Papua New Guinea 2005

The Geology and Mineral Potential of PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The Geology and Mineral Potential of

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Edited by Anthony Williamson and Graeme Hancock

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

The Papua New Guinea Department of Mining
wishes to thank the World Bank Technical
Assistance Project in the Mining Sector for its
support in making this publication possible.
Compiled by Dr Greg Corbett

Edited by Anthony Williamson and Dr Graeme Hancock
Publisher Papua New Guinea Department of Mining
Supported by World Bank Technical Assistance Project
in the Mining Sector
Graphic Design Lian Rigano
Production Alan Caudell and Associates
Copyright Papua New Guinea Department of Mining 2005
ISBN 9980-81-490-X
Photographs The publishers wish to thank the following companies and individuals.
Highlands Pacific Group
United Pacific Drilling
Ok Tedi Mining Limited
Lihir Gold Limited
Greg Corbett
Trevor Neale
Rocky Roe Photographics
INDEX
Acknowledgements 4
Foreword 5
1. Papua New Guinea An Overview 6
2. Mineral Discovery and Mining in PNG 9
3. The Mining Sectors Contribution to the PNG Economy 14
4. Geological Framework of PNG 22
5. Geological Terranes and Mineralisation 30
6. Tectonics and Mineralisation 42
7. Mineralisation Styles 50
8. Mineral Projects and Mines 60
9. Environment 138
10. Other Relevant Agencies of Government 140
11. References 142

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Acknowledgements
Many geologists contributed to this publication, some as independent consultants,

employees or contractors. It is only fitting that due acknowledgement be given for
their individual efforts as far as is possible.
The main contributor was Dr Greg Corbett, who was primarily responsible for the
first draft of the book whilst consulting to URS Australia Pty Limited, the principal
contractor for the work. Dr Corbett has extensive practical knowledge of Papua New
Guinea mineralisation and geology. He has worked extensively throughout the Pacific
Rim as a geological consultant.
More specifically, Dr Corbetts ideas are reflected in the sections entitled Geological
Framework of PNG, Geological Terranes and Mineralisation; and Mineralisation Styles.
The latter section contains a wealth of data that provides technical background on
epithermal and porphyry related mineralisation using examples from Papua New
Guinea.
The section entitled Tectonics and Mineralisation is a combination of interpretations

from Dr Corbett, Professor Hugh Davies, Dr Robert Findlay and Dr Richard
Rogerson. The editors have taken liberty in amalgamating the contributions and
this proved to be the most difficult section to present to the reader.
Professor Davies gained his PhD many years ago based on new tectonic theories in
Papua New Guinea, and is currently employed as head of the School of Earth Sciences
at the University of PNG. Dr Findlay, until recently, was employed in the regional
geology section of the Geological Survey Division of the PNG Department of
Mining. Dr Rogerson has extensive regional geology experience in PNG, having
worked in the country for many years. He is currently employed by the West
Australian Department of Minerals and Energy.
Dr Corbetts experience is again relied heavily upon through his compilation of the
section entitled Mineral Projects and Mines. The editors and Dr Findlay had further
input into this section.
The Compendium of Prospects, presented on the companion CD, was compiled

by experienced Papua New Guinean field geologists Kassy Akiro, Jerry Garry, and
Khon Digan, with input from Peter Macnab.
The remaining sections were compiled by, or had input from, the editors,
Anthony Williamson and Dr Graeme Hancock . Dr Chris McKee and Lawrence
Anton made an important contribution via the seismic interpretation and earthquake
data maps and profiles.
4 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Foreword
It is widely recognised that Papua New Guinea (PNG) is well endowed with natural
resources, in particular, economic minerals that are sources of gold, silver, copper,
nickel and chromite.
PNG has been on the world mineral map since the early 1970s after its first porphyry
copper mine came into production. Subsequent to that, the geological understanding
of the nature of gold mineralisation in epithermal and porphyry settings has
deepened, with the result being the development of a second large copper-gold mine
and several major gold mines in PNG. There are currently three world-class mines
that collectively produce in excess of 65 tonnes of gold and 200,000 tonnes of copper
each year, so the opportunity for a return on investment in the PNG mineral sector
is proven.
In addition, one of the objectives of this publication is to highlight to potential

investors in the PNG minerals sector that there remain numerous untested, or
incompletely tested exploration targets, not to mention the as yet undiscovered
resources.
The Minerals Tenement administration system used by the Department of Mining is

based on the Mining Act (1992) and provides the investor a high degree of security
over their investment. The country has a competitive fiscal regime that operates
under terms and conditions that most accountants and financial advisers would be
familiar with.
The regional geology sections of this publication may appear repetitive to the
informed, but our intent is to provide sufficient information within each section in
an effort to stimulate the readers imagination.
One of the most obvious comments I would like to make based on my experience
with the minerals sector in Papua New Guinea, is that management persistence,
support and patience is an essential element for success in any PNG operation.
This publication details numerous prospects that are yet to reach economic thresholds
due to the fact that they have not yet been fully explored, mainly as a result of
management decisions to curtail exploration due to disillusionment of a projects
potential. Some may see this as a lost opportunity for one but a gain for another. The
point is that the rugged, deeply weathered tropical terrain of Papua New Guinea does
not easily yield up its riches.
KUMA AUA, OBE

Secretary
Papua New Guinea Department of Mining
The Geology and Mineral Potential of 5

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
1. Papua New Guinea - An Overview
BRIEF FACTS to October) seasons, but both are subject to regional

Full name: The Independent State of Papua variation (especially in the islands). Rainfall, for
New Guinea example, varies remarkably: Port Moresby, on the
southeast coast, usually experiences an annual rainfall
Land area: 474,000 square kilometres
of 1000mm (39 inches) while Lae, on the north coast,
Population: 5.3 million, 85% of whom are has over 4500mm (176 inches). In extreme rainfall
rural based areas, such as West New Britain, the annual rainfall
People: 95% Melanesian, 5% Polynesian, can exceed 6m (20 feet) per year. Temperatures on the
Micronesian and Chinese coast are reasonably stable all year (between 25 and
Language: 805 indigenous languages plus 30C; 77 to 86F) but the humidity and winds are
Pidgin, Motu and English changeable. Temperatures are noticeably lower at
Legal system: Based on English common law higher altitudes, and it can be very cold in the
highlands.
Government: Constitutional Monarchy with a
Parliamentary Democracy Cyclones occasionally affect the eastern islands. Papua
GDP: K11.63 billion (approx US$3.6 New Guinea is subject to El Nino influenced climatic
billion) variations. Most recently, an extensive drought during
GDP per head: US$675 1997 caused the Fly River to become un-navigable,
Inflation: 4% interrupting the operations of the Ok Tedi Mine.
Major industries: Gold, oil, copper, coffee, silver,

POPULATION
copra, palm oil processing and
logging Papua New Guinea is essentially a southwest Pacific
Trading partners: Australia, Japan, USA and China Melanesian culture with Polynesian and Micronesian
influences, sandwiched between Asia to the west and
GEOGRAPHY
north and the western cultures of AustraliaNew
Zealand to the south. Archaeological evidence
Papua New Guinea lies in the southwest Pacific, just indicates that people arrived about 50,000 years ago
below the equator, between Asia and Australia. It and began farming 30,000 years ago, making them
comprises more than 600 islands and covers probably the worlds first farmers, domesticating crops
474,000km2. The country has a wide variety of such as sugar cane.
landscapes. Rugged highlands over 1000m high form
the core of the mainland and are flanked by rainforest- The population of 5.3 million people can be loosely
clad foothills and savannah. Extensive swamps with divided into four regional groupings:
navigable rivers dominate the western mainland to the
north (Sepik River) and south (Fly River) of the Highlanders living in the mountainous part of
highlands. The major islands of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea, and make up approximately
Bougainville and New Britain are surrounded by 30% of the population of Melanesian origins
striking coral formations. Numerous active volcanoes Papuans from the south coast, where the
and geothermal areas stud the islands and are often Polynesian influence is most apparent
scenes of unpredictable natural violence in 1994,
the once-beautiful New Britain town of Rabaul was New Guineans from the north mainland coast
destroyed by the Tuvurvur eruption. Islanders from the offshore islands of mostly
Micronesian and Polynesian influences.
CLIMATE
The country extends from the equator to latitude Internal migration, which began with plantation
10 south and the climate is typically monsoonal labourers in the 19th century and continued with the
often being hot, humid and wet all year-round. There modern mobile work force, has blurred these original
are defined wet (December to March) and dry (May distinctions. The number of foreign nationals in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Papua New Guinea - An Overview (cont.)
Papua New Guinea has declined from a pre- EDUCATION

independence peak of 50,000 to the current 24,000. Papua New Guinea recognises the importance of basic
The principal expatriate groups comprise refugees education, with about 70% of children attending
from West Papua living in camps near the border, primary (community) school and about 30% passing
expatriate professional workers, plantation owners and onto secondary school. Secondary education is
missionaries. delivered mainly in the government-operated
National High School System, supplemented by many
GOVERNMENT mission schools and several international schools.
Papua New Guinea became an independent Tertiary institutions that train professional geologists,
parliamentary democracy on 16th September 1975. engineers and metallurgists include the University of
There are three levels of government national, Papua New Guinea at Port Moresby and the
University of Technology at Lae.
provincial and local.
LANGUAGE
The government is formed in the National
Parliament, the Head of State is the Prime Minister In a country comprised of isolated mountain or island
and the ceremonial Head of Government is the communities, over 800 discrete languages (tok ples)
Governor General. The National Parliament, have arisen. Police Motu was adopted as the lingua
sometimes referred to as the House of Assembly, has franca of Papua by the early Papuan administration
109 seats; 89 members are elected from open from the simplified Motuan tongue historically used
electorates and 20 from provincial electorates. In the as a trading language on the south coast of Papua. In
past, the members have been elected by popular first New Guinea, Melanesian Pidgin evolved in the post-
German administration times by integrating words of
past the post style vote to serve five-year terms. The
many languages, including German, Malay and
constitution has recently been amended to introduce
Kuanua (Tolai), with basic English (in which many
limited preferential voting. Elections were last held
words were given altered meanings). Pidgin has
during 1529 June 2002 and April and May 2003,
continued to evolve as a dynamic language, such that
being completed in May 2003. The next elections will
with the integration of the Papua and New Guinea
be held no later than June 2007. There is a multi-
administrations at independence, and the greatly
party system and most governments are formed from increased mobility of the population in recent
a coalition of parties and independent members. decades, the use of Motu has largely died out except
around Port Moresby, where Hiri Motu is the
Each of the provinces has a provincial assembly,
traditional language. Pidgin is almost universally
governor and a bureaucracy to handle provincial
understood and used between members of different
matters. A further 150 local councils function at
language groups. English has been adopted as the
village level where there is an overlap with the
countrys official language and it is widely spoken
traditional clan system in which elders (bigmen) amongst educated people. There are people who
provide leadership. understand English in most areas of PNG.
JUDICIARY RELIGION
The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court. The Christianity is the dominant religion (96%) with the
Chief Justice is appointed by the Governor General on main denominations being Catholic (27%), Lutheran
the proposal of the National Executive Council after (19%), United Church (11%), Seventh Day Adventist
consultation with the minister responsible for justice. (10%), and other protestant (19%). Other significant
Other judges are appointed by the Judicial and Legal minorities include the Bahai Faith (1%) and
Services Commission. indigenous beliefs (1%).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Papua New Guinea - An Overview (cont.)
CURRENCY Europe - via Air Niugini services to Narita, Manila

The national currency is the Kina (K), which is made and Singapore;
up of 100 toea, with each name being based upon North America - via Australian or through Asian
traditional shell monies. In September 2004, the Kina connections.
was valued at US$0.30 and AUS$0.43. There is an
adequate network of locally owned and foreign Air Niugini also connects to Honiara in the Solomon
(mainly Australian) banks operating in the major Islands.
centres.
Domestic Air Niugini services link most of the major
TRAVEL
regional centres. Several helicopter companies service
the mineral and petroleum exploration and mining
The isolated mountain and island communities of industries using aircraft ranging from the smaller
Papua New Guinea and the mining industry have a Hughes 500 and Longranger, to Mil 8 helicopters.
long and enthusiastic relationship with air travel (see
section entitled Mineral Discovery and Mining in INTERNATIONAL TREATIES
PNG). The national carrier Air Niugini provides
national and international services, many of the latter Papua New Guinea is a party to the following treaties:
in code share arrangements with other airlines. Key Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change,
services and connections include: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea,
Australia - to and from Cairns (1.3 hours flying Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer
time), Brisbane (3 hours flying time), Sydney (4 Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83,
hours flying time, ex-Brisbane); Tropical Timber 94, and Wetlands.
Channel chip sampling on a remote prospect site.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
2. Mineral Discovery and Mining in PNG
INTRODUCTION progressively to Milne Bay, Cloudy Bay and

For thousands of years the indigenous people of Papua eventually, by 1909, the rich Lakekamu River alluvials
New Guinea have mined and traded stone on mainland PNG were identified. Lode mining for
implements and ochre, and used clay to make pottery. gold began on Sudest Island as early as 1890; miners
Gold was first discovered in Papua New Guinea in began to work the lodes at Woodlark in 1900 and on
1852 as accidental traces in pottery from Redscar Bay Misima in 1904. These operations remained active
on the Papuan Peninsula (Fig. 2.1). This summary of until World War II. Further details are included in the
prospecting in Papua New Guinea is taken from Nye discussions of those projects later in the text.
& Fisher (1954), Cotton (1975), Nelson (1976),
Lowenstein (1982), Williamson (1982), Loudon At the Astrolabe mineral field near Port Moresby,
(1984) and Davies (1992). massive copper ore was mined from 1907 to 1926 at
the Laloki and Dubuna Mines and transported by
EARLY EXPLORATION
light rail and aerial ropeway to a smelter near the
PRE-WORLD WAR I
Tahira Inlet wharf. Two other mines provided ore for
another smelter from 1938 to 1942 (Davies, 1992;
By the 1870s, gold prospectors, who had migrated Williamson, 1982).
northwards along the east coast of Australia,
progressed to the islands of Papua New Guinea In German New Guinea, Ernst Tappenbeck
(Fig. 2.2). In February 1873, Captain Moresby of discovered gold in the lower Ramu River in 1898 and
HMS Basilisk reported traces of gold from the vicinity a German syndicate worked gold in the Waria River
of what is now Port Moresby, and this was exaggerated from 1901 to 1904. Some prospectors entered the
in a speech to the Colonial Institute in London the Waria Valley from Papua with the blessing of the
following year. At that time, Papua New Guinea was German administration, and an area was reserved for
unclaimed by any European powers. Aviation pioneer the Rudolf Wahlen syndicate. In 1910, a Canadian-
Lawrence Hargrave found a speck of gold and a Australian, Arthur Darling, identified gold in what
specimen of copper at the furthest point of DAlbertis became the Morobe Goldfield. However, the focus of
exploration voyage in the Ok Tedi River in 1876. In the German administration in New Guinea was more
1877, gold was again reported from the vicinity of on scientific endeavours than prospecting, as distinct
Port Moresby and a small rush prospected the Laloki
from the Australian administration in Papua, which
River without success many of the miners died
saw gold mining as a valuable source of revenue. Table
from malaria. In 1884, Britain established a
2.1 summarises gold production in Papua New
protectorate over Papua, and Germany colonised
Guinea to 1926.
northern New Guinea.
Goldfield Production (oz) Date field
Papua New Guineans, returning from labouring on
proclaimed
Queensland plantations, may have identified the first
meaningful quantities of gold in PNG at Sudest
Sudest 10 035 1888
Island. David Whyte produced 142oz of gold from
there in 1888 and sparked a rush of miners from Misima Island 138 049 1889
Australia, resulting in a further 15,000oz produced to Woodlark Island 200 348 1895
1898. The rush of 400 miners soon exhausted the Gira River 67 242 1898
shallow alluvial and eluvial gold on the island, so the Milne Bay 14 230 1899
British Administrator, William MacGregor (later Sir Yodda River 76 822 1900
William), used HMS Swinger to take miners Keveri River 4 770 1904
prospecting on nearby islands, eventually finding gold
Lakekamu River 37 170 1909
on Misima in October 1888. By 1895, gold had also
been identified on Woodlark Island. As the miners Astrolabe (Port Moresby) 3 300 1906
began to prospect the Papuan Peninsula, gold was Morobe 23 005 1923
identified at Mambare River in 1896, Gira in 1897, Total (rounded) 575 000
and Yodda in 1899 (where platinum and osmiridium Table 2.1 Gold production from Papua New Guinea to
were also discovered). The prospectors moved 30 June 1926 (after Nelson, 1976 and Lowenstein, 1982).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mineral Discovery and Mining in PNG (cont.)
Fig. 2.1 Prospects, mine sites and localities cited in this book.
Fig. 2.2 Pre-World War I gold field proclamations and discoveries.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
THE WAR AND INTER-WAR A milestone in prospecting and gold mining came in
YEARS (191445) 1927 with the first Lae to Wau aeroplane flight,
leading to the next stage in development of the
At the start of World War I, Australia took possession
Morobe Goldfield. From 1932, Bulolo Gold
of the German colony of New Guinea, which was
Dredging, floated by a precursor of the international
administered from Rabaul at that time. In 1922, New
Canadian gold mining company Placer Dome,
Guinea was made a Mandated Territory of Australia
constructed eight dredges at Bulolo and Wau from
by the League of Nations. In the same year, a mining
dismantled parts flown in using three Junkers aircraft.
ordinance was put in place to legalise prospecting.
This resulted in a total airlift of 39,417 tons of freight,
After Arthur Darlings death in 1921, William Shark for production of 1.3 million ounces of gold, until the
Eye Park rediscovered Darlings gold find at Morobe planes were destroyed by Japanese fighters in 1942.
in 1922, and together with Jack Nettleton began to The Morobe Goldfield reached its peak production in
work gold in secret at Koranga Creek, in what is now 1938 when 700 expatriate and 6,218 national miners
the Morobe Goldfield. By 1923, miners began to produced 404,000oz gold. Dredging resumed after
flock to the field, which was proclaimed that year. the war and continued until the last dredge closed
The number of expatriate miners grew rapidly to 219 down in the mid-1960s. By the mid-1980s, the field
in 1926. Also in 1926, William Royal and Dick had produced 3.5 million ounces of alluvial gold and
Glasson climbed past substantial waterfalls to discover 0.5 million ounces of hard-rock gold (Nelson, 1976;
the incredibly rich alluvial gold deposits in Upper Loudon, 1984).
Edie Creek, winning up to 240oz/day from a single Prospecting by Ned Rowlands in the Eastern
sluice box (Lowenstein, 1982). At that time, it took Highlands led to the discovery in 1928 of gold near
eight days for labourers to carry supplies from the Kainantu, while in 1930 the Upper Ramu River was
coastal port of Salamaua to Wau, consuming part of declared a provisional goldfield, and from 1934 the
the cargo along the way. Sepik and Torricelli regions were explored.
Table 2.2 PNG gold production 1928-1951.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Government patrol officers who entered new into production in 1972, and had produced 30Mt of
territories panned to test drainage systems for gold, copper and 9.6 million ounces of gold by its closure at
and between 1933 and 1939 Jim Taylor and John the end of 1988.
Black identified gold downstream from Porgera. The
government sanctioned epic prospecting expeditions The Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources (BMR)
such as the 1933 patrol of the Leahy brothers (the film provided geological services to PNG from 1948 to
of which still remains). 1972. The BMR contribution to the geological
understanding of PNG was significant. In the late
Between the two World Wars, gold mining 1950s, BMR geologists discovered the Yandera copper
represented a significant source of income to the mineralisation, were responsible for the preparation of
Papua New Guinea administration. (Table 2.2) most of the 1:250,000 scale geological maps of PNG,
and in 1962 discovered the Ramu lateritic Ni-Co
POST-WORLD WAR II deposit. The Ramu project has been periodically
evaluated ever since. Again in 1966, the BMR
After World War II, prospectors moved to follow up
geologists recognised mineralised float in streams
on the Porgera discovery in 1948, but only Joe
which subsequently led to the discovery of the Frieda
Searson remained to work the alluvial gold. A road porphyry CuAu system. MIM acted on reports of
completed by army engineers linking Wau to Lae the BMR discovery to take up ground covering the
greatly aided mining in the Morobe Goldfield. Frieda prospect. Further exploration of the Frieda
area led to discovery of the Nena high sulphidation
Jack Thompson, the Chief Government Geologist,
CuAu mineralisation in 1979.
promoted mineral exploration in PNG and in the late
1950s initiated geological surveys. International Regional exploration continued elsewhere in the
mining companies extended these surveys to evaluate rugged jungles of Papua New Guinea. In 1968,
the Papuan Ultramafic Belt on the Papuan Peninsula Kennecott Copper Corporation geologists followed a
for lateritic NiCo deposits. cupriferous float train from the junction of the Ok
Menga and Ok Tedi drainages to identify the Ok Tedi
At Porgera, during the 1960s, Searson focused on the porphyry CuAu intrusion at Mt Fubilan. After its
hard-rock potential, forming a syndicate to finance success with the discovery of Panguna, CRA outfitted
initial adit development. With the help of the a ship (the CRAEStar ) with its own laboratory and
Administration, he attracted other explorers such as helicopter, which was used to prospect the western
Bulolo Gold Dredging and later Mount Isa Mines Pacific rim for porphyry CuAu deposits. Many
(MIM), which began to drill test the Waruwari hard- anomalies identified during this time are still being
rock resources at Porgera. Eventually, in 1983, explored (e.g. Wafi), and surprisingly, some still
continued geological studies by a consortium of Placer remain to be followed up.
(now Placer Dome), Renison Goldfields Consolidated
(RGC) and MIM identified the Zone VII high-grade From the mid 1960s to the early 70s, vast areas of
mineralisation, dramatically improving the economics Papua New Guinea were subjected to first-pass
of the project. prospecting for porphyry copper style mineralisation.
This work was carried out at a time of relatively low
THE 1960s PORPHYRY gold prices. Thus, the exploration programs gave little
COPPER BOOM or no consideration to gold as a possible exploration
At the time Searson was promoting Porgera to major target.
mining companies, the science of porphyry CuAu
mineralisation was beginning to emerge. In 1962, THE 1980s GOLD BOOM
Ken Phillips of Conzinc RioTinto of Australia (CRA) When Papua New Guinea gained independence in
applied a geological model, based on Philippine 1975, Panguna was the only major mine operating.
porphyry deposits, to Papua New Guinea mineral As the price of gold rose in 1974 and again more
exploration. In 1964, following the advice of Jack spectacularly in 1979, there was increasing
Thompson and a 1930s report of alluvial gold and international recognition of the gold potential of
lode copper on Bougainville, Phillips identified the Papua New Guinea. This led to a significant increase
Panguna porphyry CuAu deposit. Panguna went in applications for Exploration Licences.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
A moratorium was placed on granting new Guinea for gold mineralisation first took hold in
applications in 1980 to enable the Department time 1982, and was subsequently validated with several
to assess and process the Applications. The new discoveries being made over the ensuing few
moratorium was lifted in November 1982, resulting in years. In addition to the examples cited above, the
a flood of new applications from international gold rush at Mt Kare (198791), the bonanza gold
companies and consortia (e.g. Niugini Mining grades produced from early mining at Porgera Zone
Kennecott Joint Venture, CRA, RGC), and many VII (199102), and good results from drilling the
other junior exploration companies. The 1980s saw Minifie Zone on Lihir Island could be added to
the start of a new gold rush in the country (Fig. 2.3). substantiate the high prospectivity for gold
mineralisation of PNG. All of this has encouraged
As mentioned above, much of the earlier porphyry further prospecting and exploration.
copper exploration did not include assaying for gold
(e.g. CRAEStar) as it was not considered economically The 1987 stock market crash brought the 1980s gold
significant at that time. The new gold discoveries in exploration boom to an abrupt end in Papua New
areas such as Kerimenge, Hamata and Hidden Valley Guinea and indeed throughout the world. Mergers,
(all in the Morobe Goldfield), as well as Mt Kare and acquisitions, a declining commitment to explore, and
Tolukuma, were the result of a new generation of lacklustre investor sentiment in the mining sector,
helicopter-supported reconnaissance which explored reigned throughout the nineties. Only recently has
much of Papua New Guinea for gold mineralisation. there been an increase in exploration activity in PNG.
The exploration efforts were given a conceptual basis
by the Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea which Detailed accounts of the discovery and development of
promoted the application of new tectonic theories mines (e.g. Lihir, Tolukuma) and many exploration
(Rogerson et al., 1988). Geochemical studies by the projects (e.g. Wafi, Hidden Valley) are presented later
BMR (Wallace et al., 1983) played a distinct role in in this document.
discovery of the giant Ladolam
gold deposit on Lihir Island,
while the application of new
conceptual geological models
led to discoveries such as
Raffertys at Wafi in 1989
(Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Reappraisal of the oxidised low-
grade gold mineralisation
surrounding the previously
mined (underground 1911-41)
high-grade mineralisation at
Umuna, on Misima Island in
1976-7 by Peter Macnab, led to
its redevelopment as an open-
cut mine in the late 1980s.
Tolukuma, discovered during
helicopter-supported regional
reconnaissance geochemistry in
1985, saw mine construction
begin in May 1995. The mine
now operates without a road
link, depending entirely on
helicopter support.
The perceived high

prospectivity of Papua New Fig. 2.3 Exploration expenditure and licence applications per year.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
3. The Mining Sectors Contribution to the PNG Economy
INTRODUCTION
The economy of PNG is

dominated by a subsistence and
cash agriculture sector, yet since the
early 1980s mining and petroleum
continued to be the driving force in
the economy, contributing
significantly to total exports,
government revenue and GDP.
Mineral product exports alone
accounted for 55% of total
merchandise exports in 2003,
equivalent to some PNGK 4.2
Fig. 3.1 Export value in US$.
billion (approx US$1.1billion)
(Fig. 3.1).
Employment directly attributable

to mining is estimated to account
for 5% of the total available
workforce; furthermore this figure
represents about 20% of the total
formal rural workforce (Table
3.1). The indirect employment
figure derived from support
services, contractors etc not
classified as mining but engaged
on mining related projects,
obviously makes the overall
Fig. 3.2 Real GDP Growth 1995-2005.
employment figure due to mining Source: Bart Philemon, Economic and Development Policies; Department of Treasury
significantly higher. 2003, Mike Manning (INA) 2004.
SECTOR EXPORTS Nominal EMPLOY- Since the early 1990s, minerals and petroleum sector
% GDP % MENT %
products have consistently comprised around 70% of
2003 2003 ESTIM-
ATED 2000 total merchandise exports; comprised over 20% of total
government revenues and; was between 16% (Nat Stats
Agric./Forestry/Fisheries 24 26.6% 23
Mining 55 17.3% 5 Office) and 25% (Dept of Treasury) of GDP, on
Petroleum 21 7.8% average (Fig. 3.2).
Manufacturing - 9.3% 15
Construction - 4.8% 7 As mentioned previously, systematic mineral
Wholesale/Retail Trade - 9.7% 17 exploration of Papua New Guinea commenced in the
Transport/storage/comms - 4.8% 1960s with attention largely directed towards finding
Electricity/gas/water 1.3% porphyry copper deposits. By the mid-1970s, three
Business Services - 3.4%
Community/Social/Others - 12.7% 33 world-class deposits and several smaller systems had
Other 1.8% been discovered. In the 1980s, attention shifted to
Total 100.0 100.0 gold exploration in previously known as well as virgin
areas, and resulted in recognition of two world-class
Table 3.1 Sectoral Contributions to the PNG Economy.
Source: Dept of Treasury; Lavantis, 2000. deposits, each containing >200t of gold, and
numerous smaller deposits of economic interest.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The Mining Sectors Contribution to the PNG Economy (cont.)
Fig. 3.3 B=Bougainville; O1=Ok Tedi Gold; O2=Ok Tedi Copper; M=Misima; P=Porgera; T=Tolukuma; L=Lihir,
Black line = Bougainville closure in 1989.
Fig. 3.4 Year 2003 ranking of top ten gold producers in PNG and Australia.
Papua New Guinea has been ranked as the 11th 20 years. Manganese has also been mined in a small
largest gold producer in the world over the past few way in the past.
years and is a significant copper producer, with a very
real potential to exceed the present production level It is fortunate that there has been a positive turnaround
for both commodities. Silver is a commercial by- in interest in the mining sector since 2003, which will
product from most of the mines. Accordingly, most afford PNG a renewed opportunity to grow and
exploration and mining carried out within Papua New diversify its economy. This is timely, as the average
Guinea is, and has been, for gold and copper. lead-time for the 6 major mines which either still are, or
were in production stands at 14.7 years. The average
Mineable reserves of nickel, cobalt and chromite have time between mine commissioning is 5.9 years
been identified, but remain to be exploited. Sizeable (including Kainantu which is scheduled to commence
mineral sand prospects are known to occur, but have production in 2005). The five remaining advanced
not received much exploration attention over the last projects (Simberi, Hidden Valley, Wafi, Ramu and

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 3.5 Years 2003 and 2004 gold production.
Frieda) have been subject to an average of 26 years of provisions came into effect in January 2003.
systematic exploration and are yet to reach
development. In other words, there has been a long Income tax rate 30%
lead time between discovery and development in PNG. Dividend withholding tax rate 10%
Accelerated depreciation
The mines of PNG are some of the largest in the allowance 25% DB Pool
region and have collectively produced over 60 tonnes Royalty rate 2%
of gold each year for the last 13 years. The interplay Deductions of exploration
between geological (high prospectivity/large expenditures 200%
occurrences/ease of discovery) and commercial (high Additional profits tax Abolished
capital/operating costs) are the main reasons why the Ring fencing Relaxed
mines are large. Smaller, higher grade mines will be a Mining levy None
part of the sectors future in PNG. Capital gains tax None
State equity Under review
Projected gold and copper production to 2013 should Fiscal stability Optional at 2% premium
exceed 70 tonnes and 195,000 tonnes per year Table 3.2 Mining Fiscal provisions.
respectively, appreciating significantly after 2007,
Royalty
because it is anticipated that there will be three new
The holder of a special mining lease or a mining lease
mines commissioned over the coming three years.
must pay a royalty to the state equivalent to 2% of
the net proceeds of sale of minerals (calculated as
FISCAL PROVISIONS
net smelter return or fob export value, whichever
APPLICABLE TO THE MINING is appropriate).
SECTOR
A summary of the mining fiscal terms for new mining Royalty distribution
projects are presented in the Table below. These At least 20% of the royalties from a project are

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 3.6 K=Kainantu; S=Simberi; HV=Hidden Valley; W=Wafi; F=Frieda.
distributed to the landowners of the project area; the Double deduction of

remainder is spent within the mine impact area and pre-production exploration
the province in which the project is located. These costs
royalties are not wholly distributed as cash. They are
to be primarily spent on an approved Community Most mining tax systems allow pre-production
Sustainable Development Plan. exploration costs to be expensed or deducted in a
relatively short time period. Papua New Guineas ring
General taxation provisions fencing provision has in the past limited the write
Persons taxable under these provisions are taxed the down of exploration expenses. In order for the
same way as other businesses in Papua New Guinea. country to better promote itself as a nation that
Such entities are liable for corporate income tax. welcomes and supports mineral exploration, a double
deduction for the incurred expenditure has been
Import duties
offered. The current system has been modified to
Project companies (or their subcontractors) may allow a 200% deduction allowance for exploration
import specialised goods for exclusive use during expenditures incurred after 1 January 2003.
mining operations at a reduced tariff for large-scale
projects. The first 100% is allowed as a deduction against
assessable income in accordance with the current
2002 tax review
deduction rules. The second deduction would only
The Papua New Guinea fiscal regime was reviewed in arise after a mine commences commercial operation.
2002 with the view to proposing a more attractive
regime for the sector. The result of the review elevated Depreciation
the internal rate of return (IRR) for both model In order to improve investor returns, Papua New
copper and gold mines within Papua New Guinea, as Guinea has moved to using a 25% declining balance
shown in Table 3.3. The following changes have been depreciation pool arrangement for all assets for any
implemented as a result of the 2002 tax review. new mineral development.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Country Foreign investors IRR (%) Total effective tax rate (%)
Lowest taxing quartile
Sweden 15.7 28.6
Chile 15.0 36.6
Argentina 13.9 40.0
Papua New Guinea 2003 13.8 42.7
Zimbabwe 13.5 39.8
Philippines 13.5 45.3
2nd lowest taxing quartile
South Africa 13.5 45.0
Greenland 13.0 50.2
Kazakstan 12.9 46.1
Western Australia 12.7 36.4
China 12.7 41.7
USA (Arizona) 12.6 49.9
2nd highest taxing quartile
Indonesia (7th, COW) 12.5 46.1
Tanzania 12.4 47.8
Ghana 11.9 54.4
Peru 11.7 46.5
Bolivia 11.4 43.1
Mexico 11.3 49.9
Highest taxing quartile
Indonesia (non-COW 2002) 11.2 52.2
Poland 11.0 49.6
Papua New Guinea 1999 10.8 57.8
Ontario, Canada 10.1 63.8
Uzbekistan 9.3 62.9
Ivory Coast 8.9 62.4
Burkina Faso 3.3 83.9
Table 3.3 Comparative fiscal regimes for a model copper mine in selected jurisdictions
(indexed on Foreign Investor IRR, Otto, 2002).
The proposed regime has the additional benefit of Premium for entities wishing to
removing the requirement for mining companies and make use of the Fiscal
the Internal Revenue Commission (IRC) to retain Stabilisation Act
complex asset registers in order to determine the
Papua New Guinea currently offers fiscal stability under
amount eligible for deduction in any one year.
the Fiscal Stabilisation Act requiring payment of a
small premium for this benefit. Papua New Guinea has
Loss carry forward time limit
a 2% company tax premium for the offer of fiscal
The loss carry forward time limit was increased to 20 stability for the duration of the financing period.
years in 2000. Investors viewed this period as attractive,
but it presented mining companies and the IRC with THE MINING ACT, MINERAL
the administrative requirement to maintain records of PERMITS AND IMPLEMENTATION
losses for the full 20-year period. As a result of this
issue, many nations have now moved to eliminate any The principal legislation in Papua New Guinea that
maximum time period for the carry forward of losses. regulate mining activities are the Mining Act 1992
Similarly, Papua New Guinea has now removed any and the Mining Safety Act (Ch. 195A), administered
time limit on the carry forward of losses. by the Department of Mining.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Under the Mining Act, the State owns "all minerals Exploration Licence (EL)
existing on, in, or below the surface of any land in The area of land in respect of which an EL may be
Papua New Guinea, including minerals contained in granted must not be more than 750 sub-blocks (one
any water lying on any land in Papua New Guinea." sub-block = about 3.41km2). When applying for an
A person must not carry on exploration or mining on extension of the term of the EL, not less than half of
any land unless duly authorised under the Act. the area held at commencement of that term must be
Consequently, the Act sets out the procedure whereby relinquished. Where the area of an EL has been
the States Minister for Mining can issue various types reduced to not more than 30 sub-blocks, the EL
of leases or licenses (mining tenements) to interested holder will not be required to make any further
companies on application, to enable them to engage relinquishment on renewal. Where, as a result of
in various exploration and/or mining activities in relinquishments, the area has been reduced to not
Papua New Guinea. more than 75 sub-blocks, the EL holder may apply to
the Director to waive or vary the requirement to
Papua New Guinea citizens are allowed to carry out
relinquish, but the total area permitted to be held after
non-mechanised mining of alluvial minerals on land
such waiver shall not exceed 75 sub-blocks.
owned by them (using handtools and equipment but
not pumps or machinery driven by electric, diesel, An EL authorises the holder to:
petrol or gas-powered motors), provided that the enter and occupy the land that comprises the EL
mining is carried out safely and in accordance with the for purposes of carrying out exploration for
Mining Safety Act, and that the land is not the subject minerals on that land;
of another tenement (other than an Exploration
to extract, remove and dispose of such quantity of
Licence).
rock, earth, soil or minerals as may be permitted by
Licence types the approved work program;
take and divert water situated on or flowing
The various types of mining tenements (licences
through such land and use it for any purpose
and/or leases) issued under the Mining Act on
necessary for exploration activities subject to, and
recommendation from the Mining Advisory Board
in compliance with, the Environment Act 2000
include:
which is administered by the Department of
Exploration Licence (EL) granted for a term not Environment and Conservation;
exceeding 2 years and do all other things necessary or expedient for the
may be extended for undertaking of exploration on that land.
periods up to 2 years;
Applications for the grant or extension of an EL must
Mining Lease (ML) granted for a term not comply with two main requirements, namely the
exceeding 20 years, technical and financial capacity to undertake an
which may be extended approved work program.
for such period not
exceeding 10 years; Minimum annual expenditure in connection with an
approved program is prescribed in the Act. An
Special Mining Lease (SML) may be granted for a
approved program may be varied at any time on
term not exceeding 40
written application to the Director based on one or
years and may be
more of the grounds specified in the Act.
extended for such
period not exceeding An EL holder is also required to lodge the following
20 years; reports in duplicate with the Director:
Alluvial Mining Lease generally used by Papua
New Guinea citizens a Bi-annual Exploration Report and a Bi-annual
for small-scale mining Expenditure Statement calculated from the date of
activities. grant, on expiry, on cancellation and also on

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
making an application to surrender the EL; Avoiding uncertainty concerning

an Annual Report calculated from the date of grant the administration,
interpretation and enforcement
of the EL;
of existing regulations in the
a Relinquishment Report in respect of the period Mining Act
up to the date of relinquishment or surrender of
As mentioned above, the Department of Mining is
the whole or any portion of an EL, or on expiry or
charged with the responsibility of both regulating and
cancellation of the EL.
promoting the mining industry. The primary
Mining Lease (ML)
legislative authority providing the mandate for this
task is enshrined in the Mining Act 1992 and the
An ML shall not be more than 60km2 in area. The main Mining Safety Act Chapter 195A. The Mining Act
difference between an ML and an SML is the scale of the sets out the general law relating to minerals and
operation. In any event, the EL holder has the exclusive mining activities whilst the Mining Safety Act
right to apply for a ML (or SML) over ground covered provides for the regulation, and inspection of mines
by the EL. and actual works undertaken.
Special Mining Lease (SML) The administrative structure as set out in the Mining
Act to implement the Act involves the following:
An SML is generally issued to the EL holder for large-
scale mining operations. The EL holder must also be (a) The Minister for Mining;
a party to a Mining Development Contract with the (b) A Director, who is the Head of the Department
State. Before the grant of an SML, the Minister is of Mining;
required to convene a Mine Development Forum to
consider the views of those persons and authorities (c) A Mining Advisory Board (MAB) which consists
of:
that the Minister believes will be affected by the grant
of the SML. Those represented at such a forum (i) the Director, who is the Chairman;
include the applicant for the SML, the landholders
(ii) three (3) officers of the Department
affected by the application, appropriate National
appointed by the Director;
Government departments, and the Provincial
Government in whose province the SML application (iii) three (3) persons appointed by the Minister;
is situated.
(iv) one (1) person appointed by the Minister on
Mining Development Contract (MDC)
the recommendation of the Premiers
Council;
Under the Act, the State has the discretion to enter
into an agreement consistent with the Act, relating to (d) A Registrar of Tenements who is also an officer of
the Department and serves as the Executive
a mining development or the financing of a mining
Officer to the Board; and
development held under a mining tenement. Some of
the factors that the Minister may consider in (e) A Chief Mining Warden and other Wardens who
determining whether the mining of a mineral deposit are also officers of the Department.
should take place under an MDC between the State
The officers or persons appointed to be on the Mining
and a tenement holder include: the size or distribution
Advisory Board must have qualifications and
of a mineral deposit, the method of mining or treating
experience in mining, geology, finance, law or related
it, the infrastructure required for it and its financial or
fields.
economic attributes. An SML applicant is obligated to
enter into an MDC, but an ML applicant may elect to The Mining Advisory Boards functions are to advise
enter into a MDC. the Minister on such matters as the Minister may refer

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
to the Board, and such other matters as specified in Grant and Extension of the Term
the Act (eg. make recommendations to Minister on of a Tenement
various applications for grants / extensions of mining
After considering the recommendation of the Mining
tenements).
Advisory Board, the Head of State (acting on advice of
Mining Advisory Boards the National Executive Council) has the authority to
Recommendation grant a Special Mining Lease (SML). The Minister for
Mining is reponsible for granting an Exploration
The Board considers each application for the grant or
Licence (EL), Mining Lease (ML), Alluvial Mining
extension of the term of a tenement together with the
program or proposal submitted by the applicant and Lease (AML), Lease for Mining Purpose (LMP) and
reviews the Registrars report, the Mining Wardens Mining Easements (ME) based on a recommendation
report, the report of officers of the Department who from the MAB. On the grant or extension of the term
are responsible for technical assessment of of a tenement, the Registrar advises the applicant of
applications, and any other reports submitted by a the Ministers decision and requires the applicant to
Provincial Government affected by the application. submit the prescribed annual rent within 30 days, and
in the case of the grant of a tenement, requires the
The Board also considers any objections that may
applicant to lodge within 30 days the prescribed
have been lodged against the applications. After
security deposit as required by the Act. Where the
consideration of all these matters then the Board can
do the following: applicant complies with these requirements then the
Registrar will issue to the applicant the title document
(a) recommend the grant or extension of the to the tenement. If the applicant fails to comply with
application; or these requirements then the Minister may cancel the
(b) recommend the refusal of the application; or grant or extension of the tenement.
(c) defer further consideration of the application and
request the applicant to amend the application or Payments of various fees for rents, royalties and
provide further information or revised programs security deposits are required under the Act. These
or proposals within a reasonable time specified by fees are prescribed in Schedule 2 of the Mining
the Board. Regulations.
Port Moresby.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
4. Geological Framework of PNG
INTRODUCTION Over many millions of years, Papua New Guinea has

undergone uplift and deformation as a result of
Papua New Guineas unique geology and substantial
collision of up to 100mm/y (Tregoning et al., 2000;
mineral resources result from its position on the
Hill and Hall, 2002) between the northward-moving
Pacific Rim of Fire, the interactive tectonic boundary Indo-Australian Plate and westward-moving Pacific
between the cratonic Indo-Australian Plate to the Plate. This is one of the fastest plate movements on
south and the oceanic Pacific Plate to the north (Fig. 4.1). Earth and projection of this motion back through
This tectonic boundary occurs as a complex geological time provides an indication of the degree of
arrangement of active subduction zones and associated shortening inherent in the description of Papua New
island arcs extending as a crustal-scale suture, east and Guinea as a classic terrane of craton island arc
south through the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji collision (up to 100km per million years).
to New Zealand, and west into Indonesia and on to
The geological framework of Papua New Guinea
the Philippines and Japan. The boundary and arcs comprises a series of geological terranes (discrete
have not always had the current configuration, and geological regions) that are commonly separated by
changes in the tectonic setting through time have geological elements (structures, etc.) (Fig. 4.4). The
provided complex overprinting relationships that are geological elements are discussed in this section with
reflected in the geology and have influenced the more detailed descriptions of terrane geology
mineralisation of Papua New Guinea. This can be seen presented in the following section. The terranes are
on the accompanying Gravity map (Fig. 4.3). presented as individual metallogenic units in the
discussion in the compendium of
prospects. The terminology used
to describe the individual
structures and terranes reflects
the increased understanding of
plate tectonic theory, as applied
to Papua New Guinea over the
past 30 years or so.
The components that define the

tectonic setting of Papua New
Guinea include:
The Australian Craton, which

underlies the Fly Platform
and much of Papua New
Guinea as a rigid continental
block extending to the south.
The New Guinea Orogen,

represented by the
mountainous spine of Papua
New Guinea, formed as a
collision zone and can be
divided into the Western
(Highlands and RamuSepik
regions) and Eastern (Papuan
Peninsula and Islands)
Fig. 4.1 Papua New Guinea in relation to major geological elements of South East Orogens. It is a composite
Asia and Australia. terrane of metamorphosed

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Geological Framework of PNG (cont.)
Fig. 4.2 Geological framework of Papua New Guinea and conceptual cross-section across the western New Guinea Orogen (after
Crowhurst et al., 1996).
sediments that have undergone fold thrust belt Basin (Dow, 1977). The platform is essentially
deformation, island arc magmatic extrusive and unaffected by the Cainozoic deformation that is
intrusive rocks, and obducted oceanic crust. apparent in terranes to the north.
The Melanesian Arc comprises a series of now- The Papuan Thrust occurs as a partly mapped
dismembered island arcs which lie to the north of (Cecelia and Hegigio Thrusts), partly inferred co-
the New Guinea Orogen, within the segmented linear series of shallow north-dipping thrust planes
oceanic Pacific Plate margin. along the edge of the foothills of the Southern
Highlands. It is thought to represent the basal thrust
The Pacific and Caroline Plates, which have been
separating overlying deformed Papuan Fold Belt
subducted into the Manus and Kilinailau Trenches
sediments from the underlying, minimally deformed
respectively, are locally obducted onto the Orogen.
sediments of the Fly Platform (Rogerson et al.,
1987a). The thrust is inferred to continue south of
GEOLOGICAL ELEMENTS
mainland Papua New Guinea, offshore and
The following text discusses the geological elements underlying of the Eastern Fold Belt, in eastern Papua
from south to north in the western part of the New Guinea.
country, then central, followed by the eastern part,
and finally the islands to the north-east of the The Papuan Fold Belt lies immediately north of the
mainland. Papuan Thrust in the Southern Highlands Province.
In this region, the essentially undeformed sequence of
The Fly Platform (Rogerson et al., 1987a) comprises Miocene limestone and younger sandstone and shale
ProterozoicPermian Australian Cratonic basement to the south becomes deformed by NE-facing thrusts
overlain by TriassicNeogene sediments of the Papuan and associated folds to form a foreland foldthrust

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 4.3 Gravity map of PNG.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 4.4 Geological framework of Papua New Guinea.
terrane. The sequence is locally overlain by Mt Hagen area (Dow, 1977; Rogerson et al., 1987b;
Quaternary shoshonitic stratovolcanoes (Mt Bosavi, Smith, 1990). It continues west into West Papua as
Mt Murray) and contains large oil and gas fields. the Tahin Fault, in each case separating uncleaved
Deeper erosion at the northern extremity of the fold from cleaved rocks (Davies, 1991).
belt exposes underlying Mesozoic sandstone, siltstone
and shale as well as local intrusions, below the The New Guinea Thrust Belt is a major foreland
Miocene limestone. The thickness of the entire thrust belt (Rogerson et al., 1987b) bounded by the
sequence within the fold belt is estimated to be 2km New Guinea Thrust to the south, the Bewani-
of Cretaceous sandstone, overlain by 1km of Miocene Torricelli and Finisterre Terranes to the north, and the
to Quaternary limestone, sandstone and shale (Davies, Aure Deformation Zone to the east (Rogerson et al.,
1992). 1987a,b). It roughly corresponds to the Western
Mobile Belt (Dow, 1977) and the Sepik Obduction
The New Guinea Thrust is a corridor of arc-parallel Complex (Smith, 1990). Many of the major
structures that form a terrane boundary separating the structures (Lagaip, FiakLeonard Schultz and Bundi
Papuan Fold Belt from the region of intense Faults) represent regional-scale thrusts and host-
deformation to the north, termed the New Guinea hanging wall obducted ultramafic oceanic crust
Thrust Belt. The Lagaip Fault is the most prominent fragments.
structure in the western portion of the thrust and
includes the Trangiso, Stolle and Figi Faults (Davies The influence of the Australian Craton extends north
1982). To the east, the Thrust probably encompasses into the New Guinea Orogen within the New Guinea
the Ambum and Kubor Faults (Davies, 1983), but is Thrust Belt, in areas such as the Triassic Kubor
not easily traced east of Quaternary basalt cover in the Intrusion Complex. Igneous activity within the belt

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
comprises marine and subaerial volcanism, and character of the Torricelli Mountains further to the
associated intrusions, that vary from batholiths to west on the north coast also requires re-evaluation.
stocks and dykes. The Geological Survey of Papua
New Guinea (Findlay et al., 1997a) used earlier The Aure Deformation Zone is a now-inverted trough
classifications (Davies et al., 1996; Dow, 1977) to (previously also referred to as the Aure Trough)
separate the existing Maramuni Igneous Association characterised by marine sediments folded on NS-
(Rogerson et al., 1987b) into a 3022Ma Sepik Event, trending horizontal fold axes, which can be traced for
and 1710Ma Maramuni Event (Dow, 1977; Findlay lengths of up to 100km. The intensity of folding
2002). They (op.cit) subsequently extended the latter decreases moving upward from the early through
event to include PlioceneQuaternary (60Ma) Middle Miocene and into overlying Quaternary
magmatism. The variable ages and extent of erosion sediments (Dow, 1977). The Aure and Sunshine
account for the dramatic differences in the degree of Faults may represent deep basement structures that
exposure of porphyry CuAu (Ok Tedi, Frieda River) locally define the western and eastern zone margins.
and epithermal gold (Porgera, Mt Kare, Nena) The latter continues into the adjacent Owen Stanley
mineralisation. Metamorphic Complex, delineating the northern
buried margin of the Wau Basin.
The RamuMarkham Fault Zone has traditionally
The eastern part of the New Guinea Orogen,
been regarded as a terrane boundary between the New
extending eastward along the Papuan Peninsula from
Guinea Orogen and the inferred accreted Finisterre
the Aure Deformation Zone, is divided into the
Terrane, and so formerly defined part of the northern
Eastern Fold Belt (south) and Owen Stanley Thrust
limit of the New Guinea Thrust Belt. It occupies the
Belt (north). The latter comprises the Owen Stanley
major topographic feature defined by the Ramu and
Metamorphic Complex (south) and Papuan
Markham Valleys, but is not easily traced westward
Ultramafic Belt (north), separated by the Owen
into the Sepik lowlands. Recent fieldwork by the
Stanley Fault System.
Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea (Findlay et
al., 1997a,b; Findlay, 2003) runs counter to previous The north-dipping Papuan Thrust is interpreted to
interpretations and suggests that no substantial continue offshore from the western part of the New
accretion has occurred, and that the RamuMarkham Guinea Orogen where it is well documented, to the
Fault Zone is not a terrane boundary, although some eastern part of the Orogen, to separate the underlying
major structures are present. This study, however, does Papuan Plateau Palaeozoic crystalline basement from
recognise the RamuMarkham Fault Zone as a the overlying Eastern Fold Belt (Rogerson et al.,
significant boundary between the New Guinea 1987a).
Orogen and the Finisterre Terrane.
The Eastern Fold Belt occurs southeast of the Aure
The BewaniTorricelli Fault System (Dow, 1977) Deformation Zone as a narrow belt along the south
locally separates part of the Torricelli Terrane from the coast of the Papuan Peninsula, contiguous with the
New Guinea Thrust Belt in the vicinity of the Sepik Papuan Fold Belt. Although similar in structure, the
Basin. Papuan and Eastern Fold Belts may have developed at
different times. The Eastern Fold Belt comprises Late
The Finisterre Terrane lies at the north-eastern limit Cretaceous to Middle Miocene folded and thrust-
of mainland Papua New Guinea. Although it has deformed marine sediments and ophiolites. It also
traditionally been cited as a classic example of an contains the Laloki massive sulphide and Rigo
accreted terrane, recent fieldwork by the Geological manganese occurrences.
Survey of Papua New Guinea in the Finisterre
Mountains (Findlay et al., 1997a,b; Findlay, 2003) The Bogoro Thrust separates the Eastern Fold Belt
believe that this area is not allochthonous accreted from the overlying Owen Stanley Thrust Belt to the
from offshore to the north, but is relatively in situ and north. Near Port Moresby, the Bogoro Thrust places
correlates with rock units south of the gabbro of the Sadowa Complex, over Eastern Fold
RamuMarkham Fault Zone. The allochthonous Belt rocks. Further west, these rocks are thrust over

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Pliocene sediments at the margin of the Aure The Papuan Ultramafic Belt (PUB) continues for
Deformation Zone (Rogerson et al., 1987b). about 400km from the Finisterre Terrane to the
eastern Papua New Guinea mainland and comprises
The Owen Stanley Thrust Belt is comprised of the the hanging wall of the Owen Stanley Fault System.
Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex, which is The PUB is a Cretaceous oceanic floor sequence
separated by the Owen Stanley Fault System from varying from a basal ultramafic zone, through a
overlying obducted oceanic crust of the Papuan gabbroic zone to basalt in the uppermost portions.
Ultramafic Belt that is located on the north coast of The pre-Eocene age is evident from the intrusion of
the Papuan Peninsula. The mountainous spine of the an Eocene tonalite into the PUB and from
peninsula, rising to 4000m asl, is dominated by the unconformably overlying Middle-Eocene volcanics
Cretaceous Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex, (Pigram and Davies, 1987).
comprising a several hundred kilometre long belt of
medium to high-pressure, regionally metamorphosed The geology of the Papuan Islands is a continuation
slate, schist and phyllite (Pieters, 1978). Mid- of the Eastern Fold Belt geology offshore, east of the
Miocene Morobe Granodiorite is exposed in the Papuan Peninsula to the DEntrecasteaux Islands
deeply eroded western portion, while volcanics (Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby Islands) and
dominate further east. In the Morobe Goldfield, gold Louisiade Archipelago (Misima and Sudest Islands) as
mineralisation is associated with Pliocene magmatism well as Woodlark Island. The Papuan Islands lie on
of the Wau Basin, which transgresses the older two oceanic highs, the Woodlark Rise (north) and the
Miocene and Cretaceous rocks. Pocklington High (south), separated by the EW-
trending Woodlark Basin, which contains an active
The Wau Basin hosts the Bulolo Graben, which spreading centre (the Woodlark Rift) that is
transects Miocene granodiorite and Cretaceous slate segmented by NS transform faults. This spreading
of the Owen Stanley Thrust Belt. The area may be centre continues westward to the DEntrecasteaux
interpreted as a setting of intra-arc extension on Islands group where metamorphic core complexes,
structures such as the Upper Watut and Escarpment with associated peralkaline rhyolites, have developed
Faults, in which gold mineralisation of the Morobe as a result of the westward rift propagation. The
Goldfield is associated with Pliocene felsic subvolcanic extensional deformation may continue onto the
units overlain by younger Pliocene sediments. mainland as linear WNW structures within the Owen
Extension on NWNNW-orientated Upper Watut Stanley Fault System in the Milne Bay area.
and Wandumi bounding faults, constrained between
the Lakekamu Fault to the south and Sunshine Fault The Kilinailau Trench developed as a Paleogene,
to the north, facilitated graben formation. south-dipping intra-plate subduction zone limiting
the oceanic Pacific Plate to the northeast from its
The Owen Stanley Fault System crops out on the dismembered margin in which the Melanesian Arc
northeastern side of the main range separating the (New Britain, Manus, New Ireland, Bougainville and
Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex and Kutu Solomon Islands) formed by island arc magmatism.
Volcanics to the south, from the obducted Papuan The trench was the locus of Pacific Plate subduction
Ultramafic Belt ophiolite further northeast. This below the Australian Craton from the Paleocene, but
complex fault system comprises cuspate thrust became jammed by a thick segment of oceanic plate
segments with southwest senses of displacement, and termed the Ontong Java Plateau, and ceased to be
linear interpreted, left-lateral strike-slip components active by the Mid-Miocene.
such as the Gira Fault. The linear faults may represent
extensions of the Woodlark Rift (see below). The Melanesian Arc, originally formed as a linear
Importantly, the fault system represents the island arc archipelago in the hanging wall of the
accretionary structure that sutured ophiolite over the south-dipping Kilinailau subduction zone, has been
Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex as long ago as substantially modified since the Pliocene by continued
the Paleocene (Davies et al., 1997) or Late Oligocene oblique collision of the westward-moving Pacific Plate
(Rogerson et al., 1987a). as well as the opening of the Manus Basin, resulting in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Drilling with a man-portable rig, Ramu laterite nickel prospect.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
a repositioning of many of the individual island A cessation of subduction and associated magmatism
elements (Davies, 1991). in the Miocene (see below) led to deposition of thick
limestone caps on many islands.
On the northern side of the Papuan Islands, the
Solomon Sea Sub-plate , a remnant sliver of Renewed subduction-related magmatism in
Cretaceous oceanic crust, is constrained between the the Pliocene (see below) resulted in the
north-dipping Pliocene New Britain Trench development of overprinting island arcs. The
subduction zone on the north side, and the more ManamKarkarUmboiTalaseaEast New Britain
poorly defined south-dipping inactive Trobriand island arc (Bismarck Volcanic Arc: Dow, 1977;
Trough to the south. The Solomon Sea Sub-Plate is Johnson and Jaques, 1980) stretches from the north
being actively consumed along the New Britain coast of New Britain to the northern margin of the
Trench and is regarded as an important influence on New Guinea mainland and is noted for the recently
Pliocene island arc magmatism within the islands. active volcanism on Manam and Karkar Islands.
The Bismarck Sea Sub-plate lies to the north of the
trench (Tregoning et al., 1999). The TabarLihirTangaFeni Island arc lies to the
northeast of New Ireland as a linear Pliocene to
The Bismarck Sea Sub-plate contains the New
Quaternary volcanic arc and is noted for the presence
Britain Island Arc formed in the hanging wall to the
of shoshonitic magmatism and associated gold
New Britain Trench, and also the Manus Basin back
mineralisation.
arc style-spreading centres. These spreading centres
are separated by a series of NW-trending transform Transfer structures occur as NNE-trending
faults, one of which continues onshore on the lineaments, interpreted as deep crustal fractures
northeastern tip of New Britain at the Gazelle possibly formed in association with Mesozoic craton
Peninsula. margin rifting (Dekker et al., 1990). These transfer
structures display protracted histories of activity,
The New Guinea Islands Terrane comprises the
islands (Melanesian Arc) northeast of the mainland localising Pliocene intrusions, mineralisation at Ok
(Rogerson et al., 1987a), but not including the Tedi and Porgera (Corbett, 1994; Hill et al., 2002),
Papuan Islands. The islands of the Melanesian Arc and volcanoes such as Bosavi (Davies, 1991). These
were mainly built up by subduction-related island arc structures also segment the foldthrust belt into
magmatism beginning in the Eocene. At that time, portions, often with varying thrust extents (Hill,
the islands formed an archipelago that stretched 1991), and changes in orientation across the transfer
southeast as the islands of New Britain, Manus, New structures. Intrusion ages on the mainland young
Hanover, New Ireland and Bougainville, and thence from north to south, suggesting that Papua New
on to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji. While Guinea might be moving north over hot spots
recent data places the Finisterre Terrane (formerly (Davies, 1991). Further east, transfer structures are
regarded as allochthonous and accreted from the no doubt involved in extension of the Bulolo Graben
north) as a landward portion of the Eocene (as the Lakekamu Fault and proto-Sunshine Fault,
Melanesian Arc, the relationship of this arc to the now deformed), and may localise the Wafi intrusion-
Adelbert region to the west remains uncertain. related mineralisation.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
5. Geological Terranes and Mineralisation
INTRODUCTION Quaternary sediments comprising coarse molasse

Geological terranes, discussed later as metallogenic derived from the rising central cordillera in the north,
units, represent contiguous geological units fining southwards. Slight uplift in the north with
commonly separated by structural geological consequent southwards tilting of the Fly Platform has
elements. The terranes of Papua New Guinea resulted in the shallow incision of present-day streams
are described below, in sequence from west to east north of the Fly River. Laterite development is
(Fig. 5.1). common in many areas.
The central northern section of the platform is

TERRANES OF THE WESTERN
blanketed by Quaternary pyroclastic and lahar
OROGEN
volcanics and reworked outwash derived from the
Fly Platform extinct Mt Murray, Mt Sisa and Mt Bosavi strato-
The Fly Platform is a broad, low-lying, relatively level volcanoes and associated parasite cones.
region south of the central cordillera in southwestern
Mineralisation
Papua New Guinea, bisected by the Fly and Strickland
Rivers. Its basement is crystalline rocks of the Although no systematic survey of gold occurrences for
Australian Craton (Indo-Australian Plate) that is most of this terrane has been carried out, alluvial gold
overlain by a thick succession of sub-horizontal, of probable local origin is worked in the Ningerum
largely undeformed Triassic to uppermost Tertiary area south of Ok Tedi, and is also known to occur
marine sedimentary rocks of near-shore and shelf further east in streams draining southwards onto the
facies. These are covered by a thick veneer of Fly Platform from the Bolivip and Idawe Stocks.
Fig. 5.1 Geological terranes of Papua New Guinea.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Geological Terranes and Mineralisation (cont.)
Alluvial gold has also been reported from the and the Kutubu Oilfield is in production.
southwestern slopes of Mt Bosavi. The volcanics in Exploration is being undertaken on the Mt Kare
this region may have potential for near-surface epithermal gold and the Bolivip porphyry CuAu
epithermal gold mineralisation. projects. Many other mineralised intrusive stocks
throughout the belt have been prospected and good
The lateritised soils of the Fly platform have been potential still remains for identifying precious metal
tested for bauxite, but the profile was found to be too mineralisation in areas surrounding intrusives of the
immature for economic concentrations. Belt.
Beach sands have been tested along the coastline from
New Guinea Thrust Belt
the Fly River delta and further east into the Papuan
Gulf. Results from exploration carried out in the The New Guinea Thrust Belt occupies the northern
1970s indicated sub-economic titano-magnetite section of the Western Orogen, and is separated from
concentrations, but further work may be warranted. the Papuan Fold Belt to the south by the New Guinea
Thrust, which includes the Lagaip Fault. The Belt is
Papuan Fold Belt characterised by Upper Miocene foreland thrust
deformation, represented by strongly cleaved, sub-
The Papuan Fold Belt is an elongate SE-trending
horizontal to shallow north-dipping stacked sheets
geological terrane dominated by a thick succession of
and slices of regionally metamorphosed Mesozoic to
folded and thrust-faulted Upper Triassic to uppermost
Early Tertiary fine-grained sediments. The latter are
Tertiary marine sedimentary rocks, occupying the
thought to be the deep-water equivalents of the
southern fall of the central cordillera in the western
Papuan Fold Belt sedimentary succession to the south.
mainland and merging in the southeast into the Aure
Deformation Zone. Unroofed intrusions of Upper Ophiolite slivers occur in late-stage thrusts. The
Miocene to Pleistocene age (including the Ok Tedi deformed sequence is overlain by volcanics and clastic
and Porgera Mines and Mt Kare Prospect) occur in sediments.
the western section of the belt. A major geographical
The New Guinea Thrust Belt is divisible into two
feature of the Papuan Fold Belt is the Darai Plateau,
zones:
which forms an extensive belt of inhospitable karst
limestone country developed on thrust blocks of Late A northern zone of medium-grade metamorphic
Eocene to Late Miocene Darai Limestone. rocks of possible pre-Oligocene Tasman Orogen
Quaternary strato-volcanoes surrounded by thick, basement origin, which crops out in low
widespread lahar outwash deposits rise 15002000m mountain ranges across the Sepik Plain. Intrusives
above the surrounding countryside. Volcanic activity of the Sepik Arc magmatic event (3022Ma,
is believed to have ceased, although fumarole hot uppermost Oligocene to earliest Miocene) are
springs occur and oral history across the region exposed in the basement country rocks. Further
suggests a major eruption occurred in the Doma Peaks to the east, another example is the Yuat Batholith
area several hundred years ago. Some craters are (22.514.2Ma), bounded by the Yuat Gorge and
deeply eroded, but many volcanic landforms are still lower Lai River.
well preserved. Extending southeast from the Mt
Bosavi massif and bordering the Fly Platform, A southern zone of predominately low-grade
Quaternary volcanic centres including Recent cones regionally metamorphosed sedimentary rocks that
can be identified on aerial photographs. occupies the northern flank of the central
cordillera and hosts the Maramuni Arc magmatic
Mineralisation
activity. Maramuni Arc magmatism was much
The Papuan Fold Belt hosts significant mineral, oil more extensive than that of the Sepik Arc and was
and gas resources. The Porgera gold mine and Ok active for some time after the commencement of
Tedi CuAu mine are large scale, open pit operations, thrusting. The Maramuni Arc was initially

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
interpreted to have been emplaced in the the Hunstein Ranges;

1610Ma period (extending from uppermost
the Salumei and Cone Mountain Prospects
Early Miocene into early Late Miocene, but mostly
between the lower Salumei and Korosomeri Rivers;
Middle Miocene), but is now described as
extending into the Pliocene (Findlay, 2003). lower Maramuni River to Yuat Gorge; and
Intrusions have a complex relationship with thrust
lower Lai River area at the eastern extremity of the
planes, cutting across some, while being truncated
arc.
by others.
The Sepik event mineralisation is mostly small to
The two zones are separated along the foot of the
medium in size, although some high-grade gold
main cordillera by an EW system of anastomosing
occurrences have been noted. There is a strong
low-angle faults the FiakLeonard Schultze Thrust
structural control to the localisation of mineralisation.
system which extends east to the RamuMarkham
The prospects remain under-explored with only
Fault Zone. limited amounts of drilling having been undertaken.
The northern boundary is locally obscured by thick Mineralisation of the Maramuni event is related to
Pliocene sediments that extend eastwards into the intermediate intrusions and occurs along the whole
middle Ramu River area, covering the projected length of the Belt. Notable prospects include the
northwestern extension of the RamuMarkham Fault Frieda, Horse Ivaal, Trukai, Nth Debom (porphyry
Zone and any eastward extension of the higher grade CuAu) and Nena (high sulphidation epithermal
metamorphics beyond the fault zone CuAu) prospects. Numerous other prospects have
been drilled for gold or CuAu over the past four
Late-stage thrusts emplaced shallow-dipping sheets decades in the Sepik region in the May,
and slices of obducted upper mantle and sea-floor Walio, April, Korosameri, Karawari, Maramuni
volcanics along the northern forefront of the central (Tarua), Yuat and Lai River areas. Several of
cordillera in the Late Miocene, forming three these prospects are either being explored or
extensive ophiolite complexes the Landslip Range are under application for exploration.
Eocene sea-floor volcanics and intercalated argillite in The Malaumanda quartzsulphideCuAu prospect,
the west, the April Ultramafics in the centre, and the on the Korosameri River, was recently drill tested.
Marum Basic Belt hosting the Ramu (Kurumbakari) Further east, gold or CuAu prospects related to
NiCo laterite deposit in the east. These ophiolites Maramuni event intrusions have been drilled in the
were obducted at a different time to the Papuan Simbai and Jimi Valley regions.
Ultramafic Belt ophiolites of the Eastern Orogen.
East from Simbai, major uplift of the cordillera south
Mineralisation of the Ramu River (the summit of Mt Wilhelm at
4509m in the Bismarck Range is Papua New Guineas
Magma-derived gold and copper mineralisation
highest mountain) exposes Maramuni event intrusions
developed in two periods within the terrane, an older
of batholithic proportions in the Bismarck Intrusive
Sepik event (30-22Ma), and a younger Maramuni
Complex, Akuna Intrusive Complex, and the western
event (1710Ma).
margin of the Morobe Granodiorite. Much of the
Cu-Au mineralisation throughout these regions may be
Gold and some copper mineralisation are associated
associated with Pliocene intrusions that overprint the
with intrusions of the Sepik event, including the
earlier mineralised Miocene intrusions (Rogerson and
following locations:
Williamson, 1986). Mineralisation varies from
Right May River area near the West Papua border; porphyry CuMoAu at Yandera within the Bismarck
Intrusive Complex, to intrusion-related structurally
Waskuk, Yerakai and Garamambu areas near controlled mineralisation at Kathnell, Kainantu and
Ambunti; Bilimoia, as well as gold bearing skarn at Mt Victor.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Obducted ophiolites along the forefront of the The Prince Alexander Mountains, centred on a core of
Bismarck Range, south of the Ramu River, expose Jurassic metamorphic rocks and intrusions are
large areas of upper mantle ultramafic rocks (the tentatively included in this terrane. The mountains
Marum Basic Belt), in which deep tropical weathering form a 100km long range splaying eastwards from the
of dunite has produced the Ramu (Kurumbakari) southern edge of the central Torricelli Mountains.
NiCo laterite deposit. This project lies within a A wide range of radiometric ages has been recorded for
granted Special Mining Lease and may be developed the intrusions, including Middle Jurassic, Early
by the investors after the completion of financing Cretaceous and uppermost Oligocene to Early
arrangements and technical studies. Miocene.
Lateritic nickel exploration was also undertaken in the Mineralisation

late 1960s and 1970s in the South Sepik region,
Alluvial gold is being reworked into present-day
principally in the Hunstein Range and April River
streams from widespread uplifted auriferous
areas, mainly by the testing of soils developed on
palaeogravels (including Early to Late Miocene
obducted slabs of partly serpentinised dunite and
conglomerates). This includes the flanks of the
peridotite mantle. Results of those initial surveys did
Jurassic metamorphic and intrusive core of the Prince
not yield any economic occurrences.
Alexander Mountains, the intrusive core of the
Alluvial gold has been worked throughout the New Torricelli Mountains and, to a lesser extent, the
Guinea Thrust Belt, most notably in the Jimi Valley Bewani Mountains. Alluvial gold is accompanied by
and Simbai areas, westwards along the foothills of the traces of platinum in the Kilifas area of the Bewani
central cordillera and across the South Sepik region. Mountains. Minor primary gold and base metal
mineralisation are associated with hydrothermally
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide deposits located in the altered intrusions, particularly in the western Bewani
Jimi Valley have been prospected but an economically Mountains. In the Maprik area of the Prince
viable occurrence has yet to be located. Alexander Mountains, the mining of high fineness
alluvial gold provides a good cash flow for the local
Bewani Torricelli Terrane people.
The Bewani-Toricelli Terrane extends along the NW
Finisterre Terrane
coast of PNG from the western limit at the West
Papua border through the Bewani, then Torricelli The Finisterre Terrane comprises the mountain belt
Mountain ranges. The Kairiru Island Group, located that extends for at least 550km along the north coast
just offshore mid-way through the length of the belt, of the New Guinea mainland from around the mouth
is included in this terrane. In the western sector, the of the Sepik River and eastwards through the
terranes southern limit is defined by sediments of the Adelbert, Finisterre and Sarawaget Mountains.
Pliocence Aitape Trough. In the North Sepik region, The latter comprise the Huon Peninsula where the
widespread outcrop of Mesozoic metamorphics and belt reaches its widest dimension of 100km.
intrusions, interpreted from gravity data, suggests that The RamuMarkham Fault Zone has traditionally
a continuous crystalline basement extends at depth been accepted as separating it from the New Guinea
across the Sepik Basin from the present coastline, Thrust Belt to the south, but recent work (Findlay,
south to the central cordillera. 2003) suggests the Finisterre Terrane is now part of
the New Guinea Thrust Belt.
The BewaniTorricelli Mountains are dominated by
Eocene sea-floor volcanics and Late Oligocene island This terrane has traditionally been regarded as a classic
arc volcanics, with widespread largely co-magmatic example of an allochthonous terrane, formed at a great
intrusions that return radiometric ages in the broad distance and accreted onto the north coast of Papua New
range of 73.217.3Ma (Late Cretaceous to Early Guinea by subduction of the intervening lithosphere or
Miocene). strike-slip movement before the Early Miocene.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The allochthonous status of the terrane is now in Aure Deformation Zone

doubt. Recent mapping by the Geological Survey of The southeastern margin of the Papuan Fold Belt
Papua New Guinea in the Finisterre Ranges has merges with the Aure Deformation Zone that extends
identified intercalation of volcanics at the southern from near Kerema on the gulf coast, north to the
margin of the terrane, with coarse-grained sediments contact with the Finisterre Terrane (RamuMarkham
derived from metamorphic and igneous sources with a Fault Zone) between the Kainantu and WauBulolo
continental provenance (Findlay et al., 1997a,b; regions. This terrane comprises tight, commonly
Findlay, 2003). This suggests that rocks of the northerly trending sub-horizontal folds and parallel
Finisterre Ranges were formed in a proximal position faults developed by EW compression. The
to an emergent landmass similar to the nearby, Deformaton Zone is interpreted to have developed as
present-day central cordillera south of the a northern branch of the Papuan Basin in the middle
RamuMarkham Fault Zone. It is therefore Oligocene to Middle Miocene and was subsequently
concluded by those authors that the Finisterre terrane inverted. Thus, the intensity of folding decreases
is autochthonous, probably comprising a chain of moving upward from the Early Miocene through the
offshore volcanic islands in the Oligocene. Middle Miocene and into overlying Quaternary
sediments (Dow, 1977). This may reflect initial
In the AdelbertFinisterreSarawaget Mountains,
strong compression in response to westward foreland
Eocene and Oligocene cherty argillite and
thrusting during formation of the Owen Stanley
volcanogenic sediments grade up into massive Thrust Belt. The latter trends north under the
Oligocene back-arc or intra-arc rift related volcanics, Finisterre nappe at its western extremity, reducing in
overlain in turn by thick Early Pliocene bioclastic intensity over time as the regional tectonics changed.
limestone. The volcanic rocks comprise submarine to The Aure and Sunshine Faults occur towards the
sub-aerial lava and agglomerate of the Huon western and eastern margins of the Aure Deformation
Supergroup (Findlay, 2003) including the Finisterre Zone, and the latter continues into the adjacent Owen
Volcanics, which are intercalated with a continental Stanley Metamorphic Complex, delineating the
sedimentary wedge from the southwest and deep northern buried margin of the Wau Basin (including
oceanic sediments to the northeast, and interpreted the Bulolo Graben). These faults are assumed to
co-magmatic mafic and ultramafic intrusions. reflect deep basement structures.
Interpretations of gravity and seismic data suggest that

TERRANES OF THE EASTERN
strike-slip movement on the RamuMarkham Fault
OROGEN (PAPUAN
Zone is of Recent origin, and the FinisterreSarawaget
PENINSULA)
Mountains (with their spectacular 4,000m high
summits and Pleistocene reef terraces up to 700m asl Eastern Fold Belt
at the northeastern corner of the Huon Peninsula) are The Eastern Fold Belt is a narrow belt of folded
an upthrust nappe on a shallow north-dipping thrust sedimentary rocks along the south coast of the Papuan
plane, which might represent a westward extension of Peninsula. Cretaceous marine sediments, including
the north-dipping New Britain Trench along the neritic arenaceous limestone with deeper water
RamuMarkham valley (Milsom et al., 2001). carbonate, jasperoid and terrestrial turbidite,
deposited in an offshore continental rift environment,
Mineralisation
have been well dated from abundant planktonic
Gold mineralisation is not recorded in either the foraminifera. Late Oligocene to Early Miocene tuffs
Adelbert or Finisterre Mountains where there is may represent the onset of island arc volcanism
limited development of intrusions. Disseminated elsewhere in the region, while younger bathyal
chalcopyrite is associated with andesitic volcanic turbidites and carbonates are also recognised (Pigram
horizons in the Finisterre Volcanics. and Davies, 1987). These rocks were intensely folded

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
and metamorphosed during the Oligocene to Mid to Stanley Metamorphic Complex and the overlying
Late-Miocene. Papuan Ultramafic Belt.
Gabbro, of the Early Eocene to Mid-Oligocene The Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex originally
Sadowa Ultramafic Complex, occurs as thrust slices developed as a thick pile of Cretaceous continent-
within the Eastern Fold Belt rocks in the Port derived fine-grained marine sediments deposited in
Moresby area (Rogerson et al., 1987a). East of Port the rifted margin of northern Australia, which was
Moresby, on the Sogeri Plateau, these rocks are subsequently tectonised to form a 375 x 80km thrust-
overlain by basalt and andesitic agglomerate of the up belt occupied by the Owen Stanley Ranges (rising
Pliocene Astrolabe Agglomerates. to 4000m asl). Rock types include slate and phyllite
of pelitic, psammitic and lesser volcanic origin, as well
Mineralisation as marble, conglomerate and spilite; metamorphic
The Laloki massive sulphide deposits occur as sweat-out quartz veins are common (Pieters, 1978;
conformable lenses in association with a laminar grey Pigram and Davies, 1987).
lutite marker unit within the upper portion of Late
Paleocene sequence of siliceous to calcareous and Medium to high-pressure regional metamorphism,
carbonaceous mudstone and minor chert. These associated with continent ocean plate collision and
rocks are overlain by Eocene biomicrite and chert subduction, transformed some of the Cretaceous
(Davies, 1961; Williamson, 1983; Rogerson et al., sedimentary rocks and accounts for much of the
1981; Banda, 2001). variation in rock types. Blueschist and granulite facies
rocks occur at the northern margin close to the Owen
The Eocene hemipelagic Port Moresby Beds are host Stanley Fault System contact with the overthrust
to manganese of both stratiform deposits and Papuan Ultramafic Belt. Yet, fossiliferous Cretaceous
concretions. This origin is supported by evidence of rocks east of Wau-Bulolo are mid greenschist facies,
substantial planktonic test dissolution, organic possibly indicative of separate collision events (Davies
combustion and metal movement during diagenesis et al., 1987). Elsewhere, zonation in the multiphase
(Finlayson & Cussen, 1984). regional metamorphism, contemporaneous with
deformation that formed penetrative cleavages, is
Owen Stanley Thrust Belt evident as belt-parallel lawsonite (north) and chlorite
(south) metamorphic isograds, with the latter also
The Bogoro Thrust marks the contact with the
containing albite, biotite and garnet (Pieters, 1978;
underlying Eastern Fold Belt and the overlying Owen
Rogerson and Francis, 1983).
Stanley Thrust Belt to the northeast. The Owen
Stanley Thrust Belt developed as part of the Mineralisation
accretionary wedge resulting from collision between
the continental and oceanic plates possibly initiated as The Morobe Goldfield occurs within the Wau Basin,
early as the Late Oligocene and continuing to the which encompasses the Bulolo Graben, a 40 x 20km
Pliocene. Consequently, at the western margin, low Pliocene volcano-tectonic feature (Corbett, 1994;
grade fossiliferous Cretaceous metamorphic rocks are Neale and Corbett, 1997; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
in fault contact with Middle Miocene Yaveufa Fm It is underlain in the Wau area by Cretaceous Kaindi
west of Bulolo. The Owen Stanley Thrust Belt is older Schist, of the Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex,
than the New Guinea Thrust Belt, and so previously which is intruded by the mid-Miocene Morobe
metamorphosed and deformed rocks (Kaindi Schist) Granodiorite batholith. The Bulolo Graben is
are intruded by Maramuni Arc volcanic rocks such as bounded by the NNW-trending Wandumi and Upper
the 14.512Ma Morobe Granodiorite. Watut Faults and is constrained between the
Lakekamu and Snake River lineaments. Both the
The Owen Stanley Thrust Belt comprises two main Lakekamu and Snake River lineaments may represent
NWSE-trending linear rock units the Owen significant faults. Active hot springs on the Wandumi

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fault have deposited silica sinter and travertine. An age of adularia associated with gold mineralisation at
extensional regime is apparent at Hidden Valley where Hidden Valley is consistent with the common
mineralisation occurs within fractures formed in the perception that Morobe Goldfield mineralisation is
hanging wall to listric faults, while at Hamata the related to these intrusions (Nelson et al., 1990).
same kinematics have promoted development of lodes
between reverse faults (see Morobe Goldfield). Gold The Bulolo Volcanics, a poorly bedded mass of felsic
mineralisation is also localised by the: ignimbrite which also contains travertine deposits and
jasper bands, crops out in the northern Wau Basin
Escarpment Fault which crops out as a spectacular overlying Kaindi Schist. Many Edie porphyry
10km long normal fault; intrusions crop out within the ignimbrite. It is
tentatively interpreted as the extrusive equivalent of
parallel NW-trending Edie Structural Corridor; the Edie Porphyry.
NS faults (Kerimenge, Slate Creek). The Namie Breccia encompasses a variety of

hydrothermal breccias composed of Edie Porphyry
The Kaindi Schist comprises dark grey, strongly and fragments of milled basement material (Kaindi
foliated graphitic slate and phyllite, which varies in Schist, resistant metamorphic quartz, and Morobe
composition to chloritic/chloritoid-bearing phyllite Granodiorite). In some instances, jagged outlines of
(originally tuffaceous bands), quartzite and marble. It Edie Porphyry in the Namie Breccia are indicative of
is andalusite-bearing adjacent to contacts with the emplacement while the porphyry was still molten.
Morobe Granodiorite. Some schistose portions The Namie Breccia occurs in association with several
display a crenulate fabric, and metamorphic quartz is dome complexes, including diatremes recognised at
common throughout all the metamorphic lithologies. Wau (Sillitoe et al., 1984), Kerimenge, Edie Creek,
At Edie Creek, the relatively brittle chloritoid schist and between Nauti and Webiak Creeks. Bedded
provided a suitable host for mineralised veins, whereas breccias containing accretionary lapilli at Upper
mineralised structures are weakly developed and Ridges (Sillitoe et al., 1984), and in the headwaters of
difficult to trace in the crenulated schist. Webiak Creek, are interpreted to represent diatreme
tuff ring deposits. Linear breccias occur within faults
The Morobe Granodiorite, dated at 14.3Ma
and Namie Breccia is also common at the contacts of
(Lowenstein, 1982), crops out over a 100 x 35km belt
Edie Porphyry intrusions (Escarpment Fault, Edie
as a medium-grained unaltered granodiorite with local
Creek). The relationship between gold mineralisation
adamellite, and monzonite, which displays local
and diatreme breccias is most clearly evident at
foliation (Carswell, 1990). The granodiorite has Kerimenge (see Morobe Goldfield).
hornblendebiotite diorite variants at its apophyses
(Sillitoe et al., 1984). The mid-Pliocene Otibanda Formation overlies
Bulolo Volcanics as a 700m thick sequence of poorly
The term Edie Porphyry (Fisher, 1945) is applied to a sorted conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and
range of mainly dacitic porphyry intrusions that occur intercalated reworked tuff (Carswell, 1990) in the
throughout the region as domes, dykes and sills, and northern part of the Bulolo Graben. Seams of alluvial
is also commonly found as fragments within the gold-bearing magnetite sands, derived from erosion of
Namie Breccia. Age dating of biotite and plagioclase Morobe Granodiorite, are common.
has yielded ages within a 6.42.4Ma range, with a
pooled age of 3.5Ma (Page and McDougall, 1972a), One of PNGs more exciting prospects in this belt is
which is within the range of a recent hornblende date the Wafi gold and related Golpu Porphyry. Drilling is
of 4.50.4Ma (Cussen et al., 1986). Some domes still underway on the prospects. It is uncertain if the
display crumble breccia margins indicative of Wafi mineralisation is related to the mineralising
emplacement at shallow crustal levels. Flow banding events at Wau or is part of a larger belt that runs
in the domes is common. The estimation of a 4.15Ma through Wamum, Kainantu and Yandera.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The Tolukuma gold mine lies approximately 150km hundred years. A number of alluvial gold areas are
SSE of Wau on the faulted western margin of the Mt still being mined by local people employing small
Davidson Volcanics. The volcanics extend 25km scale mining methods. These metals are probably
further south to a major volcanic centre at Mt related to potash-rich intrusions that vary to
Cameron. The volcanics comprise andesitic and ultramafic in composition (gabbros). Many of the
dacitic lahars often with a shoshonitic affinity, and intrusions are emplaced along the Owen Stanley Fault
tuffs with intercalated sedimentary units. The System and extend east to Milne Bay.
volcanics unconformably overlie slate of the Kagi
Metamorphic portion of the Owen Stanley The Lokanu Volcanics hosts chalcopyrite within
Metamorphic Complex. K-Ar dating indicates amygdules, and also chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena
volcanism is about 4.8Ma (Dekba, 1993; Langmead and silver within shear zones.
and McLeod, 1991; Davies and Williamson, 1998).
High-level epithermal gold mineralisation is
The Papuan Ultramafic Belt occurs in the hanging associated with dormant Quaternary stratovolcanoes
wall of the Owen Stanley Fault System as a 400km in the central northeast of the Peninsula.
long belt some 25-40km wide, lying along the north
coast of the Papuan Peninsula (Davies, 1971) and into Nickel sulphide mineralisation is locally remobilised
the Papuan Islands as peridotite noted on Normanby into shear zones, possibly in association with Mio-
and Fergusson Islands. Pieters (1978) subdivided a Pliocene porphyry intrusions (Davies and Smith,
wedge of original Jurassic to Cretaceous ocean-floor 1974). Disseminations and veinlets of primary
rocks that have been obducted onto the Owen Stanley platinum and chromite, as well as lateritic nickel, have
Metamorphic Complex into (roughly from top to also been considered as exploration targets in this
bottom): region.
Lokanu Volcanics basalt (1000m or more); The lateritic nickel occurrence at Wowo Gap is less
well defined than that at Ramu, but is estimated to
high-level gabbro (1000m); have resources of about 120 million tonnes averaging
granular gabbro (30004000m); 1.2% nickel. It is also similar in metallurgical
characteristics to the Ramu ore, but is still at the
cumulate gabbro 1000m); exploration stage. The Mumbare Plateau, Kokoda,
cumulate ultramafics (up to 500m); and also has the potential to host a significant nickel-
cobalt lateritic deposit. Other laterites in the area
tectonite ultramafic (40008000m). include the Ibau Plateau and the Keman and
Awariobo Ranges, south of Wowo Gap.
The intrusion of Eocene tonalite into Papuan
Ultramafic Belt rocks that are elsewhere
Papuan Islands
unconformably overlain by Middle Eocene volcanics
(Pigram and Davies, 1987) provide an upper limit of The Papuan Islands Terrane represents the eastward
emplacement as probable Oligocene age (Rogerson et extension of the Papuan Peninsula and includes the
al., 1987a). islands of the DEntrecasteaux Island Group
(Goodenough, Ferguson and Normanby Islands), the
Mineralisation Louisiade Archipelago (Misima, Sudest (Tagula) and
The Papuan Peninsula contains narrow vein-style gold Rossel (Yela)), Woodlark Is. and many other smaller
mineralisation associated with Eocene tonalite Islands. The islands lie on two ESE trending oceanic
(5040Ma), typically located in the northern section highs within the Solomon Sea, namely the
of the Papuan Ultramafic Belt. Significant amounts of Woodlark Rise to the north and the Pocklington Rise
alluvial gold and minor platinum have been worked in to the south that are separated by the Woodlark
many parts of the Papuan Peninsula for more than a oceanic spreading centre which commenced opening

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
from 5Ma (Benes et al., 1994). Many of these islands Cretaceous to late Palaeozoic layered and domed
have been significant gold producers. gneiss, schist, mylonite and amphibolite, which in
most cases are overthrust by unmetamorphosed
On the 40km long Misima Island, Paleogene ultramafics, form basement rocks to the islands of the
basement rocks are the Awaibi Association meta- DEntrecasteaux Group. These units are intruded by
igneous ophiolite rocks in the west, and the Sisa Pliocene to Holocene granodiorite on Fergusson
Association metasedimentary suite in the east, which Island, resulting in doming and unroofing possibly in
is intruded by many small stocks of the 8.10.4Ma association with the Woodlark Rift spreading centre.
Boiou Granodiorite. The two associations are The calc-alkaline to andesitic island arc intrusive rocks
separated by an original thrust fault with later emplaced into the detachment faults date the core
extensional activation (Williamson and Rogerson, complex activity at 1.20.4Ma on Fergusson Island
1983; Adshead and Appleby, 1996; Adshead, 1997). (Chapple and Ibil, 1997) and 3.2Ma on Normanby
Skarn mineralisation is associated with the Boiou Island (Hill, 1990).
intrusions that are cut by later extensional faults
hosting 43.2Ma (Adshead, 1997) epithermal gold Mineralisation
mineralisation (Umuna Lode described in Section 8).
Alluvial gold was first discovered on Sudest Island in
Some detrital gold occurs within an overlying Pliocene
1888 and subsequently on the adjacent islands.
volcano-sedimentary sequence dated from
Alluvial and eluvial gold have since been traced to
foraminiferal micritic limestone as 5.13.05Ma. This
their hard-rock sources. The auriferous epithermal
is further overlain by alkali basalt agglomerate
quartz veins at the Umuna open pit mine (now closed)
(Williamson and Rogerson, 1983). Uplift on the
on Misima, and lodes on Woodlark Island that were
north coast to 400m is noted in raised Quaternary
mined pre-World War II, is discussed in detail in
coral reefs.
Section 8 of this publication.
Sudest and Rossel Islands are dominated by
Most of the 10,000oz of gold produced from Sudest
monotonous pelitic slate and phyllite of the ?Owen
was from alluvial and eluvial sources. Hard-rock gold
Stanley Metamorphic Complex of the Papuan
mineralisation could be associated with saccharoidal
Peninsula, possibly deposited off the rifted margin of
and epithermal quartz noted in the Mt Adelaide and
continental northern Australia during the Mesozoic.
Cornucopia Mine workings (Corbett et al., 1991),
Alternatively, an origin as a remnant of the continent
although Williamson (1984) prefers a metamorphic
rifted during the opening of the Coral Sea has been
origin for most of the gold mineralisation.
considered by some workers. Scattered Tertiary mafic
porphyritic intrusions throughout the islands are of At the Wapolu Prospect on Fergusson Island, gold
unknown provenance. mining was undertaken on a modest scale in 1996, but
the operation ceased soon after due to low gold grades.
Most of Woodlark Island is covered by Pleistocene
The epithermal gold mineralisation could be described
coralgal limestone which surrounds a 12km wide
as very low-temperature, low-sulphidation quartz
basement horst block. The block consists of Eocene
age, ocean-floor low-K basalts and volcaniclastics of veinbreccia localised within detachment fault zones
the Loluai Volcanics, overlain by Miocene Wonai Hill (Chapple and Ibil, 1997).
Beds (16.513Ma; Smith and Milson, 1984), volcanic
Volcanicexhalative base metal sulphides with gold are
rocks and high-K comagmatic porphyritic intrusions
depositing from black smokers on the present-day
(Joseph and Findlay, 1991). The latter is associated
Franklin Seamount east of Normanby Island.
with epithermal gold mineralisation (described in
Section 8) (Corbett et al., 1994).
New Guinea Islands
The Trobriand Islands and a number of smaller groups Island arcs have built up since the Eocene in the
are comprised of Pleistocene to Recent coral atolls. hanging wall of the southwest-dipping Kilinailau

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Trench, due to subduction-related magmatism. The Miocene neritic limestone grading to Pliocene
originally linear island arc chain includes Manus, New sediments, containing conglomerates indicative of
Britain, New Hanover, New Ireland, Bougainville, active syn-deformational faulting.
and then on through the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu
and Fiji along the Pacific Plate margin. The cessation Renewed magmatism in the Pliocene resulted in
of magmatism as the subduction zone zipped closed development of volcanic edifices as two separate
during the Miocene resulted in deposition of extensive chains and also overprinted existing island arcs. One
limestone on the emerging volcanic edifices. This was arc extends for 1000km from close to the north coast
overprinted by younger magmatism on New Britain of Papua New Guinea, eastward as the Schouten
and Bougainville, while the volcanism on the Tabar Islands Group (Manam, Karkar, Bagabag, Long and
Feni chain is viewed as a separate entity. Umboi or Rooke Islands), and then along the north
coast of New Britain as the Mt Andewa and Mt
Manus Island, at 100km long, is the largest of the Schrader stratovolcanoes to the Willaumez Peninsula,
Admiralty Islands Group in the far north of Papua Mt Pago and Mt Uluwan, through into the recently
New Guinea. Interpreted oceanic basement is active volcanism at Rabaul in East New Britain and
overlain by (4720Ma) Eocene to Mid-Miocene then southwards through Bougainville. Although
island arc andesite, basaltic agglomerate, tuffs and many of these volcanoes remain active, some have
breccias up to 2000m thick that cover most of the been prospected. Mt Andewa and Mt Schrader have
island (Jaques, 1980). Cessation of the magmatism collapsed northwards in a Mt St Helens style
saw Early to Mid-Miocene bioclastic limestone event and contain some mineralised quartz veins.
deposited at the fringes of the volcanic edifice grading On Bougainville, Late Miocene to Pliocene intrusives
to Late Miocene marginal volcanic then calcareous host the Panguna porphyry CuAu mineralisation
sediments. The Yirri Intrusive Complex represents a that will be described in a later section. Several latest
later event, comprising multiphased quartz diorite to Pliocene and Quaternary andesitic stratovolcano
quartz monzonite intrusions extending from pre- complexes overlie the older rocks and locally
mineralisation (17.6Ma) phase, to intrusions interfinger with shallow water marine sediments.
associated with alteration and porphyry copper
mineralisation (15.0Ma), and finally a post-mineral The second arc is represented by the 250km long NW,
andesite porphyry phase (13.1 and 11.2Ma) (Jaques, trending TabarLihirTangaFeni island chain of
1980). Pliocene to Recent volcanoes that lies offshore to the
northeast of New Ireland, possibly exploiting an
New Britain is typical of the other Melanesian Island earlier crustal discontinuity. Lihir Island hosts the
arcs and comprises a thick basal sequence of Late giant Ladolam gold deposit (Moyle et al., 1990;
Eocene basaltic to andesitic lava, breccia and Muller et al., 2002; Corbett et al., 2001). Individual
associated sediments that are overlain by Oligocene islands (Lihir) and island groups (Tabar) display a
island arc volcanic rocks and 3022Ma co-magmatic
NS elongation. The arc is inferred to have been
intrusions (Ryburn, 1975, 1976). The hiatus in
derived from magmatism associated with subduction
volcanism in the Miocene is represented by extensive,
of the Solomon Sea Sub-Plate into the New Britain
locally thick shelf limestone with karst topography,
Trench, under New Britain and New Ireland (Lindley,
which is in turn overlain by Pliocene volcaniclastic
1988; Shatwell, 1987). Many workers have discussed
sedimentary rocks.
the relationship between shoshonitic magmatism and
Bougainville and Buka Islands are geologically similar gold mineralisation on these islands (Heming, 1979;
to other islands of Melanesian Arc magmatism (Blake Wallace et al., 1983; Muller et al., 2001).
and Miezitis, 1967; Hilyard and Rogerson, 1989;
Mineralisation
Rogerson et al., 1989). Much of the
EoceneOligocene submarine basaltic to andesitic Alluvial gold was worked on Simberi and Tatau
volcanism and associated sediments are overlain by Islands, the latter being traced to a hard-rock source

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
at Tugi. Four eroded volcanoes were explored sinter deposits located adjacent to the springs assayed
extensively in the 1980s, leading to the drill testing of up to 33g/t Au (Licence et al., 1987).
many prospects.
On Manus Island, the Arie and other nearby prospects
On Simberi, resources of 29 million tonnes grading were explored from 1968 though the 1970s for
1.6g/t Au using a 0.5g/t cut-off for 1.48 million porphyry copper style mineralisation The
ounces of gold have been estimated (2004) for the mineralisation mainly occurs as stockwork fracture
hypogene and oxide mineralisation. Pronounced veins, and disseminated sulphides within the mid to
late Miocene Yirri Intrusive Complex (Jaques, 1980)
leaching is associated with an early event of K-feldspar
and adjacent volcanic rocks. In the area near
flooding followed by introduction of pyrite
Mt Kren, mineralised intrusions are overlain by an
grading to arsenean pyrite and arsenopyrite, in which
extensive blanket of cliff-forming silicaalunitepyrite
gold is encapsulated within sulphides. A later
alteration typical of the shoulders of barren advanced
event of high-grade gold is associated with argillic alteration that commonly forms in the vicinity
sphaleritepyritecarbonate (Corbett and Leach, of porphyry CuAu deposits at depth (Corbett and
unpub. report, 1995). Auriferous quartz veins occur Leach, 1998). Epithermal gold mineralisation
peripheral to the main prospect. Alteration and (Metawarei) is known to occur some 12km east of the
mineralisation at Simberi are typical of the intrusion- porphyry copper mineralisation within epiclastic
related low sulphidation style formed peripheral to an phases of the Middle Miocene Tasikim Volcanics.
alkaline magmatic source at depth. Consequently,
early alteration is characterised by K-feldspar In central New Britain, several 3022Ma age
flooding and an absence of silica, and the style of porphyry copper style mineralisation occurrences
mineralisation grades from (quartz)sulphidegold, to (Pleysumi, Kuku, Wala River, Torlu River, Ala River
and Esis-Sai) were prospected during the 1970s and
carbonatebase metalgold and marginal epithermal
80s (Hine and Mason, 1978; Hine et al., 1978).
quartzAuAg. Some workers have suggested that
Some of the occurrences are partly obscured by
a major phreatomagmatic eruption predated
Pliocene Ania Tuff. Many of the porphyries are the
mineralisation (Corbett and Leach, unpub. report,
current focus of exploration activities.
1995).
In East New Britain a 2322Ma intrusion-related
The giant Ladolam gold deposit on Lihir developed at epithermal gold occurrence, variably named Wild
the transition from a porphyry to an epithermal Dog (Lindley, 1987), Nengmukta or Sinivit (Lindley,
setting, resulting from a Mt St Helens sideways 1998), occurs within pre-mineral structures that can
collapse of the volcanic edifice. Mineralisation at be traced for several kilometres. Early silicification
Ladolam is described in detail in a later section. and high-temperature advanced argillic alteration is
overprinted by sulphide-poor AuTe epithermal
On a seamount 10km south of Lihir Island, sampling mineralisation best developed at cross-structures
in 1,050m water depth has yielded gold values to (Corbett and Leach, 1998), although other
230ppm in association with stockwork pyrite veins interpretations have also been provided (Lindley,
and polymetallic sulphides containing sphalerite, 1987, 1998). Initial exploration results from the
galena, chalcopyrite and marcasite with anomalous mineralised cross-structures were encouraging, but
Sb, As, Ag and Hg. Not surprisingly, Paterson et al. despite intensive exploration over many years by
(2002) interpret the mineralisation to have formed as several explorers, the system has proved to be only
magmatic sea-floor deposits. marginally economic.
On Ambitle Island in the Feni Island Group, a East New Britain also hosts a small high-sulphidation
summit caldera contains young (0.680.1 and gold occurrence at Maragorik that has developed at a
0.490.1Ma) domes, a phreatomagmatic eruption very high crustal level and demonstrates both
(2300100 years) and many active hot springs. Silica lithological and structural fluid controls to

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
mineralisation deposition (Corbett and Hayward, black smoker style vents within volcanic ridge
1994). Exploration has yet to identify a commercial spreading centres, dacite lavas and caldera collapse
resource at Maragorik (Corbett and Leach, 1998). settings (Parr et al., 1995; Gena et al., 2001). This
In the Manus Basin, volcanogenic massive sulphides mineralisation is currently being explored by an
(CuPbZnAgAu) are currently being deposited by Australian based consortium.
The best results are still realised by foot traverses of creeks and streams.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
6. Tectonics and Mineralisation
INTRODUCTION continental margin, of geological material that would

later comprise a large part of Papua New Guinea.
Papua New Guinea has long been cited as a classic
setting of porphyry CuAu and epithermal AuAg Davies et al. (1997) would have a north dipping, and
mineralisation within a subduction-related magmatic also a north-east dipping, subduction zone located off
arc, associated with continentisland arc collision. the north and north-eastern parts of the craton, above
Analysis of the relationship between tectonism and which were developed the Irian Arc and the East
mineralisation is best considered in the light of the Papua arc respectively. These arcs were accreted onto
protracted timeframe of varying subduction and the Australian Craton, together with ophiolite
collision. The rate of collision convergence is assemblages, in the Late Cretaceous for the Irian Arc
currently one of the fastest on earth at 100km per and Paleocene for the East Papua arc.
million years.
Paleocene (66-55Ma)
The geology of jungle-covered Papua New Guinea is
poorly understood, so any models for tectonism and During the Paleocene, the northern margin of the
mineralisation should be treated as constantly Australian craton underwent extensive rifting
evolving, especially concerning such aspects as the age associated with the opening of the Coral Sea basin
of igneous rock formation and associated (Weissel & Watts, 1979; Davies, 1997), possibly along
mineralisation. There is certainly no firm consensus deep basement structures. These structures project
among geoscientists on the geological evolution of from the basement and are now imposed on the
PNG. There is considerable disagreement among overlying accretionary wedge and may have
geoscientists about the timing of the collision between contributed to localising much younger
the Australian continent and the island arc(s), ranging mineralisation such as Porgera and Ok Tedi (Dekker
from Eocene in the Papuan Peninsula (Davies and et al., 1990; Corbett, 1994).
Smith, 1974), to OligoceneEarly Miocene (Hall,
The Laloki volcanogenic massive sulphide
2002), and MidMiocene (Rogerson et al., 1987b),
mineralisation may have developed at this time in a
while several workers suggest a history of multiple small ocean basin termed Uyaknji by Davies et al.
collision events with varying docking times in (1997).
different parts of Papua New Guinea (Pigram and
Davies, 1987; Davies et al., 1996; Veevers, 2000). As mentioned above, the Papuan Ultramafic Belt was
sutured to the Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY protolith during the Paleocene, based on dates
of 62-57Ma, the cooling age of hornblende
Pre - Paleocene
porphyroblasts in granulite facies metamorphics in the
The Australian continent, which underlies Papua New Complex (Lus et al., 2004).
Guinea almost to the north coast, may occur as a series
of rifted micro-continents, remnants of which are Eocene (5534 Ma)
exposed as the Permian Kubor Intrusion Complex
The Pacific Plate tectonic setting changed
(2440.8 and 2394.2Ma; Page, 1976), the Amanab dramatically in the Eocene as the Indo-Australian
Block (262Ma; Rogerson et al., 1987b) and the Bena Plate moved rapidly northward to terminate the
Bena Metamorphics (Rogerson and Hilyard, 1990). opening of the Coral Sea. There is a paucity of Eocene
Rifting is thought to have facilitated deposition of clastic sedimentation in eastern Papua New Guinea
thick sequences of marine clastic sediments containing compared to adjacent West Papua (Hill and Hall,
1.8 Ga continental-derived detritus that is intercalated 2003), and the northern part of the Craton, which
with Late Triassic (2213Ma) tuffs (Van Wyck and was the site of thick limestone deposition.
Williams, 2002) and Cretaceous volcanic-derived
material (Hill and Hall, 2003; Struckmeyer et al., A north-dipping subduction zone developed as an
1993; Francis, 1990). The Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic intra-oceanic plate subduction zone to the north of
time, therefore, saw the development, at a passive the emergent landmass. The Sepik Arc developed in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Tectonics and Mineralisation (cont.)
the Eocene in response to the subduction (Davies et subduction zone (Kilinailau Trench) that was initiated
al., 1997). in the Late Eocene, well to the north of the Australian
craton.
Oligocene (3423.8 Ma)
Davies et al., (1997) would have the Sepik Arc Miocene (23.85.5Ma)
accreted to the advancing Australian Craton in Late The New Guinea Islands region underwent significant
Eocene to Mid-Late Oligocene. Collision is tectonic disturbance in the Late Oligocene-Mid
interpreted to have continued through the Oligocene
Miocene. From about 2220Ma the Ontong Java
as evidenced by fault-bounded slivers of ultramafic
Plateau, a thick segment of southward-moving
rocks present within the thrust sheets of the Western
oceanic Pacific crust extending northeast from near
Orogen. In each case, medium to high-pressure
metamorphism of the accretionary wedge has Bougainville Island, jammed the Kilinailau
accompanied ophiolite emplacement and grades away subduction zone in that region (Bruns et al., 1989).
from the basal thrust into the underlying older The subduction zone progressively closed from the
metamorphic rocks (Rogerson et al., 1987b; Pieters, southeast to the northwest over a protracted period.
1978). The ultramafic rocks have been prospected As a result the EoceneOligocene submarine andesitic
for laterite nickel. volcanism, which accounted for development of the
New Guinea Islands archipelago, ceased in the Late
On the mainland, collision resulted in substantial Miocene and the emerging volcanic edifices became
uplift and metamorphism of the Cretaceous marine
capped by shallow marine limestone and sediments
sedimentary pile, and contributed towards the
for much of the Miocene and Pliocene. In addition,
termination of volcanism. The cooling age of the
also in response to the jamming of the Kilinailau
Alife Blueschist at 23Ma (Rogerson et al., 1987a) in
the Sepik region corresponds well with the cessation of Trench, it is thought that a southeast dipping
magmatism associated with the Sepik Event at about subduction zone developed at the Trobriand Trench
22Ma, as a result of collision (Findlay et al., 1997b). located well to the south west of the Solomon Sea
The accreted Sepik Arc now occurs as a 600km long plate, close to the strike continuation of the trench
zone straddling the Sepik River and extending into the lying north of the Maramuni Arc (Rogerson et al.,
headwaters in which medium-grade metamorphic 1987).
rocks contain Oligocene to Early Miocene intrusions.
Volcaniclastic sediments such as the Wogamush Deep erosion has locally exposed porphyry CuAu
Formation were deposited on the north side of the mineralisation associated with some co-magmatic
range in the Sepik headwaters. intrusions (Plesyumi and Esis in Central New
Britain). At higher crustal levels, structurally
A south dipping subduction zone developed at the controlled, intrusion-related, low sulphidation
northern edge of the craton and accreted terrains in
epithermal gold mineralisation, is locally preserved
the latest Oligocene (Rogerson et al., 1987) that
(Wild Dog, East New Britain), and high sulphidation
resulted in the formation of a continental volcanic arc
mineralisation in the same district may not be of the
from Miocene times, referred to as the Maramuni Arc
same age (Maragorik).
(Dow, 1977).
From the Oligocene to Mid-Miocene, thick platform The Trobriand Trench system failed in the Middle
limestone (Darai Limestone) was deposited on the Miocene and northward directed subduction was
landmass in the southwestern mainland Papua New initiated along the New Britain Trench.
Guinea (Pigram and Symonds, 1991).
Both the north dipping New Britain Trench and the
The New Guinea Islands developed at this time south west dipping trench at the edge of the
as emerging submarine volcanic edifices and Australian craton were consuming oceanic crust of the
co-magmatic intrusions above a south west dipping Solomon Sea Plate.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
One of the greatest manifestations of collision-related (Yandera), and the Akuna Intrusive Complex
shortening on mainland Papua New Guinea was the (Kainantu area), each of which host younger
development of the foreland thrust deformation, intrusions with associated CuAu mineralisation.
particularly in the Western Orogen, where Papuan Here, and in many other locations (Misima,
Basin sediments were extensively deformed and thrust Woodlark Island), it is evident that melts have
southwards from the Late Miocene to the present exploited earlier structural frameworks.
(Rogerson et al., 1987a).
Much of the Late Miocene to Pliocene magmatism on
The Maramuni Event (of the Maramuni Arc; Dow, mainland PNG occurs as high-level porphyry
1977) was originally cited as Miocene, but may have intrusions with associated CuAu (Yandera,
extended back to the Oligocene (Rogerson et al., Kainantu) and low sulphidation epithermal gold
1987), was most active from 1710Ma (Findlay et al., mineralisation (Porgera, Mt Kare, Irumafimpa lode at
1997b) and could be argued to have continued into Kainantu). Crustal melting at deep levels may be
the Pliocene (Findlay, 2002). The event represents the initiated by rapid unroofing, which promotes a
main period of magmatism and related mineralisation sudden decrease in pressure (Mason and Heaslip,
on mainland Papua New Guinea. It occurs as a 1980), and so it is proposed that porphyritic
4060km wide linear belt of intrusions stretching for intrusions have been rapidly emplaced at higher
750km from the Indonesian-PNG border, to the Wau crustal levels in waning stages of subduction.
district south of the Huon Gulf at the western
Significantly, many of these mineral occurrences (Ok
extremity of the Eastern Orogen, and sporadically into
Tedi, Porgera, Mt Kare) are localised by large fractures
the offshore Papuan Islands (eg. Woodlark Island).
that have allowed the migration of porphyritic
The NenaFrieda and Wafi porphyryepithermal
intrusions to relatively shallow crustal levels. Recent
CuAu hydrothermal systems represent some of the
field data at Porgera, where age dates are more
main events related to the Maramuni magmatism.
constrained, suggest that the interpreted removal of at
At Wafi, porphyry CuAu mineralisation is capped by least 600m of crust in only a few thousand years by
high sulphidation gold mineralisation and surrounded thrusting, under conditions of rapid convergence, has
by low sulphidation gold mineralisation. The promoted late-stage emplacement of structurally
mineralisation is localised by prominent NNE- controlled feldspar porphyry intrusions and the
trending structures, possibly originally developed as bonanza-grade epithermal gold mineralisation (see
Mesozoic rifts or faults. While some workers place later section on Porgera). The lack of identifiable
similar trending structures in the vicinity of the Frieda extrusive activity at Porgera is consistent with the
porphyry CuAu and adjacent Nena CuAu deposits, preservation of magmatic volatiles and mineralisation
tectonic controls may have been strike-slip within the buried magmatic source at depth until later
deformation (Corbett, 1994; Corbett and Leach, release (Corbett et al., 1995). Delayed partial melting
1998). The porphyry intrusions may have been has previously been suggested to account for the
localised on a splay off the FiakLeonard Schultze development of gold-anomalous shoshonitic Pacific
Fault. Intrusions began to be emplaced in the Rim magmatism (Johnson, 1987). These alkaline
Frieda area at about 17Ma. However, much of the rocks, although present as only a few percent of the
mineralisation is interpreted to have developed in the southwest Pacific igneous suite, account for about
waning stages at about 11.9Ma (Hall et al., 1990). 20% of the regions gold mineralisation (Porgera,
Lihir, Emperor; Sillitoe, 1997), and possibly
In the central part of the New Guinea Orogen significantly more, depending on the geological
substantial uplift of 4.5km and associated 3km models employed.
denudation at about 85Ma (Crowhurst et al., 1996;
Hill and Raza, 1999) have exposed the batholithic Recent fieldwork by the Geological Survey of Papua
levels of many intrusions related to the Maramuni New Guinea (Findlay, 2002) suggests that at least the
Event. For example, the Morobe Granodiorite Finisterre Ranges, and possibly other parts of the
(WauBulolo), the Bismarck Intrusive Complex Torricelli-Finisterre Terrane to the west, formed in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
their present setting as mixtures of continental and Plio-Quaternary

volcanic detritus extending to east New Britain.
Magmatic activity along the TabarLihirFeniTanga
However, most previous workers (Davies et al., 1997,
island chain is thought to be unrelated to subduction
Rogerson et al., 1987) would have this as an
at the New Britain Trench (Rogerson et al., (1989) but
allochthonous terrane docking with the mainland in
may have been localised by an earlier structural grain
the Late Miocene.
derived from the Kilinailau Trench and so lies adjacent
to New Ireland. Individual volcanic centres (Lihir,
Pliocene
Tabar Island) are aligned along fanned NS structures
On mainland PNG, Late Miocene magmatism and possibly formed as tension fractures as the downward-
delayed partial melting due to rapid unroofing of the moving Solomon Sea Sub-plate was progressively
Maramuni arc continued into the Early Pliocene. deformed. Here, gold-rich shoshonitic magmatism is
interpreted to have been derived from the later
In the Eastern Orogen, porphyry CuAu
remelting of previously partially melted oceanic crust
mineralisation developed at Mt Bini.
Adulariasericite style low sulphidation gold veins at (Solomon, 1990; Johnson, 1987).
Tolukuma developed in a possible rifted margin of a
Plio-Quaternary volcanism also developed in another
major volcano-plutonic complex.
arc stretching for 1000km from close to the north
The Morobe Goldfield at WauBulolo, occurs in coast of Papua New Guinea in the Sepik region,
association with the Bulolo Graben (Corbett, 1994), eastward through the Schouten Islands, Manam,
which is in part overlain by sediments of the Wau Karkar, Bagabag, Long and Umboi, and then along
Basin, is currently being studied by the Geological the north coast of New Britain as the Mt Andewa and
Survey of Papua New Guinea. Graben-bounding Mt Schrader stratovolcanoes, to the Willaumez
(Upper Watut Fault) and intra-graben (Escarpment Peninsula, Hoskins and East New Britain, again
Fault) faults to the Bulolo Graben have listric mimicking an earlier structural grain.
character. These structures localise Edie Porphyry
intrusions, phreatomagmatic breccias, and associated The oblique character of collision facilitated a
mineralisation. Pliocene rearrangement of the New Guinea Islands.
From 6Ma, the opening of the Woodlark Basin
In the Western Orogen, the Ok Tedi intrusions were divided the Papuan Islands by rifting at an estimated
emplaced into NNE-trending structures, possibly rate of 150mm/y over the past 3.5 million years
active since Mesozoic rift development. Many (Taylor et al., 1999; Benes et al., 1994). Since 3.5Ma,
Quaternary stratovolcanoes, such as Mt Bosavi, also the Manus Basin has opened by seafloor spreading in
occur on NNE trending structures. the eastern and sinistral (left lateral) strike-slip
displacement on the associated transform faults and,
In the New Guinea Islands, subduction on the
has contributed towards repositioning of much of the
Kilinailau Trench had been inactive since the Early
New Guinea Islands (Taylor, 1979). Earlier models
Miocene, although collision continued. Convergence
(Davies, 1991; Benes et al., 1994 ) have been modified
was accommodated by arc reversal at around 10Ma
to suggest that the Kilinailau Trench and the
(Bruns et al., 1989). Subduction was then initiated
Melanesian Arc, which once extended as a linear
along a new northward-dipping New Britain Trench,
island arc subduction zone couple southeast from
south of New Britain and extending towards the
Solomon Islands. west of New Britain, have been substantially
rearranged, such that the trench lies several hundred
Renewed subduction resulted in development of kilometres offshore and the island arc has been
significant Pliocene magmatism, although individual dismembered. Massive sulphide mineralisation is
volcanic centres may have been active since the Late currently being deposited (black smokers) in the
Miocene. Manus Basin.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
LATE CRETACEOUS PALEOCENE
OPENING OF CORAL SEA 65-55Ma

Fig. 6.2 The Coral Sea opened in the Paleocene. The Kami
and Uyaknji small ocean basins may have opened at the same
IRIAN ARC-CONTINENT COLLISION 68-61Ma time, as a northwesterly extension of the Coral Sea. The East
Fig. 6.1 Major Ophiolites were emplaced by collision of the Papua Composite terrane formed by collision of the East
Irian Jaya volcanic arc with the Australian craton in the Late Papua volcanic arc and the Owen Stanley terrane. The Border
Cretaceous and of the East Papua volcanic arc with the Owen terrane may have been sutured to the craton at this time or
Stanley terrane in the Paleocene (see figure 6.2). may be a salient of the Australian craton.
EOCENE OLIGOCENE
SEPIK VOLCANIC ARC

EARLY EOCENE KAMI EVENT SEPIK ARC-CONTINENT COLLISION
APPROACH OF EAST PAPUA COMPOSITE EASTERN PAPUA COMPOSITE TERRANE
TERRANE - EO-OLIG. OMAURA FORMATION COLLISION
IN FOREDEEP APPROACH OF FINISTERRE VOLCANIC ARC
Fig. 6.3 The Uyaknji small ocean basin closed in the Late Fig. 6.4 The Salumei volcanic arc collided with the craton in
Paleocene or Early Eocene and the Schrader, Marum, Jimi, the Late Eocene and Oligocene to form the Sepik terrane. The
Bena Bena, Kubor and Pale terranes were satured to the Uyaknji small ocean basin closed and the East Papua
craton. The Salumei or Sepik volcanic arc was active in the Composite terrane was accreted to the craton towards the end
Middle Eocene. of the Oligocene. The Finisterre volcanic arc developed in the
mid-Oligocene.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
MIOCENE PLIOCENE
FINISTERRE ARC-CONTINENT COLLISION BISMARK ARC-CONTINENT COLLISION

- EVIDENCE IS UNCOMFORMITY - EVIDENCE IS SEISMIC & SEISMICITY
SUCCESSOR BASINS FINISTERRE THRUST BELT
VOLCANISM WITHIN OROGEN PAPUAN FORELAND THRUST BELT
Fig. 6.5 The Finisterre arc collided with the craton in the ROTATION OF DOCKED TERRANES
Early Miocene. The Ramu-Markham basin developed in the Fig. 6.6 The Bismark volcanic arc collided with the craton in
foreland as collision progressed. Magmatic activity within the the Pliocene, resulting in the development of thrust faults
orogen (Maramuni volcanic arc) may have been triggered by within the Finisterre terrane and in the foreland of the
collision, rather than subduction. Australian craton (Papua fold belt). Palaeomagnetic studies
show that most or all terranes were rotated anti-clockwise
during the Pliocene, presumably in response to E-W left-
lateral strike-slip movements.
CONVERGENT MARGIN SINCE LATE

PRESENT DAY CONFIGURATION
CRETACEOUS
MUCH OF OROGEN IS ALLOCHTHONOUS
COLLISIONS OLDER THAN RECOGNISED
KAMI - AURE EO (-OLIG?) SEAWAY
BISMARK ARC COLLISION
Fig. 6.7 Present-day configuration. The heavy line marks the
edge of autochthonous Australian continental lithosphere. The
collision with the Bismark Volcanic Arc continues and causes
crustal shortening across the Orogen with active thrust faulting
in the Finisterre Range and the Papuan Fold Belt and the
transpressional faulting in-between.
Legend for Figures 6.1-6.7.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
SEISMICITY OF THE PNG Solomon Sea, across the Bismarck Sea, and an arc
REGION north of Manus Island and New Ireland.
As mentioned above, PNG lies in the collision zone of Most of the seismicity is at shallow depth, less than
two major lithospheric plates, the Pacific Plate to the 40km, but there is significant deeper seismicity with
northeast and the Indo-Australia Plate to the south some earthquakes at depths of about 600km. In order
and southwest. The collision is oblique as the to illustrate the relationships between the shallow and
direction of movement of the Pacific Plate is deeper seismicity three vertical cross-sections have
northwest while the Indo-Australia Plate is moving been constructed (Figs 6.9, 6.10, 6.11). These profiles
towards the north-northeast. Within the collision are oriented approximately orthogonal to the local
zone are several minor plates. The Solomon Plate lies trend of the seismicity and represent the seismicity in
in the southeastern part of the region while the South vertical zones approximately 100km wide.
Bismarck, North Bismarck and Caroline Plates
occupy the northern part of the region. Most of the Profile 1, across mainland PNG, shows three main
seismicity of the region occurs at the plate boundaries. regions of seismicity. The shallow seismicity in the
southern part of the cross-section represents activity in
The main concentration of seismicity is at the the Papuan Fold Belt on high-angle thrust faults. The
northern and northeastern margins of the Solomon deeper seismicity in the central part of the section
Sea (Fig. 6.8) where the Solomon Plate subducts reflects the presence of the westward extension of the
beneath the South Bismarck Plate and the Pacific Solomon Plate, now deeply buried beneath the India-
Plate, respectively. Seismicity in this area has been Australia Plate. The western part of the Solomon
described as the most intense in the world (Ripper and Plate has been shown to have an arch-like
McCue, 1983; Cooper and Taylor, 1989). From this configuration resulting from subduction both to the
area the seismicity continues towards the southeast north and to the south (Ripper, 1980, 1982; Cooper
through the Solomon Islands, and towards the and Taylor, 1987; Pegler, Das and Woodhouse, 1995).
northwest under the northern part of mainland PNG The shallow and intermediate depth seismicity of the
and Irian Jaya. The other main belts of seismicity in northern part of Profile 1 results from oblique
the PNG region are across the southern margin of the collision of the North Bismarck Plate with the India-
Fig. 6.8 Epicentres of earthquakes in the PNG region.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Australia Plate. The transpressional nature of the

collision is reflected in the intense high angle strike-
slip and thrust faulting in the coastal area of northern
mainland PNG. Deep subduction of the North
Bismarck Plate probably is inhibited by the
underlying presence of the Solomon Plate (Cooper
and Taylor, 1987).
Profile 2, from the northern part of the Solomon Sea

to the northern part of the Bismarck Sea, shows the
seismicity at two plate boundaries. The zone of
seismicity that dips northward beneath New Britain is
a classical representation of subduction. In this case
the Solomon Plate is subducting beneath the South
Fig. 6.9 cross section through northern PNG mainland. Bismarck Plate. The Solomon Plate supports
seismicity at depths as great as about 600km. The
main concentration of shallow seismicity under the
Bismarck Sea reflects predominantly strike-slip
dynamics (and some normal fault activity) at the
boundary between the South Bismarck and North
Bismarck Plates.
Profile 3, from the eastern Solomon Sea to the Pacific

Ocean, shows the seismicity at the boundary between
the Solomon Plate and the Pacific Plate. The
northeast dipping zone of seismicity signifies the
subduction of the Solomon Plate beneath the Pacific
Plate. There is an apparent discontinuity between the
dipping zone of seismicity and the deep seismicity.
Adjacent seismicity indicates that the Solomon Plate is
splintered and contorted at depth (Cooper and Taylor,
1989).
Fig. 6.10 cross section through New Britain-Manus basin.
Fig. 6.11 cross section through Bougainville.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
7. Mineralisation Styles
INTRODUCTION large bulk-mineable resources, and so potentially

Papua New Guinea possesses mineralisation styles represent high-value ore systems (eg. Panguna,
characteristic of its setting at a convergent plate Ok Tedi, Frieda River, Yandera, and Golpu (formerly
margin. Mineralisation is dominantly porphyry Raffertys, at Wafi). While the porphyry CuAu
CuAu and epithermal AuAg styles as illustrated in deposits in Papua New Guinea are broadly similar to
Fig. 7.1. examples of this mineralisation style in other
magmatic arcs (eg. western USA and Chile), the high
Volcanogenic massive sulphide, exhalative manganese gold content of PNG porphyry CuAu occurrences,
and limestone are also present. Weathering of select relative to copper and molybdenum, is a characteristic
bedrock has resulted in the formation of lateritic typical of many southwest Pacific deposits and is
nickel-cobalt-chromite and bauxite occurrences. In consistent with the influence of oceanic crust.
addition, erosion of hard rock deposits has generated
placer deposits of gold, platinum, titaniferous Porphyry CuAu deposits are developed at relatively
magnetite and chromite. In this broad discussion of deep (12km) crustal levels and display a
mineralisation styles, individual deposits are cited as close relationship with intrusion source rocks.
examples and expanded upon with references later in Mineralisation commonly occurs at the apophyses
this volume. of large magmatic masses and is commonly
associated with the repeated emplacement of
GOLD, COPPER AND SILVER porphyryitic intrusions of intermediate composition.
The polyphasal event commonly includes
Porphyry CuAu deposits
post-mineral intrusions, which may constitute
Porphyry CuAu deposits, which although of low internal waste in mineable reserves. Initial
metal tenure (commonly <1% Cu and 1g/t Au), form prograde hydrothermal alteration, associated with
Fig. 7.1 Conceptual model for styles of magmatic arc CuAu mineralisation (after Corbett, 2002).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mineralisation Styles (cont.)
intrusion emplacement, ranges from proximal oxidation, and is often structurally controlled.
potassic (K-feldsparbiotitemagnetite) and The specific gravity of host rocks is lowered during the
local albite alteration, to distal propylitic oxidation/supergene enrichment process.
(inner propylitic actinoliteepidote to outer
propylitic chloritecarbonate) alteration. Skarn deposits
Phyllic (silicasericitepyrite) and argillic
Skarn deposits are formed by the replacement of
(claychloritecarbonatepyrite) alteration are
country rocks when they are intruded by an igneous
commonly imposed upon the prograde alteration.
body. Proximal skarns in Papua New Guinea can
Retrograde alteration destroys prograde mineral
contain CuAu where limestone is in contact with the
assemblages and can downgrade magnetic anomalies,
intrusion (Ok Tedi, Frieda River), or gold where
such that CuAu ore in any one deposit may be
favourable host rocks have been replaced in more
associated with regions of elevated or depressed
distal settings (Mt Victor). Magnetite skarns are
magnetic intensity (eg. Kainantu).
usually well preserved in the rivers downstream from
Barren advanced argillic alteration may develop the area in which they were developed. These boulder
subjacent to porphyry CuAu deposits, due to the trains led to identification of the porphyry CuAu
alteration of host rocks by high-temperature deposits at Frieda River and Ok Tedi.
magmatic volatiles emanating from the intrusion
source early in the porphyry-related hydrothermal Epithermal gold
process. Analogies are recognised in active magmatic Epithermal gold mineralisation develops at shallower
arc geothermal systems (Reyes et al., 1993). These crustal levels than porphyry systems, most commonly
advanced argillic alteration zones comprise resistant <1km. Younger gold mineralisation may be
massive silica, alunite, pyrophyllite, pyrite (locally superimposed upon older porphyry systems that
with high-temperature andalusite and corundum), originally formed at deeper crustal levels and have
and may form prominent topographic highs in the been subsequently uplifted and eroded (Kainantu
vicinity of more deeply eroded, less-resistant porphyry district; Rogerson and Williamson, 1986). Most
mineralisation eg. (Ekwai-Debom at Frieda River, classifications of epithermal AuAgCu deposits
Oro Prospect at Kainantu, Mt Kren on Manus (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, 2002 and
Island). These alteration zones are termed barren references therein) distinguish high and low
shoulders by Corbett and Leach (1998) and occur sulphidation epithermal deposits on the basis of
within the root zones of the lithocaps described by gangue and ore minerals reflecting ore deposition
Sillitoe (1995). from dramatically different fluids (Fig. 7.2). Low
sulphidation deposits can be further categorised into
The chalcopyritebornitepyrite mineral assemblages
four types of mineralisation (Fig. 7.3), which develop
typical of porphyry systems may be hosted within
at decreasing crustal depths. They are:
stockworks and sheeted quartz veins (Frieda River), or
as fracture coatings (Panguna), and less commonly as quartzsulphide AuCu (QS);
breccia fill (Ok Tedi). The highest ore grades are
commonly close to the intrusion margin and often carbonate-base metalAu (CBM);
extend into the country rocks. Weathering of pyrite-
rich porphyries (most commonly present in phyllic epithermal quartzAuAg (EQ); and
alteration) generates acidic groundwaters that leach
copper from upper levels of the system to adulariasericite epithermal AuAg banded quartz
subsequently replace sulphides near the base of vein deposits.
oxidation, to form underlying chalcocite blankets of
Low sulphidation deposits
higher (12% Cu) metal grades (Ok Tedi, Frieda
River). Copper and gold concentrate separately during Low sulphidation deposits are derived from
supergene processes. Supergene gold enrichment circulating dilute meteoric-dominated fluids which
occurs at near-surface settings, close to the base of entrain metals, possibly derived from the inferred

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 7.2 The derivation of high versus low sulphidation AuAgCu deposits from differing fluid styles (after Corbett, 2002).
Fig. 7.3 Vertical zonation in low sulphidation epithermal gold deposits (after Corbett and Leach, 1998).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 7.4 Vertical zonation in mineralisation styles in the Wau district, showing the gradation in style from deeper to higher
crustal levels.
intrusive heat source(s) responsible for development not always (Ladolam), develops at deeper crustal levels
of the circulating hydrothermal cells (Fig. 7.4). These in the vicinity of porphyry intrusions (Kainantu),
deposits tend (although not always, e.g. Ladolam) to where they exploit pre-mineral structures (Irumifimpa
display low sulphide contents, and are dominated by and Kora at Kainantu). QS type mineralisation is
pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, with quartz transitional to the "D" veins of the early porphyry
and occasionally carbonate gangue minerals. The copper literature (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), which
near-neutral hydrothermal fluids promote wall-rock occur marginal to porphyry CuAu deposits (Frieda
alteration dominated by illite group clays. However, River). At Hamata in the Morobe Goldfield, veins of
during late-stage collapse of the hydrothermal system, the QS type mineralisation are associated with
acidic condensate waters promote the development of potassic (magnetiteK-feldspar) alteration at the
advanced argillic and argillic alteration. deepest level exposed by erosion. QS type
mineralisation is overprinted by later CBM type gold
Quartzsulphide AuCu (QS) mineralisation
veins at Porgera and Mt Kare. The Kerimenge
QS type mineralisation represents the earliest type of Prospect, also in the Morobe Goldfield, grades from
intrusion-related low sulphidation gold deposits to QS type mineralisation at depth to CBM and EQ
form. QS type mineralisation commonly, although styles at higher levels.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
A quartz and pyrite assemblage typifies QS type Australia), and are well developed in Papua New
mineralisation, although other sulphides include Guinea (Porgera, Mt Kare, Wooklark Island, Misima,
chalcopyritepyrrhotite at deeper levels and marcasite Hidden Valley, Kerimenge, Wau). These deposits are
and arsenean pyrite at higher levels. characterised by a gangue rich in carbonate and
sulphides comprising early pyrite followed by pyrite,
The gold of QS type mineralisation commonly occurs sphalerite (in greater quantities than galena) and rare
in fractures and on the margins of sulphide crystals chalcopyrite. Both carbonate and sphalerite may
(typically pyrite but also chalcopyrite and locally display a zonation within the deposit. Carbonate is
tellurobismuthinite), and the ores may possess good deposited from collapsing bicarbonate waters that are
metallurgical recovery characteristics (Hamata). neutralised by reaction with wallrocks and so at higher
However, in some deposits where the fluids have been levels siderite forms, while manganese and magnesium
quenched, gold may be encapsulated within very fine species (rhodochrosite, dolomite, kutnahorite) occur
grained sulphides and therefore possess poor at intermediate levels, and calcite forms at depth.
metallurgical recovery characteristics (Kerimenge, Low-temperature sphalerite displays Zn>Fe
Ladolam). Metal and mineral zonation are apparent compositions and is typically pale coloured and
as some deeper formed veins may carry copper (Frieda changes with increasing depth and temperature of
River) or pyrrhotite (Jez Lode at Porgera), and higher formation through yellow, red and brown colours, to
level deposits may contain gold encapsulated within the black Fe>Zn compositions formed at greater
arsenean pyrite (Ladolam, Simberi). depth and temperature conditions (Corbett and
Leach, 1998).
The gold grades within QS type mineralisation vary
from sub-economic in many veins marginal to CBM deposits typically overprint earlier formed QS
porphyry systems, to zones of high grade (>10g/t Au) deposits (Mt Kare, Porgera), and pass to QS deposits
eg. Ladolam and bonanza gold grades (Irumifimpa). with increasing depth (Kerimenge) or in proximity to
QS type mineralisation is susceptible to supergene porphyry source rocks (Maniape). They are
enrichment in surficial tropical environments, and is commonly overprinted by EQ deposits of higher gold
often worked by artisanal miners (Kainantu and Wau grade, and this overprinting event contributes towards
districts), especially within deeply weathered the irregular gold distribution recognised within
structures. CBM deposits (Porgera, Mt Kare, Busai). CBM
deposits have many forms, including fissure veins
In some QS type mineralisation developed within
(Edie Creek), lodes (Kulumadau), and stockwork vein
silica-poor K-rich shoshonitic host rocks (eg. Porgera,
systems are most common (Mt Kare and Porgera), and
Mt Kare, TangaFeniLihirTabar Island chain)
may be locally transitional to quartz vein systems
K-feldspar (typically as adularia and other
(Misima). Many CBM deposits are associated with
low-temperature forms) dominates over quartz.
high-level intrusions (Porgera), or phreatomagmatic
At the giant Ladolam deposit on Lihir Island, fluid
breccias (Upper Ridges, Kerimenge). Some develop at
control is provided by structure and lithology
the margins of high sulphidation systems either from
(ie. permeable lithologies, breccia including
separate fluids (Frieda River district), or by
phreatomagmatic diatremes) and the ores are
neutralisation of acid fluids through wall rock reaction
associated with fine-grained arsenean pyrite within
(Link Zone at Wafi), and so display higher gold grades
zones of K-feldspar alteration.
and possess better metallurgical recovery
characteristics than the subjacent high sulphidation
Carbonatebase metalAu (CBM) deposits
systems.
The CBM deposits typically develop later, and occupy
higher crustal level settings, than the QS deposits. The gold within CBM systems is deposited by the
They represent some of the most prolific gold mixing of rising ore fluids with bicarbonate waters,
producers in the southwest Pacific (Kelian, Mt Muro, and so is commonly found at the carbonate-base metal
Indonesia; Antamok, Acupan, Victoria, Philippines; sulphide interface (Corbett and Leach, 1998). The
Penjom Malaysia; Kidston, Mt Leyshon, northeast gold grades display highly irregular distribution and

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
tenor, and the metallurgical

characteristics may also vary
significantly within individual
deposits (Porgera). There is
usually a positive correlation
between gold grade and base
metal content. Manganese wad
formed from the weathering of
rhodochrosite is easily
recognisable in weathered
exposures and is an indicator of
this mineralisation type. The wad
may scavenge gold and silver,
resulting in surficial enrichment
of those metals.
Epithermal quartz AuAg

(EQ) systems
Epithermal quartz AuAg systems

generally occur in association
with other types of intrusion-
related low sulphidation gold
mineralisation and are often
localised in fault zones (Porgera
Zone VII, Busai and Kulamadau
on Woodlark Island). They
typically form in the latter stages
of mineralisation so that they
overprint other styles (QS at
Ladolam, and CBM at Porgera
and Mt Kare) or crop out in
marginal settings (Kerimenge),
and are commonly preserved at
the highest topographic levels
(Edie Creek). QS, CBM and Fig. 7.5 Cross-section through the high sulphidation alteration zones at Nena
EQ low sulphidation AuAg produced by laterally flowing hydrothermal fluid (after Bainbridge et al., 1993).
deposits are all known to occur in
the mountainous terrain of
Morobe Goldfield at different topographic levels. contributes towards the highly irregular gold
distribution within carbonatebase metalgold
This type of mineralisation is characterised by deposits (Porgera, Mt Kare). Weathering and erosion
bonanza gold grades (Porgera Zone VII, Mt Kare, may result in substantial alluvial deposits (Mt Kare,
Busai), and is interpreted to have been deposited by
Morobe Goldfield).
the mixing of rising ore fluids with oxygenated, low
pH or bicarbonate waters, and commonly contains Adulariasericite epithermal AuAg banded
very little associated gangue (Porgera, Edie Creek).
quartz vein deposits
Free gold may include crystalline and wire gold
shapes, thus epithermal quartz AuAg mineralisation Adulariasericite epithermal AuAg deposits
overprinting earlier formed mineralisation types, commonly occur as veins with a banded texture. The

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
texture comes from successive layers of fine-grained migrate from deeper to shallower crustal levels,
quartz (chalcedony), quartz replacing platy calcite, without significant interaction with either the host
adularia, and black sulphidic "ginguro" layers (named rocks or dilution by groundwater (Corbett and Leach,
from the Japanese mining term; Corbett, 2002 and 1998; Corbett, 2002). Depressurising fluids exsolve
references therein). Circulating dilute meteoric- volatiles (dominantly SO2), which in turn oxidise to
dominated waters can deposit minerals by rapid
become hot, strongly acidic (pH <2) solutions. At
cooling (fine-grained chalcedonic silica), and by
shallow crustal levels these fluids react with the host
boiling (quartz replacing platy calcite, adularia). The
rocks to create the zoned hydrothermal alteration
mixing of ore fluids with oxygenated, low pH and
bicarbonate waters may also account for the characteristic of these deposits (Fig. 7.5). In the core
deposition of most bonanza-grade AuAg (electrum portions of HSE alteration, the most strongly acidic
and free gold) which commonly occurs within the fluids (pH 12) leach the host rocks to form a
black sulphidic ginguro bands (Corbett and Leach, mappable alteration type termed vughy silica
1998). (reflecting the texture) or residual silica (indicating the
remaining composition). As the fluids are
The banded veins typically develop within a dilational progressively cooled and neutralised by rock reaction,
structural setting, which permits access for circulating
alteration zones are developed outwards from the
hydrothermal fluids and enables repeated rapid
core to result in mineral assemblages dominated by
mineral deposition. Although common elsewhere in
alunite, pyrophyllitediaspore, dickite, kaolin and
Pacific Rim back arc settings (Patagonia of Argentina,
western USA, Taupo Volcanic Zone of New Zealand, illitesmectitechlorite. The detailed mineralogy and
Japan), deposits of this style also occur in magmatic thickness of alteration zones will vary according to the
arcs characterised by andesiticfelsic volcanism crustal level, proximity to fluid upflow and the nature
(Coromandel Peninsula of New Zealand, Kamchatka of the permeability control.
of eastern Russia, Japan), especially within dilational
structural settings (Tolukuma, Papua New Guinea). Sulphide minerals which overprint the alteration are
dominated by pyrite and enargite (Nena, Wafi), and
Sediment-hosted replacement gold deposits locally with the low-temperature polymorph luzonite
The best known sediment-hosted replacement gold (Maragorik). They may vary from gold-rich at
deposits are in Nevada, western USA. They have also higher crustal levels to copper-rich at depth, where
been recognised in southwest Pacific magmatic arcs covellite and chalcocite may host ore (Nena). High
(Mesel, Indonesia; Bau, Malaysia) and in China. sulphidation gold deposits in Papua New Guinea are
These deposits are thought to develop from the gold-rich and silver-poor (similar to elsewhere in the
reaction of quartzsulphide-style low sulphidation southwest Pacific), as distinct from the silver-rich
fluids with reactive impure limestone host rocks at Andean systems (Yanacocha, Pierina, Alto Chicama in
shallow crustal settings. The major controls on ore
Peru; La Coipa, Pascua in Chile). High sulphidation
deposition tend to be lithological at shallower crustal
gold deposits are commonly associated with felsic
levels and structural at depth. Although not currently
domes and display permeability controls dominated
recognised within Papua New Guinea, this style of
mineralisation presents a viable exploration target by host-rock lithology, structure or breccias (typically
where the essential requirements of formation, namely as phreatomagmatic breccia diatremes), and
a magmatic source, dilational structures and impure interactions of these controls. The mineralisation at
limestone host rocks are present. Wafi occurs in association with a diatreme - dome
complex, while that at Nena is localised by the
High sulphidation epithermal gold (HSE) intersection of a major structure and a permeable
deposits
lapilli tuff, and mineralisation at Maragorik occurs
High Sulphidation Epithermal deposits develop from within a permeable rock unit and a deeper "feeder"
volatile-rich magmatic-derived fluids which rapidly structure.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
COPPER, ZINC, LEAD, GOLD and channelled porewater expulsion. Syntaphral

SILVER deformation of host cherts indicates that exhalation
probably occurred during synsedimentary faulting on
Volcanogenic massive sulphide
a submarine palaeoslope.
(VMS) deposits
VMS deposits hosting Cu, Pb, Zn, Au and Ag occur NICKEL AND COBALT
as stratiform lenses within volcaniclastic and volcanic
Weathering of ultramafic rocks
rocks at Laloki near Port Moresby and Ofuo. Black
smokers in the offshore Manus Basin, the Woodlark Weathering of ultramafic rock units has produced
Basin and offshore from the TangaFeniLihirTabar laterite nickelcobaltchromite deposits at Ramu,
Island chain, are currently depositing gold with Safia and Ioma.
sulphides.
SECONDARY GOLD, BEACH
No stratabound deposits (Mississippi Valley type) SAND AND PLATINUM.
have been recognised within PNG but the northern
margin of the Fly Platform and the Papuan Fold Belt Placer gold deposits
may be likely settings for this type of mineralisation. Placer deposits have historically been important
sources of gold for PNG and have been worked as
MANGANESE major operations (Bulolo produced 3.5 million
Manganese concentrations occur within radiolarites ounces) or by artisanal miners (Wau, Kainantu, Mt
and carbonate turbidities of the Eocene hemipelagic Kare) who produce about 70,000 ounces per year.
Port Moresby Beds as cm-size ferromanganese The placers are a useful exploration tool because they
concretions and locally as manganese-dominated provide guidance to nearby hard-rock ores (Porgera,
stratiform bodies of up to 103t in size. The largest Mt Kare). The Mt Kare case is most interesting in
known stratiform occurrence, the Pandora deposit that as much as 1 million ounces of consistently high
80km SE of Port Moresby, was mined and probably fineness gold is thought to have been chemically
largely worked out between 1938 and 1964, remobilised and redeposited down slope from the
producing some 2400t of high grade manganese oxide hard-rock source of variable fineness.
for battery manufacture. Previous discovery of
siliceous microfossils within Pandora ore strongly Beach Sands
suggested a sedimentary genesis for this deposit. This Papua New Guinea has significant heavy mineral
was confirmed by demonstrating seawater-inherited beach deposits consisting of titaniferous magnetite
rare earth element patterns for the ore (Finlayson & sands, chromite sands and olivine sands. The largest
Cussen, 1984). Negative Ce anomalies, high Mn/Fe being the titaniferous magnetite sands containing
and only slightly enriched hydrogenous element accessory rutile, ilmenite and zircon. The lighter heavy
chemistry indicate an exhalative mechanism for ore minerals rutile, zircon, ilmenite and monazite are
emplacement. Mn oxide and chalcedony-veining of sparsely distributed, mainly within the beach sand
the chert breccia host, coupled with absence of deposits.
significant associated footwall Fe enrichment, imply
that Mn oxidation and exsolution began sub-seafloor Several types of placers are known in PNG, including
through mixing of an Fe-deficient ore fluid with oxic strandline (shoreline or beach) placers, coastal Aeolian
porewater; ore precipitation occurred at the site of placers, marine placers, and fossil strandline and
exhalation. An origin within the Port Moresby Beds dunes. In general, the richest heavy mineral
for the manganese of both stratiform deposits and accumulation occurs along the base of frontal dunes
concretions is supported by evidence of substantial on open beaches, and in natural traps formed by
planktonic test dissolution, organic combustion and headlands and other barriers impeding longshore
metal movement during diagenesis. Stratiform currents. This is also the case for PNG beach sand
deposits were formed locally and transiently by deposits.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The major beach sands areas on the south coast are in deposit model could be the source for some of the
the Gulf of Papua between Daru and Kerema, on the PGM, it would not account for all the PGM
southeast coast between Beagle Bay and Mullins mineralisation. A possible source model for the high
Harbour, on the Papuan peninsulas north coast near platinum alloy found in some of the occurrences
Popondetta, and on Bougainville Island. Most of the would be the zoned ultramafics of the Alaskan/Ural
sands have been derived from the erosion of volcanics. type. Smith and Davies (1976) noted several high
alkali intrusive suites within the area. These intrusives
Chromite-bearing sands derived from ultramafics also are usually thought to reflect deep crustal fracturing
occur in significant concentrations, but are not as and lithospheric rifting.
widespread as the iron sands. Major occurrences have
been noted along the north coast of the Papuan Another PGM deposit type that one would expect to
Peninsula between Salamaua and Morobe. occur in Papua New Guinea are the hydrothermal and
Occurrences have also been reported northwest of skarn related deposits. High concentrations of
Vanimo, on Fergusson and Normanby Islands in palladium and platinum, averaging 75ppm and 4ppm
Milne Bay, and in the delta of the Purari River in the respectively, are associated with the copper ores of the
Gulf of Papua. New Rambler deposit, Wyoming USA (McCalum
et al., 1976). There the metals are thought to have
Foundry grade olivine sands have been reported along been concentrated by hydrothermal leaching of the
the coast between Salamaua and Morobe, and on gabbroic rocks and redeposited along shear zones as
Fergusson Island. palladium and platinum-rich copper ores. The PGM
occur as discrete minerals in the main stage
Platinum Group Metals
chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite assemblage, and in the early
The most common deposit type applicable to PNG is hypogene pyrite (up to 60ppm Pd in solid solution).
the ophiolite-related deposit type and derived placers. Platinum, palladium and osmium have also been
Significant examples of the latter include the reported in Mo-Cu hydrothermal and skarn deposits
osmiridium-rich alluvials along the Lakekamu, Gria in China with Os Pt Pd (Cabri, 1981a).
and Aikora Rivers, and McLaughlins Creek. PGM Hydrothermal/skarn PGM deposits (eg. New
associated with olivine-rich and chromite-rich rocks Rambler, Wyoming, USA) have yet to be identified in
are enriched in osmium, iridium and ruthenium. Papua New Guinea.
PGM mineralisation is also associated with sulphide It is interesting to note that porphyry Cu-Mo deposits
mineralisation. Sulphide mineralisation within may also contain PGM. In the western USA,
ophiolites is commonly associated with volcanics, approximately 1g/t platinum is recovered as a by-
though minor sulphide concentrations can occur product during copper refining (Cabri, 1981b). It is
within cumulus gabbros. The Doriri Creek nickel estimated that Arizona produces between 55-70% of
prospect sampled by INSEL in 1968 and by Nord in the US platinum recovered from copper concentrates.
1978 was found to be anomalous in platinum and Relatively little is known about the PGM mineralogy
palladium. Platinum and osmiridium were also or geochemistry of these deposits. Porphyry Cu-Mo
produced from the Astrolabe Mineral Field, just east deposits in the little Caucasus, Amenia, also contain
of Port Moresby. PGM.
The Milne Bay area was the focus for a short-lived PGM-bearing placers have been reported throughout
gold and platinum rush during the mid 1930s. It has Papua New Guinea from north of the Sepik, throughout
been recorded that PGM occurrences in the Dowa the Highlands and down through the Papuan Peninsula
Dowa River headwaters were not associated with to Milne Bay and the DEntrecasteaux Islands. PGM-
alluvial gold. It is thought that although an ophiolite bearing placers are also auriferous and have been worked

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
in Papua New Guinea since the turn of the century. Work by the Geological Survey of PNG in the north
Most production was prior to World War II, and since Sepik area has identified extensive ophiolite
then it has been sporadic. Major PGM production has sequences, from the Prince Alexander Mountains to
come from the Lakekamu, Gira, Aikora and Milne Bay the Bewani Range. The area may be considered to
areas. During the 1930s, the Milne Bay area was the have potential for PGM mineralisation. In most of
focus of a short-lived gold and platinum rush, but the these areas no assessment of PGM potential has been
conducted.
source of the PGM in this area is yet to be identified.
Ground magnetics is an exploration tool that is widely used in PNG.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
8. Mineral Projects and Mines
Fig. 8.1 Location of mining operations and prospects discussed in this section.
INTRODUCTION
Despite its relatively short period of exposure to

western influences and the mining industry, Papua
New Guinea has attained credibility as a mineral
producer based on the presence of several major
mines, beginning with the Bulolo gold dredging
operation in the 1930s. There are currently three
world class mines in operation, two smaller mines in
production, and several projects about to come into
development. The important mining operations and Fig. 8.2 Location of the Frieda River Project.
some of the prospects are discussed below in
alphabetical order (Fig. 8.1). The prospects are located in the Sandaun Province,
about 800km NW of Port Moresby, 175km NW of
FRIEDA RIVER
Porgera gold mine, and 90km NE of the Ok Tedi
Location and ownership
copper mine. The nearest coastal town of Wewak is
250km to the NE (Fig. 8.2). The area is remote and
The Frieda River Project is one of the largest sparsely populated, with very little government
undeveloped CuAu resources in PNG, containing in infrastructure.
excess of 600Mt of copper and 12 million ounces of
gold. This resource is substantially higher than The Frieda River prospects are centered on latitude
Ok Tedis contained metals (313Mt of copper and 4o429S and longitude 141o4555E at altitudes
9.7 million ounces of gold) in the pre-mining proven between 300 and 1200m asl and are covered by
ore reserves. EL 58. The area is serviced by fixed-wing aircraft to

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mineral Projects and Mines (cont.)
the Frieda airstrip, thence by a 12km helicopter flight recommended that bankable feasibility studies based
to the main base camp. Barges from Madang or on their pre-feasibility studies be undertaken for the
Wewak ply the Sepik River up to the Iniok Depot combined Nena and Ivaal porphyry resources.
located near the mouth of the Frieda River, where However, the advancement of the project was affected
cargo is transferred to small motorised canoes for the by the unsolicited takeover of Highlands Gold by
remainder of the journey to Frieda airstrip. Placer Dome. Highlands Pacific Ltd was restructured
to acquire non-Porgera assets including Frieda River at
Ownership is currently shared between Highlands
a cost of A$108 million. In 1998, Cyprus Amax
Pacific Ltd (HPL: 87.9%) and OMRD Frieda Ltd
(12.1%). OMRD is a Japanese consortium headed by (USA) entered the Frieda River project through a joint
Sumitomo Metals Mining. In 2002, Noranda reached venture agreement and focused on re-evaluating the
an agreement with HPL and OMRD wherein porphyry deposits, until Phelphs Dodge took over
Noranda will take up to 72% interest in the Frieda Cyprus Amax in late 1999. Phelps Dodge elected not
River property on meeting certain obligations. This to have any interest in PNG and the property reverted
arrangement is still in place. to HPL. In 2002, Noranda farmed in and drilling of
the Trukai prospect commenced, with several drill
Exploration history intercepts of 100m grading >1% Cu. Drilling is
Mineralisation at Frieda River was discovered in 1967 continuing.
by an Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources
Geological setting
geological mapping party. BMR geologist J.A. Smit
traversed Ok Uwaii, a creek draining the Frieda River The Frieda River area is located on the southern
deposit, and recognised ferruginous float margin of the New Guinea Mobile Belt, a zone
(Lord, 1979) and collected stream
sediment samples, which subsequently
yielded anomalous copper values. In
1968, PA 58, subsequently EL 58, was
granted to Mount Isa Mines Ltd (MIM)
and in the years to 1973 several porphyry
copper deposits, including Horse and
Koki, were identified. From 1974 to
1978, OMRD Frieda Ltd earned 40%
equity, during which the Ivaal porphyry
and the Nena high sulphidation
mineralisation (follow-up of earlier stream
sediment anomaly) were discovered.
In 1979, CRA and Norddeutshe Affinerie

joined the venture, and two separate
feasibility studies were completed in 1981
and 1985. MIM transferred its equity in
Frieda River to Highlands Gold Properties
Pty Ltd (an MIM subsidiary) in 1992,
whilst CRA and Norddeutshe Affinerie
exited the venture in 1993 and 1994,
respectively. Total exploration expenditure
to 1997 was US$50.8 million.
By 1997, Highlands Gold announced a

measured resource for Nena and Fig. 8.3 Geology of the Frieda River Intrusive Complex.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
characterised by faulting and intense folding caused by are often intruded by Flimtem Trachyandesite (Fta).
the oblique collision of the Pacific and Indo-
Porphyry mineralisation
Australian Plates since Miocene times. Consequently,
major structural trends are WNW (arc parallel) and Work by Morrison et al. (1999) and Hawkins (2001)
ENE (arc normal). The interaction of the WNW- on the paragenesis and controls of high-grade
trending arc-parallel structures (FiakLeonard Shultz hypogene porphyry mineralisation significantly
Fault Zone and Frieda Fault) and a NE-trending improved the understanding of the mineralisation at
transfer structure (Ok Tedi Structure), provided the Frieda River.
focus for intrusion of the multi-phased Frieda River
Intrusive Complex. For brevity, five distinct alteration assemblages
associated with the porphyry mineralisation can be
The Frieda River Intrusive Complex (15Ma) and recognised (Fig 8.4). From earliest to youngest these
associated volcanism (Debom Volcanics) intruded two alteration assemblages are:
basement rock units (Fig. 8.3). The oldest and more
potassic (biotitemagnetite); POB phase;
widespread basement rock is Upper Cretaceous
propylitic;
Eocene-aged Ok Binai Phyllites (Takaoka, 1984),
potassic (K-feldsparquartz; K-feldspar); POK phase;
which are overlain by sedimentary sequences of Mid-
SCC (sericiteclaychloritecarbonate
Miocene Wogamush Formation. At intrusive
rutilequartz); and
contacts, these sediments are hornfelsed, brecciated,
phyllicargillic.
and in places host skarn and porphyry mineralisation.
The above assemblages are overprinted by an
Britten (1981) defined five distinct phases for the
advanced argillic alteration (AAA) assemblage which is
Frieda Intrusive Complex. The oldest is the Koki
unrelated to the porphyry intrusion.
Diorite Porphyry (Kdp), with the Frieda Diorite
Porphyry (FdP), Horse Microdiorite (Hmd), Knob The two phases of potassic alteration were
Diorite and Flimtem Trachyandesite (Fta) accompanied by primary CuAu mineralisation, as
representing the younger intrusives. Mineralisation was the SCC alteration. The relative proportion of
and alteration are spatially and genetically related to copper mineralisation contributed by each phase
west-northwest-trending stocks and dykes of Horse varies within a deposit, but each contributes equal
Microdiorite bodies. These narrow apophyses (dykes) amounts. However, almost all the gold mineralisation
apparently coalesce at depth. was entirely introduced during the potassic alteration
phase (Hawkins, 2001).
Three sets of structures are dominant: NNENE
(post-mineral), WNW (syn-mineral) and EW Alteration and mineralisation accompanying the
structures. The EW-trending structures are steeply Porphyry intrusions at Frieda River, (Fig. 8.5) can be
dipping normal faults and often delimit the northern summarised as follows:
and southern margins of Horse Microdiorite and Koki
Diorite Porphyry bodies. 1) Early Potassic (POB) alteration is variably
developed and widespread. Characteristic
The syn-mineral WNW structures dip steeply north
minerals are secondary biotite, magnetite, quartz
(Hawkins, 2001). These faults are recognised within
and rutile. Mineralisation associated with this
the high-grade part of the main mineralised zones and
phase is relatively widespread within the Horse
often have hydrothermal and tectonic breccia roots.
Microdiorite, typically as fine-grained and
The NNE-trending structures dissect all the fracture-filled chalcopyritebornite, granular
porphyries, and displace mineralisation. For example, quartzbiotitemagnetiteanhydrite veins,
the NNE-trending Ivaal Fault truncates the northern and less commonly as extremely fine-
limits of the Trukai mineralisation and juxtaposes it to grained chalcopyritebornite intermixed with
the northwestern part of the Ivaal mineralisation. At biotitemagnetite grains, which pseudomorph
the Horse, Koki and Ekwai prospects, these structures hornblende. Typical grades associated with this

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 8.4 Frieda River porphyry mineralising events.
phase of mineralisation range between 0.3 and difficult to gauge because the mineralisation rarely
0.4% Cu, and in exceptional cases 0.5% Cu occurs in isolation, and is typically found
(Hawkins, 2001). overprinting the earlier mineralised phase
associated with POB alteration. However, visual
2) Transitional and peripheral to the early potassic estimation of the mineralisation that is associated
alteration is propylitic alteration. This assemblage with POK alteration indicates an additional
is characterised by sericite, chlorite and epidote, 0.30.5% Cu may be contributed to the host.
with lesser but variable amounts of quartz, Chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite, pyrite and
carbonate, clay (usually smectite) and hematite. gold are typically associated with granular and
Unusually, no significant mineralisation has been seamed quartz veins, with K-feldspar, anhydrite,
identified within this alteration assemblage. and haematitemagnetite gangue.
3) The POK alteration overprints the earlier POB 4) Overprinting both potassic alteration assemblages
and propylitic alteration assemblages. The POK is the SCC alteration assemblage characterised by
alteration is characterised by K-feldspar, quartz, sericiteclaychloritecarbonaterutilequartz.
muscovite, anhydrite and magnetite. This Copper mineralisation associated with SCC
alteration assemblage is more restricted and alteration is primarily chalcopyrite with comb
confined to the WNW-structures or hydrothermal quartz veins plus chloritepyrite. Veins and
breccias where highest grades are generally fractures typically develop wide alteration selvages
associated with veining. Metal grades that may be of sericitechloriteclaycarbonaterutilequartz.
considered typical of this mineralising event are Mineralisation associated with SCC alteration

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 8.5 Alteration pattern at Frieda.
often contributes 0.5% Cu or more to the overall Nena High Sulphidation

tenor of the porphyry prospects. The copper Mineralisation
grades in these instances are typically >0.80%. Follow up work of stream sediment samples collected
in 1975 identified high sulphidation mineralisation at
5) Phyllicargillic alteration is poorly developed due the Nena prospect located some 6km to the northwest
to the nature of the hosts and overprints all earlier of the Horse and Ivaal porphyry deposits. Drilling
alteration events. The alteration suite is commenced in 1976 and by 1996 approximately 42,
illitekaoliniteanhydritecarbonate. No hypogene 909m had been drilled, achieving a nominal grid of
copper mineralisation was introduced during 50m x 50m; 80% of the Nena resource now falls in the
phyllicargillic alteration. measured category (Table 8.1).
The Nena prospect mineralisation and alteration are

Advanced argillic alteration (AAA) overprints earlier
hosted within the Debom Volcanics, and located on
porphyry related alterationmineralisation and this is
the prominent NWSE-striking Nena structure.
often established by careful examination of rocks The prospect lies within an extensive advanced
(Hawkins, 2001). Fluids associated with the AAA argillic-altered zone covering about 13km x 4km.
overprint, stripped copper and, to a lesser extent, gold Intense pervasive acid leaching and clay alteration of
from the system. the host rocks often precludes the identification of

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Nena Deposit - Identified Mineral Resource
Measured Indicated Inferred Total
Resource Style Mt Cu% Au g/t Mt Cu% Au g/t Mt Cu% Au g/t Mt Cu% Au g/t
Gold resource 13.8 0.1 1.4 3.4 0.1 1.4 0.8 0.1 1.5 18.0 0.1 1.4
Copper resource 42.2 2.3 0.6 7.6 1.7 0.6 1.2 1.8 0.4 51.0 2.2 0.6
Notes: 1. Copper lower cut off grade 0.5% copper, Gold lower cut off grade 0.6g/t gold.
2. Measured and indicated mineral resources are inconclusive of proved and probable reserves.
3. This estimate is based on 166 diamond drill holes or 38,441m of drilling.
Table 8.1 Nena deposit ore reserves (HPL, 2002).
Prospect Category Mt Cu (%) Au (g/t) Source
HorseIvaal Indicated Resources 109 0.6 0.3 (HPL, 2004)
Inferred Resources 895 0.5 0.3 (HPL, 2004)
Total 1005 0.5 0.3 (HPL, 2004)
Koki Inferred Resources 274 0.4 0.3 (HPL, 2004)
Ok Nerenere Inferred Resources 60 0.4 0.3 (DMP, 1999)
Ekwai Inferred Resources 60 0.4 0.3 (DMP, 1999)
HorseIvaal and Koki were calculated at a lower cut-off of 0.2% Cu. Resource calculations for HorseIvaal were based on
221 diamond and percussion holes. Drill spacings were at 100m NS and 150m NS for Ivaal and Horse deposits, respectively.
Resource for Koki was based on 30 drillholes on a nominal 150m x 300m grid (HPL = Highlands Pacific Limited).
Table 8.2 Identified Mineral Resources Porphyry Deposits, Frieda River (HPL, 2002).
original rock types. However, the Debom Volcanics grains filling interstitial sites between pyrite, quartz
are typically porphyritic andesite, lavas and and alunite. The chalcocite zone is hypogene and
pyroclastics. contains less arsenic and silver than the
luzonite/enargite zone. The supergene profile is
The alteration pattern at Nena is symmetrical about erratically developed and extends to a maximum
the NW-striking Nena structure and displays a lateral depth of 130m, forming leached, oxidised and
zonation outwards from a core of residual silica, supergene enrichment zones. Cuprite, malachite,
through a broad replacement silicaalunite halo, azurite and scorodite occur in the oxidised zone.
grading out into a clay zone. The vertical zonation is
represented by (from deeper to shallow levels) Five stages of paragenesis recognised from earliest and
andalusite, Na-sericite, quartzillitepyrite, progressively younger are:
illitesmectitedickitepyrophyllite, alunitesilica,
and vuggy massive silica (Bainbridge et al., 1996). (1) epithermal quartz veining;
(2) acid leaching by magmatic volatiles, with the
Primary mineralisation in the main Nena zone
formation of inner vuggy to massive
consists of polymorphs of luzonite and enargite and
silicaalunite+clay zone;
less commonly chalcocite. The polymorphs
commonly occur in fractures and are accompanied by (3) poly-phase sulphide event, with
barite, and less commonly occur as small isolated pyritemarcasitemelnacoriteamorphous silica;

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
(4) brecciation and fracturing with deposition of Further work and drilling, and evaluation of these and
bariteluzoniteenargitepyritenative sulfur; and several other prospects in the area in light of the
(5) development of supergene enrichment of copper current understanding at Frieda River, will improve
and gold (Espi et al., 2001). the overall tenor of the projects CuAu resource.
Identified mineral resources for the Frieda River

Resources and Potential of the
Project are contained within five mineralised
Frieda and Nena Prospects
porphyry bodies (that apparently coalesce at depth)
The successful discovery of higher grade hypogene
and a high sulphidation epithermal CuAu deposit at
copper mineralisation (>1% Cu or Cu equivalent) at
Nena (Tables 8.1, 8.2). The corresponding contained
the Trukai prospect exemplifies a highly remarkable
metal resource amounts to over 600Mt of copper and
achievement through diligent logging, mapping and
12 million ounces of gold, excluding mining and
metallurgical recovery factors. The contained metals direct application of current scientific understanding
for Frieda River exceed that of Ok Tedis 313Mt of of South West Pacific porphyries on evaluating the
copper and 9.7 million ounces of gold in the pre- paragenesis and structures in a project explored for
mining proven ore reserves by about 50%. The Ok over three decades.
Tedi operation faced similar development constraints
but is currently one of the more successful operating Even in the lithocaps where the surface rockmass was
mines in PNG. completely obliterated by post-mineral AAA,
underlying porphyry-style mineralisation was
Two unsolicited takeover bids for Highlands Gold and confidently recognised through the identification of
Cyprus Amax between 1997 and 1999, respectively, stable quartz veins associated with porphyry Cu-Au
adversely affected the exploration and advancement of mineralisation. Previously, quartzillitepyrite
the property towards development. assemblage of the AAA was mistakenly identified as an
SCC alteration suite associated with the mineralised
Successful resolution of the controls on high-grade
porphyry intrusive. This mis-identification had
hypogene porphyry mineralisation (Hawkins, 2001)
significant ramifications for the prospectivity of the
has confidently led to identification of several
porphyry copper system as the AAA destroys copper
prospects with the potential to host an additional
mineralisation and is therefore usually represented by
200300Mt grading >1% Cu or better. Trukai
prospect, the only target drill tested in 200203, low copper grades.
confirmed intercepts of >100m at 1% Cu or better.
The advance in understanding gained from
Recent work (2002) by the HPLNoranda JV also exploration at the Frieda prospect not only improved
indicated a very high probability of discovering the probability of discovering higher Cu-Au grades in
another significant high sulphidation epithermal the area, but also provided invaluable knowledge on
system at Otnepal (EkwaiDebom), where upper the methodology required to evaluate mineralised
portions of high-grade Trukai were stripped and porphyries underlying advanced argillic alteration in
re-deposited at slightly higher elevations within other parts of PNG such as that at Mt Kren (Manus
advanced argillically altered host rocks. Island).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
KAINANTU History
Location and status In 1927, Ned Rowlands found payable gold near
Kainantu town. In the 1960s, Noel Stagg worked
The Kainantu Gold Project (lat. 6 o07S, long.
alluvial gold on the divide overlooking the Markham
145o53E), 12km north of Kainantu town in the
Valley. In the 196070 period, Ken Rehder
Eastern Highlands Province, extends for 7km north
established a five-head stamp battery, access and adit
from the town as a series of individual prospects,
levels at the Kora Mine (southern end of the
including the old Kora Mine, Irumafimpa (on the Irumafimpa lode), and produced several tons of hand-
same structure), Maniape and Arakompa. The project picked copper ore and gold from two separate veins.
lies between 800 and 1900m elevation on the north
eastern fall of the Eastern Highlands overlooking the In 1982, RGC Exploration (a subsidiary of Renison
Markham Valley. Goldfields Consolidated) took up PA 470 (PA refers
to a Prospecting Area a term used to describe a
While the broader Kainantu Gold Project is covered tenement under old legislation, that is now largely
by Exploration Licences, underground development equivalent to an Exploration Licence under the
of the main lodes of Irumafimpa is being undertaken current Mining Act). The tenement originally
by Highlands Kainantu Ltd, a subsidiary of Highlands covered about 4000sqkm in the Kainantu district, and
Pacific Ltd on a Mining Lease granted in 2004. was progressively reduced in size. In 1983, gold was
Production should commence in 2005. panned at Baupa Creek and enargitesulphur-bearing
840 Portal of the Highlands Pacific mine at the Irumafimpa lode, Kainantu.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
advanced argillic-altered breccias were identified in

float. Follow-up auger sampling focused on the Oro
Prospect and attempted to locate the source of the
altered float but met with no success. Geological
mapping at that time identified mesothermal veins
grading to 15g/t Au in an area that later became
known as the Kainantu mineralisation. These veins
were not considered a viable target at that time. The
Arakompa lodes were identified during a 1985
trenching program of a ridge-top soil anomaly (max
0.63ppm Au) designed to follow up an earlier panned
concentrate sample of 132g/t Au collected from
drainages some 700m downstream. The lodes at
Maniape were identified at about the same time. The
veins at Arakompa and Maniape were
rapidly further exposed by local gold miners who were
also exploiting the Kora structure at the time.
The prospects were initially drilled by RGC.
RGC joint ventured the project to Highlands Gold in

1989, who later commenced an intensive exploration
program of detailed geological mapping and
trenching. Southern extensions to Maniape were
identified during stream-traverse follow up of
gossanous float during a 1991 field program.
Remains of Ken Rehders stamp battery at the old Kora Mine Highlands Gold drill tested the prospects in 1993
in 1984. (Corbett, Leach, Thirnbeck et al., 1994).
Irumafimpa was identified

by a geologist sent to
the area to follow up
on anomalou drainages
samples downstream and an
isolated 0.35ppm Au soil
auger anomaly along
structural strike from the
Kora Mine. The drainage
anomalies (pan concentrates
were 12.2g/t grading to
6.78g/t close to the
prospect, and further
downstream a -80 mesh
stream sediment sample
yielded 0.39g/t Au (Corbett,
1992)). Irumafimpa soon
displayed the most likely
potential for development
and Highlands Pacific
Local villagers working the Kora structure in 1984. (HPL) moved to detailed

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
drilling in joint venture with Nippon

Mining and Metals (NMM).
In 2001, following the departure of NMM,

HPL drove an adit to allow bulk sampling
of the lodes and carried out additional,
mostly underground, drilling at
Irumafimpa. Continued exploration has
exposed additional veins and extended the
strike length of the mineralised structural
corridor to several kilometres southeast to
Yar Tree Hill and northwest to the Kesar
Creek porphyryvein system.
Geological setting
The Basement host rocks in the area

comprise Triassic Bena Bena Formation
phyllite intruded by the syntectonic
quartzofeldspathic Karmantina Granite
Gneiss (Tingey and Grainger, 1976;
Rogerson et al., 1982; Van Wyck
and Williams, 2002). Basement is
unconformably overlain by the Omaura
Formation (Tingey and Grainger, 1976,
Hawkins and Akiro, 2001), (Fig. 8.6). The
mid-Miocene Akuna Intrusive Complex is
well exposed as tonalite, granodiorite, local
monzonite, and occasionally more mafic to
ultramafic variants, all in intrusive contact Fig. 8.6 Geological relationships in the Kainantu area.
with the basement. Parts of the Akuna
The KoraIrumafimpa lode system has a strike length
Intrusive Complex may be equivalent to the Morobe
Granodiorite. The Elandora Porphyry intrudes the of over 2.5km and has been traced down dip for
Akuna Intrusive Complex as hornblendebiotite several hundred metres. The slaty cleavage of the
porphyry, and occurs as fragments in diatreme
breccias at Irumafimpa and Maniape. A diatreme
breccia with associated Elandora-style porphyry
intrusions crops out south of Maniape and a pre-
mineral andesitic stock is present within the
Irumafimpa adit. Although the Akuna Intrusive
Complex has provided a 1713Ma age and Elandora
Porphyry have been dated at 97Ma, the relationships
remain unresolved (Page, 1976; Rogerson and
Williamson, 1985).
Quartzsulphide, low-sulphidation type

mineralisation at Irumafimpa occurs within a
corridor of steeply dipping northwest-trending
structures, parallel to the RamuMarkham Fault.
Kainantu Mine area looking north.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Bena Bena Formation changes to a crenulation system and suggests that mineralisation here and at
cleavage in the vicinity of these structures, suggesting Maniape formed in separate kinematic regimes
they have been formed at depths in the order of 5km, (Findlay, 2002). Earlier workers (Corbett, Leach,
and exhumed prior to reactivation and mineralisation Thirnbeck et al., 1994) related the KoraIrumafimpa
(Corbett, Leach, Thirnbeck et al., 1994). These and ManiapeArakompa prospects to the separate
structures therefore display a protracted pre-, syn-, Oro and Taneka porphyry intrusions, respectively.
and post-mineral history of activity. Early geological
mapping suggested that ore shoots are localised at the KoraIrumafimpa lodes
intersection with northsouth structures, possibly in
Detailed geological mapping of trench and outcrop
association with dextral strike-slip movement on the
northwest-trending host structures. A set of northeast exposures in 199192 delineated mineralisation
fractures, formed normal to the northwest structures, within the structural corridor between the old Kora
hosts veins at Maniape and Arakompa, and at Mine and Irumafimpa. The corridor consists of
Maniape develop tension gash veins by dextral strike- several parallel, northwest-trending, steeply dipping
slip movement (Corbett, Leach, Thirnbeck et al., structures with slickensided fault faces, puggy fault
1994). These kinematics are consistent with gouge and breccia with a vertical exposure of more
development during northeastsouthwest collision- than 800m (Corbett, Leach, Thirnbeck et al., 1994).
related compression, although a Riedel fracture At lower topographic levels, the structures contain
analysis was used to establish a (most recent) sinistral minor breccias of phreatomagmatic affinities
sense of movement on the KoraIrumafimpa lode exhibiting epidote-altered Elandora Porphyry
The Irumafimpa lode exposed in the adit workings showing fuchsite at left, and pyrite clasts with later stage quartz, with which
the high-grade ore is associated.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
syn- and post-mineral activity,

and occur in the vicinity of
porphyry CuAu alteration
and mineralisation. Initial
quartz deposition from dilute
(<2wt% NaCl), rapidly cooling
(21033oC) fluids was followed
by sulphide deposition.
Sulphides occur as massive
chalcopyrite lodes at Kora, but
elsewhere throughout the lodes
are typically an assemblage of
coarse crystalline pyrite with
minor sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite and tennantite.
Coarse, bright green fuchsite
and mariposite (chromium
High-grade mineralisation associated with late-stage quartz at Irumafimpa.
micas) occurs in the margins of
the lodes. High fineness
fragments and specular haematite. Chiastolite crystals (834922) gold occurs as inclusions in chalcopyrite
within the phyllites are also indicative of intrusive and coarse pyrite or associated with ferberite (Corbett,
activity, probably of Akuna or Karmantina affinity. Leach, Thirnbeck et al., 1994; Corbett and Leach,
1998) but the bonanza gold occurs within tellurides
Recent detailed geological mapping of Kora and associated with late stage banded and comb quartz,
Irumafimpa adit exposures, together with information and is commonly associated with bismuth minerals.
from underground and surface drilling, has facilitated
further definition of the mineralised structural The KoraIrumafimpa lodes are representative of low
corridor. Several individual lodes ranging from a few sulphidation quartzsulphide style AuCu
centimetres to several metres in width occur within a mineralisation, which is interpreted to have locally
300m wide zone as remarkably continuous features. evolved to epithermal quartz AuAg style
The western lode (Robinson) is more copper rich mineralisation where bonanza gold occurs with
while the eastern lode (Mill) is more gold rich. tellurides. A vertical zonation is evident from gold
associated with ferberite (Fe wolframite) and banded
Veins anastomose slightly and are locally cut by post- opaline silica at the Kora Mine, grading to tellurides
mineral faults. Higher gold grades occur at the with cockade quartz at Irumafimpa. There is a lateral
intersection of cross structures with main structures zonation from Cu-rich in the south close to the
(A. Bainbridge, Highlands Pacific Ltd, pers. comm., inferred Oro CuAu porphyry source to gold-rich in
2003). There is a continuity of lodes from those the north.
worked by Rehder at Kora (18601900m asl) in the
Assays from multiple bulk samples of the lodes
southeast and the current Irumafimpa (1300m asl)
exposed in the adit, revealed very irregular gold
workings located about 1500m NW along the strike.
distribution, grading from a few grams to many tens
Such lateral continuations, although typical of
of grams per tonne in the same face. Assays from
mesothermal veins, are surprising in the light of the
consecutive 1m drill core intervals yielded gold grades
protracted deformation history of the host structures.
ranging from <1 to >100g/t, with mineralisation
Mineralogical and textural variations of vein contained within only a few centimetres of the
mineralised 1m interval. A. Bainbridge (Highlands
assemblages within the lodes suggest a progression
Pacific Ltd, pers comm., 2003) reported that a
from early mesothermal to a more epithermal style of
resource estimate determined from uncut assays
mineralisation. Structures exhibit protracted pre-,

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
provided a close correlation with underground bulk galena. Higher grade gold is associated with a range
sampling. of BiAgPb telluride and sulphide minerals.
Highlands Pacific Ltd estimates a resource for the The Arakompa prospect displays features indicative of
KoraIrumafimpa system of 1.7Mt at 22g/t Au for an intrusive association (initial quartzmagnetite
1.240 million ounces gold at a 5g/t Au cut off. followed by pebble dykes). The high fineness (723-
Mining is expected to commence early in 2005 with 995) auriferous quartzpyrite lodes locally hosting
an anticipated annual production of 115,000oz higher gold grades in association with bismuth and
of gold. telluride minerals is possibly indicative of
quartzsulphidegold style mineralisation evolving to
Arakompa lodes
an epithermal quartzAuAg style. The lodes have
At Arakompa, northeast-trending steep-dipping also undergone supergene enrichment.
structures within Akuna Intrusive
Complex granodiorite are host to
quartzsulphide lodes (Fig. 8.7). The
lodes can be traced for several hundred
metres adjacent to polished or puggy
faults, and vary in width from a few
centimetres to a maximum of 3m.
Although elevated gold grades are
recognised, Bainbridge (Highlands Pacific
Ltd, pers. comm., 2003) reported that
gold is more evenly distributed at
Arakompa than Irumafimpa. Arakompa
lies a few hundred metres north of the
outcropping Taneka porphyry CuAu
alteration and mineralisation.
A sequence of lode forming events is

discernible at Arakompa that is similar to
that at KoraIrumafimpa (Corbett, Leach,
Thirnbeck et al., 1994; Corbett and
Leach, 1998). Pebble dykes, exploiting
pre-existing structures, represent a
manifestation of a porphyry system at
depth. The pebble dykes host fragments
of quartz-veined Akuna Intrusive
Complex (Rogerson et al., 1982),
and shale fragments derived from
deeper crustal levels. The pebble dykes
are cut by quartz associated
with pyritesericitemagnetiteepidote
carbonate. Fluid inclusions of gangue
minerals indicate deposition from a
dilute (<2wt% NaCl), rapidly cooling
(245315oC) hydrothermal fluid. Most
gold mineralisation occurs as inclusions
within the coarse cubic pyrite associated
with chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite and Fig. 8.7 Plan of the Arakompa lodes.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Maniape
At Maniape (1.5km southwest of Arakompa), a

regionally significant north-northeast-trending
structure, cutting Akuna Intrusive Complex
granodiorite intruded by andesitic porphyry
(Elandora Porphyry) breaks into a series of imbricate
puggy faults over an 800m strike length
(Figs 8.8, 8.9). Quartz-sulphide lodes occur within the
imbricate structures, and also as intervening,
northeast-trending lodes interpreted to have
developed in response to dextral strike-slip movement
on the imbricate faults (Corbett, Leach, Thirnbeck et
al., 1994).
Mineralisation commenced with the initial deposition

of quartzpyrite lodes from a dilute (<2wt% NaCl),
variable temperature (250350oC) fluid and
associated sericite alteration. This was followed by the
deposition of Fe-poor (low temperature) sphalerite,
galena and minor chalcopyrite associated with lower
temperature quartzchloriteillitecarbonate wall
rock alteration (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Massive to
banded carbonate fills open spaces with minor
interbanded base metal sulphides. The carbonates
display a vertical zonation from shallow level MnFe
rhodochrositesiderite, through MnMg kutnahorite
and Mg-calcite with increasing depth, to calcite and Artisan miner working possibly supergene-enriched gold from
low-Mg calcite at depth. Manganese content of the an oxidised lode adjacent to a polished fault surface.
A pebble dyke at Arakompa.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
of the ore fluid with bicarbonate waters. In

Bonki Creek at the southern part of the
lode, epithermal quartz AuAg style
mineralisation (with quartzchlorite
illite), may have formed by mixing of ore
fluid with oxidising waters, resulting in the
deposition of higher grade but lower
fineness gold (ie. higher silver). Based on
the carbonate mineral zonation, ore fluids
are interpreted to have flowed from north
to south, leading the above mentioned
authors to suggest that Maniape was
mineralisation derived from the same
Taneka porphyry source as that at
Arakompa, but deposited in a more distal
setting.
Porphyry CuAu and

metamorphic associations
Early reconnaissance mapping

identified potassic alteration defined
by fracture-controlled secondary
biotitemagnetitesilicapyrite within
Akuna Intrusive Complex granodiorite at
Taneka near Arakompa, and secondary
copper staining on fracture faces at the Oro
Prospect. The latter prospect occurs as part
of a much larger porphyry CuAu
manifestation, including pervasive
barren silicaalunite grading to
silicasericitedickite alteration, which
crops out at several hundred metres higher
elevation and contains enargite-bearing
vughy silica breccia within a fault (the
Fig. 8.8 Plan of the Maniape vein system.
Headwaters Prospect). The two porphyry
occurrences at Taneka and Oro are
carbonates increases laterally from north to south represented on the aeromagnetic data as an intense
along the lode. Mineral deposition is interpreted to high and diffuse low, respectively, as the former
have occurred by mixing of a hot (>250-300oC), contains secondary biotitemagnetite, and some parts
saline (>6-7wt% NaCl) fluid (determined from of the latter have been overprinted by intense
sphalerite fluid inclusion data) with a cool, dilute magnetite-destructive sericiteclay alteration. These
fluid. porphyry CuAu intrusions are interpreted source
rocks for the low sulphidation AuCu mineralisation.
Gold displays a wide fineness range (551845), with
Initial studies (Rogerson and Williamson, 1986)
the higher fineness gold associated with suggested that AuCu mineralisation in the Kainantu
carbonatebase metal style gold mineralisation in the region is associated with Elandora Porphyry
central portion of the prospect possibly due to mixing intrusions, yet differentiates of the Akuna Intrusive

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Complex, which are often

similar in hand specimen to the
Elandora Porphyry, could also W E
have been source rocks for
CuAu mineralisation.
6 m at 12.8 g/t Au
At Yar Tree Hill, 5km southeast
of Kainantu Village along the
KoraIrumafimpa structural
trend, local people work gold
4 m at
from soils, sand and gravels 13 g/t Au
hosting boulders of buck quartz, 107 g/t Ag
typical of metamorphic quartz in
the region. However, the quartz
at Yar Tree Hill hosts coarse
boxworks after variably oxidised
pyrite. Petrological assessment 49 m at
4.08 g/t Au
of the buck quartz revealed that 27.8 g/t Ag
it had been brecciated and filled
with chalcedony and coarse
pyrite (P. Ashley, University of
New England, pers. comm., 0.6 m at 44.0 g/t Au
1991). Thus, the metamorphic 2.0 m at 42.8 g/t Au
quartz is interpreted to have
acted as a competent host rock
for later low sulphidation
quartzsulphide-style gold
mineralisation of a high fineness 0 50 m
(860940).
Further evidence of an intrusive Bena Bena Formation Carbonate veins

association is provided by
diatreme breccias with associated Akuna Granodiorite Fault or shear
Elandora-style porphyry
intrusions near Yar Tree Hill. In Fig. 8.9 Cross-section through the Maniape vein system.
the former case, alluvial gold is
worked in the vicinity of the clay-altered, poorly exposed intrusions, and are interpreted to have
exposed diatreme where boulders of vughy or residual sequentially generated low sulphidation gold
silica, typical of high sulphidation mineralisation, mineralisation of quartzsulphideAuCu type,
occur. It remains uncertain whether the boulders are carbonatebase metalgold type and epithermal
in situ or were transported to the area. quartzAuAg type. The highest gold grades occur in
the latest event, while the corresponding gold to silver
Discussion ratio decreases. (Corbett, Leach and Thirnbeck et al.,
In the Kainantu district, two low grade porphyry 1994).
CuAu occurrences are associated with partially

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
LADOLAM (LIHIR ISLAND)
Location and status
Ladolam gold mine lies within the Luise Caldera,

located on the eastern side of Lihir Island
(lat. 152o38E, long. 3o08S) within the
TabarLihirFeniTanga chain of islands northeast of
New Ireland. The Ladolam gold mine is operated by
Rio Tinto on behalf of Lihir Gold Ltd.
Discovery history
In 1981, when the Niugini Mining Kennecott Discovery outcrops on Lihir Island.
Exploration Australia (NMKEA) joint venture began
prospecting in Papua New Guinea, there was a
moratorium on the granting of new prospecting
licences, and the joint venture was restricted to
potential acquisitions of existing tenements. In 1983,
while NMKEA was engaged in an evaluation of the
Tabar Island group in joint venture with Nord
Resources, models of hot spring style gold
mineralisation were becoming more widely
disseminated, and published data (Wallace et al.,
1983) emphasised the alkaline geochemical
correlation within the island group. Consequently, Luise Caldera in about 1985. The camp is by the beach, an
Peter Macnab and Ken Rehder (Niugini Mining) alunite bluff crops out at the Coastal Zone and drill roads
visited the adjacent Lihir Island where hot springs and define the Lienetz Zone. The yet-to-be-discovered Minifie
red-stained cliffs are shown on the published Zone lies in the left of the photo, left of the grassy area on the
1:100,000 topographic map. During this inspection ridge between the two valleys. Note also the hot springs in a
possible ring fracture; the Kapit Zone is in the vicinity of the
they panned gold and obtained 20 chip samples over
hot springs to the right.
a 450m length of pyritic coastal exposure and
boulders, which yielded assays in the 0.534.36g/t Au Initial feasibility studies of the geothermally hot, high
range, averaging 1.79g/t Au (Moyle et al., 1990). stripping ratio, and metallurgically difficult
After the moratorium was lifted in November 1982, mineralisation of the Coastal and Lienetz Zones were
the NMKEA joint venture acquired tenure over the not promising. However, prospecting in late 1985
island and initiated a program of geological mapping evaluated a 0.1ppm Au anomaly from a hand-dug
combined with rock chip and soil sampling. In the trench located on the caldera rim, and identified the
Coastal Zone (Fig. 8.10), a >1ppm Au soil and rock Minifie Zone. Prospecting during 1986 defined a soil
chip anomaly measured 450m x 250m and contained auger and shallow Reverse Circulation anomaly,
a hand-dug trench assaying 219m at 4.58g/t Au. By which was drill tested (DDH L88) in November 1986
September 1983, the first drillhole (DDH L1) in the yielding 197m at 5.86g/t Au and was subsequently
Coastal Zone had been sunk and assayed 180m at deepened to provide a total intercept of 272m at
3.07g/t Au, including 35m at 6.52g/t Au, below the 5.01g/t Au. The Minifie mineralisation possessed
coastal bluffs. During 1984, the first trench in the higher gold grade, better metallurgy, lower geothermal
Lienetz Zone soil anomaly was completed and temperatures, and lower strip ratio than that of the
channel samples returned an assay of 3.38g/t Au over Coastal and Lienetz Zones, and thus the zone
216m. Drill testing (DDH L13) of the surface underwent definition drilling during the late 1980s.
mineralisation intersected 53m at 2.19g/t Au of oxide By the end of 1989, 57,000m of diamond and
mineralisation overlying 70m at 5.16g/t Au of breccia 19,000m of RC drilling had been completed on Lihir
hosted sulphide mineralisation. Island. A new feasibility study was completed in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
1992, a Special Mining Lease granted in 1995,

construction began in 1996 and the first gold was
poured in 1997.
The geological interpretation of the mineralisation

distribution at Lihir improved following the exposure
of mineralisation in the Minifie Pit, and this was
applied to a new resource estimate at Lienetz.
Following successful resource modelling and mining
of other geothermally active parts of the Luise
Caldera, drilling is currently focusing on the Kapit
Zone. Some results obtained in mid 2003 include
148m at 14.8g/t Au from 214m (DDH 963), 86m at
11.44g/t Au from 224m (DDH 979), and 276m at
5.39g/t Au from 200m (DDH 995).
Fig. 8.11 Lihir Island geology (after Wallace et al., 1983).
that has allowed melts to vent to the surface from

Fig. 8.10 Luise Caldera showing important locations and relatively great depths. The Luise Caldera occupies
original surface alteration. the youngest (3-1Ma) of several Miocene to
Quaternary alkaline volcanoes developed on the island
Since April 2003, 6 MW of geothermal power has
(Wallace et al., 1983; Fig. 8.11). Intrusion-related
been produced from wells in the north Lienetz area. A
potassic alteration occurred in the period
further 30 MW powerstation under construction is
0.9170.342Ma, while the epithermal gold
expected to be commissioned in early 2005. The
mineralisation is dated at 0.336Ma, possibly
combined 36 MW will meet 60% of the total power
continuing to 0.1Ma, although the geothermal system
needs of the mine.
is presently active (Moyle et al., 1990; Davies and
Geological setting Ballantyne, 1987).
Lihir Island is about 20km x 12km and elongates NS While the Luise Caldera trends elongate NNE, it is
within a possible deep fracture in the oceanic plate cut by NS structures associated with the deep

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Geothermal steam venting in the open pit.
remaining underlying part of the edifice. This failure

removed about 1km (compared to 400m at Mt St
Helens) from above an active porphyry CuAu
deposit and initiated development of the epithermal
mineralisation.
Geology and mineralisation
The process of mineralisation at Ladolam is

interpreted to have evolved over time. It is thought
that the following events took place:
Onshore, side-looking radar image, and offshore, sea-bed

topographic data, show the form of the Luise Caldera on the
eastern side of Lihir Island, and debris associated with
sideways failure of the volcanic edifice.
fractures that are interpreted to localise the

magmatism of Lihir Island. NW-trending fractures
are also evident and host the NE-dipping Minifie
mineralisation. The Luise volcano is interpreted to
have collapsed sideways in a Mt St Helens style failure
at about 0.34Ma, with debris evident from recent sea-
bed bathymetric data. NE-dipping listric-style faults Porphyry gold mineralisation associated with fracture-
are interpreted to have developed within the controlled silicasericitepyrite alteration.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Milled matrix breccia typical of phreatomagmatic eruptions.
1) Porphyry-style alteration and mineralisation is as disseminations within pyrite replacing

evident as overprinting events of potassic grading mafic minerals, or within stockwork
to propylitic alteration and anhydrite matrix silicaanhydritepyrite fractures. This porphyry
breccias, which are in turn overprinted by gold mineralisation, combined within anomalous
phyllicargillic alteration. A deep geothermal gold that is known to occur within the anhydrite
drillhole intersected anomalous copper values at a breccias, provides potential for additional low-
depth of 600m. Vertically attenuated intrusions at grade gold mineralisation, of unknown
Lihir are known to contain gold, which occurs metallurgical characteristics, below the level of the
planned mining of the epithermal
mineralisation.
2) Collapse of the volcanic

edifice resulted in a
depressurisation of the active
intrusion related, hydrothermal
system and promoted
development of phreatomagmatic
(diatreme) breccia pipes, which
overprint the porphyry and
anhydrite breccia ores at Minifie
and Kapit. While the claypyrite-
altered phreatomagmatic breccias
tend to be incompetent and
Lithologically controlled ore from the Minifie Pit, with intense K-feldsparpyrite barren, these breccia pipes
alteration, which assayed 13.1g/t Au.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fluidised breccia from the Coastal Zone, assaying 15g/t Au.
Free gold with anhydrite from DDH 714. Sulphide-rich feeder structure assaying >20g/t Au.
fractured the adjacent more competent host rocks depressurisation. In the alkaline K-rich shoshonitic
and tapped the magmatic source to the host rocks, K-feldspar dominates over silica.
mineralisation. Consequently, the breccia margins Mineralisation was localised in a variety of settings,
including: moderate to steep-dipping feeder
and nearby structures became sites of later gold
structures (Minifie Zone), sub-horizontal listric
deposition. Current drilling in the Kapit Zone has fault segments (Lienetz Zone; Fig. 8.12); breccia
defined a funnel-shaped breccia system of possible pipe margins where fluidised breccias grade to
phreatomagmatic association. marginal crackle breccias; and in permeable altered
lithologies (Corbett et al., 2001). Mineral
3) The K-feldsparpyritegold event is characterised deposition occurred by the rapid quenching of the
by fluids derived from magmatic source rocks at ore fluid and flooding of the host rocks with fine-
depth, rapidly entering the system following grained arsenean pyrite, in which gold is

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
encapsulated. The original horizontal boiling Resources and potential

zone ores at Lienetz are now recognised to occur
By 1990, a resource had been estimated comprising
within listric faults and were deposited as a result
4.7Mt of oxide ore grading 1.96g/t Au, and 168.2Mt
of fluid cooling.
of sulphide ore at 3.48g/t Au, for a total of 19.12
4) The cooling ore fluids grade from epithermal low million ounces of gold. By the start of mining in
sulphidation quartzsulphidegold to minor 1996, this had been revised to a gold content of 14.6
carbonatebase metalgold and epithermal million ounces. To the end of 2003, the mine had
quartzAuAg ores, with the latter hosting free produced 3.55 million ounces of gold and 20.4
gold and being responsible for localised bonanza million ounces remained, including 2.9 million
gold grades. Although minor, the epithermal ounces in stockpiles.
quartzAuAg ore types contribute towards the
Most recent exploration has focused on infill drilling
variable metallurgy evident at Ladolam. This
in the Lienetz-Minifie Zones and substantial
evolution to epithermal ores provides potential for
exploration at Kapit, which was neglected in the
additional structurally controlled epithermal
original evaluation until the technology to exploit the
mineralisation to occur in marginal settings,
geothermally active pit was tested.
similar to the Emperor gold mine in Fiji, or
possibly Porgera. Current (Dec 2003) proved and probable ore reserves
at US$340/oz are 163.5Mt averaging 3.88g/t Au for
5) Cooling of the very youthful magmatic ore system
20.4 million ounces of gold.
has resulted in current geothermal activity
comprising both acid and neutral hot springs, with
extensive argillic (silicakaolinpyrite) and
advanced argillic (argillic with additional alunite)
alteration.
Fig. 8.12 Conceptual cross-section through the Lienetz Zone. Active thermal area Feni Project.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
MOROBE GOLDFIELD 100km by road). The Wau Basin is described

Location and tenure
separately as a geological framework element of Papua
New Guinea in this publication. The mountainous
The Morobe Goldfield lies mostly within the Wau country varies from <1,000m elevation at Bulolo on
Basin, a volcanotectonic feature close to the western valley floor to over 2,500m at the Hidden Valley gold
margin of the Eastern Fold Belt of Papua New project area.
Guinea, near the border with the Aure Deformation
Zone. It is centred on the town of Wau (lat. 7o20S, The main prospects in the Goldfield were originally
long. 146o43E), some 75km SSW of Lae (well over (in the 1980s) covered by tenements held by Renison
Goldfields Ltd (RGC) and Rio
Tinto (formerly CRA). After
several changes of ownership,
titles are now held by wholly
owned subsidiaries of Harmony
Ltd from South Africa. Alluvial,
eluvial and saprolite gold
is currently being mined
throughout the Goldfield, using
mechanised means, by several
small private concerns and
several hundred local miners.
The Morobe Goldfield covers

several discrete gold projects
(Fig. 8.13), including:
Hidden Valley
Wau, encompassing Upper
Ridges and Golden Ridges
Kerimenge
Edie Creek
Hamata
Ribroaster
Bulolo gold dredging
operation.
Production
An estimated 100 tonnes (3.2

million ounces) of gold had
been produced from the alluvial
workings to 1977 (Lowenstein,
1982), mostly from the Bulolo
gold dredging operation.
An additional 0.77 million
ounces of gold and 1.1 million
ounces of silver had been
produced from hard rock
sources to 1993 (Denwer et al.,
Fig. 8.13 Geology and mineral deposits of the Wau Basin, including the Bulolo Graben. 1995). Production continues

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
from alluvial and local saprolite sources, and the

estimated resources are cited for each deposit herein.
Discovery history
The former German administration that governed

New Guinea showed little interest in mineral
prospecting and gold production, despite the fact that
mining provided a major source of income for Papua,
which was then being administered by the Australian
State of Queensland. The German expeditions tended
to be large scientific affairs, although some Australian
prospectors were invited to explore for gold with
German prospectors in the Wau district. Arthur
Darling, an Australian, and two German prospectors,
Dammkohler and Oldorpis, identified gold at Loading a Junkers aircraft at Lae.
Koranga Creek in 1910. After Darlings death in
1921, William shark eye Park relocated the find in
1922 and began to work the gold in secret, but by
1923 miners had begun to flock to the area.
In 1926, William Royal and Dick Glasson climbed

past the substantial waterfalls to discover the incredibly
rich alluvial gold deposits in Upper Edie Creek. By the
middle of that year, native labourers were working the
field, which to this day, supports both mechanised
operations and several hundred local miners. The Junkers aircraft at Lae.
grades obtained by miners from the workings are
holdings where the Hidden Valley deposit was
estimated to have exceeded 100g/t Au in places.
discovered.
In those days it took carriers eight days to transport
Bulolo gold dredging
supplies along the torturous Gadugadu Track from the
coastal town of Salamaua to Wau, even though it was Levien reconnoitred the district and concluded that
only 30km in a straight line. Allowing for feeding the the rich alluvial gold worked at Koranga and Edie
carriers en route, miners needed to make at least one Creeks could have continued downriver through the
ounce of gold per day just to break even. narrow Bulolo Gorge, to be deposited in the wide
alluvial flats below. He took up leases at Bulolo and
After Cecil Levien, the Government District Officer, Koranga and formed Guinea Gold NL, which in 1929
inspected Parks Koranga claim, he resigned his post began test pitting the Bulolo alluvial deposits
and set about prospecting, eventually taking up (Dunkin, 1950). The leases passed to Placer
licences covering the alluvial flats at Bulolo (see Development Ltd, which was registered in Vancouver
below). in 1926 but consisted mainly of Australian capital. In
1930, as alluvial testing of the leases progressed with
Modern exploration only began in the early 1980s.
encouraging results, Bulolo Gold Dredging Ltd
RGC purchased New Guinea Goldfields, took out EL
(BGD) was formed as the operating company.
497 in 1983 and began detailed evaluation of the Wau
District tenements as well as undertaking regional The Morobe Goldfield was only accessible at that time
geological reconnaissance. At the same time, CRA to hand-carried stores and even road and light rail
began evaluation of the region to the south of RGCs transport would have been prohibitively expensive in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Bulolo dredge in operation.
the mountainous terrain. The breakthrough came carried almost 39,417 short tons of cargo (Dunkin,
with the introduction in 1927 of the first air transport 1950). Everything to enter Bulolo, including the cow
from Lae to Wau by Guinea Airways Ltd, a company to provide milk for the managing directors tea, arrived
owned by Guinea Gold NL. Consequently, BGD in this airlift, which rivalled the Berlin blockade.
embarked upon the innovative plan to fly dredges in
pieces into Bulolo using three German Junkers G31 A decision to mine the alluvials was made on the basis
aircraft. These aircraft, which began service in 1931, of a resource of 40 million cubic yards of material to
carried a normal load of 5,700lb, although a an average depth of 22ft and grade of 1.2ppm Au
maximum load of 8,290lb is recorded, and until equivalent (allowing for the gold fineness).
destroyed by the Japanese military aircraft in 1942, Hydroelectric power was developed, and the first
two dredges commenced
operation in 1932 and
by November 1939,
eight dredges were in
operation. Two of these
(Nos 5 and 7) were built
to dredge to 125 feet
using a 40ft boom, while
smaller dredges (Nos
6 and 8, respectively),
worked the alluvials
below Koranga Creek and
in the Watut River.
The operation produced

1.297 million ounces of
gold and 0.575 million
ounces of silver to 1942,
A view of the Escarpment Fault in the vicinity of the two plumes of smoke, and hosting the at an overall grade of 5.26
Upper Ridges open pit behind the Wau maardiatreme shown as a depression with marginal grains/cu yd, with a high
high points occurring as endogenous domes. of 6.9 grains/cu yd in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Upper Ridges Namie Breccia cut by a vein comprising

quartzpyrite followed by carbonatebase metal sulphide and
then additional quartz.
Wau
In the earlier discussion of the Wau Basin geology, the

Escarpment Fault and adjacent Wau Maar emerge as
the dominant geological features, although their
relationship to mineralisation remains equivocal.
The Escarpment Fault occurs as a NNW (340o)-

trending moderate (45o) east-dipping normal fault
that can be traced for at least 10km along strike and
several hundred metres down dip (Figs 8.14, 8.15).
Exposures of the fault in the Edie Creek road display
fault gouge, silicification, pyritisation, as well as
hosting intrusions of Edie Porphyry and hydrothermal
Fig. 8.14 Geological map of the Wau district (after Sillitoe et breccias similar to those termed Namie Breccia found
al., 1984).
at Upper Ridges.
The Wau maardiatreme is a 2km wide crater rimmed

by Edie Porphyry domes (Sillitoe et al., 1984),
occurring in the immediate hanging wall of the
Fig. 8.15 Conceptual cross-section through the Escarpment

Fault and Wau maardiatremedome complex (after
Carswell, 1990).
1933 (Dunkin, 1950). Total production by BGD to

1965, including other sources, is estimated to be 2.1
million ounces at a grade of 0.15g/t Au from 220
million cubic metres of material (Lowenstein, 1982).
Only No. 5 dredge was sunk during World War II, but
the facilities which were not destroyed by Japanese
bombing suffered in a scorched earth policy. The Namie-style breccia formed at a brecciated dome margin and
operation recommenced after the war and closed in characterised by fragments of Edie Porphyry, Kiandi
1966. Metamorphics and metamorphic quartz.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
an additional 130,000oz from ores grading <2g/t Au.
Petrological studies of gold mineralisation from the

Upper Ridges area indicate a two-stage process of
mineralisation (Syka, 1985; Denwer et al., 1995;
Corbett and Leach, 1998). Stage I comprises
quartzpyrite deposition with associated sericite
alteration, followed by dark (Fe-rich, high-
temperature) sphalerite and galena deposited from a
fluid in the 210390oC range with a salinity of 1-
25% NaCl. Gold of 613 fineness and Bi-tellurides
occur as inclusions in pyrite. Stage II consists of
Bedded Namie Breccia from Upper Nauti Creek.
rhodochrosite-dominated carbonatebase metal veins,
which give way to banded carbonate and
Escarpment Fault. The diatreme fill displays acid
quartzcarbonate with minor sulphides. Low fineness
sulphate (cristobalite, alunite, kaolinite, pyrite)
gold (468) was deposited as inclusions in sulphides
alteration.
from a much cooler fluid (198220oC).
The Namie Breccia (see discussion of Bulolo Graben
At Golden Ridges, the Homestead Lode averaged
and Wau Basin) hosts gold and silver mineralisation
21.2g/t Au and produced 148,000oz Au up until
and is thought to partly occur as allochthonous blocks
1960. The Demitrius and Davidson open cuts mined
derived from higher levels that have collapsed along
ore grading 1.9g/t and produced a further 35,000oz.
the Escarpment Fault face (Upper Ridges) into the
In 1989, reserves were estimated at 138,000t grading
maardiatreme (Golden Peaks, Davidsons). The term
2.14g/t Au (Carswell, 1990).
Davidsons Breccia has been used to describe Namie
Breccia which is further brecciated by later Golden Peaks produced 232,000oz Au between 1953
mineralising events. Individual mineral occurrences
and 1977 from open-cut workings of lode and
in the area are described below.
stockwork veins, and the Andersons Creek workings
produced 9,600oz from underground lode workings
to 1957. Recent artisanal mining is continuing within
the immediate footwall of the Escarpment Fault in the
Ribroaster workings, but historical production is
unknown.
Many aspects of the Wau mineralisation remain

unresolved. The suggestion by some workers (Sillitoe
et al., 1984) that the Upper Ridges mineralisation
occurs within tuff ring material derived from the Wau
maardiatreme, where alteration formed at near-
surficial levels crops out, is not consistent with
Namie Breccia from the Upper Ridges pit showing Edie probable 5001000m depth of formation evident for
Porphyry fragments within a milled Kiandi Metamorphics the high-temperature Stage I mineralisation. Studies
matrix. of post-mining exposures have led some workers to
suggest that the tuff ring deposits unconformably
At Upper Ridges, seven Namie Breccia-hosted lodes
overlie the Namie Breccia. Nevertheless, it seems
strike NW (300320o) and dip 3050o SW are 150m
reasonable to correlate the Stage I Upper Ridges
long and up to 15m thick. Underground mining until
mineralisation with the quartzsulphide-style gold
1962 of ore from these lodes grading 13.8g/t Au
mineralisation at Ribroaster (Syka, 1985), and so a
produced 111,000oz Au, while open-pit mining in
spatial association with the Escarpment Fault is likely.
the 196289 period (from 1982 by RGC) produced

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Edie Creek
Alluvial gold has been mined continuously at Edie

Creek (Fig. 8.16) since its discovery in 1926. After
lodes were identified by the early prospectors and
miners, an access road was constructed to link the
Wau airstrip in 1927, and this became part of the
famous Bulldog Track which linked Wau to Port
Moresby during World War II.
High-grade gold won from a line or crosscutting structure at

Edie Creek.
deeper levels in the Enterprise workings display an
increase in the amount of carbonate at shallower
levels. This, and the paragenetic sequence described
by Lowenstein from the Karuka Mine of
quartzpyrite>base metal, sulphides>carbonate+silver
sulphosalts and banded manganese carbonate veins,
are typical of magmatic arc intrusion-related low
Trommel and jigs which form part of the plant in use by sulphidation style of AuAg mineralisation (Corbett,
Edie Creek Mining Ltd.
2002). The association of gold with manganese wad
is typical of carbonatebase metalgold deposits.
Lode mines at Edie Creek produced about , 88,000oz
of Au during 193162, from ores grading
Most lodes at Edie Creek occur as a set of en echelon
between 11 and 40g/t Au (Lowenstein, 1982).
veins within a 3km long NW-trending structural
Quartzpyritearsenopyrite mineralisation found at
corridor, and are most mineralised in the vicinity of an
Edie Porphyry intrusion. In the north-western part of
the corridor they are overlain by tuff ring breccias
associated with the Nauti diatreme interpreted to lie
Trench at the old Edie Creek lode workings. The trench on

Fig. 8.16 Geological map of Edie Creek (after Neale and the left follows the old lode, while the trench on the right cut
Corbett, 1997). across strike yielded 7m at 42g/t Au from a bulk sample.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
west of the corridor (Neale and Corbett, 1997).

Mineralisation also occurs outside the main lodes and
is mined as lines, which vary from auriferous
manganese oxide-lined fractures to gold within quartz
veins. The potential for open-cut mining of some of
the mineralisation at Edie Creek warrants further
consideration.
Edie Creek Mining Ltd, a joint venture between

Melanesian Resources Ltd and local landowners, is
currently mining a mix of alluvial and saprolite
material using an excavator, bulldozer and treating the
material with a trommel, back-end jigs and
Knudsen bowls. Gold production is approximately
3,000oz/year. Recent work by Edie Creek Mining has
identified gold mineralisation in stockworks (7m at
42g/t Au from a bulk sample) adjacent to Edie No 1
Lode. Other stockworks within Edie Porphyry
intrusives await sampling.
Kerimenge
The Kerimenge Prospect was discovered in 1983

during regional reconnaissance prospecting by RGC
staff. A -80 mesh stream sediment sample collected in
Kerimenge Creek well downstream from the prospect
yielded 0.27g/t Au. Follow-up rock chip sampling of
Fig. 8.17 Geological map of Kerimenge showing location of
a silicified pyritic dacite porphyry outcrop from cross-sections used in the conceptual cross-section (after
within a 300m thick sill of competent Edie Porphyry Denwer, 1997).
yielded 4.7g/t Au. The gold mineralisation at
Kerimenge is localised within sheeted veins, within (Figs 8.17, 8.18). The mineralisation continues from
the north to N-NE trending Kerimenge Fault and its Kerimenge north to the Lemenge prospect area, at
hanging wall, and adjacent to a diatreme - breccia pipe about 300m higher elevation, where it is hosted by
NW trending, NE dipping structures. Exploration of
Kerimenge was discontinued through the 1990s
because the fine grained pyritic ore posed substantial
metallurgical problems. However, evaluation of the
adjacent Lemenge Prospect continued through the
1990s (Akiro, 1986; Syka and Bloom, 1990; Hutton
et al., 1990; Denwer, 1997; Corbett and Leach,
1998). The current resource at Kerimenge-Lemenge
is estimated at 15.1Mt at 1.6g/t Au containing 0.78
million ounces of gold.
The mineralisation at Kerimenge has a well-developed

The Kerimenge Prospect, discernible as vegetation regrowth.
The Kerimenge Fault lies in the valley to the left, while the vertical zonation and paragenetic sequence typical of
skyline is dominated by the diatreme breccia on the left and magmatic arc intrusion-related low sulphidation gold
Lemenge Prospect on the right. The camp is in the lower deposits. The gold mineralisation changes from early
portion of the photo. fine-grained quartzsulphide-style mineralisation

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
tennantite and chalcopyrite, which are interpreted to

have been deposited by the mixing of a hot dilute ore
fluid with cool (165oC) CO2-rich waters.
Hamata
Hamata, which crops out at the lowest altitude

in the Morobe Goldfield (1,900m - 2,000m), displays
a transition from alteration associated with intrusive
related mineralisation to quartzsulphidegold-style
mineralisation, with a later post-mineral
carbonatebase metal overprint.
The outcropping lodes at Hamata (Fig. 8.19) were

identified from the follow up of reconnaissance -80
mesh stream sediment samples collected in July 1987
that yielded grades of 28.5 and 5.5g/t Au (Denwer
and Mowat, 1997; Denwer et al., 1995; Wells and
Young, 1991; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
The current resource is estimated as 3.9Mt at 3.9g/t

Au containing 0.41 million ounces of gold.
Fig. 8.18 Conceptual cross-section through Kerimenge (after
Hutton et al., 1990). The host rock at Hamata is the Morobe Granodiorite
and two phases of andesitic dykes. Dacitic porphyry
hosting refractory gold (occurring at deeper levels), to occurs as a large body in the footwall of the
younger non-refractory gold deposited at shallower mineralised lodes and as small dykes throughout the
crustal levels (Lemenge). Two stages of ore
formation can be recognised.
Stage I mineralisation occurs at depth as

quartzarsenopyritepyritemarcasite
vein/breccias overprinting earlier zoned
biotitepotassic propylitic alteration.
Quartzsulphide veins were deposited from
relatively dilute (<3.3 wt% NaCl) fluids in
the 145240oC range. Refractory gold is
encapsulated within the lattice of early fine
pyrite and arsenopyrite that were deposited
from a rapidly cooling fluid. The
quartzsulphide mineralisation at depth
passes to carbonatebase metal veins manifest
as thick, barren, banded manganocarbonate
lodes that occur at higher levels and are
believed to have formed late in this stage.
Stage II quartzmanganocarbonatesulphide
breccia fill contains non-refractory high
fineness (837) gold associated with hessite, Fig. 8.19 Geological map of Hamata lodes (after Denwer and Mowat,
1997).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
View of Hamata located in a hill within the Upper Watut

Valley. Morobe Granodiorite at Hamata with porphyry-style
alteration characterised by magnetitespecular haematiteK-
deposit. Hamata prospect appears to occur in the feldspar.
vicinity of a WNW splay in the Upper Watut Fault, haematite, and pyrite veins with K-feldspar selvages
which can be traced along strike to the Hidden Valley
deposited from a hot (270340oC) saline (up to
prospect (see below). The lodes at Hamata dip about
35wt% NaCl) fluid.
45o SE and are constrained between 45o NW-dipping
structures which overlie a basal fault that dips more The Stage II mineralising event is represented by
shallowly to the NW. One structural interpretation is coarse pyrite lodes, with lesser chalcopyrite and minor
that during extension on the Upper Watut Fault, tetradymite and ferberite, that contain native gold of
represented by the NW splay, the steep faults have average 911 fineness and are associated with Bi-
taken on a reverse component and the lodes developed tellurides (similar to the Arakompa lode at Kainantu).
as intervening tension gash features.
Stage III mineralisation occurs as local carbonatebase
metal overprint, followed by and extending into Stage
IV quartzbaritearsenopyrite deposition.
Hidden Valley
Hidden Valley is the highest (2,600m) known

prospect in the Morobe Goldfield, and lies on the
southern continuation of the Upper Watut Fault from
Hamata. Four-wheel-drive access is currently
provided from near the prospect area to Wau via Edie
Creek along the upgraded Bulldog Track. The climate
is described by most workers as cold, wet and
uncomfortable.
Hamata quartzpyrite lode.
Denwer and Mowat (1997) describe the lodes as When CRA began to prospect the area, alluvial gold
varying in thickness from tens of centimetres was known to have been worked at Hidden Valley by
(3050cm for Eastern Reef ) to several metres (34m W.H. Chapman in 1928, and local miners in the
for Masi and Lower Reefs). The mineralisation at 1960s (Lowenstein, 1982). Regional reconnaissance
Hamata appears to have developed by a polyphase exploration by CRA staff in April 1984 identified
process as outlined below (Corbett and Leach, 1998). abundant pyritic granodiorite float in the Upper
Watut River and a -80 mesh stream sediment sample
Stage I pre-mineral porphyry-related potassic returned 8.4g/t Au, with visible gold noted in the pan
alteration is characterised by magnetite, specular concentrate sample collected from the same location

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
(Nelson et al., 1990). Follow-up channel chip

sampling of a mineralised landslip exposure yielded
100m at 3g/t Au and 45g/t Ag.
Ownership has changed hands frequently since 1997

from CRA, to Australian Goldfields, then Aurora
Gold Ltd, and currently Harmony Ltd. The latter
two companies compiled geological interpretations
based on detailed structural mapping and the use of
orientated drillcore (Hoppe and Korowa, 2001), to
produce the most recent economic evaluation that was
used for the current proposal for development. The
broad approach on current perceptions of resources is
to mine Hamata, then the oxide and transition ores at
Hidden Valley, then the Hidden Valley main ore zone,
and lastly possibly access Kaveroi from underground.
The Hidden Valley prospect lies mostly within the

Morobe Granodiorite close to the contact with the
Kaindi Metamorphics, which here display effects of
both regional and contact metamorphism (Figs 8.20,
8.21). Although andesite dykes, associated with the
Morobe Granodiorite by some workers (Denwer and
Mowat, 1997), and Edie Porphyry occur within the
mineralised zones, most workers associate the
mineralisation with the Edie Porphyry (Hoppe and
Korowa, 2001) due to adularia age dates of 4.0-4.2Ma
Fig. 8.20 Hidden Valley geological relationships (after Hoppe
(Nelson et al., 1990).
and Korowa, 2001).
The gold mineralisation occurs within
carbonateadulariaquartzsulphide fracture veins
which are generally <100mm wide, but occur
in vein packages up to several metres wide.
The paragenetic sequence discernible from hand
specimen and supported by petrology is:
adularia>pyrite> Fe-rich (dark, high-temperature)
sphaleritegalena>carbonate> quartz (commonly as
chalcedony). The carbonate comprises calcite,
rhodochrosite and kutnahorite. The gold ranges in
fineness from 600750 and occurs as electrum and
rare gold tellurides within pyrite and base metal
sulphides.
Stereoplot data (Hoppe and Korowa, 2001)

demonstrated that while veins exposed in a road
cutting through the deposit display an almost random Hidden Valley auriferous carbonatebase metal vein.
distribution of orientations, orientated drillcore has
identified two different vein orientations within each In the NE-dipping Hidden Valley Zone, veins
of the two ore zones as: form a sheeted stockwork array dipping generally

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
extensional tectonic feature

(Bulolo Graben Wau Basin)
which hosts a significant number
of gold mines and occurrences that
often display a spatial association
with the Pliocene Edie Porphyry.
Regionally continuous extensional
structures and the numerous faults
and structures that host the
mineralisation in the goldfield
have a history of re-activation.
Extrusive and intrusive
phreatomagmatic breccias also
appear to pre-date and localise
gold mineralisation (Wau,
Kerimenge).
The extensive vertical relief exposes

varying styles of intrusion-related
low sulphidation epithermal
gold mineralisation. At the deepest
Fig. 8.21 Conceptual cross-section through Hidden Valley mineralisation (after
levels (Hamata), massive
Hoppe and Korowa, 2001).
quartzsulphidegold style
NE, constrained between the Hidden Valley and mineralisation is associated with
Upper Boundary Faults. magnetiteK-feldspar porphyry style alteration, at
mid-levels (Wau and Hidden Valley) carbonatebase
In the Kaveroi Creek Zone, most veins dip steeply metalgold mineralisation occurs, while bonanza-
to the WSW, and are constrained between the gold-grade epithermal quartzAuAg mineralisation
steep ENE-dipping Darby and Levien Faults. (Edie Creek) crops out at the highest topographic
level. Most deposits display overprinting relationships
Thus, mineralisation may be interpreted to be (Edie Creek), while the Kerimenge prospect hosts
associated with a listric Upper Watut Fault and related three low sulphidation mineralisation styles types
hanging wall splays. In the Kaveroi Zone, the variably telescoped over 250m vertical extent.
abundance of carbonate over base metal sulphides,
which feature yellow Fe-poor sphalerite, is indicative Most gold production to date has come from the rich
of a lower temperature and higher crustal level of alluvial gold deposits in the Bulolo Valley, which have
formation. Hidden Valley demonstrates many great historical significance to Papua New Guinea and
features typical of the carbonatebase metal style of represented the start of Placer Dome. Although small-
intrusion-related gold deposits. scale and artisan mining is currently being undertaken
throughout the goldfield, the major economic
The current measured, indicated and inferred resource advance for the area and PNG will come from the
at Hidden Valley is estimated at 35.27Mt at 3.13g/t development of the Hidden Valley and Hamata
Au and 47.1g/t Ag in two distinct structural zones Projects. Furthermore, many anomalies and sites of
(Hidden Valley and Kaveroi Creek), representing a artisan mining within the Morobe Goldfield warrant
resource of over 3.5 million ounces of gold. continued prospecting and could contribute to
significant new discoveries.
Conclusions
The Morobe Goldfield encompasses a structurally

complex area that has been described as a major

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
MT BINI Metamorphic Complex (Fig. 8.22), which, although

Location and status
of Cretaceous to Eocene age, were subjected to
deformation and greenschist facies metamorphism
The Mt Bini porphyry CuAu prospect lies 50km during the Middle Miocene (Rogerson and McKee,
ENE of Port Moresby close to the historic Kokoda 1990). BHP geologists suggested that the Mt Bini
Trail (lat. 9o18S, long. 147o35E), at an altitude of porphyry system occurs within a 1520km wide
about 1,200m, in steep tropical rainforest covered extensional zone, localised by NNE regional
terrain. structures, that hosts subaerial volcanic rocks and
high-level porphyry stocks (Leaman, 1996). The
Discovery history
extensional zone parallels transfer structures, which,
BHP identified and drill tested the Mt Bini Prospect localise porphyry CuAu and epithermal gold
relatively late in the discovery history of porphyry deposits elsewhere in Papua New Guinea (Corbett,
CuAu mineralisation in Papua New Guinea. In May 1994).
1992, during a helicopter-supported stream sediment
sampling at a site in Ofi Creek, 2km downstream Mt Bini is on the SE margin of the 10km x 4km
from Mt Bini, an anomalous pan concentrate sample Pliocene Bavu Igneous Complex, which may have
(157ppm Au) and a pyritic silicified float sample were acted as a coeval intrusive source for the Astroblabe
collected (20.7g/t Au, 463g/t Ag, 0.15% Cu and Agglomerate to the south, while vesicular basalt,
0.6% Pb) (Dugmore et al., 1996; Dugmore and andesite lava and Pleistocene eruptive centres are
Leaman, 1998). Effective delineation of the described from further north (Dugmore and Leaman,
prospective area quickly followed through further 1998). The Tolukuma AuAg vein system lies within
drainage sampling and a subsequent ridge and spur the Mt Cameron Volcanic Complex to the west.
soil sampling survey that resulted in the definition of
a 2,000m x 200m >0.2g/t Au anomaly, largely The Bavu Igneous Complex contains many intrusions
encompassing a 650m x 350m zone at >150ppm Cu such as the Track Diorite, an unaltered pyroxene
and >18ppm Mo, coincident with a mineralised stock. diorite that crops out 500m north of the Bini stock.
A peripheral lead anomaly,
associated with marginal late-
stage low sulphidation epithermal
carbonatebase metal veins
extends for 1,800m x 1,300m.
Geological mapping defined the

style and extent of porphyry
CuAu mineralisation leading to
initial drill testing. The first
drillhole (BDD 001) intersected
235m assaying 0.31% Cu and
0.47g/t Au from 104m. This was
followed by an additional six
diamond-drillholes totalling
2,082m in two drilling
campaigns (Dugmore and
Leaman, 1998).
Geological setting
Mt Bini, in the Eastern Orogen

of Papua New Guinea, lies with
in Kagi Metamorphic country
rocks of the Owen Stanley Fig. 8.22 Geology of Mt Bini area (after Dugmore and Leaman, 1998).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Two phases of potassic alteration

have been described by Leaman
(1996) and Dugmore and Leaman
(1998). They are an initial phase of
pervasive and fracture fill secondary
biotite and a later phase of
orthoclase, which is also developed
as margins to later crosscutting
quartzsulphidemagnetite veinlets,
typical of A or M veins described in
porphyry copper literature (Sillitoe,
2000). Primary magnetite
contributes towards an anomalous
aeromagnetic signature for these
intrusions. Chalcopyrite dominates
over bornite, mostly as
disseminations and on fractures, and
within the quartzmagnetite veins,
while gold occurs as inclusions
within chalcopyrite. Minor amounts
of anhydrite have been recognised
but its relationship to other
prograde alteration phases is
inadequately described in the
Fig. 8.23 Cross-section through Mt Bini (after Dugmore and Leaman, 1998). literature (Dugmore and Leaman,
1998).
Extensive retrograde phyllic alteration overprints the
Slate and phyllite country rocks are intruded prograde potassic alteration, mainly as a fracture-
by the Bini porphyry, a 650m x 275m Pliocene controlled sericitequartzpyrite assemblage, and is
(4.420.04Ma) potassium-rich calc-alkaline best developed at the stock margins and extending
composite intrusive stock emplaced at the intersection into the host phyllite. Later stage retrograde alteration
also includes chloriteclay (illite) alteration and
of NNE and ENE structures (Dugmore and Leaman,
replacement of magnetite by hematite (and associated
1998). BHP geologists described the intrusions as:
demagnetisation). This latter assemblage overprints
the sericitequartzpyrite assemblage.
P1 - a porphyritic quartz diorite, containing
plagioclase phenocrysts in a microcrystalline CuAu mineralisation is concentrated about the
groundmass of quartz, orthoclase and biotite; and margin of the stock, both within the stock and
also the host phyllite. While fracture and
P2 - a quartz diorite characterised by plagioclase disseminated sulphides (pyritechalcopyrite)
biotiteclinoamphibole phenocrysts, both of which are associated with potassic alteration,
are cut by later dykes of similar composition but with later quartz stockwork veins containing
pyritechalcopyritemolybdenitemagnetite are cut
weaker alteration and mineralisation. A barren dyke
by orthoclasebiotitequartzchlortitecarbonate
cuts mineralisation and, while the extent of veins, which are well developed within the marginal
hydrothermal alteration clearly declines in the phyllic alteration. These quartzchlortitecarbonate
younger intrusions, overall relationships may not be veins contain gold as inclusions within chalcopyrite
fully resolved (Fig. 8.23). (Dugmore and Leaman, 1998). Some workers

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) have suggested that ore lower 50m. Copper carbonates have been identified
deposition (pyritechalcopyritegold) is enhanced by on rock exposures in watercourses and extending
the mixing of mineralised fluids with collapsing low down fractures in drill core.
pH fluids responsible for phyllic alteration.
Discussion
An event of propylitic alteration is described as Although the Mt Bini Prospect displays many features
overprinting the potassic and phyllic alteration typical of SW Pacific rim magmatic arc CuAu
(Dugmore and Leaman, 1998). This alteration grades porphyry deposits, results of the early exploration
from inner propylitic alteration characterised by deemed it to have been of insufficient size to maintain
magnetitechloritetremoliteactinolitequartzsulp the interest of BHP. It was identified during a classical
hide, close to the centre of the system, exploration program ranging from initial stream
outward as chlorite replacing earlier sediment geochemistry, to ridge and spur soil
secondary biotite, to more marginal sampling and geological mapping, culminating in drill
quartzcarbonateepidotemagnetitechalcopyrite
testing. While two programs of diamond drilling,
veins with minor tennantitetetrahedrite.
amounting to seven diamond-drillholes recovering
Galenasphalerite veinlets immediately adjacent to
2,421m of drill core, might have been sufficient to
the Mt Bini intrusions and more distal
delineate the size of the composite intrusion and
galenasphaleritecarbonate veins are associated with
nature of porphyry mineralisation, the opportunity
propylitic alteration. Although a post-mineral
still exists to identify additional higher grade CuAu
intrusion is shown in the published literature cutting
mineralisation. As is typical of many such intrusions,
alteration and mineralisation, no causal association
the best CuAu occurs in association with stockwork
has yet been made with the propylitic alteration and
quartz veins and phyllic alteration about the margin of
late mineralisation. More work is needed to resolve
a cylindrical composite stock.
the sequence of intrusive related alteration and
mineralisation. Mt Bini displays a history of overprinting alteration
events possibly associated with the multiple
Epithermal veins, having widths up to one metre wide
emplacement of intrusions. The BHP geologists
and traceable for 1,400m, overprint the porphyry
(Dugmore and Leaman, 1998) record a zoned
CuAu mineralisation. The veins are localised along
propylitic alteration overprinting the main event of
the ENENE structures, and are characterised by
alteration and mineralisation, and this might be
crustiform banded quartz, stibnite, and rhodochrosite,
associated with an as yet unrecognised intrusion
that have yielded assays of 8m grading 19g/t Ag.
which may locally provide another phase of ore fluids
Chalcedony veins and stockworks west of the Bini
and deposition. CuAuAg mineralisation typical of
stock have returned assay values over 20m of 0.56g/t
marginal settings to porphyry intrusions is associated
Au (Dugmore and Leaman, 1998). The later
with this alteration. Thus, further exploration of the
marginal epithermal mineralisation is typical of low
Mt Bini system may yield either additional porphyry
sulphidation epithermal carbonatebase metal gold
CuAu mineralisation or marginal epithermal AuAg
mineralisation that commonly occurs marginal to
mineralisation.
porphyry CuAu intrusions.
Resources and potential
Supergene covellite and chalcocite replaces and rims
chalcopyrite (Dugmore and Leaman, 1998). In citing a poorly defined resource estimate of 85Mt
Supergene enrichment results in an increase in copper at 0.4% Cu and 0.6g/t Au, BHP geologists stressed
and gold with depth from 500ppm Cu, 0.2g/t Au in that the porphyry CuAu system remained open at
the upper 1520m to 0.18% Cu, 0.5g/t Au in the depth (Dugmore and Leaman, 1998).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
MT KARE began regional helicopter supported first-pass

Location and status
reconnaissance exploration. Sampling in March 1986
of the Ere River, which drains to the SW of Mt Kare,
The Mt Kare prospect in Enga Province, lying about resulted in the identification of two gold anomalies
17km SW of the Porgera Mine (lat. 5o30S, long. (Brunker and Caithness, 1990). Sampling 7km
142o58E) at an altitude of 3000m is one of the downstream from the current main prospect area
highest mineral prospects in Papua New Guinea. It is revealed an anomalous sample of 0.6ppm Au in -80
accessible only by foot track or helicopter, although mesh stream sediment, but with no other anomalous
the Porgera access road passes within 5km of the elements, a pan concentrate sample that assayed 8ppm
Exploration Licence (EL 1093) boundary. Au, and a rock float sample assaying 1.45g/t Au.
Exploration of the Mt Kare Prospect is currently being A site 4km downstream from the main prospect
carried out by Madison Enterprises Corp. of Canada yielded only a 3.5ppm Au pan concentrate anomaly in
who has reserved a future 10% of the project for the which one speck of gold was noted. No anomalies
legitimate landowners. were identified in sampling of the drainage to the NE
of Mt Kare. During 1987, more detailed stream
sediment, soil, and rock sampling continued to
evaluate an area of about 1sq km, and resulted in the
recognition of silicified pyritic sediments as an
indicator to a hard-rock source.
By the time CRA staff returned from Christmas break

in February 1988, local landowners, who were avidly
following the entire exercise, had found alluvial gold
and a major gold rush had begun. During 1988, more
than 5,000 miners are estimated to have extracted
0.25 million ounces from Mt Kare (Welsh, 1990), but
the Mt Kare gold rush probably produced in the order
of 1 million ounces up to 1991 (Ryan, 1991), despite
a rapid decline in the number of miners after the
initial 1988 rush. At the height of activity, Mt Kare
displayed all the features of a modern-day gold rush,
with several helicopters employed to ferry goods in
and successful miners out, and many spectacular
nuggets entered collections worldwide. After working
the original rich alluvial deposits, miners progressed to
the eluvial gold, and have most recently begun small-
scale hard-rock mining on a very minor scale
(one man), although the Department of Mining is
monitoring the situation very closely.
CRA continued exploration during the gold rush, and

View of Mt Kare taken in 1989 showing the hard rock reached an agreement with the landowners to initiate
prospect to the left and creek worked for much of the alluvial a helicopter-supported mechanical alluvial gold
gold, with blue sails (tents) visible.
mining operation. However, in 1991, a group of
armed men entered the CRA operation at night and
Discovery history
burnt the camp and other facilities, including the core
Following an inspection of exploration at Porgera in shed. Not surprisingly, CRA ceased their activities,
the early 1980s, CRA took up PA 591 Mount York and by 1993 CRA had relinquished its rights to the
in the hitherto poorly prospected Mt Kare region, and exploration and alluvial mining tenements.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Hard-rock exploration by CRA included airborne

magnetics, soil geochemistry, rock geochemistry on
trench samples, and geological mapping culminating
in the drilling of 30 diamond-drillholes. Significant
aspects to emerge during this program were the
extensive manganese oxide deposits formed by
weathering of rhodochrosite within the
carbonatebase metal mineralisation, and the presence
of quartzroscoelite in outcrop assaying 197g/t Au. The
best result from the CRA drilling program was 38m at
11.2g/t Au from a downhole depth of 44.0m in DDH
88-15.
Several new companies simultaneously applied for the

relinquished area. Competition for the Exploration
Licence over Mt Kare was resolved by a ballot won by Fig. 8.24 Geological map of the Mt Kare region.
Carpenters Pacific Resources. However, Ramsgate
Resources laid claim as a result of equity in the former scattered spot aeromagnetic anomalies indicative of
alluvial licences. The matter was finally settled in the shallow mafic intrusions (Laudrum, 1997). As at
Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea and the Matu Porgera, fault-controlled fluidised breccias with a
Mining joint venture was formed (2/3 Carpenters and milled matrix have been emplaced into a NNE
1/3 Ramsgate). Matu Mining funded exploration trending structure and are overprinted by
from January to June 1996, after which Madison mineralisation. The ductility of the host rocks at
entered the joint venture with a right to earn 65% by
spending $US8 million over five years.
By June 1997, Matu and Madison had drilled an

additional 37 diamond-drillholes in an area of a little
over 1sq km.
Mt Kare lies 17km SW of Porgera on the NNE-

trending lineament, which Corbett (pers comm.)
refers to as the Porgera Transfer Structure (PTS). The
lineament may represent a major crustal break, which
is interpreted by some workers to project from the
basement, possibly initiated in the Palaeozoic, through
into the younger cover rocks (Fig. 8.24). Host rocks
to mineralisation comprise a sedimentary sequence of
mudstone, calcareous mudstone, sandstone and
limestone, which, at Mt Kare, have been folded with
an axis parallel to the abovementioned lineament.
The Darai Limestone immediately overlies the
sediments.
Thrust deformation is well developed throughout the

region. Intrusive stocks and dykes responsible for
induration of the sediments are similar to those at
Grey, indurated shale-hosted
Porgera (Richards and Ledlie, 1993), and result in
pyritesphaleritegalenacarbonate vein.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mt Kare governs their ability to fracture and thus their

amenability to enable mineralisation localisation. The
competent altered sediments and intrusions make the
best hosts due to their brittleness, followed by the
black shale and sandstone, with the least receptive unit
being the incompetent fissile brown mudstone.
Intrusion-related low sulphidation gold mineralisation

at Mt Kare has been divided into three stages (Corbett
and Leach, 1998). Stage I consists of pyrite veins
similar to the Porgera B veins with variable quartz and Crystalline gold extracted from a manganese-oxide-filled
structure.
carbonate contents, halos of sericiteillite alteration,
and correspond closely to quartzsulphidegold-style Stage III epithermal gold mineralisation at Mt Kare is
mineralisation. typified by free gold with quartz or roscoelite and is
noted for its bonanza grades. The highest grade
Stage II carbonatebase metalgold mineralisation assay to date from drillcore intersecting
cuts the earlier formed pyrite veins and comprises a quartzroscoelitegold mineralisation has been 4.5m
pyritegalenasphalerite assemblage followed by at 2,141g/t Au in drillhole M 97-5, and was enveloped
minor chalcopyrite, tennantite and arsenopyrite by a wider intercept of carbonatebase metal
mineralisation. The sphalerite varies from early red to mineralisation assaying 308.4g/t Au over 31.8m.
later colourless Fe-poor variety, and is indicative of a Quartzroscoelite mineralisation has been identified
much lower temperature of formation than the in a number of drillholes at Mt Kare (Laudrum, 1997)
mineralisation at Porgera, and therefore possibly at a and tends to be intimately associated with the earlier
higher crustal setting. Carbonate displays a zonation carbonatebase metal event, rather than within
similar to other Pacific rim carbonatebase metal discrete structures as has been recognised at Porgera,
deposits from upper to lower crustal levels as: and so may represent an evolving hydrothermal
siderite>rhodochrosite>kutnahorite>dolomite>calcite. system at Mt Kare. The gold within the
The gold at Mt Kare is present as inclusions in pyrite quartzroscoelite breccias at Mt Kare occurs as
and sphalerite, and displays a highly variable fineness electrum (fineness 400870) with a wide range of
ranging from 720-930. The rhodochrosite within the silver sulphosalts, silver sulphides and tellurides, and
carbonatebase metal mineralisation weathers to black may also be intergrown with colourless (low-
manganese oxide that defines a series of NE-trending temperature) sphalerite and AgSb-rich chalcopyrite
zones parallel to the main structural trend, but a (Corbett and Leach, 1998). These workers also
thrust relationship cannot be ruled out. Drillhole M suggested that the mineral deposition at Mt Kare
97-17 that was targeted to test one such manganese occurred during the rapid cooling of an ore fluid from
oxide zone yielded 100.5m at 7.63g/t Au. temperatures in the order of 270oC to as low as
120oC, under oxidising conditions as indicated by the
deposition of marcasite. Late fractures that host
native gold in association with specular haematite and
framboidal pyrite in the presence of opal, may be
further indicative of a rapidly quenched ore fluid in
oxidising conditions.
Discussion
Crystalline gold associated with manganese wad is

commonly found as rounded plates in the eluvial
deposits, and is also abundant within the alluvial
Quartzgold breccia from the high-grade intersection in deposits several hundred metres downstream from the
DDH M 97-5. hard-rock source. The consistent high fineness (800)

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The extent of artisan workings is apparent in the late 1990s by an earlier CRA drill casing protruding from the ground.
of the crystalline gold within the alluvial deposits structures, and so have undergone rotation that might
contrasts with the highly variable fineness in the hard- be expected during thrusting. Furthermore, it is
rock source, suggesting possible leaching of silver, a fortuitous that Mt Kare lies within the same lineament
degree of recrystallisation, or chemical transport and as Porgera. While gold mineralisation at Mt Kare is
deposition. The high fineness of the gold in alluvial similar to Porgera, these two deposits are typical of
occurrences at Mt Kare has led some workers to other Pacific rim alkaline-intrusion-related
suggest that much of the gold may have travelled quartzsulphidecarbonatebase metal epithermal
chemically, rather than mechanically, several hundred quartzgold deposits (Corbett and Leach, 1998), and
metres from the variable fineness primary source. so could easily display many similarities without
having formed as the same deposit. However, if
Corbett (pers comm., 2003) speculated that Mt Kare
Porgera underwent thrusting between Stages I and II,
represents the thrust-off top of the mineralisation at
the higher temperature Stage I quartzsulphide and
Porgera, citing the following evidence: The two
carbonatebase metalgold mineralisation at Porgera
deposits are separated by about 17km along a major
contrasts with the lower temperature for the same
lineament. This concept is supported by similarity, in
event at Mt Kare. However, the presence (or lack of )
separation distance and direction between the
mineralisation may be due to the receptive nature of
deposits, to the 15km of shortening apparent from the
the host as discussed previously.
reconstruction of marker units in cross-section data
(Hill, 1991; Standing, 1994) and the similarity of age It is still interesting to follow Corbetts speculation
dates at 6.00.3Ma for Porgera and 6.00.1 for Mt that the epithermal event at Mt Kare corresponds to
Kare (Richards and Ledlie, 1993). The thrust at the the missing lower temperature portion of Porgera
base of the Mt Kare Main Zone mineralisation and
Stage I.
the Western Boundary Fault at Porgera each separate
overlying mineralisation from underlying barren fissile Resources and potential
brown shale. The contact between shale and Darai
The most recent (March 2004) resource estimate
Limestone lies close to the Mt Kare Prospect,
provided by Madison Enterprises Corp. suggests that
suggesting it could have formed in a higher portion of
Mt Kare contains 25.5 million tonnes grading 2.2g/t
the extensively thrusted stratigraphy than occurs at
Porgera. Magnetic anomalies at Mt Kare are indicative Au and 29g/t Ag using a 1g/t Au cut off and cutting
of discrete shallow mafic intrusions, not a large high grade assays to 30g/t Au. This represents 1.8
intrusion complex like that at Porgera. million ounces Au and 23.9 million ounces Ag. More
extensive artisan gold workings at Mt Kare over recent
To counter the thrust model, the mineralised years suggest considerable potential remains to
manganese oxide zones at Mt Kare parallel the transfer identify additional Au mineralisation at Mt Kare.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
OK TEDI registered in Singapore to hold the 52% equity that

Location and ownership
was gifted by BHP Billiton when it exited the
Ok Tedi Mine on 8th February 2002.
The Ok Tedi porphyry CuAu deposit lies in the Star
Mountains close to the border with West Papua and is Exploration and development history
centered on Mt Fubilan (lat.5o12S, long.141o8E) at
Mineralisation in the Ok Tedi region was first
an altitude that was originally 2,053m asl (Fig. 8.25).
reported in 1875 when the DAlbertis and Hargraves
The mill at Folomian is at an altitude of 1,630m and
expedition examined river sand and found a speck of
the town of Tabubil is at an elevation of 520m.
gold and also a specimen of copper about 50km
Tabubil is connected by 17km of road to the mine and
downstream of the Mt Fubilan deposit (Goode, 1977
137km of road to the river port at Kiunga (Rush and
in Davies et al., 1978). In 1963, government patrol
Seegers, 1990). Tabubil is accessible from other
officer Des Fitzer led the first government patrol into
centres, including Port Moresby, by fixed-wing
the Star Mountains and brought back samples of
aircraft. Copper concentrate is pumped via pipeline
from Folomian to Kiunga Wharf, ferried by barges copper mineralisation from Mt Ian, 6km north of Mt
from the wharf, down the Fly River, to a large silo (the Fubilan (Pratt, 1977 in Davies et al., 1978). Three
vessel Erawan) for temporary storage prior to loading years later, patrol officer G.C. Young found yellow and
into international vessels for export. green encrustation along an entire length of a creek in
the Kavorabip area near Mt Ian. He presumed the
Current ownership is shared between PNG encrustations were sulphur (most likely iron oxides
Sustainable Development Program Ltd (52%), the and copper hydroxide) and copper minerals (Davies et
Papua New Guinea Government (30%) and Inmet al., 1978).
Mining Corp of Canada (18%). PNG Sustainable
Development Program Ltd is a trust company Despite the encouraging reports, it was not until June
1968 when Kennecott conducted helicopter-
supported exploration that geologists D. Fishburn and
J. Felderhoff recognised oxidised massive
sulphidemagnetite float at Ok Gilor (Ok Tedi Ok
Menga confluence) and traced it back to its outcrop
source at Sulphide Creek. Initial detailed work with
drilling was focused on skarn mineralisation.
However, significant porphyry mineralisation was
discovered when DDH 17 was collared on a
weathered intrusive at Hong Kong pad, on the top of
Mt Fubilan. By October 1971, 32,800m had been
drilled and a substantial tonnage of copper and gold
had been estimated.
In 1978, Kennecott withdrew when negotiations with

the Papua New Guinea Government failed to reach an
amicable development agreement. Consequently, the
government assumed ownership and appointed
Behre-Dolbear as project managers. During that year,
an additional 4,000m were drilled and mineable
reserves were increased from 130 to 250Mt after
significant gold ore was identified. In 1978,
agreement was reached between the government and
The Broken Hill Propriety Ltd (BHP) of Australia,
and a two-year feasibility study concluded in 1979.
Fig. 8.25 Ok Tedi location map. Mine construction commenced in 1981 and gold

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
An aerial view of the mine pit at Ok Tedi
production by cyanide solution and carbon-in-pulp (1978), Arnold et al. (1979a,b) and Hewitt et al.
commenced in May 1984; CuAu recovery by (1980).
flotation commenced in 1987. The cost of mine
development was K1,340 million (Davies, 1992). The oldest exposed unit in the region is the Ieru
Formation, comprising marine mudstone and
Geological setting glauconitic sandstone that is 1,3001,500m thick.
The Ok Tedi deposit lies within the Western Fold Belt Disconformably overlying the Ieru Formation is the
mineral province (which incorporates New Guinea Late Oligocene to Early Miocene Darai Limestone.
Fold Belt and the Papuan Fold Belt). The region is At Mt Fubilan, this unit is 300600m thick, thrust
characterised by weakly to moderately folded and faulted, and hosts many of the skarn bodies. Pnyang
thrust faulted Mesozoic and Cainozoic continental Formation overlies Darai Limestone and consists
marine sedimentary units, intruded by stocks of mainly of calcareous mudstone and siltstone with
Middle Miocene to Pleistocene age. The deformation some prominent limestone horizons. The first
occurred as a result of accretionary tectonics and volcanic activity occurred in the Mid-Miocene with
orogenesis during the WSW-trending collision of the deposition of minor tuffaceous sandstone in the Birim
Pacific Plate and Indo-Australian Plate in the Late Formation. Overlying the Birim Formation are
Oligocene Early Miocene (Jenkins, 1974; Jaques volcanoclastic sediments, the Awin Formation, which
and Robinson, 1977; Pigram and Davies, 1987). represent an eroding stratovolcano of Late Miocene to
Pliocene age.
The geology, alteration and mineralisation at Ok Tedi
have been adequately described by Bamford (1972), In the mine area, only Ieru Formation and Darai
Page and McDougall (1972), Arnold and Griffin Limestone have been intruded by the Ok Tedi

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Intrusive Complex. The Sydney

Monzodiorite stock (2.6Ma) is the oldest
intrusive in the Complex and covers an area
of 1.5km x 2.5km, essentially to the south of
Mt Fubilan (Fig. 8.26). The Sydney
Monzodiorite is generally porphyritic to sub-
porphyritic to equigranular, and contains
andesine, clinopyroxene, orthoclase,
hornblende and biotite in decreasing
abundance. Accessory sphene, apatite and
magnetite are common in the Monzodiorite.
The Fubilan Monzonite Porphyry is the main

source of mineralisation, and it intrudes the
Sydney Monzodiorite at Mt Fubilan where it
measures 1km x 0.8km with a downward
tapering cylindrical geometry. The porphyry
also forms a smaller stock with a 400m
diameter within the Sydney Monzodiorite to
the south of Mt Fubilan. The Fubilan
Monzonite Porphyry has a 1.2Ma age date
(Page and McDougall, 1972). The porphyry
consists of phenocrysts of oligoclase,
orthoclase, quartz, and hydrothermal biotite
which replace hornblende and biotite,
accessory minerals are apatite, sphene, rutile
after sphene, and magnetite in a felsic glassy
matrix.
Late-phase dykes transgress all rock types, and

are usually dark coloured, basic dykes up to
3m wide, which volumetrically constitute
about 0.1% of the overall intrusive complex. Fig. 8.26 Geology of the Ok Tedi Mine area (after Rush and Seegers,
Hydrothermal or intrusive breccia dykes also 1990).
occur in the Fubilan Intrusive Complex.
propylitic, phyllic and argillic alteration, subsequently
Hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation affected by supergene alteration.
The primary CuAu mineralisation at Ok Tedi occurs The potassic alteration events (Phase I and II) in the
as skarn and disseminated sulphide mineralisation. main stock are centered around the quartz stockwork.
Gold-rich porphyry copper is hosted principally by The central quartz stockwork comprises silica flooded
the Fubilan Monzonite Porphyry and, to a lesser and quartz stockwork veining sericiteclay that
extent, hornfelsed sediments and Sydney formed a carrot-shaped body. The Phase I potassic
Monzodiorite. event is characterised by dark brown to green-brown
primary igneous mica, K-feldspar, rutile after sphene,
Hydrothermal alteration zoning at Ok Tedi is and is commonly associated with chalcopyrite and
telescoped and truncated compared to other porphyry martitised magnetite.
copper deposits (Rush et al., 1990). Hydrothermal
alteration types recognised at Ok Tedi include two Overprinting the Phase I potassic event is the more
phases of partially overlapping potassic events, intense Phase II potassic event. The alteration

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
assemblage is characterised by phlogopitic mica, red- chalcocite, native copper and covellite. In the
brown mica, K-feldspar and rutile after sphene. sulphide zone, oxidation has given rise to goethite,
Chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite and gold are cuprite, malachite and azurite. CuAu grades in the
commonly associated with the phlogopitic and red- skarns are relatively higher, and contribute
brown micas. significantly to the overall tenor of the resource.
Immediately surrounding the potassic zones is argillic Supergene alteration and mineralisation
alteration typified by an assemblage of hydrothermal
The Ok Tedi deposit had optimal conditions for rapid
kaolinite and montmorillonite impregnated with
CuAu enrichment. Extremely high rainfall of 10m/y
martitised magnetite, iron oxides, minor secondary
(Pickup, 1984), coupled with rapid plate uplift of
sphene and rare sulphide minerals. The propylitic
2mm/y for the mountains of Papua New Guinea
alteration zone is generally poorly developed because
(Chapple, 1974), produces extremely high erosional
of the sedimentary host-rock geochemistry.
rates of 3mm/y. Extensive oxidation of the hypogene
Hydrothermal alteration in the surrounding
disseminated copper mineralisation has resulted in a
sediments shows bleaching, potassic feldspars along
highly differentiated weathering system characterised
with pyrite, minor chalcopyrite and chalcocite.
by metal redistribution that reflects a pattern common
to weathered porphyry copper deposits that are found
Sulphide mineralisation in the protore (hypogene)
worldwide. Supergene alteration includes partial
zone is characterised by chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite
replacement of silicates to clays, and almost complete
and molybdenite, and appears to be associated with
oxidation of sulphides to goethite, which may be
the potassic alteration events. The drilled thickness is
cupriferous. Copper precipitated at greater depths
greater than 400m and generally underlies the leached
forming chalcocite, and lesser digenite and covellite
or supergene enriched zones. Copper grade generally
on the pre-existing hypogene minerals chalcopyrite,
decreases with depth, from 0.30 to 0.4% near surface
bornite, pyrite and marcasite. The rate for copper
to 0.10.2% at depth, along with 0.0110.02% Mo
enrichment at Ok Tedi by solute transport calculated by
and 0.2g/t Au (Fig. 8.27).
Danti (1991) is 1.0 x 10-7 g/cm3/y or 4.0 x 10-2ppm/y.
Skarns
The weathering profile consists of a copper-leached or
Several economically significant CuAu skarns are hosted Gold Cap, Oxide Copper Zone and Supergene
within the thrust faults adjacent to the contacts between Enriched Copper Zone, which overlie a Protore Zone
intrusives and limestone (Fig. 8.26). Duncan (1972) and (Fig. 8.27).
Katchan (1982) have classified skarn based on
mineralogy as follows - Periskarns (Endoskarns), calc- The Leached Cap (Gold Cap) was confined to the
silicate, massive magnetite and massive sulphide skarns. upper portions of the deposit, with variable depths
ranging from 40m at top of Mt Fubilan to 290m thick
Strong empirical observations suggest temporal and in the southern portion (Fig. 8.27). Average copper
spatial relationships between the various skarns. grade in the Leached Cap was 0.05%, mainly as
Prograde garnetpyroxene assemblages with cupriferous hydroxides. This zone co-existed with the
retrograde epidoteactinolitetremolite were replaced Gold Cap that hosted significantly higher gold grades
by magnetite and overprinted by sulphides. In the and formed an annulus about the quartz stockwork.
Edinburgh and Sulphide skarns, there is a lateral The gold mineralisation extended downwards through
transition from massive magnetite to massive sulphide the enriched copper zone to the top of protore; gold
away from the intrusive. Sulphide mineralisation grade decreased sympathetically with depth, from
postdates the earlier calc-silicate alteration and >5g/t near surface to about 0.5g/t.
magnetite replacement as exemplified by the
crosscutting sulphide veins. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Using high-precision modal mineralogical studies,
bornite and marcasite often replace chalcopyrite, electron microprobe analyses, and scanning electron
pyrite and pyrrhotite. In places, the skarn microscopy with mass balance analysis and generalised
mineralisation is weathered to supergene digenite, inverse methods, Danti (1991) investigated

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 8.27 Variation of copper and gold grades with depth at Ok Tedi.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
mineralogical changes in gold at Ok Tedi during of, pre-existing sulphides such as chalcopyrite and
supergene copper enrichment, to determine the source pyrite. The thickness of this zone is variable but
of secondary gold. He concluded that 80% of gold in ranges between 150400m, with copper grades
the protore is invisible and occurs principally as ranging from 1 to 4%.
auriferous hypogene pyritemarcasite, borniteidaite,
and chalcopyrite. On the other hand, 80% of the Resources and potential
gold is visible in the copper-leached capping as The initial proven ore reserve for Ok Tedi was 410Mt
microscopically identifiable electrum, either as
comprising 34Mt at 2.87g/t Au in the gold cap
cupriferous subhedral inclusions within secondary
(surficial), underlain by 351 Mt grading 0.7% Cu,
copper sulphides or copper-free euhedral grains within
0.6g/t Au and 0.11% Mo, with a further 25 Mt
secondary iron oxides. Danti (1991) concluded that
averaging 1.17% Cu (Francis et al., 1984). Breakdown
gold in the leached cap was enriched by a factor of 50
of the pre-mining proven ore by Davies (1992) is
times at a rate of 2.9 x 1011 g/cm3 (11.0 x 106ppm/y),
shown in Table 8.3, while current resource estimates
principally by regolith reduction and solute transport.
are given in Table 8.4. Total contained metals translate
The Oxide Copper Zone has been defined as where to 36,000kg of gold and 3.13Mt of copper.
25% of the total copper oxide present is acid soluble
(Seegers et al., 1990). Copper minerals are principally After 20 years of mining (to the end of 2003), Ok Tedi
cupriferous goethite, copper oxide, copper sulphide had produced 2.875Mt of copper, 7.136 million
with lesser copper phosphates or carbonates, ounces of gold and 15.599 million ounces of silver.
cupriferous clays and native copper. This zone at Ok Ok Tedi produces an average 200,000t/y of copper
Tedi was irregularly shaped and reached depths of and the mine is projected to close in 2014. The
>180m along structures. The average copper grade in significant increase in the volume of metals produced
the oxide zone was about 0.5%; the lower boundary of over the years has been the result of ongoing
this zone marks the oxidesulphide interface. exploration and lower cut-off grades based on the
increased performance of the mill.
The Enriched Copper Zone at Ok Tedi mainly
contains chalcocite and digenite, which occur In spite of large logistical costs and difficulties
predominantly on fractures and in veinlets, commonly associated with mining in Papua New Guinea, the
associated with quartz stockwork zone. Secondary mine has relatively low average production costs of
sulphides occur as overgrowths on, and replacement around US$0.45cents/pound copper.
Prospect Category Mt Cu Au Cut-off grade
(%) (g/t) Cu (%) Au (g/t)
Leached cap Reserves 18 0.05 2.00 1.09

Sulphide Reserves 348.9 0.7 0.56 0.4 1.00
Skarn Reserves 28.8 1.25 1.58 0.4 1.00
Oxide copper Reserves 19 1.74 1.34 0.6 1.00
Table 8.3 Initial identified mineral resources at Ok Tedi (Davies, 1992).
Resource Ore Reserve
Category Mt Cu% Au g/t Category Mt Cu% Au g/t
Measured 432 0.87 0.97 Proven 215 0.91 0.97

Indicated 216 0.55 0.65 Probable 31 0.57 0.66
Inferred 15 0.45 0.46
Total 663 0.76 0.85 Total 246 0.87 0.93
Table 8.4 Total reserves and resources for Ok Tedi as at 31 Dec 2003.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
PANGUNA ore-hosting Panguna Andesite, include mostly

andesite with lesser basalt and dacite, and extend to
Location and status
Pliocene time (Kieta Volcanics) and are all associated
The Panguna porphyry CuAu deposit is located in with volcanogenic sediments. A wide variety of
the Crown Prince Range in central south Bougainville intrusions including diorite, granodiorite, monzonite
Island (lat. 6o19S, long. 155o30E) at an altitude of and locally more alkaline compositions were emplaced
500-1200m. It is owned by the publically listed into the volcanic pile over a protracted period of time.
company, Bougainville Copper Ltd, a subsidiary of Active volcanism continues at the Bagana Volcano
Rio Tinto (formerly CRA Ltd). 32km north of the mine and a blanket of recent ash to
several metres thick obscures much of the island,
Discovery history including the Panguna area.
Gold was won at Kupei near Panguna from CuAu-
bearing quartz veins that were mined in a small way
from the 1930s until 1941. As part of the early 1960s The geology of Panguna is well exposed by mining
CRA porphyry CuAu search, Government Geologist from 1200m to 380m asl, and from drilling that
Jack Thompson directed Ken Phillips to government extends to below sea level (Clarke, 1990; Baumer and
reports (Fisher, 1936; Thompson, 1962) of CuAu Fraser, 1975). The ore system occurs at the margin of
associated with porphyry intrusions and agglomerates a large body of Kawerong Quartz Diorite and its
in the Crown Prince Range of Bougainville Island. In derivatives, in contact with Panguna Andesite
the initial May 1964 inspection, Phillips recognised (Fig. 8.28).
porphyry CuAu style mineralisation and drew
analogies with the Atlas and Toledo porphyry copper The Panguna Andesite host rock occurs as shallow SE-
deposits in the Philippines. By the following July, dipping hornblende microdiorite lava, agglomerate,
Phillips and his team had defined a 13sq km copper lapilli tuff and local pyroclastic bands from 1220m to
anomaly focusing on a 300m diameter core, and by about 450m asl. As a result of intrusion by the
1969 over 80,000m of diamond drilling had been Kawerong Quartz Diorite, it displays hornblende
completed, enabling production to begin in April hornfels up to 500m from the contact, grading to
1972 (Knight et al., 1973; Baumer and Fraser, 1975; epidotechloritealbiteK-feldsparcalcitepyrite
Clark, 1990). These workers noted that the assay extending to the limit of exposure at 1200m.
results from bulk samples collected from 4.7km of
The Kawerong Quartz Diorite (54Ma; Page and
underground workings driven through the
McDougall, 1972b) at the Panguna Mine occurs as a
mineralisation, undervalued the medium to lower
complex intrusion featuring differentiates
grade ore as determined from assays of core from
characterised by gradational, crosscutting and
vertical drillholes (average 94.3% recovery). overprinting relationships. Mineralisation is associated
Therefore, an additional 75,000m of drilling was with the potassic-altered margin termed biotite
completed on a 122m grid between 1972 and 1986 diorite (3.4Ma; Page and McDougall, 1972b),
(Clark and Eyall, 1986). which contains biotite, and secondary K-feldspar.
The potassic alteration grades to propylitic
Geological setting
(chloriteepidotecarbonate) alteration away from the
Geological mapping of the island by the BMR (Blake main body of mineralisation. The intrusive becoming
and Miezitis, 1967) was updated by the Geological brecciated at depth and is locally termed leucocratic
Survey of Papua New Guinea (Hilyard and Rogerson, quartz diorite, which hosts numerous quartz veins
1989). Bougainville represents part of the archipelago with orthoclase selvages in association with copper
of Papua New Guinea Melanesian arc, built up as calc- mineralisation. Higher grade mineralisation forms a
alkaline island arc subduction-related magmatism halo of >0.5% Cu associated with potassic alteration,
since the Eocene, and interrupted by Miocene typically as chalcopyrite with gold, grading to 0.3%
limestone deposition (Keriaka Limestone at Cu in propylitic alteration. Quartz veins, which cut
Bougainville). Volcanics, such as the Mid-Miocene the potassic alteration, contain additional chalcopyrite

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
angular andesite fragments in a matrix

of biotite, chalcopyrite, bornite and
local free gold, and are therefore
associated with higher metal grades,
especially at the apophyses to the
intrusionbreccia system. Metal
grades decline at depth within the
breccia bodies, and they are cut by the
Biuro Granodiorite.
Pebble dykes, including one body

traced laterally in the open pit for
1900m x 50m, display characteristic
fragment milling and consistent
fragment and matrix compositions
over considerable distances.
Phyllic alteration (silicasericitepyrite)

irregularly collapses down fractures
and is associated with erratic high
AuAg grades, and also dominates in
the late-stage pebble dykes. Argillic
alteration defined by clay minerals
and disseminated pyrite is widespread
but weakly developed.
The fracture pattern exhibits a

Fig. 8.28 Geological map of Panguna (after Clark, 1990). concentric form, modified by the
regional NE structural grain, which is
and bornite. The Kawerong Quartz Diorite becomes exploited by intrusive features such as pebble dykes
progressively less quartz veined and displays lower (Clark, 1990).
CuAu values as it grades to the biotite granodiorite at
greater depth, and towards the core of the intrusion While copper occurs within chalcopyrite and bornite,
away from the margins. Central barren portions of chalcocite and other secondary copper minerals are
the intrusion resemble biotite granodiorite. Small, recognised but were not of economic importance.
weakly mineralised dykes of the Biuro Granodiorite The gold recovery during processing was about 75%
(3.4Ma; Page and McDougall, 1972b) dilute ore to a using flotation. The gold was reported (unpubl. data
greater extent than was recognised in the initial in Clark, 1990) to have been mostly held in
drilling. chalcopyrite and bornite (40%), to a lesser extent
within pyrite (4%), and the remainder (56%) in
Feldspar porphyries occur as post-mineral intrusions, silicates and other non-sulphide minerals.
as is common in many porphyry CuAu deposits. Consequently, villagers are now working alluvial gold
Another post-ore intrusion includes the barren from tailings, which for 20 years were directly
Nautango Andesite (1.6Ma; Page and McDougall, disposed of into the Kawerong River, west
1972b). Bougainville. Many of the mines in PNG
failed to originally recognise the value of
Intrusive breccias formed by emplacement of the incorporating gravity recovery for gold at the front
biotite diorite into the Panguna Andesite contain end of the metallurgical circuit.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Northerly view of Panguna open pit in 1984.
Discussion deposits (K. Phillips, pers. comm., 2003), important

Approximately 30% of the ore occurs within Panguna aspects in the Panguna discovery include a geological-
Andesite and most of the remainder within breccias model-driven exploration program, use of government
and contact or differentiate phases of the Kawerong data, comparisons with known deposits, early
Quartz Diorite (biotite diorite). Furthermore, about recognition that young volcanic ash cover obscured
80% of the mineralisation is hosted within steeply mineralisation resulting in non-anomalous soil
dipping fractures and veins and adjacent wall-rock profiles, and a willingness to drill.
alteration (Baumer and Fraser, 1975). The higher
CuAu grades occur as an annular shape
encompassing the biotite diorite and breccias and Panguna began production in 1972 with a published
rimming the biotite granodiorite; the grades decline resource of 944Mt at 0.48% Cu, 0.56g/t Au and 3g/t
with depth (Clark, 1990). Ag. By 1988, the mine had milled 686.9Mt of ore at
0.53% Cu and 0.63g/t Au to produce 3.0Mt of
The Panguna ore system displays similarities to recent copper and 9.6 million ounces of gold, and retained a
models for porphyry Cu-Au deposits, in that mill feed of 710Mt at 0.4% Cu and 0.47g/t Au,
mineralisation appears to have been bled from a major including low-grade upgrade by screening (Clark,
magma source at depth and deposited in an apophysis 1990). Production was terminated by civil unrest in
to a brecciated and altered late-stage intrusion on the 1989.
margin of a much larger intrusion. Consequently,
erosion has exposed but not removed the best part of While the higher grade upper portion has been
the system, which declines in metal content with removed leaving material of questionable economics
depth. in a difficult start-up environment, additional
prospecting should evaluate the potential of adjacent
While Panguna would be apparent to an experienced porphyry stocks as well as the marginal gold vein
eye in our current understanding of porphyry CuAu potential not fully prospected by CRA.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
PORGERA Dredging bored 13 shallow drillholes but abandoned

the project. MIM showed interest by pegging around
Location and status
Searsons tenement. Meanwhile, Searson reached
Porgera Mine lies 5km west of Porgera Township (lat. agreement with Anaconda, and later with Australian
5o28S, long. 143o05E) at an altitude of 2,500m in investors Kimberly and Rumple, and in 1969 formed
the remote Enga Province of Papua New Guinea. The Ada Explorations, which employed Rudi Jezernik to
Porgera Mine lies within a 2,227 hectare Special drive two adits at Waruwari. However, by 1971 funds
Mining Lease (SML 4) that is held by the Porgera ran out and as Searsons health failed he was forced to
Joint Venture. The lease is surrounded by two sell to MIM, which entered into a joint venture with
exploration tenements (EL 454 and 848). Ada and continued trenching and drilling programs.
Discovery history In 1975, Placer entered into a joint venture with

MIM, and as operator carried out detailed geological
The first gold was officially reported from Porgera in
mapping prior to drilling. In 1979 Renison Goldfields
1938 as a result of investigations in the region from
Consolidated (RGC) brought funds and metallurgical
193339 by Government Patrol Officers Jim Taylor
expertise and farmed in to the joint venture. 10% was
and John Black (Cotton, 1975; ODea, 1980). Black
reserved for the people of Papua New Guinea should
spent several days prospecting alluvials below where
the National Government elect to take up that equity.
the Porgera Mine currently lies and then rejoined Much to the concern of the private sector in PNG, the
Taylor for the remainder of the expedition. The equity figure has subsequently changed on two other
Porgera Valley was next visited late in World War II, occasions. In the early 1980s, definition drilling was
prior to a rush subsequent to the granting of carried out at Waruwari and geological studies defined
permission to enter restricted territory in 1948. After the ore types, the Porgera Intrusion Complex (PIC),
the lifting of access to the area, Joe Searson applied for and the Roamane Fault (Fleming et al., 1986).
a dredging and sluicing claim in 1949 (Jackson and However, an initial study by Fluor on the Waruwari
Banks, 2002). mineralisation determined that it had poor
metallurgical characteristics.
In the early 1960s, Searson approached several
companies to test the hard-rock potential of the The joint venture elected to continue low-budget
mineralisation at Porgera, and the administration geological mapping and prospecting, and in late 1983
provided the assistance of Government Geologist Geoff Handley identified outcropping Zone VII
R.G. Horne to follow up on the 1948 work of H.J. mineralisation within the Roamane Fault that assayed
Ward. Subsequently, in 196465 Bulolo Gold 15g/t Au over 45m. Renewed drilling focused on this
Date Ore type Cut-off (Au) Tonnes Au Grade (g/t) Moz
1982 All 3.0 2.5 6.9 0.6
1983 open pit 3.0 3.7 6.4 0.8
1988 open pit 3.5 50.6 4.1 3.3
underground 7.0 3.6 28.7 3.3
1990 open pit 1.5 54.2 4.3 7.5
underground 7.0 5.9 27.0 5.1
End 2001 All (proven + probable) US$275 58.4 3.5 6.6
Table 8.5 Various Porgera resource figures (after Jackson and Banks, 2002).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
high-grade ore with good metallurgy, but it was not

until 1984 that the first geologically consistent, high
grade gold intercepts were encountered. This changed
the economics of the project by also allowing for a
much lower grade but larger open-pit resource to be
considered. A proposal was put to the Government of
Papua New Guinea in 1988, leading to construction
and initiation of underground mining in 1990 and
open pit mining in 1993 (Table 8.5).
In October 2003, DRD Gold of South Africa finalised

the purchase of a 20% stake in the Porgera Joint
Venture. Placer Dome holds 75% while Mineral Porgera Intrusion Complex in about 1992 showing
initiation of open-pit mining at Waruwari, and the two adit
Resources Enga holds the remaining 5%.
levels into Zone VII as well as the Rambari, Roamane and
Peruk elements of the PIC to the right of Waruwari. A line
Geological setting
of drill pads across the face of RambariRoamane defines the
Porgera gold mineralisation is intimately associated position of the Roamane Fault.
with the Porgera Intrusion Complex (PIC), which has Porgera occurs within a corridor of regional-scale
been emplaced into a previously thrusted sequence of faults interpreted to be related to deep crustal
sedimentary host rocks described by Davies (1983) fractures, formed normal to the structural grain of the
and Gunson et al. (1997). The Jurassic Om Papuan Fold Belt portion of the New Guinea Orogen.
Formation occurs as thinly bedded, dark grey Fold axes change in orientation across this structure.
carbonaceous siltstone with pyritic calcareous nodules Dextral strike slip movement is noted along
and locally pyritised macrofossils. Cretaceous Chim lineaments at Porgera (Smith, 1990; Hill, 1990), and
Formation comprises bioturbated and laminated grey while some workers speculate that Porgera is localised
calcareous siltstone, mudstone and local sandy at a possible step over (fault jog) in the lineaments,
horizons, which can be divided into discrete units others suggest this movement localises ore within the
(packages) facilitating detailed geological correlations Roamane Fault (Corbett et al., 1995). The
in the Porgera region (Gunson et al., 1997). Eocene sedimentary sequence is intensely thrusted (Davies,
to Miocene limestone crops out further south and east 1983; Rogerson et al., 1987a,b) by structures that
of the mine, and includes the structurally thickened some workers interpret to represent reactivated earlier
package at Mt Paiam and Mt Kaijende. basin-bounding faults (Hill, 1991; Gunson et al.,
1997). This complex thrusting abounds in the region
and is clearly apparent in exposures of the Porgera
open-pit mine.
The gold mineralisation at Porgera displays a staged

geological development associated with evolution of
the PIC as a differentiating alkaline intrusion
(Fleming et al., 1986; Richards and Kerrich, 1993;
Figs 8.29, 8.30). Intrusions crop out as a Y-shaped
set of topographic highs defined by the harder
intrusions within softer shale. Syn-mineral thrusting
has placed calcarenite in contact with black shale, the
Side-looking radar image of the Porgera Transfer Structure main host rock in the mine area, while post-mineral
showing the circular feature which roughly corresponds to the thrusting on the Boundary Fault has resulted in the
Porgera aeromagnetic anomaly shown in Figure 8.29. emplacement of the calcarenite - black shale package

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
over fissile brown shale.

Aeromagnetic data indicate that
the intrusions exposed at the
mine occur as apophyses to a
much larger buried magmatic
source, which is inferred to have
domed the host sedimentary
rocks. The largely buried
intrusion, only partly exposed by
erosion, is an important feature
of the Porgera setting, as ore
fluids have been bled from the
intrusion source at depth to
deposit mineralisation in the
cooler higher level setting
(Corbett et al., 1995).
The main open pit mineable

low-grade gold mineralisation
occurs at Waruwari, while the
Zone VII higher gold grade ore
occurs in the Roamane Fault and
parallel structures. Adjacent to
the intrusions, the incompetent
shale is indurated to form
bleached shale, which may host
veins. Recent age determinations
on Porgera intrusions (Ronacher
et al., 2002) updated earlier
findings (Richards and
McDougall, 1990) suggest that
intrusion and mineralisation
took place over a very short
time, as little as 0.26 million
years (including their error
estimate) at about 5.9Ma.
Most workers (Fleming et al.,

1986; Richards and Kerrich,
1993; Corbett et al., 1995, and
Fig. 8.29 The Porgera Intrusion Complex showing distribution of intrusions, transfer
numerous unpublished studies) structures and the Roamane Fault.
distinguish two main
mineralising events (Stages I and II), described below. from equigranular to porphyritic, and approaches
gabbroic composition; andesite dykes and sills are
Stage I mineralisation is associated with the interpreted to represent fine grained equivalents;
emplacement of generally porphyritic intrusions
categorised as: later hornblende diorite is characterised by
radiating hornblende rosettes within a fine-grained
initial augite hornblende diorite, which ranges matrix, locally forming needle hornblende diorite.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Fig. 8.30 Geological map of the Porgera Mine area.
Stage I gold mineralisation corresponds to Thick Stage I AB veins exploit pre-mineral NNE-
quartzsulphide and carbonatebase metalgold style trending structures, and thin veins become more
of intrusion-related low sulphidation epithermal gold numerous in the vicinity of these fractures. While the
mineralisation. Strictly speaking, the mineralisation NNE-trend is consistent with the AB veins
at Porgera formed at what could also be termed a exploiting tension fractures during subduction-related
mesothermal crustal level. Early classifications compression from the NNE, the transfer structures
(Fleming et al., 1986) described initial pyrite-rich "B" may also have been dilated by doming of the
veins that grade into "A" veins comprising sediments during emplacement of the Porgera
pyritesphaleritegalenacarbonate with local Intrusive Complex at depth. Importantly, the sulphide
tetrahedrite, freidbergite and chalcopyrite. These mineralisation is derived from a buried magmatic
source and not the high-level stocks in which it is also
workers also categorised "G" veins as pyritecarbonate
hosted, as well as the sediments. Host-rock control is
stringers. High temperatures of ore formation are
evident as veins are best developed within intrusions,
apparent in the mine area from the presence of
and to a lesser extent in the adjacent indurated
pyrrhotite and dark sphalerite (Fe-rich), with fluid
(bleached) sediments, and poorly developed in the
inclusion temperatures in sphalerite and quartz of
incompetent black sediments.
273oC and 318oC, respectively (Corbett et al., 1995).
More recent exploration some 1,000m deeper has Gold grades associated with the Stage I AB veins
identified hydrothermal magnetite, secondary biotite, range up to a few g/t and, as demonstrated early in the
chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite with quartz fluid evaluation of Porgera (Fleming et al., 1986), may
inclusion temperatures in the order of 350oC display higher gold grades where they (AB veins)
(Ronacher et al., 1999). have acted as brittle host rocks and are overprinted

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
calcite and dolomite at depth (Corbett and Leach,

1998).
The Stage I mineralisation predominates in the

Waruwari area where it is exploited by open-pit
mining. There, mineralised fractureveinbreccia
ores occur within many high-level stocks and dykes
and the enclosing bleached shale, although locally
overprinted by Stage II veins, the mineralisation is
best developed along N-NE trending structures.
Composite vein comprising mostly AB vein pyritesphalerite Stage II gold mineralisation occurs as quartz
with overprinting quartzroscoelite at the left hand end. roscoelitepyrite D veins (Fleming et al., 1986) and
corresponds to epithermal quartzAuAg style
mineralisation described herein. Stage II gold
mineralisation is noted for bonanza metal grades
within free-milling ore. Prior to vein development,
quartzfeldspar porphyry stocks and dykes were
emplaced as the most differentiated later stage of PIC
magmatism, locally migrating along the Roamane
Fault and into hanging wall structures at Waruwari
(Corbett et al., 1995). Feldspar porphyry intrusions
post-date the Stage I AB vein mineralisation and are
in turn cut by the quartzroscoelite veins.
Stage I vein comprising initial pyrite followed by The Roamane Fault is an EW-trending, south-
sphaleritegalena and later carbonate, including
rhodochrosite. dipping normal fault, with a slight sigmoidal shape, is
inferred to have been dilated by dextral movement on
by D veins (ie. quartzroscoelitepyrite, discussed the NNE-trending structures, and hosts NE-trending
below), and are here termed AD veins. Porgera AB dilatant D veins and flexures (Corbett et al., 1995;
veins display a mineralogy and paragenetic Fig. 8.31). The fault was initiated between stages I
sequence typical of southwest Pacific carbonatebase and II as it cuts AB veins and is a host for D veins.
metalgold deposits as pyrite>sphalerite>galena> Parallel structures are primary controls of D vein
chalcopyritetennantite>carbonate, with sphalerite mineralisation.
contents greater than galena (Corbett et al., 1995).
Gold, which displays an average fineness of 670, Stage II mineralisation was initiated as localised
occurs as minute inclusions (2040m) in sulphides crosscutting milled matrix fluidised breccia dykes,
or as free gold in carbonate (Corbett and Leach, containing fine silicapyrite, formed by explosive
1998). In type C veins (Fleming et al., 1986), hydrothermal activity at an elevated crustal setting.
sub-microscopic gold occurs within early The dilatant character of the ore environment is
pyritearsenopyrite veins, typical of a quenched evidenced by local banded vein/breccias and sheeted
quartzsulphide style gold deposit. Thus, the Stage I veins. There are several ore shoots that host extensive
mineralisation AB and C veins commonly possess a gold mineralisation at Porgera. Zone VII occurs as a
difficult and highly variable metallurgy. Carbonate sub-horizontal ore shoot located roughly at the
zonation is typical of carbonatebase metalgold intersection of the hanging wall split with the
deposits elsewhere and ranges from rhodochrosite and Roamane Fault, where some workers suggest bonanza
siderite at both shallow levels, and occasionally deeper gold mineralisation was promoted by fluid mixing
when associated with major structures, to ankerite (Corbett et al., 1995; Wall et al., 1995). By contrast,
(early) and dolomite (late) at intermediate levels, and a steeper pitch is apparent for the Eastern Ore Zone,

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
take on a wire form, and silver

tellurides (mainly hessite),
while later stage carbonate-rich
variants contain silver
sulphosalts and mercury
tellurides (Corbett and Leach,
1998). The latter veins at
Porgera have been termed type
"E" carbonate-rich silver ores
(Fleming et al., 1986). Pyrite is
commonly deposited first, gold
may be intergrown with
roscoelite, and these veins are
generally cut by later banded
comb quartz and local last-stage
carbonatesulphate
(anhydritegypsumbarite).
Recent work by the Porgera
Joint Venture geologists has
identified a macroscopic-scale
association between sulphate
and Stage II mineralisation in
the mine, as an indication of
ore deposition by fluid mixing.
Minor amounts of red
sphalerite (indicative of a lower
temperature of formation than
the AB veins), galena and
chalcopyrite are locally
intergrown with the early
quartz. Gold displays a high
fineness of 800, with fineness
Fig. 8.31 Cross-section through Porgera in the vicinity of the Roamane Fault.
declining in the later carbonate-
rich veins. Fluid inclusion data
developed at a flexure formed during dextral strike- suggest low-temperature, relatively dilute fluids
slip movement on the fault. The Eastern Deeps Zone (13514oC, 4.27.8 wt% NaCl; Richards and
is localised at the intersection of the Roamane Fault Kerrich, 1993; Ronacher et al., 1999).
and an AB vein-hosting NNE-trending structure
within a brittle intrusion. The Northern Zone Thus, there has been a pronounced change from Stage
comprises sheeted quartzroscoelite veins formed I mineralisation formed at higher temperatures in
adjacent to (hanging wall) a south dipping normal deeper crustal conditions, to the shallow-level low-
fault, parallel to and in the footwall of the Roamane temperature epithermal conditions prevailing during
fault. The steep-dipping Central Zone, located the formation of the Stage II mineralisation.
between the Roamane and Northern Zone Faults,
displays a more open-space breccia character and is Discussion
therefore interpreted as a large tension gash feature. At Porgera, low-temperature epithermal (D vein Stage
II) mineralisation is telescoped upon higher
Stage II veins occur as quartz with roscoelite
temperature (AB vein Stage I) quartzsulphide
(vanadium bearing illite), pyrite, free gold which may
carbonatebase metalgold mineralisation, as two

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Bonanza-grade wire gold with quartz and roscoelite (green).
relatively distinct events within different structural feldspar porphyry intrusions. In fact, many thrusts
settings and, importantly, at different crustal levels. are apparent in the open pit. The dramatic change in
This scenario requires 600700m of uplift and the crustal level of ore formation may have been
erosion (Corbett and Leach, 1998) between the two facilitated by the thrusting off of the upper portion of
events, yet Ronacher et al. (1999) suggested that the the domed sediments, and the resultant pressure
Porgera intrusionmineralisation event was very short reduction could have promoted emplacement of the
lived (<0.26 million years, including error). Munroe feldspar porphyry and initiation of Stage II
and Williams (1996) also suggested that there is little mineralisation. Standing (1994) goes so far as to
age difference between the Stage I hornblende diorite speculate that Mt Kare gold mineralisation, described
(6.060.21Ma) and the Stage II feldspar porphyry as 100m thick and 15km away (Laudrum, 1997),
(5.870.15Ma). Thrusting, which is well developed could be a thrust-off part of the mineralisation at
throughout the region, may provide an answer Porgera.
(Corbett pers comm. 2003). Indeed, the Western
Boundary Fault occurs as a post-mineral fault that At the Eastern Deeps D vein mineralisation, the
locally provides a lower limit to ore where it separates deepest (and hence highest temperature) part of the
overlying Waruwari mineralisation from Stage II event, there is a complete evolution from
unmineralised fissile shale. Here, the calcarenite is initial thin bands of quartzpyrite and low-
also thrusted into place and contains only later stage temperature carbonatebase metal mineralisation

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
(with red-yellow sphalerite), to the epithermal which represents an average of 15.7% of the total
quartzroscoelite event. Thus, it seems that the merchandise export value for PNG.
Porgera Stage II quartzroscoelite epithermal
quartzAuAg is not a continuation of the Stage I The mining feasibility investigation in 1990 cited the
event, but an entirely new event of mineralisation, and Porgera resource as 85.8Mt at 5.7g/t Au for 15.7
so Porgera comprises two distinct intrusion-related ore million ounces (1.5g/t Au cut off ). Total proven and
systems. probable mineral reserves at the end of 2003 were
48.85 million tonnes grading 3.4g/t gold, which
Some trends in hydrothermal fluid flow can be equates to 5.391 million contained ounces of gold.
identified at Porgera (Corbett and Leach, 1998). This gives a projected operational life of 9 years.
Stage I, derived from the major magmatic source at
depth, migrated from the central portion of the PIC Underground mining at Porgera is scheduled to
to the south along NNE-trending structures to cool conclude in 2006 and at the open pit in 2007, while
within competent host rocks, commonly as NNE- milling of low grade stockpiled ore will continue until
trending veins. The Stage II fluids are hosted within 2012. Porgera has been subjected to extensive
more dilatant fracture systems, and in the Roamane exploration over many years, culminating in more
Fault migrated from an upflow at Waruwari and than 800km of drill core to June 2003. In addition,
deposited bonanza gold grades by rapid cooling. exploration is continuing from newly developed
underground workings. The current exploration
In summary, Porgera has had a long history of focus is to identify additional structurally controlled
exploration from initial alluvial gold mining to quartzroscoelite veins, particularly north of the
hard-rock exploration. While early exploration Roamane Fault. While this low-temperature,
focused on an ore system enabling Placer Dome to use structurally controlled mineralisation could travel
its expertise as a bulk open-pit miner, the Roamane considerable distances from the magmatic source
Fault, which was known to contain high gold grades, within dilatant structures, it is likely to be limited by
was not targeted. The breakthrough came with the the extent of competent host rocks, such as intrusions
1983 discovery of the outcropping bonanza gold or adjacent indurated shale, which are capable of
grade Zone VII ore within the Roamane Fault. hosting fracture-controlled ore.
This came about as a result
of continued input
from government technical
advice and continued
geological mapping. The
latter being a basic and
inexpensive tool. Geological
work at Porgera has greatly
contributed towards the
understanding of intrusion-
related low sulphidation
gold deposits.
Resources and
potential
From the commencement

of mining in 1990 to the
end of 2003, Porgera had
produced 12.22 million
ounces of gold and 2.23
million ounces of silver, Porgera mill and open pit in 2004.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Helicopter supported exploration at the Frieda Copper prospect.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
TOLUKUMA Creek, a tributary of Mase Creek near Fane (Davies

Location and status
and Williamson, 1998).
The Tolukuma gold mine (lat. 8o34S, long. In 1983, the Tolukuma region was targeted by
146o08E) lies within Mining Lease 104, located some Newmont Pty Ltd in a search for epithermal gold on
100km north of Port Moresby between Fane (5km the basis of information supplied by geological staff of
west) and Woitape (12km east) in mountainous the Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea, and also
terrane between 1,400m (including underground) on data available on open file that described the area
and 1,750m altitude. The lease is held by Tolukuma as containing intermediate volcanics, high-level
Gold Mines Ltd, a subsidiary of DRD Gold of South intrusions, and alluvial and hard-rock gold
Africa.
occurrences (Langmead and McLeod, 1991). By mid-
As the nearest road is 50km from Tolukuma at 1985, a helicopter-supported stream sediment
Kubuna, the mine was constructed using materials program utilising the bulk leach cyanide extractable
transported by Russian Mil 8 and 26 helicopters, with gold (BLEG) analytical technique had indicated
payloads of 3.5 and 5.5 tonnes respectively (at that anomalous samples assaying up to 20ppb Au in the
altitude). The mine is still serviced by a Mil 8 headwaters of the Auga River between Fane and
helicopter. Mining and detailed exploration for more Woitape. Despite the rugged terrane, which made
ore is being undertaken on ML 104, while the even helicopter assess difficult, limited quartz float
surrounding Exploration Licences are the subject of typical of banded adulariasericite veins was
regional exploration. identified, sampled and assayed yielding results of
10136ppm Au. Outcropping veins were identified
Discovery history in July 1986 at Tolukuma Hill, which contained a
Alluvial gold is reported to have been worked about distinct negative vegetation anomaly, and by
1,900m downstream from Tolukuma in the Auga September that year a trenching program had defined
River 1.5km north of Mondo, and in Ongimolo a 210m wide vein system over a 1km strike length.
Tolukuma - located 100km north of Port Moresby, in the Goilala district of Central Province.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Although other vein systems in the region were grading to later shoshonitic affinity, with lahars and
prospected, Tolukuma remained the focus of activity lesser tuff beds and sedimentary intercalations. Duck
through drilling and eventually reached feasibility (2001) suggested that a dismembered volcano north
study stage. By 1990, Newmont had defined a drill- of the mine, termed the Boundary Volcano, is
indicated resource estimated at 1.47Mt at 13.7g/t Au genetically related to ore formation, while Pieters
using a 4g/t cut off, for 654,000oz of gold (Langmead (1978) described a suspected caldera 25km to the
and McLeod, 1991). As the Tolukuma vein system south at Mt Cameron as a source of volcanic material.
was of limited size (for a major mining company such Subvolcanic intrusions, including diorite, quartz
as Newmont), of difficult access, and represented diorite, latite porphyry and dacite, locally display high
Newmonts only activity in Papua New Guinea, the sulphur contents and magnetic susceptibilities typical
company sold Tolukuma to Dome Resources in early of porphyry CuAu alteration and mineralisation.
1993. Hydrothermal breccias are indicative of some
explosive activity associated with intrusion
Dome Resources continued the drilling program and
emplacement. A Late MiocenePliocene (5.94.7Ma)
by late 1993 published an upgraded measured
age is provided for the Mount Davidson Volcanics
resource for Zone C in the vicinity of Tolukuma Hill
(Davies and Williamson, 1998; Dekba, 1983), and a
of 440,000t at 17g/t Au and 46g/t Ag (250,000oz
hornblende porphyritic andesite (4.80.88Ma) in the
gold equivalent), and an inferred resource of 120,000t
mine area (Langmead and McLeod, 1991).
at 16g/t Au (62,000oz of gold). This resource allowed
for two and a half years of mainly open-pit mining
Basement to the Tolukuma area is Cretaceous Kagi
and a minor underground operation, although mine
Metamorphics of the Owen Stanley Metamorphic
life was expected to be extended by further
Complex, which crops out as slate and phyllite
underground development combined with additional
hosting metamorphic sweat-out veins (Davies and
resources from known vein extensions. Construction
Williamson, 1998; Langmead and McLeod, 1991).
began in May 1995 and processing of ore commenced
in December 1995. The Tolukuma mineralisation is hosted within a
corridor of NS structures that lie close to, and locally
As anticipated by most geologists familiar with
define, the western margin of the Mount Davidson
Tolukuma, exploration since construction has
Volcanics. Normal and sinistral movement on a
continued to identify additional mineralisation within
faulted contact between basement and volcanics may
existing veins (Gulbadi and Tolimi), in extensions to
veins, in splays from existing veins, and within newly have contributed towards the formation of volcanic-
discovered outcropping veins (Kunda). hosting basins and the graben interpretation cited
previously, as well as dilatant splay vein formation.
In mid-2000, ownership of Dome Resources passed to
DRD Gold.
Geological setting
Tolukuma is on the western margin of a NS-trending

portion of the Mount Davidson Volcanics between
Fane and Woitape (Langmead and McLeod, 1990,
1991). Although cited as a graben by early workers,
more detailed studies demonstrate that the volcanic
rocks mostly lie unconformably on basement,
although faulted contacts are apparent in the vicinity
of the mine.
In the mine area, the Mount Davidson Volcanics

comprise mostly andesitic and dacitic agglomerates Tolukuma vein underground.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Gold mineralisation at Tolukuma is typical of the low

sulphidation adulariasericiteAuAg epithermal style
mineralisation. At Tolukuma the mineralisation lies
within thin banded veins comprising mostly
chalcedonic quartz, and associated with quartz
pseudomorphing platy calcite, adularia, black
sulphidic ginguro bands and clay (Corbett, 2002;
Langmead and McLeod, 1990; Semple et al., 1998).
Regional propylitic alteration is overprinted
by illitesmectite wall-rock alteration adjacent
to mineralised veins, while phyllic
(silicasericitepyriteclay) alteration in the mine area
is attributed to intrusion emplacement that took place
prior to the previously mentioned epithermal
mineralisation.
Fig. 8.33 Cross-section through the Tolukuma vein at

22400N, on the southern side of Tolukuma Hill.
The corridor of NS structures that host the

Tolukuma mineralisation has been traced for over
10km, continuing north of the Auga River, and
remains open to the south of the mine (Fig. 8.32).
Where the Tolukuma vein was originally exposed at
Tolukuma Hill, the basementvolcanic contact dips
easterly with an interpreted local normal fault
movement, and so the Tolukuma vein locally occurs as
a 10m wide hanging wall vein (Fig. 8.33). Elsewhere,
most banded quartz veins are in the 0.52m range
and the well-developed banding is indicative of
repeated extensional fault activation. The northern
continuation of the Tolukuma vein to form the Gifinis
vein is unimpressive. Current mining is focused on
the Gulbadi vein south of Tolukuma.
The best gold grades at Tolukuma are recognised in

Fig. 8.32 Map of Tolukuma vein distribution. NW-trending vein segments and splay fracture/veins

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
60g/t Au in 1998, while free gold was recognised

within splays at the margins of the Tolukuma vein.
Many NW-trending cross-veins such as the Gulbadi
cross-veins also produce high-grade ore (Fig. 8.34).
Tolukuma vein showing banded quartz and ginguro band,

which hosts most Au-Ag mineralisation.
High grade vein from Tolimi showing dark ginguro bands,

which host electrum.
Some mineralogical variations within the veins are

apparent. The Tolukuma and Tolimi banded quartz
veins contain the best gold mineralisation of the
deposit, within black sulphidic ginguro bands that are
typical of adulariasericite epithermal AuAg
deposits. The veins also host pyrite, chalcopyrite,
galena, argentite and silver sulphosalts, with electrum,
native gold, and silver. High-grade gold identified in
quartz pseudomorphing platy calcite textures was
deposited as later stage open-space fill. The Gulbadi
vein occurs as a quartzadulariaclay vein with later
overprinting pyritemarcasitestibnite, ranging up to
several percent sulphide in some instances. Here,
higher gold grades are associated with pyrargyrite.
Prior to mining, gold fineness for Tolukuma was
estimated to be in the range of 597771 with an
average of 686 (Semple et al., 1995).
Exploration
Immediately south of the mine, exploration at Degot

Creek has identified narrow fault zones with minor
brecciated quartz that contain locally consistent
anomalous gold grades (e.g. 100mm at 58g/t Au in 10
samples), followed up by impressive drilling results
(DDH IV004, 2m true width of 20g/t Au and
Fig. 8.34 Cross-section through the Gulbadi vein at 270N. 185g/t Ag). Further south, ore from the Kunda vein
yielded bonanza gold grades at outcrops where NW-
formed by interpreted sinistral movement on NS trending splay faults intersect the main NNW vein
faults. The non-outcropping Tolimi vein possessed trend. As the topography rises steeply to the south of
bonanza grades and produced a head grade of Gulbadi, these veins are expected to be accessed by the

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Gulbadi vein showing early banded quartz cut by later sulphide.
2km Miliahamba Deeps adit being driven from the North of the Auga River, the silicification and veins at
existing mine workings. Continued exploration Mt Sen are inferred to represent a continuation of the
further south of the mine is accessing targets, such as Tolukuma and adjacent Kimino mineralised trends.
high gold grades in association with a W-NW vein
flexure in the overall NNW-trending Seri Seri vein, Mineralised high sulphidation alteration with
4km south of Tolukuma hill. anomalous gold and mercury has been identified at
the Yemi Prospect, 10km east of Tolukuma, and traced
The Saki Prospect, located 3km east of Tolukuma, has for several kilometres south along strike along the host
been the site of most recent exploration. There, veins Dykoku structure.
varying between 0.8 and 4.2m wide, have yielded drill
results between 1.5 and 13.6g/t Au. A resource Resources and potential
containing about 35,000oz of gold has been The Tolukuma vein was initially mined (1995) by
estimated. Regional epidotechloritemagnetite open pit and then underground in the early mine life,
alteration is overprinted by quartzsericiteillite followed by the rich Tolimi vein (1998), while recent
alteration associated with NW-trending (2003) production has been from the Gulbadi and
quartzpyritestibniterealgarclay shears. The best newly opened 120 vein. The mine has been
gold in the Saki Prospect area occurs in localised consistently producing about 7000oz of gold per
dilatant sites such as intersections with cross-veins in month since mid-2003. Total production to mid
quartzadulariapyrite veins, which are commonly 2004 has been 986,438t yielding 514,969oz of gold
overprinted by poorly mineralised carbonatebase and 1,821,397oz of silver. Ore reserves at June 2004
metal veins. stood at 349,000 tonnes grading 18.15g/t.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
UMUNA (MISIMA ISLAND) 1969 to 1972 and drill tested (15 diamond-drillholes)
Location and status
a porphyry copper target that provided an estimated
resource of 70Mt at 0.10.16% Cu. The tenement
The Umuna AuAg deposit (lat. 10o40S, long. then fell vacant until 1976 when it was taken up by
152o48E) lies in eastern Papua New Guinea on Peter Macnab, who in 1977 formed a joint venture
Misima Island in Milne Bay Province. Placer-Dome with Placer (PNG) Pty Ltd. CRA Exploration farmed
managed the open-pit mining operations until closure into the joint venture in 1978. Placer carried out
in May 2004. intensive drilling of the Umuna Lode and by 1982
bought Macnabs interest, and in 1985 CRA
History
withdrew. By December 1987, Placers subsidiary,
Alluvial gold was identified on Misima Island in 1888 Misima Mines Pty Ltd, had reached an agreement
by miners departing from nearby Sudest Island. with the government to proceed with development.
Although the Umuna Lode was discovered in 1904, Under provisions of the day the government took a
most of the 200,000 ounces of gold produced to 1911 20% equity provision in the venture (Lewis and
was from alluvial workings (Lewis and Wilson, 1990). Wilson, 1990). Open-pit mining commenced in
Production from some of the pre-World War II hard- mid-1989 and continued until 2002 after which
rock mines on Misima (Williamson and Rogerson, recovery of gold was from low-grade stockpiles until
1983) is listed in Table 8.6. closure in May 2004.
Mining at Misima ceased as a consequence of the Geological setting

Japanese invasion in 1942, although small-scale The oldest rocks on Misima are Cretaceous to
mining supplemented post-World War II exploration Paleogene metamorphic rocks, which can be sub-
activities. Bill Bloomfield and George Buchanan divided into the western Awaibi association and the
extracted 52.8t of ore grading 20.2% Pb, 36.1% Zn, younger overthrust eastern Sisa association that is host
28.3g/t Au and 91.8g/t Ag from number 7 level in the to the gold and copper mineralisation (Williamson
Umuna Mine in 1951 (Williamson and Rogerson, and Rogerson, 1983; Fig. 8.35). The Awaibi
1983). In 195969, an exploration joint venture association comprises stratified metabasic rocks
between Pacific Islands Mines and Cultus similar to the core complexes on the DEntrecasteaux
Explorations Ltd unsuccessfully attempted to assess Islands. The Sisa association has been divided
high-grade ore below the old Umuna workings using (Williamson and Rogerson, 1983; Lewis and Wilson,
two adits and diamond drilling, the latter of which 1990) into several units, which form a sequence from
yielded only poor recovery (Lewis and Wilson, 1990). top to bottom as:
However, assay results from regional stream sediment
samples indicated numerous base-metal anomalies. Umuna Schist - micaceous and carbonaceous
Noranda Australia Ltd joined the joint venture from schist.
Mine Period Production Au Ag

Au (oz) Ag (oz) grade grade
(g/t) (g/t)
Misima Gold Mines 191422 37,000 not recorded 11.2
New Misima Gold Mines 192835 19,000 not recorded 7.75
Cuthberts Misima Gold Mine 193542 47,900 140,000 7.3 21.4
Gold Mines of Papua 193339 7,700 22,000 5.9 16.7
Table 8.6 Selected pre-World War II production from Umuna Lodes.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Halibu Schist - marble and graphitic schist. Two phases of magmatic arc mineralisation are
Ara greenschist - massive to foliated metabasalt apparent on Misima Island. Early porphyry copper
comprising amphibole, albite, quartz, chlorite, skarn occurrences are related to the commonly sheeted
magnetite, and biotite. Miocene Boiou Microgranodiorite porphyry
Bulpat Schist - metapelite and metapsammite intrusions. Endoskarns occur at the contact between
with lesser volcanic units metamorphosed to intrusions and carbonate (marble) units within the
greenschist facies. Sisa association host rocks. Typical skarn mineralogies,
paragenetic sequences and zonations (Adshead, 1997;
The metamorphic rocks are intruded by Adshead and Appleby, 1996) are characterised by
sheet-like bodies and stocks of undeformed Boiou wollastonitegrossularite proximal to the intrusion
Microgranodiorite intrusions, which have provided an grading to more distal andraditediopside-dominated
11.30.6Ma 40Ar/39Ar age (Adshead, 1997), and mineral assemblages, which are overprinted by
8.10.4Ma zircon age (Adshead and Appleby, 1996). magnetitepyritechlorite, while later retrograde
Younger thrusts and high-angle normal faults also chalcopyritecalcitechloritehaematiteepidote
transect these intrusions. sphalerte accounts for sub-economic (<0.3%) copper.
This mineralisation is of Miocene age.
A post-mineral Quaternary to Recent sequence of
basal conglomerate, sandstone and coralline limestone
Epithermal AuAg mineralisation is classed as two
contains some detrital gold.
styles within the Umuna Lode and adjacent greenschist
Geology and mineralisation (Jones, 1991). The Umuna Lode style comprises
multiphase extensional breccia banded vein infill of
The Umuna Fault Zone occurs as NNW-trending, quartz and carbonate with associated pyrite, galena,
3km long 50500m wide fault and breccia zone with sphalerite, barite and minor tetrahedrite. This
a normal displacement of 200m. It has a mineralisation can be classified as low sulphidation
configuration similar to a dilational fault jog carbonatebase metalAuAg style, with associated
characterised by down drop within the dilatant additional quartz, possibly as a transition to
segment, formed by a component of dextral strike-slip an adulariasericite-style veinbreccia system.
movement on the bounding regional WNW-trending Mineralisation displays many characteristics of
fault system (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Adshead, carbonatebase metal deposits, including pronounced
1997). Brittle deformation on Misima is partly vertical zonation. Banded quartz and quartz replacing
associated with the post-5Ma extension of the carbonate textures predominate in the upper portions,
Woodlark Basin rift. passing to breccias at depth.
Surface mineralisation is
associated with manganese wad
derived from the weathering of
rhodochrosite, a common
constituent of carbonatebase
metal deposits, along with base
metal sulphides. Also typical of
this type of deposits (Corbett
and Leach, 1998), the sphalerite
at Misima varies from Fe>Zn
pale sphalerite at high levels to
dark Zn>Fe at depth (Adshead
and Appleby, 1996).
Much of the silver is reported

to have been derived from
oxidation of argentiferous
Fig. 8.35 Geological relationships at Misima (after Lewis and Wilson, 1990; Corbett minerals associated with galena,
and Leach, 1998). while alluvial gold yielded a

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mining on the Umuna Lode in 1989.
Discussion
Umuna Lode mineralisation characterised by banded quartz
with open vughy manganese wad typical of carbonatebase
metalgold deposits.
Sericite alteration within the wall rocks hosting the
epithermal AuAg mineralisation has been dated at
fineness of 795827 (Williamson and Rogerson, 4.03.2Ma (Adshead, 1997). Thus, the exposure of
1983), but this may have been depleted in silver. deeper level porphyry copper skarn mineralisation at
Much of the vertical silver zonation from Ag:Au the same crustal level as epithermal mineralisation is
ratios of 15:1 to as much as 40:1 in the upper accounted for by the differing Miocene (118Ma) and
portions, grading to 3:1 in some deeper intersections Pliocene (43.2Ma) ages of the two mineralising
(Jones, 1991) - may be attributed to silver enrichment events. The extensional regime enabling the
during oxidation and supergene enrichment (Lewis localisation of epithermal mineralisation may be
and Wilson, 1990), and is most pronounced in the attributable to the opening of the Woodlark Basin in
upper portions. Vein and mineralogy style, as well as Pliocene times.
the 240275oC fluid-inclusion temperatures from
quartz and sphalerite (Williamson, 1984), further
support the epithermal crustal regime for this Production began in 1989 with a published (Lewis and
mineralisation. Wilson, 1990) resource estimate in 1988 of 55.9Mt at
1.38g/t Au and 21.0g/t Ag using a 0.7g/t Au cut off of
The Ara greenschist hosts quartz and carbonate veins (2.5 million ounces of gold, 37.9 million ounces of
with higher base metal and copper values that display silver). To the end of May 2004, the mine had
Au:Ag ratios of 3-4:1, are also of carbonatebase metal produced a little over 3.7 million ounces of gold and
style. 18.4 million ounces of silver.
Misima mine re-vegetation, October 2003.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
WAFI History
The Wafi CuAu prospect is a complex hydrothermal There is a report of gold having been worked in the
system comprising porphyry (Golpu prospect) as well Wafi River by Spec Warton in the 1930s. The CRAE
as high and low sulphidation CuAu mineralisation, Star porphyry copper search, which did not assay the
often with overprinting alteration relationships (Erceg samples for gold, identified several low-order base
et al., 1991; Funnell, 1990; Ryan and Vigar, 1999; metal anomalies in the Watut Valley during a 1967
Leach, 1999; Leach and Erceg, 1990; Tau-Loi and program that led to discovery of the Wamum
Andrew, 1998; Corbett and Leach, 1998). porphyry copper deposit. Follow up of these
anomalies in 1977 led to the identification of a pyritic
Location and status float boulder which assayed 22g/t Au, 0.57% Pb and
89g/t Ag. Detailed ground follow up by Peter
The Wafi Prospect is 60km SW of Lae (lat. 6o53S, Macnab and Steve Shedden in 1979 led to
long. 146o27E) centred on a NS ridge on the identification of altered pyritic volcanics of the Wafi
southern side of the Wafi River. At the time of writing high sulphidation gold system, from which initial rock
(2004), the prospect was being actively drill tested by chips assayed 3.25g/t Au on the eastern side of Wafi,
the owner, Wafi Mining Ltd, a wholly owned and 6.2g/t Au on the western side. Further surface
subsidiary of Harmony Gold from South Africa. The exploration in 198283 defined Zone A as a soil
current resource estimates at Wafi are: anomaly and drill testing was initiated. By 1984, a
soil auger program had defined a >0.2ppm Au
the Golpu coppergold porphyry deposit has an anomaly of 2.3sq km, which included Zones A, B, C
estimated resource based on historical drill data of and D (Fig. 8.36). Ground and airborne geophysics
114.25Mt @ 1.43% Cu and 0.72g/t Au; were also carried out.
the Wafi gold epithermal prospect has resources of By 1986, CRA had completed 31 drillholes, but the
72.2Mt @ 2.72g/t Au. low gold grade refractory sulphide ore typical of the
Wafi Gold and Golpu deposit - looking north

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
depth (e.g. DH WR 147 included 32m at 2.08g/t Au

from 470 m; Ryan and Vigar, 1999). Two follow-up
drillholes established the Link Zone with assays
including 20m at 8.5g/t Au and 70m at 11.0g/t Au
(DDH WR 154), and 86m at 5.7g/t Au and 46m at
4.3g/t Au (DDH WR 154). Definition drilling by
CRA proceeded until August 2002 when ownership
passed to Aurora Gold NL, and then to Abelle Ltd in
February 2003, and finally ended with Harmony after
their takeover of Abelle.
Although the Link Zone mineralisation is very deep,

this low sulphidation style has significantly better
metallurgical characteristics and higher gold grade
than the high sulphidation system, and so significantly
changed the exploration potential of the project.
Potential for additional mineralisation of this
(carbonatebase metalgold) style is evident from the
extensive untested zinc anomaly apparent in the
CRAE database (Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998).
Geological setting
Wafi lies within a corridor of NS structures that in

part divide the western and eastern portions of the
Fig. 8.36 Wafi geological relationships and prospect locations. New Guinea Orogen (New Guinea Thrust Belt and
Owen Stanley Thrust Belt), and is immediately north
Wafi high sulphidation mineralisation led CRA to of the Aure Deformation Zone. One of the most
joint venture the project to Elders Mining (PNG) in intense of these structures, the Wafi Structure,
1988. localises the Wafi hydrothermal system and provides a
dextral offset on the RamuMarkham Fault. Thus, a
Although Elders immediately commenced to drill an
major structural corridor may have facilitated
additional 54 diamond-drillholes into Zones A and B,
overprinting of intrusion-related hydrothermal events.
the joint venture agreement required Elders to
complete four conceptual drillholes. A model Host rocks at Wafi comprise sandstone, siltstone,
provided by a consultant derived from a synthesis of mudstone and locally conglomerate of the Cretaceous
interpreted structure with the available alteration data,
suggested testing the upflow source of the high
sulphidation fluid (Corbett, 1990). In late 1990,
Elders as operator of the joint venture completed
drillholes WR 92 and 95 and identified the Golpu
(formerly Raffertys) porphyry CuAu deposit.
However, Elders was taken over by Carter Holt
Harvey which elected to sell Elders 45% stake in Wafi,
and CRA exercised its pre-emptive right and resumed
total ownership of the property. For the next several
years, CRA evaluated the Golpu porphyry.
In late 1996, definition drilling of the margins of

Zone A identified low-grade gold mineralisation at
Silicaalunite-altered milled matrix (diatreme) breccia.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Owen Stanley Metamorphic Complex. These are cut

by a 800m x 400m maardiatreme breccia pipe with
steep-dipping margins and comprising a polymictic
milled matrix breccia. Several phases of xenolith-
bearing Wafi dacite porphyry intrusions cut the milled
matrix breccia about the pipe margins, as possible
endogenous domes. The late-mineral Heking
Andesite cuts the dacite porphyry. Potassic alteration
within the non-outcropping Golpu diorite porphyry
is dated at 14Ma and is cut by the diatreme breccia,
which is inferred by many workers to be associated
with the same later intrusion event as the epithermal
gold mineralisation, which yielded a date of 13Ma
from alunite within the high sulphidation alteration
(Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998).
Fig. 8.37 High sulphidation alteration zonation at Wafi.
Hunt, 1975), occurring at the contact between the

intrusion and host metasediments grades up to 1% Cu
and 2g/t Au, but decreasing in tenor away from the
intrusion contact. Changes in CuAu grade occur as
a result of the overprinting of the original porphyry
CuAu mineralisation by high sulphidation
epithermal alteration, after which, this composite
system has then been subject to supergene processes
(Ryan and Vigar, 1999). Zonation is apparent from
the surficial younger down to older deeper levels, as:
Golpu stockwork quartz veins within diorite porphyry
showing intense silicasericitepyrite overprint. no surface geochemical manifestations of the
porphyry within the barren quartzalunite cap
have been recognised;
The three distinct styles of alteration and
mineralisation apparent at Wafi (Fig. 8.37) are supergene copper enrichment grading 2.53.5%
discussed below. Cu extends from below the base of oxidation at
100m below surface to 250m depth, as a several-
The Golpu porphyry CuAu system is associated with metre-thick chalcocitediginite high-grade zone,
a cylindrical porphyry intrusion, exceeding 900m underlain by transition zone silicaalunite-altered
vertical extent and measuring 300m at the widest porphyry containing covelliteenargitepyrite
point. The intrusion displays typical porphyry-style (chalcocitetennantite). Here, porphyry CuAu
alteration which is zoned in time and space, from mineralisation is overprinted by high sulphidation
inner and early potassic (biotitequartzmagnetiteK- alteration and remobilised mineralisation;
feldspar), grading to marginal inner propylitic
(actinoliteepidote), and outer propylitic the upper portion of hypogene phyllicargillic-
(epidotechlorite), which are overprinted by phyllic altered porphyry extending to a depth of 350m
(silicasericitepyrite) alteration. A and D style yields grades of 12% Cu and 0.30.8g/t Au in
quartz veins (in the classification of Gustafson and association with pyritecovellite;

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Wafi during 2003, showing drill roads which cut Zone B (left), Zone A (right) and overlie the Link Zone buried in the lower
portion of the photo. The camp is to the left, and alteration associated with the Link Zone is in the background.
at the deepest levels where the potassic alteration through assemblages dominated by alunite,
is preserved, pyritechalcopyritegoldbornite pyrophyllitedickite, dickitekaolinite, with an
molybdenite ores yield 13% Cu and 12.5g/t Au, illitechlorite assemblage being the most distal.
although much of this pyrite is interpreted to have
been introduced during the later high sulphidation Mineralisation of the Zone AB style overprints
alteration as fine-grained arsenic-rich pyrite, in which
event. Native gold occurs as minute inclusions
fine (13m) refractory gold is encapsulated in the
within chalcopyrite and bornite.
lattice, and is associated with minor enargiteluzonite.
The Zone A and B style high sulphidation epithermal Several mineralisation zones defined from early soil
gold mineralisation overlies and overprints the Golpu sampling cluster about the diatreme breccia, which
porphyry CuAu, the contact being discernible in the provided original permeability and a locus of
enhanced fluid cooling, aided by mixing with
change from >1% as within the advanced argillic
groundwater.
alteration, to <0.1% as within the underlying
hypogene porphyry. The zoned high sulphidation The high sulphidation alteration overprints the Golpu
alteration is manifest as initial advanced argillic porphyry style alteration and mineralisation, and
grading to argillic alteration (Erceg et al., 1991; Leach the diatreme that hosts fragments of the earlier
and Erceg, 1990; Leach, 1999; Corbett and Leach, porphyry alteration. It is interpreted that the high
1998). This zoned alteration has been produced by sulphidation event has remobilised pre-existing
the progressive cooling and neutralisation through porphyry-related copper from the phyllicargillic
rock reaction of hot acid fluids, which may have altered porphyry and deposited this as
entered the systems from the vicinity of the Golpu zoned enargitetennantitecovellitechalcopyrite
porphyry, and grades outwards from the silica cap mineralisation, while most gold was introduced in

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
style mineralisation to fluids associated with lower

sulphidation style mineralisation.
Discussion
Wafi is interpreted to represent a porphyry CuAu

system that has been overprinted by epithermal
mineralisation, which at a diatreme margin passes
from high to low sulphidation gold
(quartzsulphidegold with minor carbonatebase
metalgold) and so demonstrates a progression to an
ore style that has the ability to substantially change the
economics of the project. At present, this higher
Quartzpyrite vein with later rhodochrosite overprint.
gold grade, metallurgically simpler low sulphidation
association with pyrite of the high sulphidation event. mineralisation has been identified in
only one location (Link Zone) marginal to the high
The Link Zone low sulphidation gold mineralisation, sulphidation system. The presence of auriferous
localised at the diatreme margin between sphaleritegalenaquartzcarbonate veins at the
and below Zones A and B, is characterised
Nabonga Creek Zone and the extensive zinc soil
by veins comprised mainly of pyrite with
anomaly shown on the published CRA data (Tau-Loi
lesser quartz (quartzsulphidegold style), which
and Andrew, 1998) demonstrate that this low
are overprinted by more than one generation
sulphidation gold mineralisation (Link Zone style)
of pyritesphaleritegalenacarbonate veins
(carbonatebase metalgold style). Selective sampling could be more widespread than is thought at present.
and petrology have demonstrated that while the gold Curiously, despite 25 years of exploration, the source
occurs within pyrite (of the quartzsulphide event) as
of the original 1977 lead-anomalous float sample has
the main sulphide, marcasite and arsenean pyrite are
not been identified. This float may be derived from
also present, providing a correlation between arsenic
the Nabonga Creek Zone, or be associated with
and gold. The gold content of the lower arsenic-poor
alluvial gold that is derived from further upstream.
carbonatebase metal event is volumetrically
insignificant (Ryan and Vigar, 1999; Leach, 1999). Since the original prospect identification, discoveries
As is evident from the initial discovery drillholes, gold of additional mineralisation at Wafi have resulted
grades are significantly higher than in either of the from the application of conceptual modelling
earlier events. Wall-rock alteration to the veins is (Golpu), or occurred during the course of definition
typically an illitesmectitecarbonatechlorite drilling (Link Zone).
assemblage.
Potential
In the model proposed (Leach, 1999), the high
In the immediate prospect area, drill testing of the
sulphidation fluid (pH 2 and >250oC) has been
Link Zone is continuing. As the understanding of this
progressively cooled and neutralised (to pH 67 and
mineralisation style, recognised as far afield as
<100150oC) at the diatreme margin and so
Nabonga Creek, extends the prospective terrane about
alteration passes from advanced argillic
(alunitepyrophyllite), to intermediate argillic the margin of the diatreme breccia, Wafi clearly has
(dickitekaolinitesericiteillite), and thence argillic the potential for more ore to be identified by
(carbonatesmectitechlorite), and is accompanied by innovative explorationists. Renewed regional
a zonation in sulphide mineralisation from enargite prospecting may be rewarded because upstream of the
through luzonite, tennantite, to pyrite and base metal Wafi River local people are working alluvial deposits
sulphides. Gold mineralisation resulted from fluids in the vicinity of three known gold anomalies the
that changed from those typifying high sulphidation Klondike Creek, Bonanza Creek and Tovu Zones.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
WOODLARK ISLAND that older auriferous rocks crop out only as inliers
Location
(Fig. 8.38). Basal conglomerate to the coral contains
exotic alluvial gold. The oldest basement rocks are the
Woodlark Island lies well north of Misima in Milne Eocene Loluai Volcanics, comprising low-K ocean-
Bay Province (lat. 9o05S, long. 152o45E), and forms ridge basalts and volcaniclastics (Ashley and Flood,
part of the Papuan Islands on the northern rise of the 1981), overlain unconformably by the Early Miocene
Woodlark Basin. Nasai Limestone. This in turn is overlain by the
volcanolithic Early to Mid-Miocene Wonai Hill Beds,
History
comprising sediments, agglomerate and andesite, and
In 1895, word reached miners on Misima Island that Mid- to Early Miocene Okiduse Volcanics, comprising
Lobb and Ede, traders and prospectors, had won a high-K to calc-alkaline epiclastics, porphyritic andesite
half billy can of gold in a creek on Woodlark Island, to dacite flows, breccias and tuffs with co-magmatic
and a gold rush began. The Murua Goldfield was porphyritic microdiorite and andesite intrusions
declared that year and by 1897 over 400 miners were (Ashley and Flood, 1981; Joseph and Finlayson, 1991),
working the area, but that number soon dwindled to dated at between 16.5Ma and 130.4Ma (Smith and
160 by 1898 as the easy, shallow gold was worked, and Milson, 1984). Most workers associate gold
disease (malaria) took its toll. Alluvial gold mineralisation with the porphyritic microdiorite
production is estimated to have reached 42,000oz by intrusion suite, which in hand specimen resembles
1898, when lode mining had begun (McGee, 1978a). other mineralised porphyry throughout Papua New
The first lode-mine workings were at Kulumadau, Guinea (Corbett, Leach, Shatwell et al., 1994).
followed by Boniavat and Busai, but most had closed
by the end of World War I. Some attempts were made
to restart old mines, and limited tailings treatment
continued to the 1960s (McGee, 1978b; Russell,
1990). Total production prior to World War I is
estimated at 100,000oz of lode gold and 83,000oz of
alluvial gold.
From the 1960s, government attempts to promote

prospecting on the island included geological
mapping, sampling and limited diamond drilling
(Trail, 1967). Exploration programs were carried out
by Esso (porphyry copper), BHP (iron ore) and CRA
(bauxite). CRA initiated gold exploration from 1967
to 1971, followed by BHP from 1978, in JV with
Nord Resources from 1981. In 1990, Highlands Gold
Ltd purchased PA 455 from the BHPNord Joint
Venture and carried out an intensive exploration
program there during the early 1990s (Corbett, Leach,
Shatwell et al., 1994).
Geological setting
The regional geology and gold mineralisation on

Woodlark Island are well documented (Stanley, 1912;
Trail, 1967; Russell and Findlayson, 1987; Joseph and
Finlayson, 1991; Corbett, Leach, Shatwell et al.,
1994), from which this text is taken.
Fig. 8.38 Geology of the central Woodlark Island horst block
Most of Woodlark Island is covered by soft coralgal (after Joseph and Findlayson, 1991; Corbett, Leach,
limestone of the Pleistocene Kiriwina Formation, such Shatwell et al., 1994).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Aeromagnetic data support earlier geological mapping hanging wall to the flatter dipping Main and Blue
and aerial photo interpretation to indicate that the Lode Shears. These locally host narrow bonanza gold
central portion of Woodlark Island is a 12km wide mineralisation.
horst block separated by NE-trending faults from the
marginal down-dropped blocks. Mineralisation at The flat-dipping fracture-controlled mineralisation,
Kulumadau is localised on one major horst-bounding constrained between the lodes, is interpreted to have
structure, while Busai lies on the intersection of NW- formed in dilatant settings created by reverse fault
trending linears that transect the horst and the margin movement on the steep structures. A sequence of
of a large circular feature evident on the aeromagnetic alteration and mineralisation (Corbett, Leach,
data. Other workings on the rim of this circular Shatwell et al., 1994; Corbett and Leach, 1998)
feature display high-temperature alteration, includes initial phreatomagmatic fluidised breccias,
supporting the speculation that it could represent an overprinted by banded chalcedonic quartzpyrite with
early collapsed volcanic edifice (Corbett, Leach, local jasper as an indication of shallow oxidising
Shatwell et al., 1994). conditions (quartzsulphide alteration). The
mineralisation is interpreted to have been deposited
Busai from a rapidly cooling dilute (<2wt% NaCl) fluid at
about 280oC. Later carbonatebase metalgold
From 1902 to 1916, the open-pit Murua United mineralisation displays carbonate zonation from
Mine produced approximately 3,500oz of gold from shallow FeMn, to intermediate MnMgFeCa, and
ore grading 4.3g/t Au. The gold fineness was 771846 deeper CaMg carbonates, indicative of the mixing of
(McGee, 1978a). collapsing cool, dilute CO2-rich waters, with rising
hot (>250C) saline (>6wt% NaCl) ore fluids. The
Feldspar porphyry intrusions are commonly emplaced
gold at Busai is of 830 fineness and is associated with
as sills into Okiduse Formation andesitic lavas. A
carbonate and minor sulphides.
variety of pre-mineral breccias occur as red-brown
haematite-matrix breccias formed during deuteric
alteration of the lavas. This was followed by fluidised
breccia dykes with rounded polymictic fragments in a
milled matrix containing pyrite and chalcedony,
which are interpreted to represent phreatomagmatic
precursors to mineralisation.
Fluidised milled matrix breccia dyke with later

carbonatebase metal mineralisation.
Two styles of structurally controlled mineralisation are

apparent from the initial diamond drilling (Corbett,
Leach, Shatwell et al., 1994; Fig. 8.39). Sheared
steeply dipping NW-trending lodes occur in the Fig. 8.39 Cross-section through Busai at 735N.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
derived from a porphyry

intrusion at depth,
speculated as a potential
source for the ore fluids
(Corbett, Leach, Shatwell et
al., 1994). Furthermore,
phyllic (sericitedickite)
alteration occurs at Bomagai
immediately to the north,
where BHP reported
covellite and pyrophyllite.
Busai mineralisation is dated

from illite wall rock
alteration adjacent to
mineralised veins as
12.20.1 and 12.41.6Ma
Drill core (top to the left) showing initial fluidised breccia, early chalcedony and later (Russell and Finlayson,
carbonatebase metal mineralisation.
1987).
Kulumadau
From 1901 to 1950 (but mainly to 1918),

Kulumadau produced 77,000oz of gold, primarily
from the Ivanhoe Lode, at an estimated average grade
of 15.9g/t and 776859 fineness (McGee, 1978a,b).
The Ivanhoe Lode and other adjacent gold showings
all occur in a major horst-bounding structure
characterised by intense shearing, and consequently
the mine closed in 1918 due to difficulties in dealing
with water in the permeable host structure, although
later attempts were made to reopen the mine. The
Ivanhoe Lode contains inclusions of gold of 790800
fineness within base metal sulphides consisting of
Bonanza gold in a section of the Busai Lode. pyrite, galena and sphalerite, with minor chalcopyrite
The steep structures are interpreted to have acted as and tetrahedrite (McGee, 1978a,b; Russell and
Finlayson, 1987).
feeders for the mineralising fluids, and locally host
bonanza-grade lode gold interpreted to have deposited Several features suggest that Kulumadau
from a quenched fluid, while the bulk of the mineralisation occurs marginal to a porphyry
carbonatebase metal mineralisation is believed to intrusion. Intense aeromagnetic highs correlate with
have been deposited by fluid mixing in the dilatant areas of fracture-controlled magnetite that are
flat fractures. interpreted here to represent porphyry style
potassicpropylitic alteration, which is overprinted by
The zonation from MnMg carbonate at Busai, to sericiteclay alteration. Fluid inclusions within quartz
manganese carbonate at Federation, 500m north, is veins in this area have high salinities (78 wt% NaCl)
indicative of a north to south fluid flow, possibly and are associated with anhydrite. Although early
derived from Muniai in the centre of the circular breccias display phyllic alteration, most brecciation at
feature where inner propylitic alteration Kulumadau occurs as intense post-mineral shearing
(actinoliteepidotechloritecarbonate) may be associated with movement on the graben-bounding

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
fault, and has hampered tracing the continuity of the

lodes. Anomalous Cu, Pb and Zn display a concentric
zonation about the inferred porphyry centre.
Boniavat
Anomalous gold values are associated with
quartzcarbonatebase metal veins localised on NW-
trending fractures on the margins of a feldspar
porphyry dyke. There are several old workings in the
field which includes the Woodlark King Mine that
produced 9,145oz of gold from 1904 to 1928
(McGee, 1978a,b; Corbett, Leach, Shatwell et al., Kulumadau post-mineral breccia.
1994). The presence of small amounts of The extensive post-mineralisation cover hampers
manganese (Russell, 1990) at the nearby
regional prospecting, although geological
Little McKenzie Mine, is consistent with a
quartzsulphidecarbonatebase metalgold style of interpretations have been made using aeromagnetic
mineralisation for this area. data. Most of the 1990s exploration was concentrated
in the vicinity of old workings, which is usually where
Discussion there is the most outcrop.
Intrusion-related low sulphidation gold mineralisation
on Woodlark Island occurs as quartzsulphidegold Resources and potential
and carbonatebase metalgold styles within In May 2002, Auridiam Ltd provided an estimated
structurally controlled lodes and also as fracture fill.
resource of approximately 810,000t of mineralisation
These styles grade to localised bonanza-grade
epithermalquartzAuAg-style mineralisation. grading 5.09g/t Au at Kulamadau, and 530,000t
Many of the early eluvial workings featured ground grading 4.91g/t Au at Busai, using a cut-off grade of
sluicing of what were probably areas of supergene gold 2g/t Au for 365,000oz of gold. In July 2003, this
concentrated by deep tropical weathering. figure was upgraded to 373,000oz of gold.
Highlands Gold field camp in 1992.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
YANDERA and Mackenzie, 1975), which were metamorphosed

Location and status
in the 3520Ma period (Page, 1976), prior to 2.5km
of uplift since the Pliocene (Watmuff, 1978) and
The Yandera porphyry CuAu prospect spans 1000m subsequent erosion that has only barely unroofed the
between elevations of 16002600m, and lies 100km Bismarck Intrusive Complex (Titley et al., 1978). The
SW of Madang and 18km west of Bundi (lat. 5o45S, pronounced uplift is evidenced by the presence of Mt
long. 145o10E) within the New Guinea Thrust Belt. Wilhelm 45km SW of Yandera, which at 4,509m is
the highest point in Papua New Guinea. There may
History
be an association between rapid uplift and mineralised
Yandera was identified during regional geological intrusion emplacement.
mapping by BMR geologists in the late 1950s
(McMillan and Malone, 1960; Watmuff, 1978). It The porphyries at Yandera are emplaced into the older
was explored by Kennecott from 1965 to 1970 and Bismarck Intrusive Complex along a NW-trending
later (from 1973) in joint venture with Amdex system traceable for about 10km, oblique to the strike
Mining. BHP farmed in to the joint venture and of regional structures (Titley et al., 1978). While
explored the area from 19745. Major exploration some mineralisation may have been introduced by an
ceased by the late 1970s after an economic resource early Maramuni Event (12.5Ma; Page and
could not be defined. Initial prospecting consisted of McDougall, 1972a) associated with the Bismarck
extensive regional stream traversing as well as hand- Intrusion Complex, it is most likely that the porphyry
dug contour trails in the project area and culminated CuAu prospect is related to younger intrusions
in over 25,000m of diamond drilling. Triako dated at 87Ma (Page and McDougall, 1972a) or
Resources inherited the project from Amdex but being 6.6Ma (Grant and Nielson, 1975).
unable to maintain interest in the low-grade project
surrendered it in 1992. An EL over Yandera was then Geology and mineralisation
taken up in 1992 by Highlands Pacific who compiled From an analysis of detailed accounts of Yandera
the existing data and carried out an aeromagnetic geology (Grant and Neilson, 1975; Titley et al., 1978;
survey and some regional exploration for gold, but Watmuff, 1978), it is possible to suggest a sequence of
surrendered the EL in June 2003. events in which tectonism, intrusion, alteration and
mineralisation are all interrelated.
Geological setting
Yandera lies within the New Guinea Thrust Belt, The older porphyries intruded the Bismarck
which is part of the New Guinea Mobile Belt of Dow Granodiorite (12.5Ma; Page and McDougall, 1972a)
(1977). The region is characterised by extensive under conditions of right lateral deformation (Titley
deformation on regional WNW-trending major et al., 1978) and compression from the north (Dow et
structures which parallel the Bundi and al., 1974; Dow and Dekker, 1964; Fig. 8.40). These
RamuMarkham Faults. High-grade gold lode intrusions occur as quartz diorite porphyry and related
mineralisation in association with barely unroofed microquartz diorite porphyry emplaced into NW-
porphyry CuAu intrusions at Kainantu lies some trending shear fractures, while early barren quartz
70km along strike to the ESE. veins display orthogonal orientations. Quartz veins
cut secondary biotitemagnetite (potassic) alteration
An obducted fragment of oceanic crust to the north of which is developed as a replacement of primary
Yandera hosts the Ramu NiCo laterite deposit. hornblende (in the granodiorite) and biotite veining
which has a halo of epidotechloritecalcite
Yandera occurs within the batholithic Mid-Miocene (propylitic) alteration.
(13.5Ma; Page and McDougall, 1972a) Bismarck
Intrusive Complex (Bain and Mackenzie, 1975), and A slightly younger group of porphyry intrusives occur
comprises tonalite, granodiorite and quartz as phenocryst-rich, locally crowded, leucocratic
monzonite typical of island arc calc-alkaline intrusions tonalite and dacite dykes. No significant
(Watmuff, 1978). The 51km x 19km batholith has mineralisation was associated with the two intrusive
been emplaced into Goroka Formation rocks (Bain episodes.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Potassic alteration is well developed in the areas of

aplitic quartz monzonite plugs as fracture halos,
veinlet and pervasive quartz, orthoclase, biotite,
epidote and magnetite as well as albite (Grant and
Nielson, 1975). Biotite is more widespread than
orthoclase and displays a spatial relationship to
fracture-controlled pyritechalcopyrite mineralisation.
Propylitic alteration is developed throughout the

prospect as chloritic alteration of primary hornblende
and biotite with scattered epidote, carbonate and clay
alteration. Some workers have noted a 5km wide
thermal aureole overprinting the granodiorite and
dacite porphyry (Grant and Nielson, 1975).
Phyllic alteration is characterised by quartz

sericitekaolin alteration that occurs as selvages to
veins that both overprints, and forms a wide halo to,
the earlier prograde potassic alteration.
Mineralisation
Fig. 8.40 The geology of the Yandera Prospect
(after Titley et al., 1978). Porphyry CuMoAu mineralisation is strongly
fracture controlled. There is an early phase of fracture
Analysis of quartz vein orientations suggests that the hosted and disseminated mineralisation characterised
major mineralisation event at Yandera was initiated by by pyritechalcopyrite in association with potassic
a change in stress orientation (Titley et al., 1978), as alteration (biotite>orthoclase). This phase commonly
noted more recently in many other Pacific magmatic grades to only 0.3% Cu (Grant and Nielson, 1975).
ore systems (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Compression Younger, structurally controlled mineralisation occurs
from the NE and rapid uplift were active during the as 12mm veinlets of chalcopyrite with lesser bornite,
forceful emplacement of the NENNE-trending pyrite and magnetite with selvages of
Intermediate porphyries. The mineralisation is biotitechloriteepidote, or as 20100mm veins of
associated with aplitic quartz monzonite porphyry pyritechalcopyrite with quartz, chlorite, epidote and
emplaced into the centre of the pre-existing NW carbonate gangue (Watmuff, 1978; Grant and
structural grain, and dated at 6.6Ma (Grant and Nielson, 1975). This younger vein mineralisation
Nielson, 1975). This central emplacement of later ranges in grade from 0.41% Cu, with the best
intrusions is common in many Pacific Rim porphyry mineralisation occuring where the two styles are
systems (Grasberg, West Papua; Ridgeway, eastern coincident in areas of greatest fracture intensity.
Australia). Molybdenite is less abundant than the copper
sulphides and has an erratic distribution. The zones
Extensive chlorite-altered milled matrix breccias form
with the greatest concentration of pyrite are associated
dyke-like bodies up to 1500m long, developed as
with retrograde quartzsericiteclaychloritepyrite
intrusion breccias associated with emplacement of
alteration developed peripheral to and overprinting
quartz diorite, and represent passive hosts for later
thin fracture/veins of copper sulphides. There is a
mineralisation (Grant and Nielson, 1975).
broad pyritic halo to the entire deposit. Sphalerite
Alteration
occurs as an accessory in the fracture/veins with
chalcopyrite but galena is rare.
Alteration and mineralisation at Yandera display a
strong fracture control, extending from the younger The zonation at Yandera is not as well developed as it
intrusions into the granodiorite host. is in many other porphyry copper deposits. An inner

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
zone of potassic (biotiteorthoclase) alteration gives

way to a broad propylitic (chloritecarbonate)
alteration that is overprinted by a broad phyllic
(quartzsericiteclaypyrite) alteration. Metal
zonation is basically copper core grading to more
marginal Zn>Pb soil geochemistry (Fig. 8.41).
Bornite is not a major constituent and is restricted to
the centre of the deposit (Grant and Nielson, 1975).
There is no obvious correlation between
mineralisation and the so called quartz core which
may predate emplacement of the main mineralising
intrusion.
Discussion
Many features suggest that although the

Yandera porphyry CuAu deposit occurs within a
batholith, only the upper part of the
hydrothermalmineralisation system related to later
intrusions is exposed. There is a strong fracture/vein
control suggesting upwards transport of ore fluids
from the main buried intrusion body, evident at the
level of exploration as the aplitic quartz monzonite
stocks and dykes. The higher temperature potassic Fig. 8.41 Alteration and geochemistry of the central Yandera
(biotiteorthoclasemagnetite) alteration displays Prospects; see Fig. 8.40 for location (after Grant and Nielson,
fracture control within the host granodiorite, spatially 1975).
associated with the quartz monzonite intrusions,
targets during a program of regional stream sediment
while propylitic alteration is more widespread. The
sampling by Highlands Pacific and an aeromagnetic
pyritechalcopyritechloritecarbonateepidote veins
survey by a joint venture partner. Yandera was
and strong accessory sphalerite are also consistent with
essentially bypassed by the 198090 gold exploration
a higher level setting marginal to the source intrusion,
with a bias towards a propylitic rather than potassic boom.
alteration assemblage. Collapsing late-stage phyllic
In recent times, local villagers have been working
(quartzsericitepyritechloriteclay) alteration is
alluvial and eluvial gold in and around the Yandera
typically associated with low pH fluids, which may
promote sulphide deposition by mixing with ore prospect, further enhancing the possibility that
fluids. peripheral structures could host Irumafimpa-style
quartzsulphide vein mineralisation, which might
Resources and potential enhance the economics of the prospect.
Yandera was discovered early in the porphyry CuAu
If the magmatic source for structurally controlled
era (later 1950s) and most exploration was completed
mineralisation observed at Yandera lies buried, and if
prior to the 1980s. The 1970s exploration program
enabled a resource estimate for Yandera of 338Mt only the upper part of the hydrothermal system is
grading 0.42% Cu, 0.1g/t Au and 0.018% Mo, of well exposed, then potential may exist for the
which 124Mt is indicated and 214Mt inferred discovery of additional, possibly structurally
(Watmuff, 1978; Titley et al., 1978). This estimate controlled mineralisation at depth. As Yandera was
predates the current JORC classification use of these evaluated in the 1970s, the application of new
terms. Exploration since then appears to have been concepts for porphyry CuAu deposits that have
restricted to the identification of some peripheral gold evolved over the past 20 years may prove worthwhile.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
9. Environment
ENVIRONMENT ACT 2000 - Level 2B Permit, plus EIA if of national

During the 1st quarter of 2004, the Environment Act importance.
came into force from the 1st January 2004. The new - Level 3 Permit and EIA.
Environment Act has amalgamated the previous
Permitting Process - EIA
environment acts, namely the Water Resources Act,
the Environmental Contaminants Act and the 1. Register intention to carry out preparatory work
Environmental Planning Act. The Environment 2. Receive notice to undertake EIA
Council is yet to be established to fully implement the 3. Submit Inception Report
new Act. 4. Submit Environmental Impact Statement -
Public review
Some of the basic mechanics surrounding the new
Environment Consultative Group
Environment Act 2000 are summarised below from a
Provincial Environment Committee
speech made in 2004 by Mr Vincent Bull of the law
5. Directors acceptance of EIS
firm Allens Arthur Robinson.
6. Environmental Councils acceptance of EIS
General Environmental Duty 7. Approval in Principle by Minister
8. Application for Environment Permit
"A person shall not carry out any activity that causes 9. Grant of Permit by Director
or is likely to cause environmental harm unless he
takes all reasonable and practicable measures to Permitting Process - NON EIA
prevent or minimise the environmental harm."
Level 2B - if no EIA required:
Administrative Structures 1. Register intention to carry our preparatory work

Director of Environment 2. Lodge application
Environment Council 3. Acceptance of application by Director
Environment Consultative Group 4. Referral to NG, PG, LLG by Director
Working Committees 5. Notification of application (radio, newspaper)
Provincial Environment Committees 6. If objection - Conference of interested parties
7. Independent expert
Tools - Admin & Enforcement 8. If cannot agree on independent expert -
Environment Council tie breaker
Environment Policies
9. Assessment
Environmental Codes of Practice
10.Grant of permit
Provincial Environment Policies
Environmental Impact Assessments From acceptance to grant - 90 days
Environmental Audit and Investigations
Environment Improvement Plans Level 2A - Fast Track
Environment Protection Order 1. Lodge application

Clean-up Order 2. Application accepted by Director
Emergency Direction 3. Assessment of application
Warning Notice 4. Grant of application
From acceptance to grant - 30 days
Environmental Permits
Carrying out an activity Example:

Existing activity or new?
Drilling contractor signs contract to drill 2000m
What level of activity? -
on EL.
- Level 1 No permit required. Driller is "carrying out activity" so caught by the
- Level 2A Permit, but no EIA. Act.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Environment (cont.)
Activity is Level 2A. Further information on any of these matters can be

Does EL holder have Permit? He should, but obtained from:
if not;
Driller must apply for a Permit or risk prosecution. The Director
Can use fast track for Level 2A. Department of Environment & Conservation
Should take 30 days or less from acceptance of P.O Box 6601
application. Boroko, N.C.D
If proceeds without Permit: - Papua New Guinea
- Emergency Direction to stop Tel: (675) 3250180
- Environment Protection Order Fax: (675) 3250182
- Clean up Order
- Criminal penalty of up to K250,000 for
company and K50,000 for company officers /
imprisonment
The Department of Environment & Conservation

previously administered the Environmental Planning
Act, which deals with environmental impact
assessment; Environmental Contaminants Act which
deals with prevention, abatement and control of
environmental contaminants: Water Resources Act
which regulates water abstraction and discharges into
water and various other legislation that deals with
nature protection and conservation including:
National Parks Act.

Conservation Areas Act.
Fauna (Protection & Control) Act.
International Trade (Fauna & Flora) Act; and
Crocodile Trade (Protection) Act.
Various Approvals or Licences and Permits were issued

under this legislation. Examples of these are Approval
of Environmental Plans, Water Use Permits, Water
Investigation Permits, Permits to export fauna
(protected and non-protected), Licence to discharge
contaminants and others.
Exploration and development of mineral resources has

an impact on the physical and social environment and
therefore these activities require careful impact
assessments.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
10. Other Relevant Agencies of Government
INVESTMENT PROMOTION up within the Department and the Board determines

AUTHORITY (IPA) minimum wages in Papua New Guinea. Further
The IPA was established by the Investment Promotion information on these matters can be obtained from:
Act. This Act is one of the most important business The Secretary
laws for any investor in the country. Compliance with Department of Labour & Employment
requirements of the IPA is a prerequisite for any PO Box 5644
investor intending to engage in mining business in the Boroko, NCD
country. The IPAs functions are to: Papua New Guinea
provide information to investors in the country Tel: (675) 3217408 3214160
and overseas Fax: (675) 3201062
encourage and facilitate investment in the country
BANK OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA
by assisting investors to obtain all necessary
& FOREIGN EXCHANGE
licenses, compliances and approvals CONTROLS
provide a system of certification of a foreign
The Central (Reserve) Bank of Papua New Guinea
enterprise and to require that a foreign enterprise
carries out many functions of importance to the
may only carry on business if so certified
economy, including regulation of financial
monitor the activities of foreign enterprises and
institutions in the country and implementation of
other functions as specified in the IPA Act.
Governments policy on foreign exchange controls.
All foreign enterprises (either an individual or Further information on foreign exchange controls can
company) must be certified by the IPA prior to be obtained from:
carrying on business in Papua New Guinea. This Controller of Foreign Exchange
requirement for certification is contained in the IPA Bank of Papua New Guinea
Act. An overseas company that commences business PO Box 121
in Papua New Guinea must also apply for registration Port Moresby, NCD
of their business with the Registrar of Companies, Papua New Guinea
which is an office within the IPA establishment. Both Tel: (675) 3227200
certification and registration may be done Fax: (675) 3211617
simultaneously. Foreign investors must also be aware
that there are certain business activities that are INTERNAL REVENUE
restricted to citizens and national enterprises, and COMMISSION & TAXATION
there are severe penalties for noncompliance with the The Internal Revenue Commission (IRC), headed by
Act. the Commissioner General of Internal Revenue,
The IPA also administers the Companies Act 1997, administers the Income Tax Act 1959 (as amended),
Securities Act 1997, Associations Incorporation Act, which contains the tax laws of Papua New Guinea, the
Business Names Act, Business Groups Act and Customs Act, Stamp Duties Act and the Value Added
Trademarks Act. Further information in respect of Tax Act. Different taxation regimes (including tax
doing business in Papua New Guinea can be obtained incentives) apply to mining and petroleum operations
direct from the IPA. in the country. The IRC is also responsible for all
customs import and export duties and excise duties.
DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR & Further information on the various taxes, including
EMPLOYMENT tax incentives, and customs and excise duties, can be
This Department administers the Employment Act obtained from:
which deals with general employment matters and the
The Commissioner General
Employment of Non-Citizens Act which deals with
work permits for Non-citizens and prohibited Internal Revenue Commission
occupations for Non-citizens. PO Box 777
Port Moresby, NCD
A Training and Localization Program is required Papua New Guinea
where approval is being sought to recruit non-citizens Tel : (675) 3226600
to fill positions. A Minimum Wages Board is also set Fax: (675) 3214249 / 3213484

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Other Relevant Agencies of Government (cont.)
APPLICATION OF OTHER LAWS USEFUL CONTACTS
Various other laws may apply depending on the type Papua New Guinea Chamber of Mines and
of other activities chosen by the investor and Petroleum
consequently, the investor would be required to Executive Director
consult the respective Government Agencies Papua New Guinea Chamber of Mines and
(including Provincial Governments), or local Petroleum
Municipal Authorities that administer the legislation, PO Box 1032
to obtain further information on their specific Port Moresby Post Office
requirements. Besides the Mining Act, there is various Papua New Guinea
other sectoral legislation which governs various Fax (+675) 321 2988
natural resource development activities. Examples of
Investment Promotion Authority
these are the Oil and Gas Act administered by the
Department of Petroleum & Energy, which governs The Managing Director
petroleum activities; the Foresty Act administered by E-mail iepd@ipa.gov.pg
the National Forest Authority, which governs forestry Phone (+675) 321 7311
activities and the Fisheries Management Act, Fax (+675) 321 2819
administered by the National Fisheries Authority,
Department of Mining
which governs fisheries activities.
The Secretary
Phone (+675) 322 7675
Fax (+675) 321 7958
The Deputy Secretary

Phone (+675) 321 2945
Fax (+675) 321 7958
Director, Mining Division

Phone (+675) 322 7624
Fax (+675) 321 3701
Mining Registrar, Tenements Administration

Phone (+675) 322 7615
Fax (+675) 321 3701
Assistant Director, Project Coordination

Phone (+675) 322 7622
Fax (+675) 321 3701
Chief Inspector of Mines

Phone (+675) 322 7602
Fax (+675) 321 7707
Assistant Director, Project Assessment

Phone (+675) 322 7628
Fax (+675) 321 3701
Assistant Director, Small Scale Mining

Phone (+675) 322 7626
Fax (+675) 321 3701

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
11. References
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of the Umuna epithermal AuAg deposit, Misima cupriferous zinc sulphide from Laloki stratabound
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Mining and Metallurgy, Parkville, pp.1-7. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Parkville, pp.43-49.
Adshead, N. and Appleby, K., 1996. The Umuna
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PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The Geology and Mineral Potential of PAPUA NEW GUINEA
PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Papua New Guinea 2005

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The Geology and Mineral Potential of PAPUA NEW GUINEA

The Geology and Mineral Potential of

Edited by Anthony Williamson and Graeme Hancock

Edited by Anthony Williamson and Graeme Hancock

Compiled by Dr Greg Corbett

1. Papua New Guinea An Overview 6

2. Mineral Discovery and Mining in PNG 9

3. The Mining Sectors Contribution to the PNG Economy 14

4. Geological Framework of PNG 22

5. Geological Terranes and Mineralisation 30

6. Tectonics and Mineralisation 42

8. Mineral Projects and Mines 60

10. Other Relevant Agencies of Government 140

11. References 142

The Geology and Mineral Potential of

Many geologists contributed to this publication, some as independent consultants,

The section entitled Tectonics and Mineralisation is a combination of interpretations

The Compendium of Prospects, presented on the companion CD, was compiled

4 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

In addition, one of the objectives of this publication is to highlight to potential

The Minerals Tenement administration system used by the Department of Mining is

KUMA AUA, OBE

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 5

BRIEF FACTS to October) seasons, but both are subject to regional

Major industries: Gold, oil, copper, coffee, silver,

6 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

Papua New Guinea has declined from a pre- EDUCATION

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 7

CURRENCY Europe - via Air Niugini services to Narita, Manila

Channel chip sampling on a remote prospect site.

8 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

INTRODUCTION progressively to Milne Bay, Cloudy Bay and

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 9

Fig. 2.2 Pre-World War I gold field proclamations and discoveries.

10 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

Table 2.2 PNG gold production 1928-1951.

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 11

12 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

The perceived high

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 13

The economy of PNG is

Employment directly attributable

14 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 15

Fig. 3.5 Years 2003 and 2004 gold production.

16 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

Fig. 3.6 K=Kainantu; S=Simberi; HV=Hidden Valley; W=Wafi; F=Frieda.

distributed to the landowners of the project area; the Double deduction of

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 17

18 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 19

making an application to surrender the EL; Avoiding uncertainty concerning

20 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 21

INTRODUCTION Over many millions of years, Papua New Guinea has

The components that define the

The Australian Craton, which

The New Guinea Orogen,

22 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 23

Fig. 4.3 Gravity map of PNG.

24 The Geology and Mineral Potential of

Fig. 4.4 Geological framework of Papua New Guinea.

The Geology and Mineral Potential of 25