AMI, UNIT4: BODY ELECTRONICS MODULE Prof.D.

NARAYANA REDDY

UNIT4: BODY ELECTRONIC MODULE

BODY CONTROL MODULE

In automotive electronics, body control module is a generic term for an electronic control
unit responsible for monitoring and controlling various electronic accessories in a vehicle's body.
Typically in a car the BCM controls the power windows, power mirrors, air conditioning,
immobilizer system, central locking, etc. The BCM communicates with other on-board
computers via the car's vehicle bus, and its main application is controlling load drivers
actuating relays that in turn perform actions in the vehicle such as locking the doors or dimming
the salon overhead lamp.

Power window
Power windows or electric windows are automobile windows which can be raised and lowered
by depressing a button or switch, as opposed to using a hand-turned crank handle.
Operation
Power windows are usually inoperable when the car is not running. This is primarily a security
feature. It would be a simple thing to allow electric power windows to be operable when the
ignition is turned off, however it would also make the car much easier to steal. As a compromise,
some systems offer the compromise of leaving power applied to the windows until a passenger
door is opened at which time the window power is removed.
Hydraulic drive systems could lower the windows at rest, since pressure from the hydraulic
system was merely released to lower the window. Raising the windows required an electrically

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operated pump to operate and introduce pressure at the appropriate cylinder. These systems also
required pressure lines to each cylinder (in the doors, as well as on certain cars, to the power seat
and a power operated convertible top). Because of the complexity, the system could also leak
fluid.
Many modern cars have a time delay feature, first introduced by Cadillac in the 1980s,called
"retained accessory power". This allows operation of the windows and some other accessories
for ten minutes or so after the engine is stopped. Another feature is the "express-down" window,
which allows the window to be fully lowered with one tap on the switch, as opposed to holding
the switch down until the window retracts. Many luxury vehicles during the 1990s expanded on
this feature, to include "express-up" on the driver's window, and recently, some manufacturers
have added the feature on all window switches for all passengers' convenience. This is done by
activating the switch until a "click" response is felt.
Power windows have become so common that by 2008, some automakers eliminated hand crank
windows from all their models. So many vehicles now have power windows that some people no
longer understand the (formerly) common sign from another driver of using their hand to
simulate moving a window crank to indicate that they wish to speak with someone when stopped
at a light or in a parking lot. The 2008 Audi RS4 sold in Europe, however, still has roll-up
windows for the rear doors although its counterpart sold in the U.S. has power windows for all
doors.
Safety
Power windows have come under some scrutiny after several fatal accidents in which children's
necks have become trapped, leading to suffocation. Some designs place the switch in a location
on a hand rest where it can be accidentally triggered by a child climbing to place his or her head
out of the window. To prevent this, many vehicles feature a driver-controlled lockout switch,
preventing rear-seat passengers (usually smaller children) from accidentally triggering the
switches. This also prevents children from using them as toys and pets riding with their heads out
windows from activating the power window switch.
Starting with the 2008 model year, U.S. government regulations required automakers to install
power window controls that are less likely to be accidentally activated by children. However, the
rules do not prevent all potential injuries to a hand, finger, or even a child's head, if someone
deliberately holds the switch when the window is closing. In 2009, the U.S. auto safety
administration tentatively decided against requiring all cars to have automatic reversing power
windows if they sense an obstruction while closing. Proposed requirements concern "one-touch"
up window systems, but most vehicles with this feature already have automatic-reversing. The
federal government made a written contract that all automakers should make the lever switches
(as opposed to the rocker and toggle switches) standard on all new vehicles by 1 October 2010.

Power side-view mirror

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A power side-view mirror (power side mirror, power wing mirror, or simply power mirror)
is a side-view mirror equipped with electrical means for vertical and horizontal adjustment from
the inside of the automobile.
The glass of a power mirror may also be electrically heated to keep it from fogging or icing.
Increasingly, power side mirrors incorporate the vehicle's turn signal repeaters. There is evidence
to suggest mirror-mounted repeaters may be more effective than repeaters mounted in the
previously predominant fender side location.
Operation
Usually, a single control is used to control both left and right side mirrors. A mirror is selected
by a switch or a knob. The mirror selector usually has a neutral position with none mirrors
selected, to prevent accidental changes of the view. The position of the selected mirror is
adjusted by a joystick, a four-way knob, or other type of position control. In luxury designs,
power mirror settings may be memorized together with settings of power seats.

Power door locks

How power lock system works (simple relay operation)
Power door locks (also known as electric door locks or central locking) allow the driver
or front passenger to simultaneously lock or unlock all the doors of an automobile or truck, by
pressing a button or flipping a switch.
Power door locks were introduced on the luxury Scripps-Booth in 1914, but were not
common on luxury cars until Packard reintroduced them in 1956. Nearly every car model today
offers this feature as at least optional equipment.

Early systems locked and unlocked only the car doors. Many cars today also feature systems
which can unlock such things as the luggage compartment or fuel filler cap door. It is also
common on modern cars for the locks to activate automatically when the car is put into gear or
reaches a certain speed.

In 1980, Ford Motor Company introduced an external keypad-type keyless entry system, wherein
the driver entered a numeric combination either pre-programmed at the factory or one
programmed by the owner to unlock the car without the key. Early- to mid-1980s Nissan
Maximas could also be installed with a keypad, which would also retract the windows and moon
roof once the car was successfully unlocked by pushing a specific button on the keypad. During
the 1990s the Subaru Legacy could also be opened by pulling the drivers external door handle a
specific number of times to enter a pass code number that would unlock the driver's door only.
Today, many cars with power door locks also have a radio frequency remote keyless system,
which allows a person to press a button on a remote control key fob, the first being available on
the French made Renault Fuego in 1982.[1] Currently, many luxury makers also allow the
windows to be opened or closed by pressing and holding a button on the remote control key fob,
or by inserting the ignition key and holding it in the lock or unlock position in the external
driver's door lock.

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The remote locking system confirms successful locking and unlocking through either a light or a
horn signal, and usually offers an option to switch easily between these two variants. Both
provide almost the same functionality, though light signals are more discreet while horn signals
might create a nuisance in residential neighborhoods and other busy parking areas (e.g. short-
term parking lots). Some manufacturers offer the ability to adjust the horn signal volume.
Other cars have a proximity system that is triggered if a keylike transducer (Advanced Key or
handsfree) is within a certain distance of the car.

Air conditioning
Air conditioning (often referred to as A/C or AC) is the process of altering the properties of air
(primarily temperature and humidity) to more comfortable conditions, typically with the aim of
distributing the conditioned air to an occupied space such as a building or a vehicle to improve
thermal comfort and indoor air quality. In common use, an air conditioner is a device that
lowers the air temperature. The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but
sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be made based
on desiccants.
In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the
condition of air (heating, cooling, (de-)humidification, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement).
However, in construction, such a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is
referred to as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC -as opposed to AC).

REMOTE KEYLESS ENTRY

A keyless entry system is an electronic lock that controls access to a building or vehicle
without using a traditional mechanical key. The term keyless entry system originally meant a
lock controlled by a keypad located at or near the driver's door, that required pressing a
predetermined (or self-programmed) numeric code for entry. These systems, having evolved into
a hidden touch-activated keypad, are still available on certain Ford or Lincoln models.
The term remote keyless system (RKS), also called keyless entry or remote central locking,
refers to a lock that uses an electronic remote control as a key which is activated by a handheld
device or automatically by proximity.
Widely used in automobiles, an RKS performs the functions of a standard car key without
physical contact. When within a few yards of the car, pressing a button on the remote can lock or
unlock the doors, and may perform other functions. A remote keyless system can include both a
remote keyless entry system (RKE), which unlocks the doors, and a remote keyless ignition
system (RKI), which starts the engine.

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Function:

Keyless remotes contain a short-range radio transmitter, and must be within a certain
range, usually 520 meters, of the car to work. When a button is pushed, it sends a coded signal
by radio waves to a receiver unit in the car, which locks or unlocks the door. Most RKEs operate
at a frequency of 315 MHz for North America-made cars and at 433.92 MHz for European,
Japanese and Asian cars. Modern systems since the mid-1990s implement encryption as well as
rotating entry codes to prevent car thieves from intercepting and spoofing the signal. Earlier
systems used infrared instead of radio signals to unlock the vehicle, such as systems found on
Mercedes-Benz, BMW and other manufacturers.
The system signals that it has either locked or unlocked the car usually through some
fairly discreet combination of flashing vehicle lamps, a distinctive sound other than the horn, or
some usage of the horn itself. A typical setup on cars is to have the horn or other sound chirp
twice to signify that the car has been unlocked, and chirp once to indicate the car has been
locked. For example, Toyota, Scion, and Lexus use a chirp system to signify the car being
locked/unlocked. While two beeps means that driver's door is unlocked, four beeps means all
doors are unlocked. One long beep is for the trunk or power tailgate. One short beep signifies
that the car is locked and alarm is set.
The functions of a remote keyless entry system are contained on a key fob or built into
the ignition key handle itself. Buttons are dedicated to locking or unlocking the doors and
opening the trunk or tailgate. On some minivans, the power sliding doors can be opened/closed
remotely. Some cars will also close any open windows and roof when remotely locking the car.
Some remote keyless fobs also feature a red panic button which activates the car alarm as a
standard feature. Further adding to the convenience, some cars' engines with remote keyless
ignition systems can be started by the push of a button on the key fob (useful in cold weather),
and convertible tops can be raised and lowered from outside the vehicle while it's parked.

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On cars where the trunk release is electronically operated, it can be triggered to open by a button
on the remote. Conventionally, the trunk springs open with the help of hydraulic struts or torsion
springs, and thereafter must be lowered manually. Premium models, such as SUVs and estates
with tailgates, may have a motorized assist that can both open and close the tailgate for easy
access and remote operation.
For offices, or residences, the system can also be coupled with the security system, garage door
opener or remotely activated lighting devices.
IMMOBILIZER
How does a Mastergard M6000 Immobilizer protect my vehicle?

FIGURE: Diagram of how the Mastergard M6000 Immobilizer works

A Mastergard M6000 Immobilizer is an electronic device that arms automatically when

the vehicle is switched off and stops any unauthorized starting of the vehicle. Mastergard's
M6000 Immobilizer stops thieves because the brain (labeled above) disengages multiple
engine operation circuits or vital engine control units (e.g. Starter, Ignition and Fuel Supply, see
above), so that it cannot be started without a transponder key fob (labeled above), thereby
preventing the vehicle from being started, let alone driven away.
The M6000 is especially challenging to would be thieves due to the use of encrypted
digital RF codes (similar technology that banks use). Each M6000 is randomly assigned a unique
disarming code (one of billions of code variants) and only the presence of the corresponding
transponder key tag will enable your vehicle to start. The specially coded black transponder tag
must be with the vehicle ignition key at all times to operate the vehicle in a normal manner.
The M6000 is fully automatic, so it is easy-to-use. You enter and exit your vehicle as
usual and the M6000 automatically activates within 35 seconds of removing of your ignition key.

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In all the years that the Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC) has been tracking such thefts,
no vehicle in Canada with an immobilizer meeting the national standard has been stolen due to
the defeat of an immobilizer.

General Specifications for the M6000

General Specifications

The Mastergard M6000 is an electronic vehicle immobilization device consisting of an

electronic control unit, several wires with removable identifying tags, one red master transducer
tag, one black user transducer tag, an antenna wire and a red Light Emitting Diode.
Components
The immobilizer brain is an electronic unit that interrupts vehicle control circuits, thus
immobilizing the vehicle.
The transponder tags are used by the vehicle operator to operate the Mastergard
M6000. A programmed tag is carried by each vehicle operator on the key-ring of the vehicle.
WhatisaTransponderTag?
Inside the small plastic casing is a small electronic device which has been programmed
with an electronic code, one of several billion variations. When interrogated by the main ECU,
via an antenna located near your vehicle ignition switch, the correct tag allows your vehicle
engine to be started. The tag contains no batteries and therefore is totally maintenance
free. There is only ever one red master tag and it should not be used in the same way as the

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black user tag. It must only be used to add or delete the black user tags. It is very important that
the red master tag is stored in a safe place, not in the vehicle. It is very important not to lose
the red master tag.
The Antenna Wire is installed on the vehicle to pick up the programmed code from the
transponder tag.
The LED (Light Emitting Diode) is used to warn thieves of the presence of a security
device.
Installation
Our company has a basic philosophy regarding the installation of any Mastergard product
and that is the product is only as good as the installation. The best product in the world can be
ineffective if the installation is not done properly. Since the inception of the company, we have
realized the importance of the installation and that is why we have always insisted that anyone
who installs our products must receive hands-on training conducted by Mastergard. This training
ensures that installers of our Mastergard immobilizers comply with the Canadian installation
standards of practice the Canadian Standard for Installation of Automobile Theft Deterrent
Equipment and Systems (CAN/ULC-ORD S.275.1).
Operation
This system is fully automatic

Arming the system:

Turn off the vehicle ignition and remove the ignition key (this key should have one of the
black user transponder tags firmly attached to it).
After 5 seconds the M6000 LED will begin flashing rapidly.
After a further 30 seconds the M6000 LED will begin flashing more slowly.
The M6000 immobilizer is now fully armed.
Disarming the system:

Open the drivers door and insert the ignition key (this key should have one of the black
user transponder tags firmly attached to it).
The M6000 LED will now go out.
The M6000 is now disarmed.
You may now operate your vehicle in the normal manner.
Warranty
The Mastergard M6000 comes with a 2 YEAR WARRANTY to the original purchaser.
See attached warranty statement for details.
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT CLUSTERS
In an automobile, an electronic instrument cluster, digital instrument panel or digital
dash for short, is a set of instrumentation, including the speedometer,that is displayed with a
digital readout rather than with the traditional analog gauges. Many refer to it simply as a digital
speedometer.

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Figure: Instrument Cluster block diagram

Figure: outer look of instrument cluster

Tachometer
Dial showing the engines rotation speed in revolutions per minute.
Low fuel warning light
Warning light showing that the gas tank is almost empty.
Speedometer
Dial showing the speed at which the vehicle is moving, in kilometers or miles per hour.
Seat-belt warning light
Warning light showing that one or more seat belts are not buckled or are not buckled correctly.

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Odometer
Mechanism measuring, in kilometers or miles, the total distance traveled by the vehicle since it
left the factory.
Trip odometer
Mechanism measuring partial distances traveled by the vehicle in kilometers or miles; it ccan be
reset to zero.
Door open warning light
Warning light showing that one or more doors, the tail gate or trunk are open or ajar.
Warning lights
Small lights that go on and off to indicate whether the vehicles various systems are functioning
properly.
High beam indicator light
Light showing that the high beams are on.
Oil warning light
Warning light showing that the engines oil level is lower than the minimum required.
Turn signal indicator
Intermittent light, often accompanied by a sound, sho
showing
wing that a turn signal is in use.

taillights headlights
Temperature indicator
Dial showing the temperature of the engines coolant.
Alternator warning light
Warning light showing that the battery needs recharging.
Fuel indicator
Dial whose needle is connected to a float in the gas tank; it shows the level of fuel still available.

DASHBOARD
A dashboard (also called dash, instrument panel (IP), or fascia)) is a control panel
located directly ahead of a vehicle's driver, displaying instrumentation and controls for the
vehicle's operation.

Dashboard features
Where the dashboard originally included an array of simple controls (e.g., the steering
wheel)) and instrumentation to show speed, fuel level and oil pressure, the modern dashboard
may accommodate a broad array of gauges, and controls as well as information, climate control
and entertainment systems.

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Contemporary dashboards may include the speedometer, tachometer, odometer and fuel
gauge, turn indicators, gearshift position indicator, seat belt warning light, parking-brake
warning light, and engine-malfunction lights. Other features may include indicators for low fuel,
low oil pressure, low tire pressure and faults in the airbag (SRS) systems, glove compartment,
ashtray and a cigarette lighter or power outlet as well as heating and ventilation systems,
lighting controls, safety systems, entertainment equipment and information systems, e.g.,
navigation systems.
Fashion in instrumentation
In the 1940s through the 1960s, American car manufacturers and their imitators designed
unusually-shaped instruments on a dashboard laden with chrome and transparent plastic, which
could be less readable, but was often thought to be more stylish. Sunlight could cause a bright
glare on the chrome, particularly for a convertible.
With the advent of the VFD, LED and LCD in consumer electronics, some manufacturers
used instruments with digital readouts to make their cars appear more up to date, but this has
faded from practice. Some cars use a head-up display to project the speed of the car onto the
windscreen in imitation of fighter aircraft, but in a far less complex display.
In recent years, spurred on by the growing aftermarket use of dash kits, many automakers
have taken the initiative to add more stylistic elements to their dashboards. One prominent
example of this is the Chevrolet Sonic which offers both exterior (e.g., a custom graphics
package) and interior cosmetic upgrades. In addition to OEM dashboard trim and upgrades a
number of companies offer domed polyurethane or vinyl applique dash trim accent kits or "dash
kits."
Manufacturers such as BMW, Honda, Toyota and Mercedes-Benz have included fuel-
economy gauges in some instrument clusters, showing fuel mileage in real time. The ammeter
was the gauge of choice for monitoring the state of the charging system until the 1970s. Later it
was replaced by the voltmeter. Today most family vehicles have warning lights instead of
voltmeters or oil pressure gauges in their dashboard instrument clusters, though sports cars often
have proper gauges for performance purposes and driver appeasement.

Electromagnetic interference
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in the
radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an
electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or conduction. The
disturbance may degrade the performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the
case of a data path, these effects can range from an increase in error rate to a total loss of the
data.[2] Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages
that can cause EMI: automobile ignition systems, cell phones, thunder storms, the Sun, and the
Northern Lights. EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can also affect cell phones, FM radios,
and televisions.

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EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic warfare.

Types
Electromagnetic interference can be categorized as follows:

Narrowband EMI or RFI interference typically emanates from intended transmissions,

such as radio and TV stations or cell phones.
Broadband EMI or RFI interference is unintentional radiation from sources such as
electric power transmission lines.

Conducted electromagnetic interference is caused by the physical contact of the conductors as

opposed to radiated EMI, which is caused by induction (without physical contact of the
conductors). Electromagnetic disturbances in the EM field of a conductor will no longer be
confined to the surface of the conductor and will radiate away from it. This persists in all
conductors and mutual inductance between two radiated electromagnetic fields will result in
EMI.
Susceptibilities of different radio technologies
Interference tends to be more troublesome with older radio technologies such as analogue
amplitude modulation, which have no way of distinguishing unwanted in-band signals from the
intended signal, and the unidirectional antennas used with broadcast systems. Newer radio
systems incorporate several improvements that enhance the selectivity. In digital radio systems,
such as Wi-Fi, error-correction techniques can be used. Spread-spectrum and frequency-hopping
techniques can be used with both analogue and digital signaling to improve resistance to
interference. A highly directional receiver, such as a parabolic antenna or a diversity receiver,
can be used to select one signal in space to the exclusion of others.
The most extreme example of digital spread-spectrum signaling to date is ultra-wideband
(UWB), which proposes the use of large sections of the radio spectrum at low amplitudes to
transmit high-bandwidth digital data. UWB, if used exclusively, would enable very efficient use
of the spectrum, but users of non-UWB technology are not yet prepared to share the spectrum
with the new system because of the interference it would cause to their receivers (the regulatory
implications of UWB are discussed in the ultra-wideband article).
Interference to consumer devices
In the United States, the 1982 Public Law 97-259 allowed the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) to regulate the susceptibility of consumer electronic equipment. Potential
sources of RFI and EMI include:[9] various types of transmitters, doorbell transformers, toaster
ovens, electric blankets, ultrasonic pest control devices, electric bug zappers, heating pads, and
touch controlled lamps. Multiple CRT computer monitors or televisions sitting too close to one
another can sometimes cause a "shimmy" effect in each other, due to the electromagnetic nature
of their picture tubes, especially when one of their de-gaussing coils is activated.
Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz can be caused by 802.11b and 802.11g wireless devices,
Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones, video senders, and microwave ovens.

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Switching loads (inductive, capacitive, and resistive), such as electric motors, transformers,
heaters, lamps, ballast, power supplies, etc., all cause electromagnetic interference especially at
currents above 2 A. The usual method used for suppressing EMI is by connecting a snubbed
network, a resistor in series with a capacitor, across a pair of contacts. While this may offer
modest EMI reduction at very low currents, snubbers do not work at currents over 2 A with
electromechanical contacts.
Switched-mode power supplies can be a source of EMI, but have become less of a problem as
design techniques have improved, such as integrated power factor correction. Most countries
have legal requirements that mandate electromagnetic compatibility: electronic and electrical
hardware must still work correctly when subjected to certain amounts of EMI, and should not
emit EMI, which could interfere with other equipment (such as radios).
Radio frequency signal quality has declined throughout the 21st century by roughly one decibel
per year as the spectrum becomes increasingly crowded. This has inflicted a Red Queen's race on
the mobile phone industry as companies have been forced to put up more cellular towers (at new
frequencies) that then cause more interference thereby requiring more investment by the
providers and frequent upgrades of mobile phones to match.
Standards
The International Special Committee for Radio Interference or CISPR (French acronym for
"Comit International Special des Perturbations Radiolectriques"), which is a committee of the
International Electro technical Commission (IEC) sets international standards for radiated and
conducted electromagnetic interference. These are civilian standards for domestic, commercial,
industrial and automotive sectors. These standards form the basis of other national or regional
standards, most notably the European Norms (EN) written by CENELEC (European committee
for electro technical standardization).

EMI in integrated circuits

Main article: Electromagnetic compatibility
Integrated circuits are often a source of EMI, but they must usually couple their energy to larger
objects such as heat sinks, circuit board planes and cables to radiate significantly.
On integrated circuits, important means of reducing EMI are: the use of bypass or
decoupling capacitors on each active device (connected across the power supply, as close to the
device as possible), rise time control of high-speed signals using series resistors, and IC power
supply pin filtering. Shielding is usually a last resort after other techniques have failed, because
of the added expense of shielding components such as conductive gaskets.
The efficiency of the radiation depends on the height above the ground plane or power
plane (at RF, one is as good as the other) and the length of the conductor in relation to the
wavelength of the signal component (fundamental frequency, harmonic or transient such as
overshoot, undershoot or ringing). At lower frequencies, such as 133 MHz, radiation is almost
exclusively via I/O cables; RF noise gets onto the power planes and is coupled to the line drivers
via the VCC and GND pins. The RF is then coupled to the cable through the line driver as
common-mode noise. Since the noise is common-mode, shielding has very little effect, even with

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differential pairs. The RF energy is capacitively coupled from the signal pair to the shield and the
shield itself does the radiating. One cure for this is to use a braid-breaker or choke to reduce the
common-mode signal. At higher frequencies, usually above 500 MHz, traces get electrically
longer and higher above the plane. Two techniques are used at these frequencies: wave shaping
with series resistors and embedding the traces between the two planes. If all these measures still
leave too much EMI, shielding such as RF gaskets and copper tape can be used. Most digital
equipment is designed with metal or conductive-coated plastic cases.
RF immunity and testing
Any unshielded semiconductor (e.g. an integrated circuit) will tend to act as a detector for those
radio signals commonly found in the domestic environment (e.g. cell phones). Such a detector
can demodulate the high frequency cell phone carrier (e.g., GSM850 and GSM1900, GSM900
and GSM1800) and produce low-frequency (e.g., 217 Hz) demodulated signals. This
demodulation manifests itself as unwanted audible buzz in audio appliances such as microphone
amplifier, speaker amplifier, car radio, telephones etc. Adding onboard EMI filters or special
layout techniques can help in bypassing EMI or improving RF immunity. Some ICs are designed
(e.g., LMV831-LMV834, MAX9724) to have integrated RF filters or a special design that helps
reduce any demodulation of high-frequency carrier.
Designers often need to carry out special tests for RF immunity of parts to be used in a
system. These tests are often done in an anechoic chamber with a controlled RF environment
where the test vectors produce a RF field similar to that produced in an actual environment.
RFI in radio astronomy
Interference in radio astronomy, where it is commonly referred to as radio-frequency
interference (RFI), is any source of transmission that is within the observed frequency band other
than the celestial sources themselves. Because transmitters on and around the Earth can be many
times stronger than the astronomical signal of interest, RFI is a major concern for performing
radio astronomy. Natural sources of interference, such as lightning and the Sun are also often
referred to as RFI. Some of the frequency bands that are very important for radio astronomy,
such as the 21-cm HI line at 1420 MHz, are protected by regulation. This is called spectrum
management. However, modern radio-astronomical observatories such as VLA, LOFAR and
ALMA have a very large bandwidth over which they can observe. Because of the limited
spectral space at radio frequencies, these frequency bands cannot be completely allocated to
radio astronomy. Therefore, observatories need to deal with RFI in their observations.
Techniques to deal with RFI range from filters in hardware to advanced algorithms in software.
One way to deal with strong transmitters is to filter out the frequency of the source completely.
This is for example the case for the LOFAR observatory, which filters out the FM radio stations
between 90-110 MHz. It is important to remove such strong sources of interference as soon as
possible, because they might "saturate" the highly sensitive receivers (amplifiers and analog-to-
digital converters), which means that the received signal is stronger than the receiver can handle.
However, filtering out a frequency band implies that these frequencies can never be observed
with the instrument.

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A common technique to deal with RFI within the observed frequency bandwidth is to
employ RFI detection in software. Such software can find samples in time, frequency or time-
frequency space that are contaminated by an interfering source. These samples are subsequently
ignored in further analysis of the observed data. This process is often referred to as data flagging.
Because most transmitters have a small bandwidth and are not continuously present such as
lightning or citizens' band (CB) radio devices, most of the data remains available for the
astronomical analysis. However, data flagging cannot solve issues with continuous broad-band
transmitters, such as windmills, digital video or digital audio transmitters.

Electromagnetic compatibility
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the branch of electrical engineering concerned with the
unintentional generation, propagation and reception of electromagnetic energy which may cause
unwanted effects such as electromagnetic interference (EMI) or even physical damage in
operational equipment. The goal of EMC is the correct operation of different equipment in a
common electromagnetic environment.
EMC pursues two main classes of issue. Emission is the generation of electromagnetic
energy, whether deliberate or accidental, by some source and its release into the environment.
EMC studies the unwanted emissions and the countermeasures which may be taken in order to
reduce unwanted emissions. The second class, susceptibility is the tendency of electrical
equipment, referred to as the victim, to malfunction or break down in the presence of unwanted
emissions, which are known as Radio frequency interference (RFI). Immunity is the opposite of
susceptibility, being the ability of equipment to function correctly in the presence of RFI, with
the discipline of "hardening" equipment being known equally as susceptibility or immunity. A
third class studied is coupling, which is the mechanism by which emitted interference reaches the
victim.
Interference mitigation and hence electromagnetic compatibility may be achieved by
addressing any or all of these issues, i.e., quieting the sources of interference, inhibiting coupling
paths and/or hardening the potential victims. In practice, many of the engineering techniques
used, such as grounding and shielding, apply to all three issues.
Introduction
While electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a phenomenon - the radiation emitted and its effects
- electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is an equipment characteristic or property - not to
behave unacceptably in the EMI environment.
EMC ensures the correct operation, in the same electromagnetic environment, of different
equipment items which use or respond to electromagnetic phenomena, and the avoidance of any
interference effects. Another way of saying this is that EMC is the control of EMI so that
unwanted effects are prevented.
Besides understanding the phenomena in themselves, EMC also addresses the
countermeasures, such as control regimes, design and measurement, which should be taken in
order to prevent emissions from causing any adverse effect.

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Types of interference
Main article: Electromagnetic interference
Electromagnetic interference divides into several categories according to the source and signal
characteristics. The origin of interference, often called "noise" in this context, can be man-made
(artificial) or natural. Continuous interference Continuous, or Continuous Wave (CW),
interference arises where the source continuously emits at a given range of frequencies. This type
is naturally divided into sub-categories according to frequency range, and as a whole is
sometimes referred to as "DC to daylight".
Audio Frequency, from very low frequencies up to around 20 kHz. Frequencies up to
100 kHz may sometimes be classified as Audio. Sources include:
o Mains hum from: power supply units, nearby power supply wiring, transmission
lines and substations.
o Audio processing equipment, such as audio power amplifiers and loudspeakers.
o Demodulation of a high-frequency carrier wave such as an FM radio transmission.
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI), from typically 20 kHz to an upper limit which
constantly increases as technology pushes it higher. Sources include:
o Wireless and Radio Frequency Transmissions
o Television and Radio Receivers
o Industrial, scientific and medical equipment (ISM)
o Digital processing circuitry such as microcontrollers
Broadband noise may be spread across parts of either or both frequency ranges, with no
particular frequency accentuated. Sources include:
o Solar activity
o Continuously operating spark gaps such as arc welders
o CDMA (spread-spectrum) mobile telephony

Pulse or transient interference

An electromagnetic pulse (EMP), sometimes called a transient disturbance, arises where the
source emits a short-duration pulse of energy. The energy is usually broadband by nature,
although it often excites a relatively narrow-band damped sine wave response in the victim.
Sources divide broadly into isolated and repetitive events.
Sources of isolated EMP events include:
o Switching action of electrical circuitry, including inductive loads such as relays,
solenoids, or electric motors.
o Electrostatic discharge (ESD), as a result of two charged objects coming into
close proximity or contact.
o Lightning electromagnetic pulse (LEMP), although typically a short series of
pulses.
o Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP), as a result of a nuclear explosion. A
variant of this is the high altitude EMP (HEMP) nuclear device, designed to create
the pulse as its primary destructive effect.

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o Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) weapons.

o Power line surges/pulses
Sources of repetitive EMP events, sometimes as regular pulse trains, include:
o Electric motors
o Gasoline engine ignition systems
o Continual switching actions of digital electronic circuitry.
Coupling mechanisms
The basic arrangement of noise source, coupling path and victim, receptor or sink is
shown in the figure below. Source and victim are usually electronic hardware devices, though the
source may be a natural phenomenon such as a lightning strike, electrostatic discharge (ESD) or,
in one famous case, the Big Bang at the origin of the Universe.
The four electromagnetic interference (EMI) coupling modes.
There are four basic coupling mechanisms: conductive, capacitive, magnetic or inductive,
and radiative. Any coupling path can be broken down into one or more of these coupling
mechanisms working together. For example the lower path in the diagram involves inductive,
conductive and capacitive modes.
Conductive coupling Conductive coupling occurs when the coupling path between the source
and the receptor is formed by direct electrical contact with a conducting body, for example a
transmission line, wire, cable, PCB trace or metal enclosure.
Conducted noise is also characterized by the way it appears on different conductors:

Common-mode or common-impedance coupling: noise appears in phase (in the same

direction) on two conductors.
Differential-mode coupling: noise appears out of phase (in opposite directions) on two
conductors.
Inductive coupling
Inductive coupling occurs where the source and receiver are separated by a short distance
(typically less than a wavelength). Strictly, "Inductive coupling" can be of two kinds, electrical
induction and magnetic induction. It is common to refer to electrical induction as capacitive
coupling, and to magnetic induction as inductive coupling.
Capacitive coupling
Capacitive coupling occurs when a varying electrical field exists between two adjacent
conductors typically less than a wavelength apart, inducing a change in voltage across the gap.
Magnetic coupling
Inductive coupling or magnetic coupling (MC) occurs when a varying magnetic field
exists between two parallel conductors typically less than a wavelength apart, inducing a change
in voltage along the receiving conductor.
Radiative coupling
Radiative coupling or electromagnetic coupling occurs when source and victim are
separated by a large distance, typically more than a wavelength. Source and victim act as radio

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antennas: the source emits or radiates an electromagnetic wave which propagates across the open
space in between and is picked up or received by the victim.
EMC control
The damaging effects of electromagnetic interference pose unacceptable risks in many areas of
technology, and it is necessary to control such interference and reduce the risks to acceptable
levels.
The control of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and assurance of EMC comprises a series of
related disciplines:
Characterizing the threat.
Setting standards for emission and susceptibility levels.
Design for standards compliance.
Testing for standards compliance.
For a complex or novel piece of equipment, this may require the production of a dedicated EMC
control plan summarizing the application of the above and specifying additional documents
required.
Characterizing the threat
Characterization of the problem requires understanding of:
The interference source and signal.
The coupling path to the victim.
The nature of the victim both electrically and in terms of the significance of malfunction.
The risk posed by the threat is usually statistical in nature; so much of the work in threat
characterization and standards setting is based on reducing the probability of disruptive EMI to
an acceptable level, rather than its assured elimination.

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