The actual division of British India between the two new
historians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh write: dominions was accomplished according to what has come
to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. It
There are numerous eyewitness accounts was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on
of the maiming and mutilation of victims. The 3 June 1947, when the date of independence was also an-
catalogue of horrors includes the disembow- nounced 15 August 1947. The plans main points were:
elling of pregnant women, the slamming of ba-
bies heads against brick walls, the cutting o Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in Punjab and Bengal
of victims limbs and genitalia and the display legislative assemblies would meet and vote for par-
of heads and corpses. While previous commu- tition. If a simple majority of either group wanted
nal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of partition, then these provinces would be divided.
brutality was unprecedented. Although some
scholars question the use of the term 'genocide' Sind and Baluchistan were to make their own
with respect to the Partition massacres, much decision.[67]
of the violence manifested as having genocidal
tendencies. It was designed to cleanse an ex- The fate of North West Frontier Province and Sylhet
isting generation as well as prevent its future district of Assam was to be decided by a referendum.
[66]
reproduction.
India would be independent by 15 August 1947.
On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came
into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its The separate independence of Bengal was ruled out.
rst Governor General in Karachi. The following day,
15 August 1947, India, now a smaller Union of India, A boundary commission to be set up in case of par-
became an independent country with ocial ceremonies tition.
taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru as-
suming the oce of the prime minister, and the viceroy, The Indian political leaders accepted the Plan on 2 June.
Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its rst Governor Gen- It did not deal with the question of the princely states, but
eral; Gandhi, however, remained in Bengal, preferring in- on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining
stead to work among the new refugees of the partitioned independent and urged them to join one of the two new
subcontinent. dominions.[68]
8 2 GEOGRAPHIC PARTITION, 1947

The Muslim League's demands for a separate state were

thus conceded. The Congress' position on unity was also
taken into account while making Pakistan as small as pos-
sible. Mountbattens formula was to divide India and at
the same time retain maximum possible unity.
Abul Kalam Azad expressed concern over the likelihood
of violent riots, to which Mountbatten replied:

At least on this question I shall give you

complete assurance. I shall see to it that there
is no bloodshed and riot. I am a soldier and not
a civilian. Once partition is accepted in princi-
ple, I shall issue orders to see that there are no
communal disturbances anywhere in the coun- A map of the Punjab region c. 1947.
try. If there should be the slightest agitation,
I shall adopt the sternest measures to nip the
trouble in the bud.[69]

Jagmohan has stated that this and what followed shows Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlejconsists of in-
the glaring failure of the government machinery.[69] teruvial doabs, or tracts of land lying between two con-
On 3 June 1947, the partition plan was accepted by the uent rivers. These are the Sind-Sagar doab (between
Congress Working Committee.[70] Boloji states that in Indus and Jhelum), the Jech doab (Jhelum/Chenab), the
Punjab there were no riots but there was communal ten- Rechna doab (Chenab/Ravi), the Bari doab (Ravi/Beas),
sion, while Gandhi was reportedly isolated by Nehru and and the Bist doab (Beas/Sutlej) (see map on the right).
Patel and observed maun vrat (day of silence). Mount- In early 1947, in the months leading up to the delibera-
batten visited Gandhi and said he hoped that he would tions of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main dis-
not oppose the partition, to which Gandhi wrote the re- puted areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs,
ply: Have I ever opposed you?"[71] although some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by
the Congress and Sikhs. In the Bari doab, the districts of
Within British India, the border between India and Pak- Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery were all
istan (the Radclie Line) was determined by a British disputed.[73] All districts (other than Amritsar, which was
Government-commissioned report prepared under the 46.5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gur-
chairmanship of a London barrister, Sir Cyril Radclie. daspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1%, was slender. At
Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous en- a smaller area-scale, only three tehsils (sub-units of a dis-
claves, East Pakistan (today Bangladesh) and West Pak- trict) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities. These
istan, separated geographically by India. India was were: Pathankot (in the extreme north of Gurdaspur,
formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, which was not in dispute), and Amritsar and Tarn Taran
and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas. in Amritsar district. In addition, there were four Muslim-
On 18 July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian majority tehsils east of Beas-Sutlej (with two where Mus-
[73]
Independence Act that nalized the arrangements for par- lims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together).
tition and abandoned British suzerainty over the princely Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings,
states, of which there were several hundred, leaving them governments were set up for the East and the West Pun-
free to choose whether to accede to one of the new do- jab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided
minions. The Government of India Act 1935 was adapted by notional division based on simple district majorities.
to provide a legal framework for the new dominions. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commis-
Following its creation as a new country in August 1947,sion consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges
Pakistan applied for membership of the United Na- with Sir Cyril Radclie as a common chairman.[73] The
tions and was accepted by the General Assembly on 30 mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally
September 1947. The Dominion of India continued to as: To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the
Punjab, on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous ma-
have the existing seat as India had been a founding mem-
ber of the United Nations since 1945.[72] jority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it
will take into account other factors. Each side (the Mus-
lims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through
2.2 Radclie Line counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges too had
no mandate to compromise and on all major issues they
Further information: Radclie Line divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radclie the in-
The Punjabthe region of the ve rivers east of Indus: vidious task of making the actual decisions.[73]
3.2 Bengal 9

3 Independence, population trans- the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became Indias
East Punjab state. Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the
fer, and violence west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears
of all such minorities were so great that the Partition
Massive population exchanges occurred between the two saw many people displaced and much intercommunal vi-
newly formed states in the months immediately following olence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a
Partition. The population of undivided India in 1947 retributive genocide.[76]
was approx 390 million. After partition, there were 330
million people in India, 30 million in West Pakistan, and The newly formed governments were completely un-
30 million people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).[74] equipped to deal with migrations of such staggering mag-
Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million peo- nitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on
ple crossed the borders to what they hoped was the rel- both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of
ative safety of religious majority. The 1951 Census of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high esti-
[77][78][79]
Pakistan identied the number of displaced persons in mates at 2,000,000.
Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims who had Lawrence James observed that "'Sir Francis Mudie,
entered Pakistan from India. Similarly, the 1951 Cen- the governor of West Punjab, estimated that 500,000
sus of India enumerated 7,295,870 displaced persons, Muslims died trying to enter his province, while the
apparently all Hindus and Sikhs who had moved to In- British high commissioner in Karachi put the full total at
dia from Pakistan immediately after the Partition.[75] The 800,000This makes nonsense of the claim by Mount-
two numbers add up to 14.5 million. Since both censuses batten and his partisans that only 200,000 were killed'
were held about 3.6 years after the Partition, the enumer- [James 1998: 636]".[80]
ation included net population increase after the mass mi-
According to political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed, in March
gration.
1947 the Muslims started large-scale violence, mainly
About 11.2 million ( 77.4% of the displaced persons) against Sikhs but also against Hindus, in the Muslim-
were in the west, with the Punjab accounting for most of majority districts of northern Punjab. Yet at the end of
it: 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pak- that year more Muslims had been killed in East Punjab
istan, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West than Hindus and Sikhs together in West Punjab.[81][82]
Pakistan to India; thus the net migration in the west from
India to West Pakistan (now Pakistan) was 1.8 million.
The remaining 3.3 million (22.6% of the displaced per-
sons) were in the east: 2.6 million moved from East Pak-
istan to India and 0.7 million moved from India to East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh); thus net migration in the east 3.2 Bengal
was 1.9 million into India.
Main article: Partition of Bengal (1947)
3.1 Punjab
The province of Bengal was divided into the two sepa-
rate entities of West Bengal, awarded to the Dominion of
India, and East Bengal, awarded to the Dominion of Pak-
istan. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955,
and later became the independent nation of Bangladesh
after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.
While the Muslim majority districts of Murshidabad and
Malda were given to India, the Hindu majority district
of Khulna and the Buddhist majority, but sparsely pop-
ulated, Chittagong Hill Tracts were given to Pakistan by
the Radclie award.[83]
Thousands of Hindus, located in the districts of East Ben-
gal which were awarded to Pakistan, found themselves
A refugee special train at Ambala Station during partition of In- being attacked and this religious persecution forced hun-
dia dreds of thousands of Hindus from East Bengal to seek
refuge in India. The huge inux of Hindu refugees into
The Partition of British India split the former British Calcutta aected the demographics of the city. Many
province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and Muslims left the city for East Pakistan and some of their
the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western homes and properties were occupied by the refugee fam-
part of the province became Pakistans Punjab province; ilies.
10 3 INDEPENDENCE, POPULATION TRANSFER, AND VIOLENCE

3.3 Sindh

Most of Sindh's prosperous middle class at the time of

Partition was Hindu. At the time of Partition there were
1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis, though most were concentrated
in cities such as Hyderabad, Karachi, Shikarpur, and
Sukkur. Hundreds of Hindus residing in Sindh were
forced to migrate. Some anti-Hindu violence in Sindh
was precipitated by the arrival of Muslim refugees from
India with minimal local Muslim support for the riot-
ers. Sindhi Hindus faced low scale rioting unlike the
Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs who had to migrate from West
Punjab.[84]
On 6 December 1947, communal violence broke out in
Ajmer in India, precipitated by an argument between
Sindhi Hindu refugees and local Muslims in the Dargah
Bazaar. Violence in Ajmer again broke out in the mid-
dle of December with stabbings, looting and arson re-
sulting in mostly Muslim casualties.[85] Many Muslims
ed across the Thar Desert to Sindh in Pakistan.[85] This
sparked further anti-Hindu riots in Hyderabad, Sindh. On
6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading
to an estimate of 1100 casualties.[85] 776,000 Sindhi Hin-
dus ed to India.[86] The arrival of Sindhi Hindu refugees
in North Gujarats town of Godhra sparked the March A crowd of Muslims at the Old Fort (Purana Qila) in Delhi,
1948 riots there which led to an emigration of Muslims which had been converted into a vast camp for Muslim refugees
from Godhra to Pakistan.[85] waiting to be transported to Pakistan. Manchester Guardian, 27
Despite the migration, a signicant Sindhi Hindu popula- September 1947.
tion still resides in Pakistans Sindh province where they
number at around 2.28 million as per Pakistans 1998 Pandeys more recent account of the Delhi violence puts
census; the Sindhi Hindus in India were at 2.57 million the gure of Muslim casualties in Delhi as being between
as per Indias 2001 Census. Some bordering districts 20,000-25,000.[88]
in Sindh had a Hindu majority like Tharparkar District,
Umerkot, Mirpurkhas, Sanghar and Badin, but their pop- Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee
ulation is decreasing and they consider themselves a mi- camps regardless of their political aliations and numer-
nority in decline. In fact, only Umerkot still has a major- ous historic sites in Delhi such as the Purana Qila, Idgah
ity of Hindus in the district.[87] The Sindhi community and Nizamuddin were transformed into refugee camps.
did not face large scale violence, but felt deprivation of At the culmination of the tensions in Delhi 330,000 Mus-
homeland and culture.[85] lims were forced to ee the city to Pakistan. The 1951
Census registered a drop of the Muslim population in the
city from 33.22% in 1941 to 5.33% in 1951.[89]
3.4 Delhi
3.5 Alwar and Bharatpur
For centuries Delhi had been the capital of the Mughal
Empire and of previous Turkic Muslim rulers of North Alwar and Bharatpur were two princely states of Ra-
India. The series of Islamic rulers keeping Delhi as a jputana (modern day Rajasthan) which were the scene
stronghold of their empires left a vast array of Islamic of a bloody confrontation between the dominant, land-
architecture in Delhi and a strong Islamic culture perme- holding community of Hindu Jats and the cultivating
ated the city. The 1941 Census listed Delhis population community of Muslim Meos from May 1947 onwards.[90]
as being 33.22% Muslim. Well-organised bands of Hindu Jats, Ahirs and Gujars
However thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from started attacking Muslim Meos in April 1947. By June
Punjab poured into the city. This created an atmosphere more than fty Muslim villages had been destroyed after
of upheavals as anti-Muslim pogroms rocked the histori- attacks by all sides. The Muslim League was outraged and
cal stronghold of Indo-Islamic culture and politics. Indian demanded that the Viceroy provide Muslim troops. Ac-
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru estimated 1000 casu- cusations emerged in June of the involvement of Indian
alties in the city. However other sources claimed that State Forces from Alwar and Bharatpur in the destruction
the casualty rate had been 20 times higher. Gyanendra of Muslim villages both inside their states and in British
 11

India.[91] Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis came from West Pun-
In the wake of unprecedented violent attacks unleashed jab and settled in East Punjab (which then also included
against them in 1947, 100,000 Muslim Meos from Alwar Haryana and Himachal Pradesh) and Delhi. Hindus ee-
and Bharatpur was forced to ee their homes and an esti- ing from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) settled across
mated 30,000 Meos are said to have been massacred.[92] Eastern India and Northeastern India, many ending up in
On 17 November, a column of 80,000 Meo refugees neighbouring Indian states such as West Bengal, Assam,
went on their way to Pakistan. However, 10,000 stopped and Tripura. Some migrants were sent to the Andaman
travelling due to the risk of trying to reach and settle in islands where Bengalis today form the largest linguistic
group.
Pakistan.[90]
Sindhi Hindus settled predominantly in Gujarat, Maha-
rashtra and Rajasthan. Some, however, settled further
3.6 Jammu and Kashmir aeld in Madhya Pradesh. A new township was estab-
lished for Sindhi Hindu refugees in Maharashtra. The
Main article: 1947 Jammu massacres Governor-General of India, Sir Rajagopalachari, laid the
foundation for this township and named it Ulhasnagar
In SeptemberNovember 1947 in the Jammu region of (namely 'city of joy').
the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, a large num-
ber of Muslims were massacred and others driven away
to West Punjab. The impetus for this violence was partly
provided by the inux of a large number of Hindu and
5 Resettlement of refugees in Pak-
Sikh refugees since March 1947, who brought with them istan: 19471957
harrowing stories of Muslim atrocities, to Jammu from
West Punjab. The killings were carried out by extrem- The 1951 Census of Pakistan recorded that the largest
ist Hindus and Sikhs, aided and abetted by the forces of number of Muslim refugees came from the East Punjab
the Dogra State headed by the Maharaja of Jammu and and nearby Rajputana states (Alwar and Bharatpur). They
Kashmir Hari Singh. Observers state that Hari Singhs were a number of 5,783,100 and constituted 80.1% of
aim was to alter the demographics of the region by elimi- Pakistans total refugee population.[97] This was the eect
nating the Muslim population, in order to ensure a Hindu of the retributive genocide on both sides of the Punjab
majority in the region.[93][94] where the Muslim population of East Punjab was forcibly
expelled like the Hindu/Sikh population in West Punjab.
Migration from other regions of India were as follows: Bi-
4 Resettlement of refugees in In- har, West Bengal and Orissa, 700,300 or 9.8%; UP and
dia: 19471957 Delhi 464,200 or 2.4%; Gujarat and Bombay, 160,400
or 2.2%; Bhopal and Hyderabad 95,200 or 1.2%; and
[97]
According to the 1951 Census of India, 2% of Indias Madras and Mysore 18,000 or 0.2%.
population were refugees (1.3% from West Pakistan and So far as their settlement in Pakistan is concerned, 97.4%
0.7% from East Pakistan). Delhi received the largest of the refugees from East Punjab and its contiguous ar-
number of refugees for a single city the population eas went to West Punjab; 95.9% from Bihar, West Ben-
of Delhi grew rapidly in 1947 from under 1 million gal and Orissa to the erstwhile East Pakistan; 95.5%
(917,939) to a little less than 2 million (1,744,072) dur- from UP and Delhi to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi
ing the period 19411951.[95] The refugees were housed and Sind; 97.2% from Bhopal and Hyderabad to West
in various historical and military locations such as the Pakistan, mainly Karachi; and 98.9% from Bombay and
Purana Qila, Red Fort, and military barracks in Kingsway Gujarat to West Pakistan, largely to Karachi; and 98.9%
Camp (around the present Delhi University). The lat- from Madras and Mysore went to West Pakistan, mainly
ter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps Karachi.[97]
in northern India with more than 35,000 refugees at any
given time besides Kurukshetra camp near Panipat. The West Punjab received the largest number of refugees
camp sites were later converted into permanent hous- (73.1%), mainly from East Punjab and its contiguous
ing through extensive building projects undertaken by the areas. East Bengal received the second largest number
Government of India from 1948 onwards. A number of of refugees, 699,100, who constituted 9.7% of the to-
housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period like tal Muslim refugee population in Pakistan. 66.69% of
Lajpat Nagar, Rajinder Nagar, Nizamuddin East, Punjabi the refugees in East Bengal originated from West [98]
Bengal,
Bagh, Rehgar Pura, Jangpura and Kingsway Camp. A 14.50% from Bihar and 11.84% from Assam.
number of schemes such as the provision of education, Karachi received 8.5% of the total migrant population
employment opportunities, and easy loans to start busi- while Sind received 7.6%. NWFP and Baluchistan re-
nesses were provided for the refugees at the all-India ceived the lowest number of migrants. NWFP received
level.[96] 51,100 migrants (0.7% of the migrant population) while
12 8 POST-PARTITION MIGRATION

Baluchistan received 28,000 (0.4% of the migrant popu- was from U.P., Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharash-
lation). tra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
The Government undertook a census of refugees in West Nadu and Kerala. The next stage of migration, which
Punjab in 1948, which displayed their place of origin in lasted between 1973 and the 1990s, was when the mi-
India. gration of Indian Muslims to Pakistan was reduced to
its lowest levels since 1947. The primary destination for
Data on the Number of Muslim refugees in West these migrants was Karachi and other urban centers in
Punjab from the Districts of East Punjab and Neigh- Sindh.[104]
bouring Regions[99]
In 1959, the International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Data on the Number of Muslim refugees in West published a report stating that from 1951 to 1956, a to-
Punjab from the Princely states in East Punjab and tal of 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to West
Rajputana[99] Pakistan.[104] However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts
about the authenticity of the claims about Indian Muslim
migration to Pakistan, since the 1961 Census of Pakistan
6 Missing persons did not corroborate these gures. However, the 1961
Census of Pakistan did incorporate a statement suggesting
A study of the total population inows and outows in that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from
[105]
the districts of the Punjab, using the data provided by the India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade. Of
1931 and 1951 Census has led to an estimate of 1.26 mil- those who had left for Pakistan, most never came back.
lion missing Muslims who left western India but did not Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan declined drastically
reach Pakistan.[80] The corresponding number of miss- in the 1970s, a trend noticed by the Pakistani authorities.
ing Hindus/Sikhs along the western border is estimated On June 1995, Pakistans interior minister, Naseerullah
to be approximately 0.84 million.[100] This puts the to- Babar, informed the National Assembly that between the
tal of missing people, due to Partition-related migration period of 1973-1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came
along the Punjab border, to around 2.23 million.[100] from India on valid travel documents. Of these only 3,393
stayed.[104] In a related trend, intermarriages between In-
dian and Pakistani Muslims have declined sharply. Ac-
7 Rehabilitation of women cording to a November 1995 statement of Riaz Khokhar,
the Pakistani High Commissioner in New Delhi, the num-
ber of cross-border marriages has declined from 40,000
See also: Violence against women during the partition of
a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually.[104]
India
In the aftermath of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965,
3,500 Muslim families migrated from the Indian part
Both sides promised each other that they would try to re-
of the Thar Desert to the Pakistani section of the Thar
store women abducted and raped during the riots. The
Desert.[106] 400 families were settled in Nagar after the
Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh
1965 war and an additional 3000 settled in the Chachro
women were abducted, and the Pakistani government
taluka in Sind province of West Pakistan.[107] The govern-
claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted dur-
ment of Pakistan provided each family with 12 acres of
ing riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that
land. According to government records this land totalled
12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000
42,000 acres.[107]
in Pakistan.[101] By 1954, there were 20,728 Muslim
women recovered from India and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh The 1951 census in Pakistan recorded 671,000 refugees
women recovered from Pakistan.[102] Most of the Hindu in East Pakistan, the majority of which came from West
[108]
and Sikh women refused to go back to India, fearing that Bengal. The rest were from Bihar. According to the
they would never be accepted by their family, a fear mir- ILO in the period 1951-1956, half a million Indian Mus-
rored by Muslim women.[103] lims migrated to East Pakistan.[104] By 1961 the num-
bers reached 850,000. In the aftermath of the riots in
Ranchi and Jamshedpur, Biharis continued to migrate to
East Pakistan well into the late sixties and added up to
8 Post-Partition migration around a million.[109] Crude estimates suggest that about
1.5 million Muslims migrated from West Bengal and Bi-
8.1 Pakistan har to East Bengal in the two decades after partition.[110]

Even after the 1951 Census many Muslim families from

India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 8.2 India
1950s and even early 1960s. According to historian
Omar Khalidi the Indian Muslim migration to West Due to religious persecution in Pakistan, Hindus continue
Pakistan between December 1947 and December 1971 to ee to India. Most of them tend to settle in the state of

Rajasthan in India.[111] According to the Human Rights
Commission of Pakistan data, just around 1,000 Hindu
families ed to India in 2013.[112] In May 2014, a member
of the ruling Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz (PML-N),
Dr Ramesh Kumar Vankwani, revealed in the National
Assembly of Pakistan that around 5,000 Hindus are mi-
grating from Pakistan to India every year.[113] Since In-
dia is not a signatory to the 1951 United Nations Refugee
Convention it refuses to recognise Pakistani Hindu mi-
grants as refugees.[111]
The population in the Tharparkar district in the Sind
province of West Pakistan was 80% Hindu and 20% Mus-
lim at the time of independence in 1947. During the
Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971, the Hindu upper
castes and their retainers ed to India. This led to a mas-
sive demographic shift in the district.[106] In 1978 India
gave citizenship to 55,000 Pakistanis.[111] By the time of
the 1998 census of Pakistan, Muslims made up 64.42%
of the population and Hindus 35.58% of the population
in Tharparkar.
The migration of Hindus from East Pakistan to India con-
tinued unabated after partition. The 1951 census in India
recorded that 2.523 million refugees arrived from East
Pakistan, of which 2.061 million migrated to West Ben-
gal while the rest migrated to Assam, Tripura and other
states.[108] These refugees arrived in waves and did not
come solely at partition. By 1973 their number reached
over 6 million. The following data displays the major
waves of refugees from East Pakistan and the incidents
which precipitated the migrations.[114][115]
9 Perspectives
The Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and
remains a cause of much tension on the Indian subconti-
nent today. According to Allen McGrath many British
leaders including the British Viceroy, Mountbatten, were
unhappy over the partition of India.[116] Lord Mountbat-
ten of Burma had not only been accused of rushing the
process through, but also is alleged to have inuenced the
Radclie Line in Indias favour.[117][118] The commission
took longer to decide on a nal boundary than on the par-
tition itself. Thus the two nations were granted their inde-
pendence even before there was a dened boundary be-
tween them.
Some critics allege that British haste led to increased cru-
elties during the Partition.[119] Because independence was
declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new
governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order.
No large population movements were contemplated; the
plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of
the new border. It was a task at which both states failed.
There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many
died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of
their ight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest
13
population movements in recorded history. According to
Richard Symonds, at the lowest estimate, half a million
people perished and twelve million became homeless.[120]
However, many argue that the British were forced to ex-
pedite the Partition by events on the ground.[121] Once in
oce, Mountbatten quickly became aware that if Britain
were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed
increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition
and a hasty exit from India.[121] Law and order had bro-
ken down many times before Partition, with much blood-
shed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by
the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second
World War, Britain had limited resources,[122] perhaps in-
sucient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint
is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had
no real options left and achieved the best he could un-
der dicult circumstances.[123] The historian Lawrence
James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no
option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be
involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which
it would be dicult to get out.[124]
Conservative elements in England consider the partition
of India to be the moment that the British Empire ceased
to be a world power, following Curzon's dictum: the loss
of India would mean that Britain drop straight away to a
third rate power.[125]
Venkat Dhulipala rejects the idea that the British di-
vide and rule policy was responsible for partition and
elaborates on the perspective that Pakistan was popu-
larly imagined as a sovereign Islamic state or a 'New
Medina', as a potential successor to the defunct Turk-
ish caliphate[126][127] and as a leader and protector of
the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over
creating Pakistan and its potential to become a true Is-
lamic state[128][129] The majority of Barelvis supported
the creation of Pakistan[130][131] and believed that any co-
operation with Hindus would be counter productive.[132]
Most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ah-
mad Madani, were opposed to the creation of Pakistan
and the two-nation theory. According to them Muslims
and Hindus could be one nation.[133][134][135]
A cross-border student initiative, The History Project, was
launched in 2014 to explore the dierences in percep-
tion of the events during the British era which led to the
partition. The project resulted in a book that explains
both interpretations of the shared history in Pakistan and
India.[136][137]
Berkeley, California based non-prot organization The
1947 Partition Archive collects oral histories from peo-
ple who lived through the Partition and consolidates the
interviews into an archive.
14
10 Artistic depictions of the Parti-
tion
Main article: Artistic depictions of the partition of India
The partition of India and the associated bloody ri-
ots inspired many in India and Pakistan to create liter-
ary/cinematic depictions of this event.[138] While some
creations depicted the massacres during the refugee mi-
gration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the par-
tition in terms of diculties faced by the refugees in both
side of the border. Even now, more than 60 years after the
partition, works of ction and lms are made that relate
to the events of partition. The early members of the Pro-
gressive Artists Group of Bombay cite The Partition
of India and Pakistan as a key reason for its founding in
December 1947. They included FN Souza, MF Husain,
SH Raza, SK Bakre, HA Gade and KH Ara, who went
on to become some of the most important and inuential
Indian artists of the 20th Century.[139]
Literature describing the human cost of independence
and partition comprises Bal K. Guptas memoirs Forgot-
ten Atrocities (2012), Khushwant Singh's Train to Pak-
istan (1956), several short stories such as Toba Tek Singh
(1955) by Saadat Hassan Manto, Urdu poems such as
Subh-e-Azadi (Freedoms Dawn, 1947) by Faiz Ahmad
Faiz, Bhisham Sahni's Tamas (1974), Manohar Mal-
gonkar's A Bend in the Ganges (1965), and Bapsi Sidhwa's
Ice-Candy Man (1988), among others.[140][141] Salman
Rushdie's novel Midnights Children (1980), which won
the Booker Prize and the The Best of the Booker, wove
its narrative based on the children born with magical abil-
ities on midnight of 14 August 1947.[141] Freedom at Mid-
night (1975) is a non-ction work by Larry Collins and
Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surround-
ing the rst Independence Day celebrations in 1947.
There is a paucity of lms related to the indepen-
dence and partition.[142][143][144] Early lms relating to
the circumstances of the independence, partition and
the aftermath include Nemai Ghosh's Chinnamul (Ben-
12 References
[142] [145]
gali) (1950), Dharmputra (1961) Lahore (1948),
Chhalia (1956), Nastik (1953). George Cukor's Bhowani 12.1 Notes
Junction (1956), Ritwik Ghatak's trilogy of Meghe Dhaka
Tara (Bengali) (1960) / Komal Gandhar (Bengali) (1961) [1] British India consisted of those regions of the British Raj,
/ Subarnarekha (Bengali) (1962);[142][146] later lms in-
[145]
clude Garm Hava (1973) and Tamas (1987). From
the late 1990s onwards, more lms on this theme were
made, including several mainstream ones, such as Earth
(1998), Train to Pakistan (1998) (based on the aforemen- [2] The death toll remains disputed to this day with gures
tined book), Hey Ram (2000), Gadar: Ek Prem Katha
(2001), Khamosh Pani (2003), Pinjar (2003), Partition
(2007) and Madrasapattinam (2010).[145] The biograph-
ical lms Gandhi (1982), Jinnah (1998) and Sardar
(1993) also feature independence and partition as sig-
nicant events in their screenplay. A Pakistani drama
Daastan, based on the novel Bano, highlights the plight of
12 REFERENCES
Muslim girls who were abducted and raped during parti-
tion.
The novel Lost Generations (2013) by Manjit Sachdeva
describes the March 1947 massacre in rural areas of
Rawalpindi by the Muslim League, followed by mas-
sacres on both sides of the new border in August 1947
seen through the eyes of an escaping Sikh family, their
settlement and partial rehabilitation in Delhi, and ending
in ruin (including death), for the second time in 1984,
at the hands of mobs after a Sikh assassinated the prime
minister.
The 2013 Google India advertisement Reunion (about the
Partition of India) has had a strong impact in India and
Pakistan, leading to hope for the easing of travel restric-
tions between the two countries.[147][148][149] It went vi-
ral[150][151] and was viewed more than 1.6 million times
before ocially debuting on television on 15 November
2013.[152]
11 See also
List of princely states of India
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Partition of Bengal (1947)
Princely states of Pakistan
Indian independence movement
Pakistan Movement
History of Bangladesh
History of India
History of Pakistan
Indian annexation of Goa
or the British Indian Empire, which were directly adminis-
tered by Britain; other regions, called princely states, were
ruled by native rulers called Maharajahs and Nawabs, but
under the suzerainty of the British Crown
ranging from 200,000 to 2 million.[3]
[3] Coastal Ceylon, part of the Madras Presidency of British
India from 1796, became the separate crown colony of
British Ceylon in 1802. Burma, gradually annexed by
the British during 182686 and governed as a part of the
British Indian administration until 1937, was directly ad-
ministered thereafter.[4] Burma was granted independence
12.2 Citations
on 4 January 1948 and Ceylon on 4 February 1948. (See
History of Sri Lanka and History of Burma.)
[4] The Himalayan kingdom of Sikkim was established as a
princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861,
however, the issue of sovereignty was left undened.[5] In
1947, Sikkim became an independent kingdom under the
suzerainty of India and remained so until 1975 when it was
absorbed into India as the 22nd state. Other Himalayan
kingdoms, Nepal and Bhutan, having signed treaties with
the British designating them as independent states, were
not a part of British India.[6] The Indian Ocean island of
The Maldives, became a protectorate of the British crown
in 1887 and gained its independence in 1965.
12.2 Citations
[1] Partition (n), 7. b (3rd ed.). Oxford English Dictionary.
2005. The division of British India into India and Pak-
istan, achieved in 1947.
[2] Yasmin Khan The Great Partition: The Making of In-
dia and Pakistan Yale University Press, 2007 ISBN
0300120788, 9780300120783
[3] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 2.
[4] Sword For Pen, Time, 12 April 1937
[5] Sikkim. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008.
[6] Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008. Nepal., Encyclopdia
Britannica. 2008. Bhutan.
[7] Spear 1990, p. 176
[8] Spear 1990, p. 176, Stein & Arnold 2010, p. 291, Ludden
2002, p. 193, Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 156
[9] Bandyopdhya 2004, p. 260
[10] Ludden 2002, p. 193
[11] Ludden 2002, p. 199
[12] Ludden 2002, p. 200
[13] Stein & Arnold 2010, p. 286
[14] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 20.
[15] Ludden 2002, p. 201
[16] Brown 1994, pp. 197198
[17] Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Ocial Report, Nom-
bre de bations representees, p. 168. Quote: 31 Nations
avaient accept l'invitation du Comit Olympique Belge:
... la Grce la Hollande Les Indes Anglaises l'Italie
le Japon ...
[18] Brown 1994, pp. 200201
[19] Brown 1994, pp. 205207
15
[20] Robin W. Winks, Alaine M. Low (2001), The Oxford his-
tory of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, ISBN 978-0-19-924680-9, ... At the heart of
the two-nation theory was the belief that the Indian Mus-
lims identity was dened by religion rather than language
or ethnicity ...
[21] Liaquat Ali Khan (1940), Pakistan: The Heart of Asia,
Thacker & Co. Ltd., ... There is much in the Musalmans
which, if they wish, can roll them into a nation. But isn't
there enough that is common to both Hindus and Muslims,
which if developed, is capable of molding them into one
people? Nobody can deny that there are many modes,
manners, rites and customs which are common to both.
Nobody can deny that there are rites, customs and usages
based on religion which do divide Hindus and Muslmans.
The question is, which of these should be emphasized ...
[22] Two-Nation Theory Exists. Pakistan Times. Archived
from the original on 11 November 2007.
[23] Holy War Against India by Conor Cruise O'Brien.
www.theatlantic.com. Retrieved 2017-04-02.
[24] Economic and political weekly, Volume 14, Part 3,
Sameeksha Trust, 1979, ... the Muslims are not Indians
but foreigners or temporary guests - without any loyalty to
the country or its cultural heritage - and should be driven
out of the country ...
[25] M. M. Sankhdher, K. K. Wadhwa (1991), National unity
and religious minorities, Gitanjali Publishing House, ISBN
978-81-85060-36-1, ... In their heart of hearts, the Indian
Muslims are not Indian citizens, are not Indians: they are
citizens of the universal Islamic ummah, of Islamdom ...
[26] Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Sudhakar Raje (1989),
Savarkar commemoration volume, Savarkar Darshan
Pratishthan, ... His historic warning against conversion
and call for Shuddhi was condensed in the dictum 'Dhar-
mantar is Rashtrantar' (to change ones religion is to
change ones nationality) ...
[27] N. Chakravarty (1990), Mainstream, Mainstream, 28
(32-52), ... 'Dharmantar is Rashtrantar' is one of the old
slogans of the VHP ...
[28] Carlo Caldarola (1982), Religions and societies, Asia and
the Middle East, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-90-279-
3259-4, ... Hindu and Muslim cultures constitute two dis-
tinct, and frequently antagonistic, ways of life, and that
therefore they cannot coexist in one nation ...
[29] S. Harman (1977), Plight of Muslims in India, DL Publica-
tions, ISBN 978-0-9502818-2-7, ... strongly and repeat-
edly pressed for the transfer of population between India
and Pakistan. At the time of partition some of the two-
nation theory protagonists proposed that the entire Hindu
population should migrate to India and all Muslims should
move over to Pakistan, leaving no Hindus in Pakistan and
no Muslims in India ...
[30] M. M. Sankhdher (1992), Secularism in India, dilemmas
and challenges, Deep & Deep Publication, ... The parti-
tion of the country did not take the two-nation theory to its
logical conclusion, i.e., complete transfer of populations
...
16
[31] Raq Zakaria (2004), Indian Muslims: where have they
gone wrong?, Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7991-
201-0, ... As a Muslim ... Hindus and Muslims are one
nation and not two ... two nations has no basis in history
... they shall continue to live together for another thousand
years in united India ...
[32] Pakistan Constituent Assembly (1953), Debates: Ocial
report, Volume 1; Volume 16, Government of Pakistan
Press, ... say that Hindus and Muslims are one, single
nation. It is a very peculiar attitude on the part of the
leader of the ppposition. In fact if his point of view was
accepted, then the very justication for the existence of
Pakistan would disappear ...
[33] Janmahmad (1989), Essays on Baloch national struggle in
Pakistan: emergence, dimensions, repercussions, Gosha-e-
Adab, ... would be completely extinct as a people without
any identity. This proposition is the crux of the matter,
shaping the Baloch attitude towards Pakistani politics. For
Baloch to accept the British-conceived two-nation theory
for the Indian Muslims ... would mean losing their Baloch
identity in the process ...
[34] Stephen P. Cohen (2004), The idea of Pakistan, Brook-
ings Institution Press, ISBN 978-0-8157-1502-3, ... and
the two-nation theory became a trap for Sindhis instead
of liberating Sindh, it fell under Punjabi-Mohajir domina-
tion, and until his death in 1995 he called for a separate
Sindhi nation, implying a separate Sindhi country ...
[35] Ahmad Salim (1991), Pashtun and Baloch history: Pun-
jabi view, Fiction House, ... Attacking the 'two nation the-
ory' in Lower House on December 14, 1947, Ghaus Bux
Bizenjo said: We have a distinct culture like Afghanistan
and Iran, and if the mere fact that we are Muslim re-
quires us to amalgamate with Pakistan, then Afghanistan
and Iran should also be amalgamated with Pakistan ...
[36] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 31.
[37] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 32.
[38] Talbot & Singh 2009, pp. 3233.
[39] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 33.
[40] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 34.
[41] Khan 2007, p. 18.
[42] Talbot & Singh 2009, pp. 3435.
[43] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 35.
[44] Stein & Arnold 2010, p. 289: Quote: Gandhi was the
leading genius of the later, and ultimately successful, cam-
paign for Indias independence
[45] Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 209.
[46] Khan 2007, p. 43.
[47] Robb 2002, p. 190
[48] Dr. Malti Malik (2016). History of India. Saraswati
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[49] Judd 2004, pp. 170171
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[59] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 69: Quote: Despite the Mus-
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[60] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 67 Quote: The signs of 'ethnic
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[61] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 68.
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13 Further reading
Textbook histories
Dhulipala, Venkat. 2015. Creating a New Medina:
State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in
Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 1-10-705212-2
Bandyopdhya, ekhara (2004), From Plassey to
partition: a history of modern India, Delhi: Orient
Blackswan, ISBN 978-81-250-2596-2
Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2004), Modern South
Asia: History, Culture, Political economy: second
edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-39715-0
Brown, Judith Margaret (1994), Modern India: the
origins of an Asian democracy, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0-19-873112-2
Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, Its Role and
Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Inde-
pendence to Kargil, 19471999. RoseDog Books.
ISBN 978-0-8059-9594-7.
Chattha, Ilyas Ahmad (2009), Partition and Its
Aftermath: Violence, Migration and the Role of
Refugees in the Socio-Economic Development of Gu-
jranwala and Sialkot Cities, 19471961, University
of Southampton, School of Humanities, Centre for
Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies
Judd, Denis (2004), The lion and the tiger: the rise
and fall of the British Raj, 16001947, Oxford Uni-
versity Press, ISBN 978-0-19-280579-9
Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004),
A history of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-
32920-0
Ludden, David (2002), India and South Asia: a short
history, Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-237-9
Markovits, Claude (2004), A history of modern
India, 14801950, Anthem Press, ISBN 978-1-
84331-152-2
Metcalf, Barbara Daly; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006),
A concise history of modern India, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, ISBN 978-0-521-86362-9
20
Peers, Douglas M. (2006), India under colonial rule:
17001885, Pearson Education, ISBN 978-0-582-
31738-3
Robb, Peter (2002), A History of India, Palgrave
Macmillan (published 2011), ISBN 978-0-230-
34549-2
Spear, Percival (1990) [First published 1965], A
History of India, 2, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-
14-013836-8
Stein, Burton; Arnold, David (2010), A History of
India, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-
9509-6
Wolpert, Stanley (2008), A new history of India, Ox-
ford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-533756-3
Monographs
Dhulipala, Venkat. 2015. Creating a New Medina:
State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in
Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 1-10-705212-2
Ishtiaq Ahmed, Ahmed, Ishtiaq. 2011. The Pun-
jab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed: Unravelling
the 1947 Tragedy through Secret British Reports and
First Person Account. New Delhi: RUPA Publica-
tions. 808 pages. ISBN 978-81-291-1862-2
Ansari, Sarah. 2005. Life after Partition: Migra-
tion, Community and Strife in Sindh: 19471962.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 256 pages.
ISBN 0-19-597834-X.
Butalia, Urvashi. 1998. The Other Side of Silence:
Voices from the Partition of India. Durham, NC:
Duke University Press. 308 pages. ISBN 0-8223-
2494-6
Bhavnani, Nandita. The Making of Exile: Sindhi
Hindus and the Partition of India. Westland, 2014.
Butler, Lawrence J. 2002. Britain and Empire:
Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World. London:
I.B.Tauris. 256 pages. ISBN 1-86064-449-X
Chakrabarty; Bidyut. 2004. The Partition of Bengal
and Assam: Contour of Freedom (RoutledgeCurzon,
2004) online edition
Chatterji, Joya. 2002. Bengal Divided: Hindu Com-
munalism and Partition, 19321947. Cambridge
and New York: Cambridge University Press. 323
pages. ISBN 0-521-52328-1.
Chester, Lucy P. 2009. Borders and Conict in
South Asia: The Radclie Boundary Commission
and the Partition of Punjab. Manchester University
Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-7899-6.
13 FURTHER READING
Daiya, Kavita. 2008. Violent Belongings: Partition,
Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 274 pages.
ISBN 978-1-59213-744-2.
Gilmartin, David. 1988. Empire and Islam: Punjab
and the Making of Pakistan. Berkeley: University of
California Press. 258 pages. ISBN 0-520-06249-3.
Gossman, Partricia. 1999. Riots and Victims: Vi-
olence and the Construction of Communal Identity
Among Bengali Muslims, 19051947. Westview
Press. 224 pages. ISBN 0-8133-3625-2
Gupta, Bal K. 2012 Forgotten Atrocities: Memoirs
of a Survivor of 1947 Partition of India. lulu.com
Hansen, Anders Bjrn. 2004. Partition and Geno-
cide: Manifestation of Violence in Punjab 1937
1947, India Research Press. ISBN 978-81-87943-
25-9.
Harris, Kenneth. Attlee (1982) pp 35587
Hasan, Mushirul (2001), Indias Partition: Process,
Strategy and Mobilization, New Delhi: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, ISBN 0-19-563504-3.
Herman, Arthur. Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Ri-
valry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age
(2009)
Ikram, S. M. 1995. Indian Muslims and Partition of
India. Delhi: Atlantic. ISBN 81-7156-374-0
Jain, Jasbir (2007), Reading Partition, Living Parti-
tion, Rawat, ISBN 81-316-0045-9
Jalal, Ayesha (1993), The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah,
the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-
521-45850-1
Kaur, Ravinder. 2007. Since 1947: Partition Nar-
ratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-568377-6.
Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: The
Making of India and Pakistan, Yale University
Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12078-3
Khosla, G. D. Stern reckoning : a survey of the
events leading up to and following the partition of In-
dia New Delhi: Oxford University Press:358 pages
Published: February 1990 ISBN 0-19-562417-3
Lamb, Alastair (1991), Kashmir: A Disputed
Legacy, 18461990, Roxford Books, ISBN 0-
907129-06-4
Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A
Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Con-
cise Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-68225-8

Moon, Penderel. (1999). The British Conquest and
Dominion of India (2 vol. 1256pp)
Moore, R.J. (1983). Escape from Empire: The Attlee
Government and the Indian Problem, the standard
history of the British position
Nair, Neeti. (2010) Changing Homelands: Hindu
Politics and the Partition of India
Page, David, Anita Inder Singh, Penderel Moon, G.
D. Khosla, and Mushirul Hasan. 2001. The Parti-
tion Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the
Partition of India 1936-1947/Divide and Quit/Stern
Reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
565850-7
Articles
Pal, Anadish Kumar. 2010. World Guide to the
Partition of INDIA. Kindle Edition: Amazon Digital
Services. 282 KB. ASIN B0036OSCAC
Pandey, Gyanendra. 2002. Remembering Partition::
Violence, Nationalism and History in India. Cam-
bridge University Press. 232 pages. ISBN 0-521-
00250-8 online edition
Panigrahi; D.N. 2004. Indias Partition: The
Story of Imperialism in Retreat London: Routledge.
online edition
Raja, Masood Ashraf. Constructing Pakistan:
Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National
Identity, 18571947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-
19-547811-2
Raza, Hashim S. 1989. Mountbatten and the parti-
tion of India. New Delhi: Atlantic. ISBN 81-7156-
059-8
Shaikh, Farzana. 1989. Community and Consensus
in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India,
18601947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0-521-36328-4.
Singh, Jaswant. (2011) Jinnah: India, Partition, In-
dependence
Talbot, Ian. 1996. Freedoms Cry: The Popular
Dimension in the Pakistan Movement and Partition
Experience in North-West India. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577657-7.
Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh (eds). 1999. Re-
gion and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition
of the Subcontinent. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press. 420 pages. ISBN 0-19-579051-0.
Talbot, Ian. 2002. Khizr Tiwana: The Punjab
Unionist Party and the Partition of India. Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press. 216 pages.
ISBN 0-19-579551-2.
21
Talbot, Ian. 2006. Divided Cities: Partition and
Its Aftermath in Lahore and Amritsar. Oxford and
Karachi: Oxford University Press. 350 pages. ISBN
0-19-547226-8.
Wolpert, Stanley. 2006. Shameful Flight: The Last
Years of the British Empire in India. Oxford and
New York: Oxford University Press. 272 pages.
ISBN 0-19-515198-4.
Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition
of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-
521-85661-4
Wolpert, Stanley. 1984. Jinnah of Pakistan
Brass, Paul. 2003. The partition of India and re-
tributive genocide in the Punjab,194647: means,
methods, and purposes Journal of Genocide Re-
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Gilmartin, David. 1998. Partition, Pakistan, and
South Asian History: In Search of a Narrative. The
Journal of Asian Studies, 57(4):10681095.
Gilmartin, David. A Magnicent Gift: Muslim
Nationalism and the Election Process in Colonial
Punjab. Comparative Studies in Society and His-
tory, vol. 40, no. 3, 1998, pp. 415436., www.
jstor.org/stable/179270.
Gupta, Bal K. Death of Mahatma Gandhi and Al-
ibeg Prisoners www.dailyexcelsior.com
Gupta, Bal K. Train from Pakistan www.nripulse.
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Gupta, Bal K. November 25, 1947, Pakisatni Inva-
sion of Mirpur. www.dailyexcelsior.com
Jerey, Robin (1974), The Punjab Boundary Force
and the Problem of Order, August 1947, Modern
Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 8 (4):
491520, JSTOR 311867
Ravinder Kaur (2014). Bodies of Partition: Of
Widows, Residue and Other Historical Waste.
Kaur, Ravinder. 2009. 'Distinctive Citizenship:
Refugees, Subjects and Postcolonial State in Indias
Partition', Cultural and Social History.
Kaur, Ravinder. 2008. 'Narrative Absence: An
'untouchable' account of Indias Partition Migration,
Contributions to Indian Sociology.
Kaur Ravinder. 2007. India and Pakistan: Parti-
tion Lessons. Open Democracy.
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Class in the Partition of India. Economic and Po-
litical Weekly, June 2006. epw.org.in
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HMSO . 197083) comprehensive collection of
British ocial and private documents
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Narendra Singh Sarila, The Shadow of the Great
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Popularizations
14 EXTERNAL LINKS
Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre: Freedom
at Midnight. London: Collins, 1975. ISBN 0-00-
638851-5
Zubrzycki, John. (2006) The Last Nizam: An Indian
Prince in the Australian Outback. Pan Macmillan,
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Bonney, Richard; Hyde, Colin; Martin, John.
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pp 215224
Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam: India Wins Freedom,
Orient Longman, 1988. ISBN 81-250-0514-5
Mountbatten, Pamela. (2009) India Remembered:
A Personal Account of the Mountbattens During the
Transfer of Power
Historical-Fiction
Mohammed, Javed: Walk to Freedom, Rumi Book-
store, 2006. ISBN 978-0-9701261-2-2
14 External links
1947 Partition Archive
Partition of Bengal Encyclopdia Britannica
India Memory Project - 1947 India Pakistan Parti-
tion
The Road to Partition 1939-1947 - The National
Archives
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE BILL, 1947
Select Research Bibliography on the Partition of In-
dia, Compiled by Vinay Lal, Department of History,
UCLA; University of California at Los Angeles
South Asian History: Colonial India University
of California, Berkeley Collection of documents on
colonial India, Independence, and Partition
Indian Nationalism Fordham University archive
of relevant public-domain documents
Clip from 1947 newsreel showing Indian indepen-
dence ceremony
 23

A People Partitioned Five radio programmes broad-

cast on the BBC World Service in 1997 containing
the voices of people across South Asia who lived
through Partition.
24 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text
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Eric Wester, MichaelKirche, Gkalai123, Thinking-ape, RashersTierney, Ronin5214, VQuakr, Parkwells, Shovon76, ChandlerMapBot,
Carf1, Solar-Wind, Puruvara, Alexbot, Relata refero, Itlukaur, Shalimer, Jayantanth, Dmookerj, Rao Ravindra, Santsipahi, RaphaelBriand,
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guyint, Addbot, Altetendekrabbe, Betterusername, OmgItsTheSmartGuy, Fieldday-sunday, Adrian 1001, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluer-
nutter, Np.apte, Masterbobbykwaun, MrOllie, Download, LaaknorBot, Lihaas, Favonian, TOMFAN208, Nizil Shah, Tassedethe, Yoy-
oyoyo1234567, Adrian6335, Krano, Emilio juanatey, Jarble, Spiritualism, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Rajeshbg38, Pragmatist75,
Fraggle81, Culmin, Pk5abi, Balwinderdeep, Dconofrey, AnomieBOT, Wikieditoroftoday, Dsouzamarshall, Jim1138, Pahadiraja, Ma-
terialscientist, LilHelpa, Raj.tota, Xqbot, Saim1402, Capricorn42, Estlandia~enwiki, Jsharpminor, Doorvery far, Umar Zulkar Khan,
Basketballkid 11, Throughmyeyes, Bo98, Mughalnz, A.amitkumar, , Robynthehode, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Renewolf, Mzzzzb,
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Full-date unlinking bot, Elitedrago, FoxBot, Ashok4himself, Trappist the monk, BengaliHindu, Jonkerz, Smartk1987, Ansumang, Di-
annaa, RjwilmsiBot, Auswiger, Ripchip Bot, Superbenjamin, Zujine, EmausBot, Dewritech, Dcirovic, K6ka, Werieth, Kkm010, The
Madras, ZroBot, Vensatry, W1 m2, Mar4d, Xiotil04, AndrewN, Rcsprinter123, JoeSperrazza, Ready, Jcaneen, Mysoomro86, Don-
ner60, Bhurshut, Chewings72, Hetam, Spicemix, Vinodtiwari2608, Marshmir, 28bot, Whoop whoop pull up, ManU0710, ClueBot NG,
Goose friend, -sche, Tinpisa, Frietjes, Circumcised, Widr, Stu181, Lawsonstu, Bharat ki maa ko lun, Helpful Pixie Bot, JWULTRABLIZ-
ZARD, Astute neophyte, Adnandastagir, HMSSolent, Titodutta, Wbm1058, DBigXray, BG19bot, Ficusindica, Khanjahmad, ISTB351,
Billumian47, Darkness Shines, JogiAsad, Dreampiece55, Mark Arsten, Gyrobest845, Atomician, Jabrankhaleel, Dainomite, Citation-
CleanerBot, Max8548, Fez78, Arisebharat, Aliyah.jmohammed, Vuovuo, MathewTownsend, RGloucester, Eliaskurian, Netfunk, Bat-
tyBot, Tyler Durden, Cimorcus, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, S shashank s, Esszet, Stumink, JYBot, Sam.ldite, Dexbot, Datalogger12,
Hmainsbot1, Pearz25, Rani P23, Thermocycler, JeanEva Rose, SFK2, Jamesx12345, Reachmanasvi, Limit-theorem, Salem990, Gatley10,
Mervzi, Samee, 23-v,340vpe4wtme4p;t,e0, Faizan, Subodh6417, BreakfastJr, EvergreenFir, Sushdivekar, Lipwe, Roxtar21, Haminoon,
Wikiuser13, Monochrome Monitor, Nikhilmn2002, Finnusertop, Ibrahim Husain Meraj, Notthebestusername, Crme3.14159, Rajku-
mararslan, CopSuscept, ShamsherAhmad, Maan Tujay Salam, Aqliyat, Bookishness, Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi, JaconaFrere, Rmeter,
Raisinpie, Taraa Hansen, Tg384, Ct205, Japanese Rail Fan, Pt205, St170e, Potatomonster1000, Ajaythomas0007, BethNaught, Ceosad,
Biblioworm, Rmm553, Adni, Kautilya3, Farwa 474009, Vreswiki, Toni Mller, Arm1999, Human3015, TehTrolls, Kchatfb, Zeezee110,
Southasianist55, Capankajsmilyo, 786wiki, Janet Quadrant, Ansarimdaamir075, Srednuas Lenoroc, Jeanmarie100, CAPTAIN RAJU,
Kalbbes, Yogee23, MBlaze Lightning, Filpro, Ark200, Porncaptcha, DatGuy, LpAkib, Hot Pork Pie, Towns Hill, QianCheng, The Un-
known Historian, G M Raja, Nick gc8, GreenC bot, Jonwchgo, S-2500481, Manojmanu0009, ystein.Eide, Youre mom, Bigyan Ranab-
15.2 Images 25

hat, Ayunami2000, 2iop, TheSandDoctor, Sicilianbro2, Dipeshkarki, Createart47, Astoken, Pinkshrimp, Akki208, Jharrisonkirkham and
Anonymous: 732

15.2 Images
File:1931_Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/1931_Flag_of_India.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-hist.html Original artist: Nicholas (Nichalp)
File:A_refugee_special_train_at_Ambala_Station_during_partition_of_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/cb/A_refugee_special_train_at_Ambala_Station_during_partition_of_India.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://
photodivision.gov.in/writereaddata/webimages/thumbnails/37164.jpg Original artist: Photo Division, Government of India
File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned from
personal copy and annotated by me (<a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'
title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 04:16, 19 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George Bartholomew
File:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Oxford University Press, 1909.
Scanned and reduced from personal copy by <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'
title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 18:10, 5 August 2007 (UTC) Original artist: Edinburgh Geographi-
cal Institute; J. G. Bartholomew and Sons.
File:Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Cabinet_mission_to_
india1946.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded by <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler'
class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 17:09, 17 March 2011 (UTC) from
British library collection on Indian independence Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Innotata using CommonsHelper.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>, British government photograph
File:Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sfan00_IMG using CommonsHelper. source: Story
of Pakistan Original artist: ?
File:Coat_of_arms_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/State_emblem_of_Pakistan.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Origi-
nal artist: No machine-readable author provided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Gandhi_
Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mkgandhi.org/gphotgallery/1933-1948/pages/
j92.htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif
License: Public domain Contributors: Via [1] Original artist: ?
File:Hindu_percent_1909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Hindu_percent_1909.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: From the Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned from
personal copy and annotated by me (<a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'
title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 20:51, 22 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George Bartholomew
File:Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from this web site by <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler'
class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 14:16, 19 September 2007 (UTC)
Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
26 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Iqbal_Allahabad.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Iqbal_Allahabad.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3a/Jinnah_lucknow_
pact1916.jpg License: ? Contributors: by me (<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' title='User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' title='User
talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 20:18, 18 September 2007 (UTC)) from this web site Original artist: ?
File:Manchester_guardian_purana-qila1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5a/Manchester_guardian_
purana-qila1947.jpg License: ? Contributors:
Scanned - Original : Manchester Guardian, 27 September 1947,
Original artist: ?
File:Mountbatten_4_august_1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/95/Mountbatten_4_august_1947.jpg Li-
cense: Fair use Contributors:
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/web/ddd/gallery/life/469.html Original artist:
David Douglas Duncan
File:Muslim_League_leaders_after_a_dinner_party,_1940_(Photo_429-6).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/89/Muslim_League_leaders_after_a_dinner_party%2C_1940_%28Photo_429-6%29.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors:
Catalogue entry: Photo 429/(6)
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: ?
File:Muslim_percent_1909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Muslim_percent_1909.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: From the Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned from
personal copy and annotated by me (<a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'
title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 20:47, 22 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George Bartholomew
File:Nehru_bajaj_sarojini_khan_azad1940a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Nehru_bajaj_
sarojini_khan_azad1940a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from this web site by <a href='https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='w:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https:
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='w:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a>
22:48, 19 September 2007 (UTC) Original artist: ?
File:Old-muslim-couple1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d8/Old-muslim-couple1947.jpg License: Fair
use Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Old-sikh-man-carrying-wife1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bb/
Old-sikh-man-carrying-wife1947.jpg License: ? Contributors:
Downloaded from BBC Web Site by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' title='User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' title='User
talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 13:06, 19 April 2007 (UTC). Original artist: ?
File:Oxcart-train1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Oxcart-train1947.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:P_history.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/P_history.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: User:Kontos
File:Punjabdoabs1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Punjabdoabs1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Fowler&fowler
File:Refugeetrain1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1900_1999/partition/trains/trains.html
Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Send-off-delhi1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a6/Send-off-delhi1947.jpg License: ? Contributors:
Downloaded from the BBC Web Site by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' title='User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' title='User
talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 13:19, 19 April 2007 (UTC) Original artist: ?
File:Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Sikhs_buddhists_jains_
percent1909.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from personal copy and annotated by me (<a href='https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 20:52,
22 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George Bartholomew
File:Two-men-carrying-woman1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/df/Two-men-carrying-woman1947.jpg
License: ? Contributors:
Downloaded from BBC Web Site by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' title='User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' title='User
talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 13:55, 24 April 2007 (UTC) Original artist:
Margaret Bourke-White.
15.3 Content license 27

15.3 Content license

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