Longevity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Comparison of male and female life expectancy at birth for countries and territo
ries as defined in the 2011 CIA Factbook, with selected bubbles labelled. The gr
een dotted line corresponds to equal female and male life expectancy. The appare
nt 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their population.[1][2
] (In the SVG file, hover over a bubble to highlight it and show its data.)
The word "longevity" is sometimes used as a synonym for "life expectancy" in dem
ography - however, the term "longevity" is sometimes meant to refer only to espe
cially long-lived members of a population, whereas "life expectancy" is always d
efined statistically as the average number of years remaining at a given age. Fo
r example, a population's life expectancy at birth is the same as the average ag
e at death for all people born in the same year (in the case of cohorts). Longev
ity is best thought of as a term for general audiences meaning 'typical length o
f life' and specific statistical definitions should be clarified when necessary.
Reflections on longevity have usually gone beyond acknowledging the brevity of h
uman life and have included thinking about methods to extend life. Longevity has
been a topic not only for the scientific community but also for writers of trav
el, science fiction, and utopian novels.
There are many difficulties in authenticating the longest human life span ever b
y modern verification standards, owing to inaccurate or incomplete birth statist
ics. Fiction, legend, and folklore have proposed or claimed life spans in the pa
st or future vastly longer than those verified by modern standards, and longevit
y narratives and unverified longevity claims frequently speak of their existence
in the present.
A life annuity is a form of longevity insurance.
Contents [hide]
1 Life expectancy, as of 2010
2 Long-lived individuals
3 Major factors
3.1 Genetics
3.2 Environmental factors
4 Change over time
5 Limited longevity
6 Longevity traditions
7 Future
8 Non-human biological longevity
9 Biological immortality
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Life expectancy, as of 2010[edit]
Main article: List of countries by life expectancy
Various factors contribute to an individual's longevity. Significant factors in
life expectancy include gender, genetics, access to health care, hygiene, diet a
nd nutrition, exercise, lifestyle, and crime rates. Below is a list of life expe
ctancies in different types of countries:[3]
Developed countries: 77 90 years (e.g. Canada: 81.29 years, 2010 est.)
Developing countries: 32 80 years (e.g. Mozambique: 41.37 years, 2010 est.)
Population longevities are increasing as life expectancies around the world grow
:[1][4]
Spain: 79.06 years in 2002, 81.07 years in 2010
Australia: 80 years in 2002, 81.72 years in 2010
Italy: 79.25 years in 2002, 80.33 years in 2010
France: 79.05 years in 2002, 81.09 years in 2010
Germany: 77.78 years in 2002, 79.41 years in 2010
UK: 80 years in 2002, 81.73 years in 2010
USA: 77.4 years in 2002, 78.24 years in 2010
Monaco: 79.12 years in 2002, 79.73 years in 2011
Long-lived individuals[edit]
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The Gerontology Research Group validates current longevity records by modern sta
ndards, and maintains a list of supercentenarians; many other unvalidated longev
ity claims exist. Record-holding individuals include:[citation needed]
Eilif Philipsen (1682-1785, 102 years, 333 days): first person to reach the ages
of 100, 101, and 102 (on July 21, 1782) and whose age could be validated.
Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (1788 1899, 110 years, 135 days): first person to reach t
he age of 110 (on September 21, 1898) and whose age could be validated
Margaret Ann Neve, (18 May 1792 - 4 April 1903, 110 years, 346 days) the first v
alidated female supercentenarian (on 18 May 1902)
Jeanne Calment (1875 1997, 122 years, 164 days): the oldest person in history whos
e age has been verified by modern documentation. This defines the modern human l
ife span, which is set by the oldest documented individual who ever lived.
Sarah Knauss (1880 1999, 119 years, 97 days): the second oldest documented person
in modern times and the oldest American.
Jiroemon Kimura (1897 2013, 116 years, 54 days): the oldest man in history whose a
ge has been verified by modern documentation.
Major factors[edit]
Old man at a nursing home in Norway.
Evidence-based studies indicate that longevity is based on two major factors, ge
netics and lifestyle choices.[5]
Genetics[edit]
Twin studies have estimated that approximately 20-30% the variation in human lif
espan can be related to genetics, with the rest due to individual behaviors and
environmental factors which can be modified.[6] Although over 200 gene variants
have been associated with longevity according to a US-Belgian-UK research databa
se of human genetic variants,[7] these explain only a small fraction of the heri
tability.[8] A 2012 study found that even modest amounts of leisure time physica
l exercise can extend life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years.[9]
Lymphoblastoid cell lines established from blood samples of centenarians have si
gnificantly higher activity of the DNA repair protein PARP (Poly ADP ribose poly
merase) than cell lines from younger (20 to 70 year old) individuals.[10] The ly
mphocytic cells of centenarians have characteristics typical of cells from young
people, both in their capability of priming the mechanism of repair after H2O2
sublethal oxidative DNA damage and in their PARP gene expression.[11] These find
ings suggest that elevated PARP gene expression contributes to the longevity of
centenarians, consistent with the DNA damage theory of aging.[12]
Environmental factors[edit]
A study of the regions of the world known as blue zones, where people commonly l
ive active lives past 100 years of age, speculated that longevity is related to
a healthy social and family life, not smoking, eating a plant-based diet, freque
nt consumption of legumes and nuts, and engaging in regular physical activity.[1
3] In a cohort study, the combination of a plant based diet, normal BMI, and not
 smoking accounted for differences up to 15 years in life expectancy.[14] Korean
court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs
was 70.0 1.76 years, which was 14.4 19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-cas
trated men of similar socio-economic status.[15] The Alameda County Study hypoth
esized three additional lifestyle characteristics that promote longevity: limiti
ng alcohol consumption, sleeping 7 to 8 hours per night, and not snacking (eatin
g between meals), although the study found the association between these charact
eristics and mortality is "weak at best".[16] There are however many other possi
ble factors potentially affecting longevity, including the impact of high peer c
ompetition, which is typically experienced in large cities.[17]
Change over time[edit]
In preindustrial times, deaths at young and middle age were more common than the
y are today. This is not due to genetics, but because of environmental factors s
uch as disease, accidents, and malnutrition, especially since the former were no
t generally treatable with pre-20th century medicine. Deaths from childbirth wer
e common for women, and many children did not live past infancy. In addition, mo
st people who did attain old age were likely to die quickly from the above-menti
oned untreatable health problems. Despite this, we do find many examples of pre-
20th century individuals attaining lifespans of 72 years or greater, including B
enjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Cato the Elder, Thomas Hobbes, E
ric of Pomerania, Christopher Polhem, and Michelangelo. This was also true for p
oorer people like peasants or laborers. Genealogists will almost certainly find
ancestors living to their 70s, 80s and even 90s several hundred years ago.
For example, an 1871 census in the UK (the first of its kind, but personal data
from other censuses dates back to 1841 and numerical data back to 1801) found th
e average male life expectancy as being 44, but if infant mortality is subtracte
d, males who lived to adulthood averaged 75 years. The present life expectancy i
n the UK is 77 years for males and 81 for females, while the United States avera
ges 74 for males and 80 for females.
Studies have shown that black American males have the shortest lifespans of any
group of people in the US, averaging only 69 years (Asian-American females avera
ge the longest).[18] This reflects overall poorer health and greater prevalence
of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and cancer among black American men.
Women normally outlive men, and this was as true in pre-industrial times as toda
y. Theories for this include smaller bodies (and thus less stress on the heart),
a stronger immune system (since testosterone acts as an immunosuppressant), and
less tendency to engage in physically dangerous activities.
There is debate as to whether the pursuit of longevity is a worthwhile health ca
re goal. Bioethicist Ezekiel Emanuel, who is also one of the architects of Obama
Care, has argued that the pursuit of longevity via the compression of morbidity
explanation is a "fantasy" and that longevity past age 75 should not be consider
ed an end in itself.[19] This has been challenged by neurosurgeon Miguel Faria,
who states that life can be worthwhile in healthy old age, that the compression
of morbidity is a real phenomenon, and that longevity should be pursued in assoc
iation with quality of life.[20] Faria has discussed how longevity in associatio
n with leading healthy lifestyles can lead to the postponement of senescence as
well as happiness and wisdom in old age.[21]
Limited longevity[edit]
All of the biological organisms have a limited longevity, and different species
of animals and plants have different potentials of longevity. Misrepair-accumula
tion aging theory [22][23] suggests that the potential of longevity of an organi
sm is related to its structural complexity.[24] Limited longevity is due to the
limited structural complexity of the organism. If a species of organisms has too
high structural complexity, most of its individuals would die before the reprod
uction age, and the species could not survive. This theory suggests that limited
structural complexity and limited longevity are essential for the survival of a
species.
Longevity traditions[edit]
Main articles: Longevity traditions and Longevity claims
Longevity traditions are traditions about long-lived people (generally supercent
enarians), and practices that have been believed to confer longevity.[25][26] A
comparison and contrast of "longevity in antiquity" (such as the Sumerian King L
ist, the genealogies of Genesis, and the Persian Shahnameh) with "longevity in h
istorical times" (common-era cases through twentieth-century news reports) is el
aborated in detail in Lucian Boia's 2004 book Forever Young: A Cultural History
of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present and other sources.[27]
The Fountain of Youth reputedly restores the youth of anyone who drinks of its w
aters. The New Testament, following older Jewish tradition, attributes healing t
o the Pool of Bethesda when the waters are "stirred" by an angel.[28] After the
death of Juan Ponce de Len, Gonzalo Fernndez de Oviedo y Valds wrote in Historia Ge
neral y Natural de las Indias (1535) that Ponce de Len was looking for the waters
of Bimini to cure his aging.[29] Traditions that have been believed to confer g
reater human longevity also include alchemy,[30] such as that attributed to Nico
las Flamel. In the modern era, the Okinawa diet has some reputation of linkage t
o exceptionally high ages.[31]
More recent longevity claims are subcategorized by many editions of Guinness Wor
ld Records into four groups: "In late life, very old people often tend to advanc
e their ages at the rate of about 17 years per decade .... Several celebrated su
per-centenarians (over 110 years) are believed to have been double lives (father
and son, relations with the same names or successive bearers of a title) .... A
number of instances have been commercially sponsored, while a fourth category o
f recent claims are those made for political ends ...."[32] The estimate of 17 y
ears per decade was corroborated by the 1901 and 1911 British censuses.[32] Maze
ss and Forman also discovered in 1978 that inhabitants of Vilcabamba, Ecuador, c
laimed excessive longevity by using their fathers' and grandfathers' baptismal e
ntries.[32][33] Time magazine considered that, by the Soviet Union, longevity ha
d been elevated to a state-supported "Methuselah cult".[34] Robert Ripley regula
rly reported supercentenarian claims in Ripley's Believe It or Not!, usually cit
ing his own reputation as a fact-checker to claim reliability.[35]
Future[edit]
The U.S. Census Bureau view on the future of longevity is that life expectancy i
n the United States will be in the mid-80s by 2050 (up from 77.85 in 2006) and w
ill top out eventually in the low 90s, barring major scientific advances that ca
n change the rate of human aging itself, as opposed to merely treating the effec
ts of aging as is done today. The Census Bureau also predicted that the United S
tates would have 5.3 million people aged over 100 in 2100. The United Nations ha
s also made projections far out into the future, up to 2300, at which point it p
rojects that life expectancies in most developed countries will be between 100 a
nd 106 years and still rising, though more and more slowly than before. These pr
ojections also suggest that life expectancies in poor countries will still be le
ss than those in rich countries in 2300, in some cases by as much as 20 years. T
he UN itself mentioned that gaps in life expectancy so far in the future may wel
l not exist, especially since the exchange of technology between rich and poor c
ountries and the industrialization and development of poor countries may cause t
heir life expectancies to converge fully with those of rich countries long befor
e that point, similarly to the way life expectancies between rich and poor count
ries have already been converging over the last 60 years as better medicine, tec
hnology, and living conditions became accessible to many people in poor countrie
s. The UN has warned that these projections are uncertain, and cautions that any
change or advancement in medical technology could invalidate such projections.[
36]
Recent increases in the rates of lifestyle diseases, such as obesity, diabetes,
hypertension, and heart disease, may eventually slow or reverse this trend towar
d increasing life expectancy in the developed world, but have not yet done so. T
he average age of the US population is getting higher[37] and these diseases sho
w up in older people.[38]
Jennifer Couzin-Frankel examined how much mortality from various causes would ha
ve to drop in order to boost life expectancy and concluded that most of the past
increases in life expectancy occurred because of improved survival rates for yo
ung people. She states that it seems unlikely that life expectancy at birth will
ever exceed 85 years.[39] Michio Kaku argues that genetic engineering, nanotech
nology and future breakthroughs will accelerate the rate of life expectancy incr
ease indefinitely.[40] Already genetic engineering has allowed the life expectan
cy of certain primates to be doubled, and for human skin cells in labs to divide
and live indefinitely without becoming cancerous.[41]
However, since 1840, record life expectancy has risen linearly for men and women
, albeit more slowly for men. For women the increase has been almost three month
s per year, for men almost 2.7 months per year. In light of steady increase, wit
hout any sign of limitation, the suggestion that life expectancy will top out mu
st be treated with caution. Scientists Oeppen and Vaupel observe that experts wh
o assert that "life expectancy is approaching a ceiling ... have repeatedly been
proven wrong." It is thought that life expectancy for women has increased more
dramatically owing to the considerable advances in medicine related to childbirt
h.[42]
Non-human biological longevity[edit]
Main article: List of long-living organisms
Currently living:
Methuselah: 4,800-year-old bristlecone pine in the White Mountains of California
, the oldest currently living organism known.
Non-living:
Possibly 250-million year-old bacteria, Bacillus permians, were revived from sta
sis after being found in sodium chloride crystals in a cavern in New Mexico. Rus
sell Vreeland, and colleagues from West Chester University in Pennsylvania, repo
rted on October 18, 2000 that they had revived the halobacteria after bathing th
em with a nutrient solution. If they had survived for 250 million years, they wo
uld be the oldest living organisms ever recorded.[43] However, their findings da
te the crystal surrounding the bacteria, and DNA analysis suggests the bacteria
themselves are likely to be less ancient.[44]
A bristlecone pine nicknamed "Prometheus", felled by a climate dynamics research
er in the Great Basin National Park in Nevada in 1964, found to be about 4,900 y
ears old, is the longest-lived single organism known.[45]
The quahog clam (Arctica islandica) is exceptionally long-lived, with a maximum
recorded age of 507 years, the longest of any animal.[46] Other clams of the spe
cies have been recorded as living up to 374 years.[47]
Lamellibrachia luymesi, a deep-sea cold-seep tubeworm, is estimated to reach age
s of over 250 years based on a model of its growth rates.[48]
Hanako was the longest-lived vertebrate ever recorded at 226 years.
A bowhead whale killed in a hunt was found to be approximately 211 years old (po
ssibly up to 245 years old), the longest-lived mammal known.[49]
Tu'i Malila, a radiated tortoise presented to the Tongan royal family by Captain
Cook, lived for over 185 years. It is the oldest documented reptile. Adwaitya,
an Aldabra Giant Tortoise, may have lived for up to 250 years.
Biological immortality[edit]
Main article: Biological immortality
Certain exotic organisms do not seem to be subject to aging and can live indefin
itely. Examples include Tardigrades and Hydras. That is not to say that these or
ganisms cannot die, merely that they only die as a result of disease or injury r
ather than age-related deterioration (and that they are not subject to the Hayfl
ick limit).
See also[edit]
Actuarial science
Aging
Aging brain
Alliance for Aging Research
Anti-aging movement
Biodemography
Biodemography of human longevity
Calico (company)
Centenarian
DNA damage theory of aging
Genetics of aging
Gerontology Research Group
Hayflick limit
Indefinite lifespan
Life extension
List of aging processes
List of last survivors of historical events
Longevity claims
Maximum life span
Mitohormesis
Oldest viable seed
Reliability theory of aging and longevity
Research into centenarians
Senescence
Notes[edit]
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James R. Carey & Debra S. Judge (2000) Longevity records: Life Spans of Mammals,
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James R. Carey (2003) Longevity. The biology and Demography of Life Span. Prince
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Gavrilov LA, Gavrilova NS. (2006) Reliability Theory of Aging and Longevity. In:
Masoro E.J. & Austad S.N.. (eds.): Handbook of the Biology of Aging, Sixth Edit
ion. Academic Press. San Diego, CA, p 3-42.
Gavrilova, N.S., Gavrilov, L.A. (2005) Human longevity and reproduction: An evol
utionary perspective. In: Voland, E., Chasiotis, A. & Schiefenhoevel, W. (eds.):
Grandmotherhood - The Evolutionary Significance of the Second Half of Female Li
fe. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ, p 59-80.
Leonid A. Gavrilov, Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), The Biology of Life Span: A Qua
ntitative Approach. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher
John Robbins (2007) Healthy at 100 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345490118 garners evi
dence from many scientific sources to account for the extraordinary longevity of
Abkhasians in the Caucasus, Vilcambansns in the Andes, Burusho people in Hunza,
Pakistan, and Okinawans.
Roy Walford (2000), Beyond The 120-Year Diet. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows
. ISBN 1-56858-157-2
External links[edit]
American Federation for Aging Research
The Okinawa Centenarian Study
List of Longevity Genes
Global Agewatch's country report cards have the most up-to-date, internationally
comparable statistics on population ageing and life expectancy from 195 countri
es.
Buettner, Dan (May 2015). Want Great Longevity and Health? It Takes a Village. "
The secrets of the world s longest-lived people include community, family, exercis
e and plenty of beans." The Wall Street Journal
[hide] v t e
Longevity
Terminology
Ageless Centenarian Super Cognitive epidemiology Maximum life span Life extensio
n Life expectancy Immortality Biological immortality Digital immortality Eternal
youth
Issues
Anti-aging movement Longevity claims Longevity myths
Notable centenarians
(over age 100)
Living Activists, non-profit leaders, and philanthropists Actors, filmmakers, an
d entertainers Artists Authors, poets, and journalists Businesspeople Educators,
school administrators, social scientists, and linguists Explorers Jurists and p
ractitioners of law Medical professionals Military commanders Musicians, compose
rs, and music patrons Philosophers and theologians Politicians and civil servant
s Religious figures Royalty and nobility Scientists and mathematicians Sportspeo
ple Miscellaneous
Supercentenarians
(over age 110)
By continent
Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America
By country
Australia Belgium Canada Denmark Finland France Germany Ireland Italy Japan Neth
erlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden United Kingdom United States
Oldest people List of oldest living people List of the verified oldest people me
n women
Miscellaneous
Last surviving veterans of military insurgencies and wars European American Cana
dian Last surviving World War I veterans by country Surviving veterans of the Sp
anish Civil War List of surviving veterans of World War II Last survivors of his
toric events Oldest twins Longest marriages List of longest-reigning monarchs
See also Ageing Biodemography of human longevity Earliest known life forms FOXO3
longevity gene Gerontology Immortality in fiction Life extension-related topics
Senescence
Categories: AgeingGerontologyPopulationSenescenceLongevity
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