WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER

IN 3D SPACE
PROJECT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD
OF
THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BY
HARSH SHARMA HARENDER SINGH
(13001002017) (13001002018)

HIMANSHU PAHWA LOVE KUMAR YADAV

(13001002019) (13001002022)

VIVEK
(13001002058)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr DEEPESH SHARMA
And
Dr NARESH KUMAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

TO

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
D.C.R. UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
MURTHAL, SONEPAT, HARYANA (INDIA) 131 039
(APRIL 2017)
 DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATES
We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this Project Report entitled
WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION IN 3D SPACE in partial fulfilment of requirements for
the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Technology,
D.C.R. Univ. of Science & Technology, Murthal, Sonepat (Haryana) is an authentic record of
our own work carried out during a period from July 2016 onwards under the supervision of Mr
Deepesh Sharma & Naresh Kumar. The matter explained in project work has not been
submitted to any other University / Institute for the award of B.Tech or any other Degree /
Diploma.

Name Roll. No. Signature

1. Harsh Sharma 13001002017
2. Harender Singh 13001002018
3. Himanshu Pahwa 13001002019
4. Love Kumar Yadav 13001002022
5. Vivek 13001002058

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
knowledge & belief.

Signature of Supervisors

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are highly grateful to the Honble Vice-Chancellor, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University
Science & Technology, Murthal, Sonepat for providing us this opportunity to carry out the
present project work.
The constant guidance and encouragement received from Dr J. S. Saini, Professor
and Chairperson, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
Science & Technology, Murthal, Sonepat has been of great help in carrying out the present
work and is acknowledged with reverential thanks.
We would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thanks profusely to our
Project Supervisor, Mr Deepesh Sharma & Dr Naresh Kumar, Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Electrical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology,
Murthal, Sonepat. Without his able guidance, it would have been impossible to complete the
project in this manner.
The help rendered by Mrs Sanju Saini B.Tech. Project Coordinator, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology,
Murthal, Sonepat for his wise counsel is greatly acknowledged. We also express our gratitude
to other faculty members of Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram
University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Sonepat for their intellectual support throughout
the course of this work. We also express our gratitude to Technician Staff of the Dept. of
Electrical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology,
Murthal, Sonepat for the excellent Laboratory support is also acknowledged.

Finally, we are indebted to all whosoever have contributed in this project work.

Name Roll. No. Signature

1. Harsh Sharma 13001002017
2. Harender Singh 13001002018
3. Himanshu Pahwa 13001002019
4. Love Kumar Yadav 13001002022
5. Vivek 13001002058

3
 ABSTRACT
We cannot imagine the world without electric power. Generally the Power is transmitted
through wires. Transmission of power without using wires i.e., transmitting power as
microwaves from one place to another in order to reduce the transmission and distribution
loses. This pre thesis includes the techniques of transmitting power without using wires. The
aim of this research work is to give an overview of recent researches and development in the
field of wireless power transmission. Our project was based upon a MIT published paper in
the year 2007 titled Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances.
Various methods of transmitting power wirelessly have been known for centuries. Perhaps the
best known example is electromagnetic radiation, like radio waves. While such radiation is
excellent for wireless transmission of Information, it is not feasible to use it for power
transmission. In contrast, WiTricity is based on using coupled resonant objects. Two resonant
objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, while interacting
weakly with extraneous off-resonant objects. Imagine a world where cell phones, household
robots, music and multimedia players, computers, automobiles, medical devices, and other
fixed and portable electronics were powered without ever being plugged into the wired power
grid. The idea of using strongly coupled magnetic resonances to wirelessly transfer power
over large distances will be introduced. The technology used for wireless power transmission
is known as witricity. Wireless power transmission is not a new idea; Nikola Tesla proposed
theories of wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

4
 LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES
Page No.
Figure 1.1: Wireless Power Transmission 9
Figure 1.2: Diagram of the resonant inductive wireless power system 11
Figure 2.1: Teslas experimental lamp 14
Figure 2.2: Teslas experimental setup 15
Figure 2.3: Block Diagram of full circuit 19
Figure 2.4: Bifilar Winding 21
Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of full Circuit 22

Figure 3.2 Full Circuit 23

Figure 3.3: Rectification circuit 24
Figure 3.4: Inverter circuit using two transistor 25
Figure 3.5: Front view inverter circuit using two transistors 25
Figure 3.6: Bifilar Winding 26
Figure 3.7: Project picture for bifilar winding inverter circuit using two 27
transistors
Figure 3.8: 12V LED / Battery Charging / USB Driving Circuit 28
Figure 3.9: The impedance Z plotted in the complex plane. 33
Figure 3.10: Schematic of a series LC circuit 34
Figure 3.11: Amplitude of the current plotted against the driving frequency 36
(all constants normalized)
Figure 3.12: Schematic for obtaining low-voltage regulated output using 3- 38
terminal voltage regulators.
Figure 3.13: Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies 39
Figure 3.14: Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies providing 40
currents in excess of one ampere
Figure 3.15: Battery Charger 41
Figure 4.1 Current Wired charger efficiency chart 45
Figure 4.2 Current Wireless Power EVM System efficiency chart 46
Figure 4.3 Output voltage vs. current variations 52
Figure 4.4 Efficiency variations with distance 53

Figure 4.5 Efficiency variation with change in number of turns 54

Figure 5.1 Korean wireless power bus scheme 55

5
Figure 5.2 Korean wireless power bus circuitry 56
Figure 5.3 Wireless automated home system 57

Table 1.1: Different wireless power transmission technologies. 10

Table 3.1: Impedance formulas 33
Table 4.1: Efficiency vs. Gap Length 52

6
 CONTENT
Page No.

Declaration by the candidates 2

Acknowledgement 3

Abstract 4

List of Figures & Tables 5

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 9

1.1 Resonant Inductive Coupling 11

1.2 Need/Necessity/Motivation for selection of 12
Wireless Power Transmission
1.3 Advantages of Wireless Power Transmission 12
1.4 Applications of Wireless Power Transmission 13

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 14

2.1 Introduction 14

2.2 Earlier Developments 14

2.3 History of wireless energy transfer 15

2.4 Project Idea 18

CHAPTER 3: CONCEPT AND THEORY OF WIRLESS POWER 22

TRANSMISSION
3.1 Introduction 22

3.2 Circuit Diagram Description 23

3.2.1 Bridge Rectifier 24

3.2.2 Inverter Circuit using two transistors 24

3.2.3 Bifilar winding 26

3.2.4 LED / Battery Charging / USB output 28

3.2.5 Air Discharges 28

3.2.6 Turning Precaution 30

3.3 Component Description 30

3.3.1 Resistor 30

3.3.2 Capacitor 31

7
 3.3.3 Inductor 31

3.3.4 Impedance 32

3.3.5 LC Circuit 34

3.3.6 Resonant Frequency 35

3.3.7 Magnetic Wire 36

3.3.8 Battery 37

3.3.9 IC7805 37

3.3.10 Battery Charger 41

CHAPTER 4: ANALYTICAL REPORT 45

4.1 Current Wired Charger 45

4.2 Current Wireless Power EVM System 46

4.3 Efficiency calculation of the wireless power transfer system with 47

scattering matrixs parameters
4.4 Efficiency calculation via scattering matrix method 49

4.5 Performances Graphs 52

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION & FUTURE PLAN 55

Reference 58

8
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

"Wireless power transfer" is a term which is used for a number of different techniques for
transferring energy by means of electromagnetic fields. The technologies, listed in the table
below, differ in the distance over which they can transfer power efficiently, whether the
transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of electromagnetic energy
they use: time varying electric fields, magnetic fields, radio waves, microwaves, or infrared or
visible light waves.[1][2]

Figure 1.1: Wireless Power Transmission

In general a wireless power system consists of a "transmitter" connected to a source of power

such as a mains power line, which converts the power to a time-varying electromagnetic field,
and one or more "receiver" devices which receive the power and convert it back to DC or AC
electric current which is used by an electrical load. At the transmitter the input power is
converted to an oscillating electromagnetic field by some type of "antenna" device. The word
"antenna" is used loosely here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a magnetic field, a
metal plate which generates an electric field, an antenna which radiates radio waves, or
a laser which generates light. A similar antenna or coupling device as that of input side at the
receiver converts the oscillating fields to an electric current. An important parameter that
determines the type of waves is the frequency f in hertz of the oscillations. The frequency
determines the wavelength = c/f of the waves which carry the energy across the gap of the
wireless ports, where c is the velocity of light.

Wireless power transfer technique uses the same fields and waves as wireless
communication devices like radio, another familiar technology that involves electrical energy

9
 transmitted without wires by electromagnetic fields and obviously uses electromagnetic field,
used in cell phones, and Wi-Fi. In radio communication the goal is the transmission of data
and information, howsoever the amount of power reaching the receiver is not so important, as
long as it is sufficient so the signal to noise ratio is large enough that the information can be
received. In wireless communication technologies, generally, only little amounts of power
reach the receiver. The efficiency is more significant parameter with wireless power as the
amount of energy received is important thing.[5] For this reason, wireless power technologies
are likely to be more limited by distance than wireless communication technologies.

These are the different wireless power transfer technologies:

Technology Range Frequency Antenna devices Current and/or possible future

applications

Inductive coupling Short Hz MHz Wire coils Electric tooth brush and razor
battery charging, induction
stovetops and industrial heaters.

Resonant inductive Mid- kHz Tuned wire coils, Charging portable devices,
coupling GHz lumped element biomedical implants, electric
resonators vehicles, powering busses, trains,

Capacitive Short kHz Electrodes Charging portable devices, power

coupling MHz routing in large-scale integrated
circuits, Smartcards.

Magnetodynamic Short Hz Rotating magnets Charging electric vehicles,

coupling busses, biomedical implants.

Microwaves Long GHz Parabolic Solar power satellite, powering

dishes, phased drone aircraft.
arrays, rectennas

Light waves Long THz Lasers, photocells, Powering drone aircraft, powering
lenses space elevator climbers.

Table 1.1: Different wireless power transmission technologies available. [1]

10
1.1 Resonant Inductive Coupling

Figure 1.2: Diagram of the resonant inductive wireless power system.

Resonant inductive coupling is a form of inductive coupling in which power is transferred by

magnetic fields between two resonant circuits (tuned circuits), one in the transmitter and one
in the receiver (see figure). Each resonant circuit consists of a coil of wire connected to
a capacitor, or a self-resonant coil or other resonator with some internal capacitance. The two
are designed resonate at the same resonant frequency. As a vibrating tuning fork can
induce sympathetic vibration in a distant fork tuned to the same pitch, analogously the
resonance between the coils can greatly increase coupling and power transfer. The resonant
coupling was invented by Nicolas Tesla during his pioneering experiments in wireless power
transfer around the turn of the 20th century, but the possibilities of using resonant coupling to
increase transmission range has been explored recently. In 2007 a team led by Marin
Soljai at MIT used two coupled tuned circuits at 10 MHz each made of a 25 cm self-resonant
coil of wire to achieve the transmission of 60 W of power at around 41% efficiency over a
distance of 2 meters which is 8 times the coil diameter. [1]

The high Q factor resonators exchange energy at a much higher rate than they lose energy
due to internal damping which is the main concept behind resonant inductive
coupling. Therefore, by using resonance, the same amount of power can be transferred at
greater distances, using the much weaker magnetic fields out in the peripheral regions ("tails")
of the near fields (these are sometimes called evanescent fields). High efficiency at ranges of
4 to 10 times the coil diameter (Dant) can be achieved by resonant inductive coupling. This is
called "mid-range" transfer, in contrast to the "short range" of non-resonant inductive transfer,
which can achieve similar efficiencies only when the coils are adjacent. Another advantage is
that power losses due to absorption in stray nearby objects are negligible in resonant circuits
as they interact with each other much more strongly than they do with non-resonant objects.
A drawback of resonant coupling is that when the two resonant circuits are tightly coupled at
close ranges, the resonant frequency of the system is divided into two resonant peaks, so the

11
maximum power transfer occurs at the new resonance peak as original resonant frequency
no longer occurs.

Resonant technology are being widely used in modern inductive wireless power systems. One
of the possibilities being visualized for this technology is area of wireless power coverage.
With reasonable efficiency, a coil in the wall or ceiling of a room might be able to wirelessly
power fans, laptops, lights and mobile devices anywhere in the room. Wireless power transfer
to small devices such as radios, music players can drastically reduce the 6
billion batteries disposed of each year which are large source of toxic waste and groundwater
contamination.

1.2 Need/Necessity/Motivation for selection of Wireless Power

Transmission
The various needs of Wireless Power Transmission system are listed below:-
i. Wireless Power Transmission system would completely eliminates the existing high-
tension power transmission line cables, towers and sub stations between the
generating station and consumers and facilitates the interconnection of electrical
generation plants on a global scale.
ii. It has more freedom of choice of both receiver and transmitters. Even mobile
transmitters and receivers can be chosen for the WPT system.
iii. The cost of transmission and distribution become less and the cost of electrical energy
for the consumer also would be reduced.
iv. The power could be transmitted to the places where the wired transmission is not
possible. Loss of transmission is negligible level in the Wireless Power Transmission;
therefore, the efficiency of this method is very much higher than the wired transmission.
v. The power failure due to short circuit and fault on cables would never exist in the
transmission and power theft would be not possible at all.

1.3 Advantages of Wireless Power Transmission

Some of the advantages are as follows:
i. Various ways of transmitting power wirelessly have been famous for centuries. The
most widely known example is non-particulate radiation, for example radio waves.
These radiation spreads in all directions therefore they are extremely good for wireless
transmission but a massive power would be wasted into free space so it is not at all
feasible to apply it for power transmission.[2]
12
 ii. Wireless Power Transmission system would completely eliminates the previous high-
tension power transmission line cables, towers and substations involving the
generating station and consumers and facilitates the interconnection of electrical
generation plants with a global scale. [2]
iii. Even mobile transmitters and receivers can be used for WPT system as it is more
freedom of both receiver and transmitters. [2]
iv. The power could possibly be transmitted towards those places where the wired
transmission isn't feasible. Wireless Power Transmission has negligible decrease of
transmission therefore, the efficiency is lot higher than that of wired transmission. [2]
v. Power can be purchased with the rectenna provided that the WPT is operating. The
power failure because of faults such as shorts i.e. line to line or any other on cables
could not exist. Also power theft will not be possible in any respect. [2]

Some of the disadvantages are as follows:

i. High capital cost for practical implementation of wireless power transmission.
ii. Another potential disadvantage is the interference of the microwaves with the present
wireless communication system. [2]

1.4 Applications of Wireless Power Transmission

i. Moving targets for example fuel free airplanes, fuel free electric vehicles, moving
robots and fuel free rockets. Another applying WPT are wireless power source,
wireless sensors and RF power adaptive rectifying circuits (PARC).
i. Mobility - user device might be moved easily in the wireless range.
ii. Neat and easy Installation - since no cable running occasionally, just start-up the
wireless device and you're ready to rumble.
iii. Generating power by placing satellites with giant solar arrays in Geosynchronous Earth
orbit and transmitting the power as microwaves on the earth called Solar Power
Satellites (SPS) will be the largest application of WPT.

13
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
As the project is concerned with the wireless power transmission through tesla coil we will
discuss about the idea of project, High Frequency Transformer its designing and High
Frequency Tesla Coils. Some earlier developments in that area along with the new idea we
will try to implement.

2.2Earlier Developments
In 1864 by the means of mathematical model, James C. Maxwell visualised the
existence of Radio waves
In 1884, John H. Poynting realized that the Poynting Vector would play an important
role in quantifying the Electromagnetic energy.
In 1888, bolstered by Maxwell's theory, Heinrich Hertz first succeeded in showing
experimental evidence of radio waves by his spark-gap radio transmitter. The
prediction and Evidence of the radio wave in the end of 19th century was start of the
wireless power transmission.
Nikola Tesla has been the pioneer in the field of wireless transmission of electrical
power. He started efforts on wireless transmission at 1891 in his experimental station
at Colorado. A small incandescent lamp was successfully lighted by use of a resonant
circuit grounded on one end by Nikola Tesla. A coil outside laboratory with the lower
end connected to the ground and the upper end free. The current induced in the three
turns of wire which was wound around the lower end of the coil light up the lamp.

Figure 2.1: Teslas experimental lamp

14
 Wardenclyffe tower was designed by Tesla for trans-Atlantic wireless telephony and
also for demonstrating wireless electrical power transmission.

Figure 2.2: Teslas experimental setup

William C. Brown invented the rectenna which directly converts microwaves to DC

current in 1960s which has great contribution in microwave power transmission. He
demonstrated microwave power transmission in 1964 by powering a helicopter solely
from these waves.
Hidetsugu Yagi a Japanese electrical engineer also tried unsuccessfully to introduce
a wireless power transmission system.

2.3 History of wireless energy transfer

1820: Amperes law was developed by Andr-Marie Ampre which shows that electric
current produces a magnetic field

15
 1831: Michael Faraday develops Faradays law of induction, an important basic law of
electromagnetism
1864: The previous observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism
and optics was synthesized by James Clerk Maxwell into consistent theory
and mathematically models of the behaviour of electromagnetic radiation.
1888: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz confirms the existence of electromagnetic radiation.
Hertzs "apparatus for generating electromagnetic waves" was a VHF or UHF "radio
wave" spark gap transmitter.
1891: Nikola Tesla improves Hertz-wave transmitter RF power supply in his patent No.
454,622, "System of Electric Lighting."
1893: At the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago wireless illumination of
phosphorescent lamps of his design was demonstrated by Tesla.
1894: Hutin & LeBlanc, espouse long held view that inductive energy transfer should
be possible, they file a U.S. Patent describing a system for power transfer at 3 kHz.
1894: Single-terminal incandescent lamps at the 35 South Fifth Avenue laboratory and
at the 46 E. Houston Street laboratory in New York City was lighted up by Tesla by
means of wireless resonant inductive coupling.
1894: Jagdish Chandra Bose ignites gunpowder and rings a bell at a distance
using electromagnetic waves, showing that communications signals can be sent
without using wires.[7][8]
1895: Bose transmits signals over a distance of nearly a mile.
1896: Tesla transmits signals over a distance of about 48 kilometres (30 mi).
1897: Guglielmo Marconi uses a radio transmitter to transmit Morse code signals over
a distance of about 6 km.
1897: Tesla files the first of his patent applications dealing with wireless transmission.
1899: In Colorado Springs, Tesla writes, "the inferiority of the induction method would
appear immense as compared with the disturbed charge of ground and air method."
1900: Marconi fails to get a patent for radio in the United States.
1901: Marconi transmits signals across the Atlantic Ocean using Tesla's apparatus.
1902: Tesla vs. Reginald Fessenden - U.S. Patent Interference No. 21,701, System of
Signaling (wireless); selective illumination of incandescent lamps, time and frequency
domain spread spectrum telecommunications, electronic logic gates in general.
1904: At the St. Louis World's Fair, a prize is offered for a successful attempt to drive
a 0.1 horsepower (75 W) airship motor by energy transmitted through space at a
distance of least 100 feet (30 m).
1917: Tesla's Wardenclyffe tower is demolished.

16
 1926: Shintaro Uda and Hidetsugu Yagi publish their first paper on Uda's "tuned high-
gain directional array" better known as the Yagi antenna.
1961: An article of exploring possibilities of microwave power transmission was
published by William C. Brown .[14][15]
1964: A model of helicopter that received all the power needed for flight from a
microwave beam was demonstrated by Brown on CBS News with Walter Cronkite.
Between 1969 and 1975, JPL Raytheon program that beamed 30 kW over a distance
of 1 mile at 84% efficiency was under the direction of Brown.
1968: Wirelessly transferring solar energy captured in space using "Powerbeaming"
technology was proposed by Peter Glaser.This is usually recognized as the first
description of a solar power satellite.
1971: A small trolley powered by induction at The University of Auckland was
developed by Prof. Don Otto, in New Zealan.
1973: World first passive RFID system demonstrated at Los-Alamos National Lab.
1975: Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex does experiments in the tens
of kilowatts.
1988: An inverter using novel engineering materials and power electronics was
developed by by Prof. John Boys at The University of Auckland in New Zealand and it
concluded that inductive power transmission should be achievable. A first prototype
for a contact-less power supply is built. Auckland Uniservices, the commercial
company of The University of Auckland, patents the technology.
1989: Daifuku, a Japanese company, engages Auckland Uniservices Ltd to develop
the technology for car assembly plants and materials handling providing challenging
technical requirements including multiplicity of vehicles.
1990: Novel technology enabling multiple vehicles to run on the same inductive power
loop and provide independent control of each vehicle was developed by Prof. John
Boys team. Auckland UniServices Patents the technology.
1996: Electric Bus power system using Inductive Power Transfer to charge (30-60 kW)
was developed by Auckland Uniservices in New Zealand. 1st commercial IPT Bus in
the world at Whakarewarewa, in New Zealand was commissioned by Prof John Boys
Team.
2001: Splashpower formed in the UK., transfered tens of watts into a variety of
consumer devices, including lamp, phone, PDA, iPod, laptops etc. using coupled
resonant coils in a flat "pad" style
2004: 90 percent of the US$1 billion clean room industry for materials handling
equipment in semiconductor, LCD and plasma screen manufacture used Inductive
Power Transfer

17
 2005: 3-phase IPT Highway and pick-up systems was refined by allowing transfer of
power to moving vehicles in the lab by Prof Boys' team at The University of Auckland.
2007: Marin Soljai at MIT used two coupled tuned circuits at 10 MHz each made of
a 25 cm self-resonant coil of wire to achieve the transmission of 60 W of power at
around 41% efficiency over a distance of 2 meters which is 8 times the coil diameter.
2008: Bombardier offers new wireless transmission product PRIMOVE, a power
system for use on trams and light-rail vehicles.
2008: Wireless light bulb powered by a high efficiency 3W LED was made by industrial
designer Thanh Tran at Brunel University.
2008: Prof. John Boys group's 1988 and Nikola Tesla's original 1894 implementation
experiments by wirelessly powering a nearby light bulb with 75% efficiency was
reproduced by Intel.
2009: A new industry standard for low-power Inductive charging were announced by a
Consortium of interested companies called the Wireless Power Consortium .
2009: Texas Instruments releases the first device.
2009: Introduced an Ex approved Torch and Charger aimed at the offshore market. A
Norway based company developed a product by Wireless Power & Communication.
2010: Haier Group launched world's first completely wireless LCD television at CES
2010 which was based on Prof. Marin Soljacic's research on wireless energy transfer
and Wireless Home Digital Interface (WHDI).

2.4 Project Idea

The prime motive of project is to develop a system of wireless power transfer in 3D space.

This project is formed out of an AC 230V 50Hz to AC 20 KHz at 12V circuit. The ac 50 Hz is
rectified by BR1and the DC derived from that is again made to ac by an inverter by transistors
switching near 40 KHz which is fed to another high frequency transformer the output of which
is then fed to a resonating coil acting as primary of another air core transformer, the secondary
of which is fed to a 2nd rectifier to drive a DC load.

The air core transformer operating at 100 Hz is the main concept for wireless power transfer
in 3 D space as one cannot transfer 50 Hz ac power by air core.

18
The secondary coil in resonance develops a voltage of 100 Hz at about 12 volt while it is taken
over the primary coil. The output of this secondary is given to a lamp that glows at considerable
distance from the primary coil.

However, the overall efficiency of the power transfer is less than 70% for all weakly coupled
series resonators used in the project.

Hardware Requirements:
HF Transformer
Diode
Rectifier
Capacitors
Transistors
air filled inductor coil
Lamp

Software Requirements:
None

Figure 2.3: Block Diagram of full circuit

19
Bifilar Winding
Some bifilar windings have adjacent coils in which the convolutions are arranged so that the
potential difference is magnified (i.e., the current flows in same parallel direction). The
magnetic field created by one winding is multiplied with that created by the other, resulting in
a greater net magnetic field. Others windings are wound so that the current flows in opposite
directions. The magnetic field created by one winding is therefore equal and opposite to that
created by the other, resulting in a net magnetic field of zero (i.e. neutralizing any negative
effects in the coil). In electrical terms, it can be said that the self-inductance of the coil is zero.

The bifilar coil (more often called the bifilar winding) is used in modern electrical engineering
as a means of constructing wire-wound resistors with negligible parasitic self-inductance.

To suppress back emf a different type of bifilar coil is used in some relay windings and
transformers which are used for a switched-mode power supply. In this case, the two wire
coils are closely spaced and wound in parallel but are electrically isolated from each other.
The primary coil operates the relay and the secondary coil is short-circuited inside the case.
When the current through the primary is interrupted, as happens when the relay is switched
off, most of the magnetic energy is intercepted by the secondary coil which converts it to heat
in its internal resistance. This is one of several methods by which energy can be absorbed
from the primary coil before it can damage the device (usually a vulnerable semiconductor)
that drives the relay. The main disadvantage of this method is that it greatly increases the
switching time of the relay.

The energy stored in the stray magnetic flux which fails to link the primary coil to the secondary
coil of the switching transformer is removed by means of one winding of the bifilar coil. The
wires of the bifilar coil "see" the same stray magnetic flux because of their proximity. Usually
diode is used to clamp one wire to ground so that other "primary" wire of the bifilar coil no
longer has a voltage applied across it (by the switching transistor). Equal voltage appear
across the primary winding because of the stray magnetic flux which generates a current in
the clamping coil with the primary side voltage appearing across it. The stray magnetic flux
would attempt to force a current to flow through the primary wire, if this clamping coil was not
used. The high voltage which would appear on the semiconductor switching transistor would
exceed its electrical breakdown or even damage it, since the primary wire is switched off and
the switching transistor is in a high resistance state.

20
 Figure 2.4: Bifilar Winding

History of Coil

Nikola Tesla's United States patent 512,340 of 1894 shows an early example of the bifilar coil.
The self-inductance of a conventional coil is undesired and has to be neutralized by adding
external capacitors was explained by Tesla in some applications. The bifilar coil in this
configuration has increased self-capacitance, thereby saving the cost of the capacitors. This
kind of bifilar winding is not used in non-inductive wire wound resistors. To null out self-
inductance the windings are wired anti-series.

21
 CHAPTER 3

CONCEPT AND THEORY OF WIRLESS POWER

TRANSMISSION
3.1 Introduction
The prime motive of project is to develop a system of wireless power transfer in 3D space.
This project is formed out of an AC 230V 50Hz to AC 20 KHz at 12V circuit. The ac 50 Hz is
rectified by BR1and the DC derived from that is again made to ac by an inverter by transistors
switching 100 Hz which is fed to another high frequency transformer the output of which is
then fed to a resonating coil acting as primary of another air core transformer, the secondary
of which is fed to a 2nd rectifier to drive a DC load.

Wireless power cannot be transferred by 50 Hz ac power using air core. The air core
transformer operating at 40 kHz is the mainly used for transfer of power in 3D space. The
secondary coil in resonance develops a voltage of 100 Hz at about 12 volt while it is taken
over the primary coil. The output of this secondary is given to a lamp that glows at considerable
distance from the primary coil. However, the overall efficiency of the power transfer is less
than 70% for all weakly coupled series resonators used in the project.

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of full Circuit

22
3.2 Circuit Diagram Description

Figure 3.2: Full project circuit

23
3.2.1 Bridge Rectifier

Diodes are used for rectifying the input by this bridge rectifier as shown in the figure. Since
the diode is a unidirectional device that allows the current flow in one direction only. It doesnt
allow the power to vary depending on the load requirement, with this configuration of diodes
in the rectifier. So this type of rectifier is used in constant or fixed power supplies.

Figure 3.3: Rectification circuit

The amplitude of the input voltage is changed at the first stage of the circuit which is a step-
down type transformer. Most of the electronic projects uses 230/12V transformer to step-down
the AC mains 230V to 12V AC supply. Diode-bridge rectifier which uses four or more diodes
depending on the type of bridge rectifier which is the next stage. Choosing a particular diode
or any other switching device for a corresponding rectifier needs some considerations of the
device like Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV), forward current If, voltage ratings, etc. Unidirectional
or DC current at the load is being produced by conducting set of diodes for every half cycle of
the input signal which is responsibility of the bridge rectifier.

3.2.2 Inverter Circuit using two transistors

Push-pull applications makes a more reliable waveform output than that of a fly back converter
thus it can be used. The circuit below contain a push-pull transformer, with two Switching
transistors. The base feedback of push-pull transformer is collected from the transformer itself
(self-oscillating).This one has output power of up to 18Watt stated at 12V, though we can see
the output is coupled by a series capacitor/diode here.

The transformer has 5 lines at input section. Central connector goes to +VE supply, through a
L1 inductor coil. The spikes due to the switching of transformer are absorbed by this circuit. L1
should be 10mH to 100mH wit ferrite core. There are two power stage pins and two feedback
pins which goes to each of transistors collector and base.

24
The initial base feeding is done by a 220 Ohm resistor to the base of any of the transistor,
having a capacitor of (0.47uF) to the other transistor. This technology can be used for similar
CFL lighting/ mobile charging etc. applications which does rectify the input power to DC.

Figure 3.4: Inverter circuit using two transistor

The advantage of this circuit is that the CFL would glow even at huge battery discharge by
this circuit. Light stays till battery voltage goes down to 5V which is showed by experiments.
Its not safe to run appliances up to that discharge level, as that would lead sulphation to the
battery plates. Here is used CTC1351 transistor for an output of 18Watt, n this setup with a
big transformer to make output of up to 100W.Front View of inverter with two transistors:

Figure 3.5: Front view inverter circuit using two transistors

25
3.2.3 Bifilar winding

Some bifilar windings have adjacent coils in which the convolutions are arranged so that the
potential difference is magnified (i.e., the current flows in same parallel direction). The
magnetic field created by one winding is multiplied with that created by the other, resulting in
a greater net magnetic field. Others windings are wound so that the current flows in opposite
directions. The magnetic field created by one winding is therefore equal and opposite to that
created by the other, resulting in a net magnetic field of zero (i.e. neutralizing any negative
effects in the coil). In electrical terms, it can be said that the self-inductance of the coil is zero.

The bifilar coil (more often called the bifilar winding) is used in modern electrical engineering
as a means of constructing wire-wound resistors with negligible parasitic self-inductance. To
suppress back emf a different type of bifilar coil is used in some relay windings and
transformers which are used for a switched-mode power supply. In this case, the two wire
coils are closely spaced and wound in parallel but are electrically isolated from each other.
The primary coil operates the relay and the secondary coil is short-circuited inside the case.
When the current through the primary is interrupted, as happens when the relay is switched
off, most of the magnetic energy is intercepted by the secondary coil which converts it to heat
in its internal resistance. This is one of several methods by which energy can be absorbed
from the primary coil before it can damage the device (usually a vulnerable semiconductor)
that drives the relay. The main disadvantage of this method is that it greatly increases the
switching time of the relay.

Figure 3.6: Bifilar Winding

26
The energy stored in the stray magnetic flux which fails to link the primary coil to the secondary
coil of the switching transformer is removed by means of one winding of the bifilar coil. The
wires of the bifilar coil "see" the same stray magnetic flux because of their proximity. Usually
diode is used to clamp one wire to ground so that other "primary" wire of the bifilar coil no
longer has a voltage applied across it (by the switching transistor). Equal voltage appear
across the primary winding because of the stray magnetic flux which generates a current in
the clamping coil with the primary side voltage appearing across it. The stray magnetic flux
would attempt to force a current to flow through the primary wire, if this clamping coil was not
used. The high voltage which would appear on the semiconductor switching transistor would
exceed its electrical breakdown or even damage it, since the primary wire is switched off and
the switching transistor is in a high resistance state.

Figure 3.7: Project picture for bifilar winding inverter circuit using two transistors
27
3.2.4 LED / Battery Charging / USB output

5V DC from the computer USB port to 12V DC can be converted using this circuit and a circuit like
this will find a lot of application in USB powered systems. The heart of this circuit is IC 7805 which
is a constant current, constant voltage boost converter.

Figure 3.8: 12V LED / Battery Charging / USB Driving Circuit

3.2.5 Air Discharges

A small, later-type Tesla coil in operation: The output is giving 43-cmsparks. The diameter of
the secondary is 8 cm. The power source is a 10 000 V, 60 Hz current-limited supply.

Electrical energy from the secondary and toroid is transferred to the surrounding air which is
wasted as electrical charge, heat, light, and sound as discharges. The process is similar to
charging or discharging a capacitor. Displacement current is the current that arises from
shifting charges within a capacitor. Tesla coil discharges are formed as a result of

28
displacement currents as pulses of electrical charge are rapidly transferred between the high-
voltage toroid and nearby regions within the air called space charge regions. A profound role
in the appearance and location of Tesla coil discharges is played by the space charge regions
those are around the toroid as they are invisible.

When the spark gap fires, the charged capacitor discharges into the primary winding, causing
the primary circuit to oscillate. The secondary winding is coupled to the magnetic field which
is created by the oscillating primary current, energy is transferred to the secondary side of the
transformer and causing it to oscillate with the toroid capacitance. The energy transfer occurs
over a number of cycles, and most of the energy that was originally in the primary side is
transferred into the secondary side. The greater the magnetic coupling between windings, the
shorter the time required to complete the energy transfer. As energy builds within the
oscillating secondary circuit, the amplitude of the toroid's RF voltage rapidly increases, and
the air surrounding the toroid begins to undergo dielectric breakdown, forming a corona
discharge.

Larger pulses of displacement current further ionize and heat the air at the point of initial
breakdown, as the secondary coil's energy (and output voltage) continues to increase. This
forms a very conductive "root" of hotter plasma, called a leader that projects outward from the
toroid. The plasma within the leader is more conductive and considerably hotter than a corona
discharge. In fact, its properties are similar to an electric arc. Hair-like discharges (called
streamers) which are formed when the leader tapers and branches into thousands of thinner
and cooler discharges. The streamers look like a bluish 'haze' at the ends of the more luminous
leaders, and transfer charge between the leaders and toroid to nearby space charge regions.
The displacement currents help to keep leader hot and electrically conductive which comes
from countless streamers and all feed into the leader.

The primary break rate of sparking Tesla coils is slow compared to the resonant frequency of
the resonator-top load assembly. Energy is transferred from the primary LC circuit to the
resonator where the voltage rings up over a short period of time to the peak in the electrical
discharge when the switch is closed. In a spark gap Tesla coil, the primary-to-secondary
energy transfer process happens repetitively at typical pulsing rates of 50500 times per
second, and between the pulses previously formed leader channels do not get a chance to
fully cool down. So, on successive pulses, newer discharges can build upon the hot pathways
left by their predecessors. On each successive pulse discharge is lengthening because of
incremental growth of the leader from one pulse to the next. Repetitive pulsing causes the
discharges to grow until the average energy available from the Tesla coil during each pulse
balances the average energy being lost in the discharges (mostly as heat). At this
point, dynamic equilibrium is reached, and the discharges have reached their maximum length

29
for the Tesla coil's output power level. The unique combination of a rising high-voltage radio
frequency envelope and repetitive pulsing seem to be ideally suited to create long, branching
discharges that are considerably longer than would be otherwise expected by output voltage
when considered alone. High-voltage discharges create filamentary multi branched
discharges which are purplish-blue in colour. High-energy discharges create thicker
discharges with fewer branches, are pale and luminous, almost white, and are much longer
than low-energy discharges, because of increased ionization. The area is covered by a strong
smell of ozone and nitrogen oxides. The important factors for maximum discharge length
appear to be voltage, energy, and still air of low to moderate humidity. Many aspects of Tesla
coil discharges and the energy transfer process are still not completely understood even more
than 100 years after the first use of Tesla coils.

3.2.6 Turning Precaution

Using low-power oscillations, the primary coil's resonant frequency is tuned to that of the
secondary therefore increasing the power until the apparatus has been brought under control.
While tuning, a small projection (called a "breakout bump") is often added to the top terminal
in order to stimulate corona and spark discharges (sometimes called streamers) into the
surrounding air. Corresponding to a frequency match between the primary and secondary coil
tuning can then be adjusted so as to achieve the longest streamers at a given power level.
Streamers tends to lower the resonant frequency of a Tesla coil operating under full power
because of capacitive 'loading'. For a variety of technical reasons, toroid provide one of the
most effective shapes for the top terminals of Tesla coils.

3.3 Component Description

3.3.1 Resistor

The work of resistor is to oppose the flowing current. Every conductor has a certain resistance
if one applies a potential difference V at the terminals of a resistor, the current I passing
through it is given by

I=V/R

This formula is known as Ohms Law. The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (). One can show that
the power P (in J/s) dissipated due to a resistance is equal to P=VI=IR2 .

30
3.3.2 Capacitor

A Capacitor is a component that can store energy in the form of an electric field. Two
electrodes separated by a dielectric medium is the most common form of capacitor. If there is
a potential difference V between those two electrodes, charges will accumulate on those
electrodes: a charge Q on the positive one. If both are electrode then opposite charge Q on
the negative one. An electrical field therefore arises between them. If both of the electrodes
carry the same amount of charge, one can write

Q=CV

Where C is the capacity of the capacitor. Its unit is the Farad (F). The energy E in joules stored
in a capacitor is obtained by

E= (1/2) QV= (1/2) CV2

Where one can note that the dependence in the charge Q shows that the energy is indeed the
energy of the electric field. The amount of work that has to be done to place the charges on
the electrodes is called as energy stored.

3.3.3 Inductor

An inductor stores the energy in the form a magnetic field. Certain inductance is present in
every electrical circuit. When current flows within a circuit, it generates a magnetic field B that
can be calculated from Maxwell-Amperes law:

B = 0 J + 0 0

Where the electric field and J is the current density. The opposition to change in current is
measured by the auto-inductance of a circuit: when the current changes, the flux of magnetic
field B that crosses the circuit changes. That leads to the apparition of an electromotive
force that opposes this change. It is given by:

b
=- t

The inductance L of a circuit is thus defined as:

V = L

31
Where V the electromotive force (EMF) that a change of current will cause and I (t) is the
current that flows in the circuit . The inductance is measured in henrys (H). The energy E
stored in an inductor in joules is calculated as:

1 1
E = 2 LV = 2 LI 2

The dependence on the current I shows that this energy originates from the magnetic field that
is being used. The work that has to be done against the EMF to establish the current in the
circuit is termed as energy.

3.3.4 Impedance

The resistance expressed to an alternating current is impedance of a component (i.e.

sinusoidal). This Quantity generalizes the notion of resistance. A component can act both on
the amplitude and the phase of the signal when dealing with alternating current.

3.3.4.1Expression for Alternating Current

It is much easy to use the complex plan to represent the impedance. The switching between
the two representations is accomplished by using Eulers formula. Lets note that the utilization
of complex numbers is a simple mathematical trick, as it understood that only the real part of
these quantities is meaningful. The general expression of voltage V (t) and current I (t) are
given as below:

V (t) = V0 . Cos ( + ) V (t) = V0 . Re { () }

I (t) = I0 . Cos ( + I) I (t) = I0 . Re { () }

Where V0 and I0 are the respective amplitudes, = 2 is the angular speed (assumed
identical for both quantities) and are the phases.

3.3.4.2 Definition of Impedance

The impedance denoted as Z is formed of a real part (the resistance R), and an imaginary part
(the reactance X):

Z = R + jX (Cartesian form)

= |Z| (Polar form)

32
Where j is the imaginary unit number, i.e. j2 = 1, that a = arc tan(X/R) is phase difference
between voltage and current and |Z| = 2 + 2 the Euclidean norm of Z in the complex plane.

At this point, we can generalize Ohms law as the following:

V(t) = Z . I(t)

When the component act only on the amplitude that is when X = 0 therefore the imaginary part
vanishes and we can find Z = R. We therefore have the behaviour of a resistor. The component
is then said to be purely resistive, and the DC version of Ohms law applies. When the
component only acts on the phase of the signal that is when R = 0 then the impedance is
purely imaginary. The behaviour of Perfect capacitors and inductors is being translated.

lm

Figure 3.9: The impedance Z plotted in the complex plane.

3.3.4.3 Impedance Formulas

The following table shows the general formula for the impedance of each type of each type of
component.

Table 3.1: Impedance formulas

Component Impedance Effect on an alternating signal

Resistor Z=R Decrease of amplitude (current and tension)
Capacitor 1 Tension has a / 2 delay over current.
Z =

Inductor Z = jL Current has a / 2 delay over tension.

The differential expressions of these components can be used to obtain above formulas. The
calculation of the phase difference between current and voltage for every combinations of
components is obtained by vector-addition of the impedances (for example, in an RC circuit,
33
the phase difference will be less than = 2).It should be kept in mind that any real-life component
has a non-zero resistance and reactance. A wire connected to a generator has a capacitance,
an inductance and a resistance even when the circuit is very small.

3.3.5 LC Circuit

A capacitor C and an inductor L connected in parallel or in series to a sinusoidal signal

generator forms an LC circuit. The understanding of this circuit is at the very basis of the Tesla
coil functioning, hence the following analysis. Tesla coil has both primary and secondary
circuits as series LC circuits that are magnetically coupled to a certain degree. We will
therefore only look at the case of the series LC circuit.

C (Farads)

Figure 3.10: Schematic of a series LC circuit

Using Kirchhoffs law for current, we obtain that that the current in the inductor and the current
in the inductor and the current in the capacitor are identical. We now use Kirchhoffs law for
voltage, which states that the sum of the voltage across the components along a closed loop
is zero, to get the following equation:

() = () + ()

For the inductor, express the time derivative of current in terms of the charge by I =dq/dt we
find:

() = L

34

= L 2

Now for the capacitor, we isolate the charge Q in the relation Q=CV and we get

1
()= ()

Putting in () equation we get:

1
() = LQ +

Just like a spring-mass system this equation describes an (undamped) harmonic oscillator
with periodic driving. The inductor is assimilated to the mass of the oscillator: a circuit of
great inductance will have a lot of inertia. The spring constant is associated with the inverse
of the capacitance C (this is the reason why C is seldom called the reactance).

3.3.6 Resonant Frequency

In our analysis of the LC circuit, we found that the oscillations of current and voltage naturally
occurred at a precise angular speed, uniquely determined by the capacitance and inductance
of the circuit. Oscillations of current and voltage will always take place at this angular speed,
without other effects.

1
=

It is called the resonant angular speed. We can check that it is dimensionally coherent (its
units are s). At the resonant angular speed, the respective reactive parts of an inductor and a
capacitor are equal (in absolute value) and can be written as:

1
| | = = = | |

It is however much more important to talk about resonant frequency, which is just a rescale of
the angular speed:

1
=
2

We also saw that if its frequency is equal to the resonant frequency of the circuit it drives
current and voltage and have ever-increasing amplitudes when there is a sinusoidal signal
generator. Of course, this doesnt happen if they are different (the oscillation remain bounded).

35
 1.0

0.5

|I| amps

0 0.1 1 10 100

Rad/s

Figure 3.11: Amplitude of the current plotted against the driving frequency (all constants
normalized).

The impedance is mainly capacitive as the reactance of a capacitor is greater at low

frequencies, the impedance is mainly inductive at high frequencies. At the resonant frequency
impedance vanishes and hence the asymptotic behaviour of the current. Resistance is non-
zero in real circuit where the width and height of the spike plotted above are determined by
the Q-factor. For a Tesla coil driving an (R) LC circuit at its resonant frequency causes a
dramatic increase of voltage and current but it can be potentially harmful for the transformer
feeding the primary circuit.

3.3.7 Magnetic Wire

Copper or aluminium wire coated with a very thin layer of insulation is magnetic or enamelled
wire. These wires used in the construction of transformers, inductors, motors, speakers, hard
disk head actuators, electromagnets and other applications which require tight coils .

The wire itself is most often fully annealed, electrolytic ally refined copper. For large
transformers and motors Aluminium magnet wire are used. An aluminium wire must have 1.6
times the cross sectional area as a copper wire to achieve comparable DC resistance. Copper
magnet wires contribute to improving energy efficiency in equipment such as electric motors
because of this.

Usually a round cross section of magnet wire has smaller diameter. Electric guitar pickups
uses this kind of wire. Thicker magnet wire is often square or rectangular (with rounded
corners) to provide more current flow per coil length.

36
3.3.8 Battery
Stored chemical energy is converted into electrical energy by a device consisting of one
or more electrochemical cells called as battery. Each cell contains a positive terminal
(cathode) and a negative terminal (anode). Current flow out of the battery to perform work
because electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals.

The electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge of primary (single-use or
"disposable") batteries therefore they are used once and discarded. Common examples are
the alkaline battery used for flashlights. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be
discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be
restored by reverse current. Examples include the lithium ion batteries used for
portable electronics and lead-acid batteries used in vehicles. Batteries come in many shapes
and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks
the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry with 6% annual growth generates
US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit
mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. Fuels in engines entails a low efficiency of
conversion to work therefore batteries which are more efficient and deliver their energy as
electricity (which can be converted efficiently to mechanical work) are used.

3.3.9 IC7805
One can get a constant high-voltage power supply using inexpensive 3-terminal voltage
regulators through some simple techniques described below. Depending upon the current
requirement, a reasonable load regulation can be achieved. Line regulation in all cases is
equal to that of the voltage regulator used.

Though high voltage can be obtained with suitable voltage boost circuitry using ICs like LM
723, some advantages of the circuits presented below are: simplicity, low cost, and practically
reasonable regulation characteristics. For currents of the order of 1A or less, only one zener
and some resistors and capacitors are needed. For higher currents, one pass transistor such
as ECP055 is needed.

Let us first understand the 3-terminal type constant voltage regulators before making the final
circuit. Let us see the schematic in Fig. where 78XX is a 3-terminal voltage regulator.

37
Figure 3.12: Schematic for obtaining low-voltage regulated output using 3-terminal voltage regulators.

Rectified and filtered unregulated voltage is applied at VIN and a constant voltage appears
between pins 2 and 2 of the voltage regulator. *The distribution of two currents in the circuit
(IBIAS and ILOAD) is as shown.

It is highly recommended to use the two capacitors as shown. Electrically regulator will
be at a distance from the rectifier supply. Thus, a tantalum grade capacitor of 5mf and
rated voltage is good. Electrolytic capacitor is not suitable for it is poor in response to
load transients, which have high frequency components. At the output side a 0.22mf
disc ceramic capacitor is useful to eliminate spurious oscillations, which the regulator
might break into because of its internal high gain circuitry.

These voltage regulators have a typical bias current of 5 mA, which is reasonably constant.
The output voltage in many cases can be calculated by inserting a small resistor Rx between
pin 2 and ground. By this method voltage increment of 5 to 10 per cent is practically feasible.
However, if a high-value resistance is used to obtain a higher output voltage, a slight variation
in bias current will result in wide variation of the output voltage.

Now let us see that what can be done to get a higher but constant output voltage. If to the
circuit of Fig. resistor RY and zener Vz are added as shown in Fig., the output voltage is now
given by

VOUT=VR+VZ + IBIAS RX

A constant current flows through RY** because VOUT is constant, and small variations in
IBIAS do not change practically the operating point of Vz. This situation is like constant current
biasing of zener, which results in a very accurate setting of the zener voltage.

As long as VIN>VOUT+2 volts, VOZ is constant from the reasoning of Figure, and thus
current through RY is constant.

VOZ=VR + IBIAS Rx

Pin 2 of the regulator is raised above ground by Vz + IBIAS Rx. Thus, any combination of
zener with a proper selection of RY can be used.

38
For example, Let VR=+15 V for 7815

IBIAS=5mA

VZ=39V (standard from ECIL)

For a standard 400mW zener of ECIL make, IZ MAX=10 mA. Thus, if we let pass 5mA through
RY to make a 55-volt supply

Figure 3.13 Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies

Between pins 1 and 2 the maximum input voltage allowed for 78XX regulators is 35V. We see
that the actual voltage between pin 1 and 2 of the regulator in this circuit is

VIN - VZ - IBIAS RX

It is therefore necessary that VIN be so chosen that voltage between pins 1 and 2 of the IC
does not exceed the maximum rating. Also, a high input-output differential voltage VIN-VOUT
means more power dissipation in the series-pass element, the regulator. Thus, with proper
selection of the input transformer voltage and capacitor, this should be minimized.

For example, if 7805 is used, VR equals + 5V and VZ is 40V, so VOUT=45 volts. For 7805, the
maximum input voltage is 35 V and the minimum 7V. Therefore,

VIN MAX = 45 + 35 - 5 = 75 VOLTS

VIN MIN = 45 + 7 - 5 = 47 VOLTS

Thus, from no-load to full-load condition, the unregulated input voltage-including peak ripple-
should be within these limits. This gives a margin of 75-47, i.e. 28 volt. The maximum
transformer voltage from the no-load input voltage chosen on the upper side can be worked
out by a designer.

The capacitor's value can be determined from the full load unregulated voltage chosen.
Roughly, per 100mA current, 100mf capacitor gives 1-volt peak-to-peak ripple. Hence,
capacitor's value can be determined for the desired current.

39
This circuit shown in the figure will have an excellent load and line regulation. For shot-circuit
protection, it is recommended to use a fast-blow fuse of suitable value. Although the regulator
has inherent short-circuit protection, the maximum current differs from device to device.
Adequate heat sink should be used with the regulator.

Figure 3.14: Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies providing currents in excess of one
ampere
Now if currents in excess of 1A are needed, the circuit shown in fig. is useful. This circuit is
similar to that in Fig. except that a pass transistor ECP055 is added besides a 0.5-ohm or
more resistor. This transistor bypasses the excessive current. The ratio of two currents
passing through the regulator and transistor can be altered by selecting proper Rz.

This circuit will show load and live regulation within 1% and will function properly for VIN-
VOUT as low as 4 volt. For short-circuit protection, a fast blow fuse is recommended as this
circuit does not have inherent short-circuit protection. Adequate heat sink is to be used for the
pass transistors. For negative voltages, use 79XX series regulators and ECN055 as the pass
transistor. Some advantages of the circuits described above are: the lowest cost among
comparable performance circuits, ability to work at low input-output differential, and flexibility
in design for various applications.

So audio enthusiasts, try this inexpensive alternative for power supply, if you are troubled by
hum emanating from your power amplifier.

40
3.3.10 Battery Charger

This unit charges the batteries until they reach a specific voltage and then it trickle charges
the batteries until it is disconnected.

Figure 3.15 Battery Charger

An AC-DC wall adapter is equivalent to a simple charger. It applies 300mA to the battery at all
times, which will damage the battery if left connected too long.

By forcing an electric current through a secondary cell or (rechargeable) battery, battery

charger put energy into it. The charge current depends upon the technology and capacity of
the battery being charged. For example, the current that should be applied to recharge a
mobile phone battery will be very different from the current for a 12 V car battery.

Types of Battery Charger

Simple: A simple charger works by connecting a constant DC power source to the

battery being charged. The simple charger does not changes according to output
based on time or the charge on the battery. There is a tradeoff in quality of simple
charger with low price. To prevent severe over-charging a simple charger takes longer
to charge a battery. Due to over-charging a battery left in a simple charger for too long
will be weakened or destroyed. These chargers can supply either a constant current
or a constant voltage to the battery.
Trickle: A trickle charger is a kind of simple charger that charges the battery slowly, at
the self-discharge rate. A trickle charger is one of the slowest charger. A battery can
be kept for trickle charging through a trickle charger for indefinitely. Leaving a battery
in a trickle charger keeps the battery "topped up" but never over-charges.
Timer-based: The output of a timer charger is terminated after a pre-determined time.
In the late 1990s, timer chargers were the most common type for high-capacity Ni-Cd
cells. For example (low-capacity consumer Ni-Cd cells were typically charged with a
simple charger). The charger time was set to suit the batteries and accordingly a timer
charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle. If batteries of higher capacity
were charged they would be only partly charged and if batteries of lower capacity were
41
 charged then they would be overcharged. An old timer charger would only partly
charge the newer batteries because of trend in battery technology to increase capacity
year on year. Timer based chargers also had the drawback that even if batteries were
of the correct capacity for the particular timed charger it would charge batteries that
were not fully discharged which would result in over-charging.
Intelligent: Output current depends upon the battery's state. To determine the optimum
charge current, an intelligent charger may monitor the battery's voltage, temperature
and time under charge t at that instant. When a combination of the voltage,
temperature and/or time indicates that the battery is fully charged the charging is
terminated. For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, until the battery is fully charged, the voltage
across the battery increases slowly during the charging process. After that, the voltage
decreases is the indication to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged.
Such chargers are often labeled as a V, or "delta-V," charger, indicating that they
monitor the voltage change. However, the magnitude of "delta-V" can become small
or even nonexistent if (very) high capacity rechargeable batteries are recharged. This
can cause even an intelligent battery charger to not sense that the batteries are
actually already fully charged and continue charging which result in overcharging. A
typical intelligent charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum
capacity in less than an hour, then switches to trickle charging (which takes several
hours) to charge the battery to its full capacity.
Fast: Control circuitry are used in the fast charger so that batteries are being charged
rapidly without damaging the cells elements. Cooling fan is used to help keep the
temperature of the cells under control. Standard NiMH cells that do not have the
special control circuitry are also capable of acting as a standard overnight charger.
Some fast chargers which are made by Energizer, can fast-charge any NiMH battery
even if it does not have the control circuit.
Pulse: Some chargers use pulse technology in which a pulse is fed to the battery. The
strictly controlled rise time, pulse width, pulse repetition rate (frequency) and amplitude
is contained in a DC pulse. Automotive and valve-regulated batteries also uses this
technology as it is said to work with any size, voltage, capacity or chemistry of batteries.
With pulse charging, high instantaneous voltages can be applied without overheating
the battery. In a Lead-acid battery breaks-down stubborn lead-sulfate crystals is use
which greatly extending the battery service life. Several kinds of pulse charging are
patented. Others are open source hardware. Some chargers use pulses to check the
current battery state when the charger is first connected, they use pulse charging as a
kind of trickle charging to maintain the charge, they use constant current charging
during fast charging,. Some chargers nowadays also uses "negative pulse charging",
also called "reflex charging" or "burp charging these chargers uses both positive and
42
 brief negative current pulses. Pulse chargers only use positive pulses and these
negative chargers don't work any better.
Inductive: Inductive battery chargers use electromagnetic induction to charge
batteries. An electromagnetic energy is send by a charging station through inductive
coupling to an electrical device, which stores the energy in the batteries. This is
achieved without the need for metal contacts between the charger and the battery.
Inductive charger is commonly used in electric toothbrushes and other small power
devices used in bathrooms. There is no risk of electrocution as there are no open
electrical contacts.
USB-based: Pay-per-charge kiosk is used for illustrating the variety of mobile
phone charger connectors. Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides for
a five-volt power supply, it's possible to use a USB cable as a power source for
recharging batteries. Products based on this approach include circuitry which eliminate
the need for a separate charger and are made of standard NiMH cells and custom
NiMH batteries with built-in USB plugs.[14] Moixa Energy patented a design of batteries,
branded USBCELL, that incorporate their own USB chargers internally, complete with
their own plugs. AA battery design contains the positive end of the battery which
doubles as a flip-cap for the built-in USB plug.
Charge rate: This is often denoted as C and signifies a charge or discharge rate equal
to the capacity of a battery divided by 1 hour. For example C for a 1600 mAh battery
would be 1600 mA (or 1.6 amps). 2C is twice this rate and 1/2C is half the rate.

Applications:

Since a battery charger for charging a battery, it may not have voltage regulation or filtering of
the DC voltage output. Battery chargers that are equipped with both filtering and voltage
regulation are identified as battery eliminators.

Mobile Charger Phone:

Most mobile phone chargers are not really chargers, only adapters that provide a power
source for the charging circuitry which is almost always contained within the mobile phone.
Mobile phones can accept wide range of voltages as long as it is sufficiently above the phone
battery voltage. However, if the voltage that is being given to the phone is too high then it can
damage the phone. Mostly, the voltage is 5 volts but it can sometimes vary up to 12 volts when
the power source is not loaded.

43
Battery chargers for mobile phones and other devices are notable as they come in a wide
variety of DC connector, styles and voltages. Most of these are not compatible with even
different models of phones from a single manufacturer or other manufacturers' phones.

To ensure delivery of the correct charger for users of publicly accessible charging kiosk, they
must be able to cross-reference connectors with device brands/models and individual charge
parameters. A database-driven system is one of the solution and is being used into some of
the latest design of charging kiosks.

The Ion hub charger can simultaneously charge several electronic devices: iPod Nano, Razr,
Nintendo DS Lite, BlackBerry, portable DVD player, and electric shaver.

There are also human-powered chargers which typically consists of a dynamo powered by a
hand crank and extension cords and are sold in the market. There are also solar chargers. a
National standard on mobile phone chargers using the USB standard are being made in China
and other countries. Battery charger for vehicles. There are two main types of charges for
vehicles which are being widely used:

To recharge a fuel vehicle's starter battery, where a modular charger is used.

To recharge an electric vehicle (EV) battery pack.

44
 CHAPTER 4

ANALYTICAL REPORT

4.1 Current Wired Charger:

The wired charger used in general application have an efficiency of 50-64% as the basic
circuitry consist of number of circuit within thus reducing the final efficiency, depicted in Figure
4.1 . The internal circuits involved are
Diode Bridge
Flyback Circuit
Diode Rectification Regulation
Charger

Figure 4.1 Current Wired charger efficiency chart

45
4.2 Current Wireless Power EVM System:

Figure 4.2 Current Wireless Power EVM System efficiency chart

46
4.3 Efficiency calculation of the wireless power transfer system
with scattering matrixs parameters
The wireless power transfer scheme could be analysed with the two-port network theory,
which is formulated below. As discussed earlier, such networks could be characterized by
various equivalent circuit parameters, such as transfer matrix, impedance matrix in (1) and
scattering matrix in (2).

Where V1 and V2 are the input and output voltages of the network and similarly I1 and I2 are
the input and output currents with the direction specified. Scattering matrix relates the ingoing
(s+1, 2) and the outgoing waves (s-1, 2) of the network.

In electric circuit analysis, transfer and impedance matrices are widely used, but the
measurement of coefficients becomes difficult at higher frequencies. Instead, a scattering
matrix is preferred due to the existence of network analyzers, which can measure scattering
matrix parameters over a wide range of frequencies. Employing this two-port network concept,
the efficiency of power transfer between the generator and the load can be calculated as
followings

From the scattering matrix analysis, the expression for the voltages and currents in terms of
wave variables can be presented as (3).

47
Where Z0 is the reference impedance value (normally chosen to be 50). Considering figure
above and (3) it is possible to define scattering matrix equations as (4).

Where Zin is the input network impedance and in, L are the reflection coefficients given by
(5).

From (3)-(5) it is possible to define reflection coefficients in terms of scattering matrix

parameters.

Following the procedure, if the roles of the generator and the load are reversed, two more
reflection coefficients can be derived as (7)

Where Zout is the output impedance. And the reflection coefficients in (7) also depend on the
scattering matrix parameters as (8).

The efficiency of the wireless power transfer can be deduced through the Pin (input power,
coming into the two port network from the generator) and Pout (output power, going out from
the two port network to the load). For the system in figure 3 from Ref.[1] the input and output
power can be derived as

Where Rin=Re{Zin} and RL=Re{ZL}. In here Re stands for the real part of the complex number.

48
From (9), a necessary condition for maximum power delivery from the generator to the
connected system is given by (10).

Similarly the maximum output power could be delivered to the load when (11) holds.

Then in terms of S-parameters, the efficiency of wireless power transfer from Ref.[1] could be
deduced as (12).

Here, if the load and generator impedances are matched to the reference impedance
(i.e.=ZL=Z0), then from (7) and (8) reflection coefficients would be presented as (13).

Substituting (13) to (12) the efficiency formula can be simplified as (14).

4.4 Efficiency calculation via scattering matrix method

The wireless power transfer is here analysed with the two-port network theory, which is
formulated below. So first of all we will get all the data related to efficiency for 5cm gap.
Firstly calculating the inductance of coil
We know radius of circular coil is 3 inches and 22 gauge wire with 100 turns is used
(8)
= 2 [ln + 2]

(8 0.762)
= 1002 0.762 1.25 106 1 [ln + 2]
0.04516

= 7000.834
Neglecting capacitance for sake of convenience as its effect is negligible,
1
1 =
1
12.85
1 =
0.68
1 = 18.90
V1 and I1 values are obtained by opening secondary coil and feeding to primary,

49
Frequency output from inverter is 40 KHz
= 2 = 2 3.14 40000 7000 106
= 1758
And finding out equivalent impedance
= 1758.5
As the coils are identical that is number of turns and radius of coil are same lead us to the
point that
For scattering matrix,
1 12 +1
[ ] = [ 11 ][ ]
2 21 22 +2

From properties of scattering matrix,

1 = 0 (+1 + 1 )

2 = 0 (+2 + 2 )
1
1 = (+1 1 )
0
1
2 = (+2 2 )
0

Now putting values from obtained data

+1 + 1 = 3.11
+1 + 1 = 8.22
Now from above equations we get values for scattering matrix input
+1 = 5.665
1 = 2.55
Similarly,
+2 + 2 = 3.11
+2 + 2 = 0.45
Now from above equations we get values for scattering matrix input
+2 = 1.78
2 = 1.33
Where Zin is the input network impedance and in, L are the reflection coefficients given as
1 = +1
= 0.45
= 0.7472

50
Where Zout is the output impedance. And the reflection coefficients in (7) also depend on the
scattering matrix parameters as
22
= = 18.90
1.16
22
= = 338.46
65 103
Following the procedure, if the roles of the generator and the load are reversed, two more
reflection coefficients can be derived as

=
0
1000 50
= = 0.90
1000 + 50
And also,
= 0.90
it is possible to define reflection coefficients in terms of scattering matrix parameters.
2
12
= 11 +
1 11
2
12
= 11 +
1 11
On putting values we have,
2
12 0.75 (1)
0.45 = 11 +
1 11 0.75
2
12 0.90 (2)
0.90 = 11 +
1 11 0.90

Solving above equations of input and outside coefficient

2
(0.45 11 )(1 0.75 11 ) = 0.75 12 (3)

2
(0.90 11 )(1 0.90 11 ) = 0.90 12 (4)

Dividing equation (3) by (4)

(0.45 11 )(1 0.75 11 ) 0.75 1
= =
(0.90 11 )(1 0.90 11 ) 0.90 1.2
2 ) 2 )
1.2(0.45 1.337511 + 0.7511 = (0.90 1.8111 + 0.9011
By solving this we get
0.36
11 = = 1.756
0.205
12 = 0.742
Here, if the load and generator impedances are matched to the reference impedance
(i.e.=ZL=Z0), then reflection coefficients would be presented as
51
 = |12 |2
= 0.742 0.742
= 55%
So for 5cm air gap efficiency is 55% similar to above the efficiency for different gap is
calculated which is as in table below

S. No. Separation gap length (in cm) Efficiency of full system (in %)
1 0 63
2 5 55
3 10 42
4 15 31
5 20 19
6 25 12
7 30 7
Table 4.1: Efficiency vs. Gap Length

4.5 Performances Graphs

4.5.1 Output voltage and current variations:

Output Voltage and Current Variations with Distance

120

100

80
Voltage/ Current

60

40

20

-20
0 cm 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm 25 cm 30 cm
Current (mA) 84 65 23 8 2.4 0.9 0.2
Voltage (V) 29 22 11.6 5.4 2.6 1.3 1
Distance

Current (mA) Voltage (V)

Figure 4.3 Output voltage vs. current variation

52
4.5.2 Efficiency Variation:

Efficiency
80

70

60

50
Efficiency

40

30

20

10

-10
0 cm 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm 25 cm 30 cm
Efficiency of Full System 63 55 42 31 19 12 7
Efficiency of Rest System 74 74 74 74 74 74 74
Distance

Efficiency of Full System Efficiency of Rest System

Figure 4.4 Efficiency variations with distance

53
4.5.3 Efficiency Variation with number of turns change:

Efficiency variation with change in number of turns

60

50

40
Efficiency

30

20

10

0
100 80 60 40 20
Efficiency 55 31 16 4 3
Number of turn on primary side of tesla coil

Efficiency

Figure 4.5 Efficiency variation with change in number of turns

54
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The experiments is showing promising results and with proper approach can be used in
modern day electronics. Few applications are proposed on the basis of the outputs received.

i. This can be used as a power source is remote areas where electricity has not yet
reached. A solar panel or wind turbine that can give voltage outputs up to 10V. Each
home can be provided with a tesla coil in the centre of the house and it can provide
wireless illumination in the whole house at very low cost.
ii. This was getting increasingly inconvenient so the Koreans devised a technique making
use of the already implemented Wireless Electricity. The Team of Korean Engineers
have developed a long 7.5m hi-tech road wherein the recharging system which is
designed by Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology was installed.

Figure 5.1 Korean wireless power bus scheme

55
 The below Figure 5.2 depicts that that shows charging of car via wireless system using
tesla coil
iii. A larger model can be made and installed on sharing basis for a few houses. This
would eliminate the cost of wires and would provide energy to multiple homes at
minimal cost

Figure 5.2 Korean wireless power bus circuitry

iv. The wireless power transfer is based on a technology called magnetic resonance
coupling. Two copper coils are tuned to resonate at the same natural frequency like
two wine glasses that vibrate when a specific note is sung. The coils are placed a few
feet apart. One coil is connected to an electric current, which generates a magnetic
field that causes the second coil to resonate. This magnetic resonance results in the
invisible transfer of electric energy through the air from the first coil to the receiving
coil.
v. It can be installed in homes as part of emergency backup light system. The coil can be
linked to the main supply and soon as the supply is cut the emergency systems can
kick in and provide energy to the critical systems. The same can be done for hospitals.
vi. Wireless power in small areas such as cars, rooms etc.
vii. Wireless charging spots in public are for devices like mobile phones and tablets.
viii. Wireless automated home lighting system, two copper coils are tuned to resonate at
the same natural frequency like two wine glasses that vibrate when a specific note

56
is sung. The coils are placed a few feet apart. One coil is connected to an electric
current, which generates a magnetic field that causes the second coil to resonate

Figure 5.3 wireless automated home system

57
 References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power_transfer
[2] Y. Tak, et al. Mode-based analysis of resonant characteristics for near-field coupled small
antennas, IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, vol. 8, pp. 1238-1241, 2009.
[3] T. Ishizaki, et al. Comparative study of coil resonators for wireless power transfer system
in terms of transfer loss, IEICE Electronics Express, vol. 7, no. 11, pp. 785790, 2010.
[4] N. Oodachi, H. Kudo, K. Ogawa, H. Shoki, S. Obayashi T. Morooka, Efficiency
improvement of wireless power transfer via magnetic resonance using the third coil,
ISAP2010, paper ID 52, Macao, China Nov. 2010.
[5] https://www.allaboutcircuits.com Technical Articles
[6] Aleksandar Marinicic, Djuradj Budimir, Teslas Contribution to Radiowave Propagation,
IEEE TELSIKS (2001), Page No- 327-331.
[7] Nikola Tesla, U.S.Patent 1119732 (1914).
[8] W.C.Brown, The History of Power Transmission by Radio Wave, IEEE Trans.vol-32
[9] Saurab Sood, S.Kullanthasamy, M.Shahidehpour, Solar Power Transmission: From
Space to Earth, IEEE Trans. (2005).
[10] Wong, Elvin (2013). "Seminar: A Review on Technologies for Wireless Electricity". HKPC.
The Hong Kong Electronic Industries Association Ltd. Retrieved 3 January 2015

[11] https://www.electrical4u.com/

[12] Christopher Cooper, The Truth About Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in the History
of Innovation, Race Point Publishing 2015

[13] Friend, Michael; Parise, Ronald J. "Cutting the Cord: ISTF 07-1726". Mainland High
School, Daytona Beach, Florida. Retrieved 7 October 2016.

[14] W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, Princeton University Press -
2013

[15] Theodore S. Rappaport, Brian D. Woerner, Jeffrey H. Reed, Wireless Personal

Communications: Trends and Challenges, Springer Science & Business Media - 2012

[16] Lawrence, Jonathan R.; Waugh, D. (2014). Laser Surface Engineering: Processes and
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