Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102

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Engineering Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e n g g e o

An empirical approach for estimating shear strength of decomposed granites in

Galicia, Spain
L.R. Alejano a, C. Carranza-Torres b,
a
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Engineering, University of Vigo, Galicia, Spain
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minnesota Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Decomposed granites are often found in Galicia, Spain, where they are referred to as jabres. Similar decomposed
Received 14 July 2010 granites are also found in many other parts of the world. Granite weathering rarely produces an homogeneous
Received in revised form 29 March 2011 altered rock mass with all material decomposed to the same degree or even a simple weathering prole where
Accepted 1 April 2011
the degree of alteration decreases progressively with depth. This paper presents an empirically based approach
Available online 12 April 2011
that allows estimation of the shear strength of this type of materials in terms of MohrCoulomb cohesion and
Keywords:
internal friction angle values. The approach is based on back analysis of failed slopes in decomposed granites, and
Weathered granite it is implemented through simple in-situ testing and classication of the weathered granite, treating it as a soil
Decomposed granite material. An advantage of the used approach is that it allows prediction of shear strength values at different
MohrCoulomb shear strength locations within the deposit in a quick and economical way, from which average values of shear strength
Slope stability parameters can be computed. This is particularly important when considering the heterogeneous nature of
Back analysis decomposed granite formations in relation to the scale of the engineering work involved. Analysis of three slopes
Limit equilibrium instability cases in jabres in Galicia, illustrating the approach are described in detail. These correspond to a road
cut, a natural slope and the wall of an open pit mine.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Large areas in Galicia, northwestern Spain, consist of a material
called jabre, a highly weathered and decomposed granite with a
consistency resembling that of a coarse sand. The weathering of
granite is not only common in Spain, but also in other regions of the
world, where granite formations are exposed to high rainfall rates and
to intense chemical weathering for example, large areas of Asia,
including Hong-Kong and Korea, Brazil, United States and some
countries in Africa have these formations.
A typical characteristic of jabres is that they expose themselves in
scattered patterns, i.e., the original granite may appear unweathered
together with the jabre. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, that shows a small
excavated slope in Sierra del Gallinero near Vigo, Spain. The photograph
shows the highly irregular contact of granite, the completely decom-
posed granite (i.e., the jabre), and top layer of organic soil (or organic
jabre); the sketch below the photograph identies the different
materials. Another particularity of these weathered granites is the
typical occurrence of boulders of unaltered granite totally embedded
within the decomposed material (Alejano et al., 2010) the occurrence
of boulders of this kind can also be seen in Fig. 1.
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 218 726 6460.
E-mail address: carranza@d.umn.edu (C. Carranza-Torres).
Considering that many small civil engineering works like road
cuts, ditches and foundations are executed in decomposed granites in
Galicia, it is convenient to have available an approach for quick and
easy estimation of shear strength of decomposed granites. Such an
approach for estimating MohrCoulomb shear strength parameters
(friction angle and cohesion) is presented in this paper. The approach
is based on the experience made by the authors in the application of
the technique of back analysis of slope failures in general, and in
weathered granites in particular. The approach also relies on the
application of classication systems for granular materials, on
relatively simple eld testing experiments, and on the application of
empirical correlations of the gathered eld data.
For small civil engineering works, the approach discussed in this
paper allows a reasonable estimation of (MohrCoulomb) internal
friction angle and cohesion values, with the main advantage of the
simplicity and low cost in getting these mechanical parameters. This
could be convenient when studies involving statistical sampling of
strength parameters are required. Such an approach also results
attractive in the case of decomposed granites, given the common
variability in mechanical strength that these materials display
according to local characteristics of the weathering processes.
It should be noted that, in general, decomposed granites display a
complex loading-deformation behavior; thus for the execution of large
civil engineering works (like large slopes for major roads, foundations of
large buildings or bridges) more detailed studies of mechanical
characterization are recommended in particular, mechanical

0013-7952/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.04.003
92 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102
Jabre Organic Jabre Sound granite
Fig. 1. Photograph and schematic interpretation of the jabre and non-altered granite in
a small road cut in Sierra del Gallinero, near Vigo, Spain.
characterization based on laboratory triaxial testing under drained or
undrained conditions, as the type of engineering work dictates.
2. Characteristics of decomposed granites
Decomposed granites (or DGs; also DG for singular) are soils or
weak rocks derived from in situ weathering of granite. From an
engineering geology point of view, they have the consistency of silty
clayey, quartzsandy residual soils; they are indeed granites in which
all of the feldspar and part of the mica has been decomposed (i.e.,
transformed into clay minerals). Sometimes decomposed granites
maintain all the structure and even the appearance of the original
granite, and it is only by handling the material (e.g., applying a small
pressure with the ngers) that its mechanical soil-type deformability
and weakness can be appreciated (Jimnez-Salas and Justo-Alpaes,
1975). Due to the high percentage of grains of quartz contained in a
sample of decomposed granite, the material has been often classied
as a sand (S), according to the Unied Soil Classication System (see,
for example, Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Coduto, 1999).
From a point of view of weathering, and following the classica-
tion of Moye (1955) and GEO (1988), the jabres in Galicia could fall
into several categories. For example, some jabres could be classied as
completely decomposed granites with weathering degree type V
(when even retaining the texture of a granite, they disintegrate easily
with nger pressure and can be easily indented by the tip of the
hammer); or some others could be classied as residual soils of
granite with weathering degree type VI (when they are so altered that
they have lost their granite texture). According to a classication
system based on degree of weathering, proposed by Durgin (1977),
the jabres could be classied as decomposed granitoids.
Several authors have studied DGs from the points of view of their
geotechnical characterization and their relevance in engineering works
(Lumb, 1962, 1975; Hencher and Martin, 1982; Sugawara et al., 2003;
Hack, 2009), and from the point of view of the weathering process (Kim
and Park, 2003). From the point of view of their deformability and
strength, Zhou et al. (2003) have put in evidence, based on triaxial
testing of cylindrical hollow samples, that the behavior of altered
granites is dependent on the orientation of the in-situ major principal
stresses, the rate (or velocity) of application of loading and the conning
stress applied to the sample. Zhou et al. (2003) have also indicated that
altered granites may display a rheological behavior i.e., a time-
dependent deformational nature.
From what it is mentioned above, it is inferred that reaching a
detailed understanding of the actual mechanical behavior of DGs is a
very difcult task, reason for which, at least for the small engineering
works mentioned earlier (small road cuts, ditches and foundations),
an estimation of shear strength properties based on MohrCoulomb
friction angle and cohesion may be appropriate and sufcient. In this
regard, DGs do have an important frictional component associated to
the presence of quartz grains (and when not altered enough, also
feldspar grains) as well as a cohesive component associated to the
texture of the original rock and/or the presence of argillaceous
material resulting from the alteration. Accordingly, treating DGs as
MohrCoulomb cohesive-frictional materials, as a rst approximation,
seems justiable.
In terms of studies of shear strength characterization of DGs
through values of MohrCoulomb friction angle and cohesion, there is
a large number of publications on the topic. Most of these publications
involve laboratory shear testing of small samples of DGs, accounting
also for different testing conditions (stress-path, presence pore water,
matric suction, particle crushing, and others). For example, for DGs in
Korea, Lee and Coop (1995) have measured friction angles of
approximately 39. Also for DGs in Korea, Jeong et al. (2000) have
measured values of cohesion the range of 12 to 35 kPa, and values of
friction angle in the range of 34 to 49. For DGs in Japan, performing
direct shear tests on a undisturbed samples of DGs, Onodera et al.
(1976) have obtained values of friction angle ranging from 33 to 38
for clayey DGs; approximately 40 for silty DGs and somewhat higher
values (between 45 and 50) for sandy DGs. Onodera et al. (1976) also
report measuring a wide range of values of cohesion, between 0 and
200 kPa, but with a large proportion of the measurements falling
within the range 0 to 50 kPa. For the same type of DGs in Japan,
Onitsuka et al. (1985) have performed direct shear tests on
undisturbed and compacted samples under unsaturated and saturat-
ed conditions in various specimens classied as sand with nes, or SM,
according to the Unied Soil Classication System (or USCS) the
USCS is a common method of classication of soils and is described in
ASTM (2006); see, also, Holtz and Kovacs (1981), Coduto (1999). For
DGs type SM, Onitsuka et al. (1985) have obtained values of cohesion
in the range of 15 to 70 kPa (with 50% of the results failing in the range
20 to 40 kPa) and friction angle values in the range of 31 to 41. Also
more recently, Tsuchida et al. (2008) have obtained for the same types
of DGs values of friction angle in the range of 35 to 45, and cohesion
values in the range of 4 to 15 kPa. However, Tsuchida et al. (2008)
have concluded, based on previous measurements done by other
authors, that their prediction of friction angle was fairly good, but that
of the apparent cohesion seemed to have been underestimated.
Published studies on shear strength characterization of DGs
suggest that ranges of measured values of friction angle and cohesion
are large (due to the variability of strength and weathering
characteristics of DGs within a same deposit), but in any case ranges
of parameters result to be quite similar to those obtained by the
authors in the current study as it will be seen in following sections.
Also, in this regard, the authors were not able to nd publications on
shear strength characterization of DGs using simple eld experiments
and back analyzes as presented in this paper.
Another aspect that needs to be accounted for when dealing with
DGs in engineering works is the typical heterogeneous and varying
spatial distribution that characterize them. This normally means that
results obtained from sampling (e.g., boreholes) at one location, may
differ substantially from the results obtained in the vicinity of that
location (GEO, 1988). This issue is further illustrated in the
photograph of Fig. 2, that shows a larger road cut in a DG in Cangas
de Morrazo, Pontevedra, Spain. On the left side of the photograph, the
DG is seen to have a hard consistency (resembling a rock), while on
the right side of the photograph, the material is seen to have weak
consistency (resembling a soil). In the latter case, the low value of
shear strength can be inferred from the presence of a small landslide.
In summary, given the inherent complexity of DGs, it seems
appropriate to resort to approaches of strength characterization that
 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102
Fig. 2. Photograph of a road cut in jabre (or DG) with highly variable consistency
(Cangas de Morrazo, Pontevedra, Spain). Note the small landslide on the right side of
the photograph, suggesting a lower strength of the DG in that region.
are simple and economical (like the one to be described here) rather
than to methods that involve elaborated testing, and that may not be
representative of the DG formation as a whole.
3. Estimation of shear strength of decomposed granites
The MohrCoulomb shear strength model characterizes the shear
strength of rock or soil in terms of a value of cohesion, c, and a value of
internal friction angle, see, for example, Jaeger et al. (2007).
Alternatively, the cohesion can be substituted by the unconned
compressive strength, c, that is related to c and , according to the
following equation:
s
1 + sin
c = 2c 1 Following the approach by Hamrol (1961) to classify weathered
1sin
The parameters c, and c refer to the shear strength of the rock or
soil expressed in terms of effective stresses, i.e., the shear strength of
the dry material.
The approach for estimating c and of DGs used in this study is
primarily based on the application of in situ testing using a pocket
penetrometer and a vane tester, as shown in Fig. 3. The procedures to
conduct in situ testing with these devices are described in ASTM, 2010
and ASTM, 2008, respectively when using these standards, the authors
have followed the general stated procedures but have interpreted the
results differently, as it will be explained in this section.
The pocket penetrometer has been originally developed for ne soils
(saturated clays under undrained conditions of loading) and can
measure penetration strengths, qc, up to 1 MPa (Murthy, 2003; Controls,
2009). Since the values obtained can be reasonably correlated to the
results of Standard Penetration Tests (or SPT), it is possible to obtain an
estimate of internal friction angle of the soil based on the parameter N
from the SPT test (Hunt, 1984). The vane tester has also been designed to
determine shear strength of saturated clays under undrained conditions
of loading, and it can measure cohesion values up to 240 kPa. The
penetrometer and vane test devices are relatively inexpensive, and
these tests have proven easy to perform in decomposed granites in
Galicia (in almost all cases, it has been possible to carry out a large
number of these tests in the DG formations).
It should be emphasized that although the penetrometer and vane
testing devices have been designed and applied in determination of
undrained cohesion in saturated clays mostly, in this study the devices
93
Fig. 3. Photograph showing a pocket penetrometer, with two interchangeable rod tips
(on the left side) and a eld inspection vane tester, with two interchangeable vanes (on
the right side of the photograph) as scale reference, a coin is shown above the vane
tester.
have been applied to get estimative measures of friction angle and
cohesion values (using penetrometer and vane test devices, respec-
tively), in similar way as others authors have done in published
literature. For example, Barros (1989) describes application of the
vane test in cohesionless soils and Kumar and Raju (2009) describe
application of a cone penetrometer also in cohesionless soils (there is
a large number of published papers on the application of indentation
eld testing, e.g., cone penetrometer, in frictional-cohesionless soils as
well).
The DGs considered in this study have also proven to be easily
classied as various types of sands, according to the Unied Soil
Classication System (USCS). Typical categories for the DGs analyzed
resulted to be well graded sands (SW), poorly graded sands (SP) and
sands with nes (SM and SC) see ASTM (2006).
granites, the DGs analyzed in this study, showed an index in the range
15 to 30%, which could be correlated with cohesion values in the range
of 5 to 100 kPa and internal friction angle values in the range 35 to 44,
respectively, according to Jimnez-Salas et al. (1981). It is worth
noting that based on NAVFAC (1971) recommendations, compacted
sands (of the type of DGs analyzed here) have cohesion values in the
range of zero to 50 kPa, and internal friction angles in the range of 34
to 38 (i.e., ranges roughly similar to those discussed earlier on).
For granular materials such as sands, for which the strength is
predominantly dened by the friction angle , there exists a number
of empirical approaches to estimate . For example, Hunt (1984)
proposed a correlation between the degree of compaction, the relative
density, the dry density, the value N (from SPT tests) and the value of
as shown in Table 1. This table indicates that values of for DGs
classied as SW, SP or SM (according to the USCS) range between 29
and 37, depending on the characteristics of the sand and the degree
of compaction.
The pocket penetrometer described earlier on has been applied in
this study to get an estimation of the frictional strength of the DGs
through an estimative value of friction angle i.e., in applying the
penetrometer to the DGs, the cohesion component of the DG has been
disregarded. For the DGs analyzed in this study, the values of
penetration strength qc obtained with the pocket penetrometer
were always in the range of 0.1 to approximately 1 MPa (correspond-
ing to the weakest and strongest DGs tested, respectively).
Table 2 presents basically the same information of Table 1 together
with possible values of qc given by a pocket penetrometer. In Table 2, the
rst column represents a list of interpolated values of N (from SPT tests)
94 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102

Table 1
Common geotechnical properties of sandy soils (after Hunt, 1984). The symbols in the rst column of the table are according to ASTM, 2006.

Soil type Degree of compaction Relative density Dry density N (STP test) Friction angle
Dr [%] d [kg/m3] [] [deg]

SW: well graded sand Dense 75 1890 65 37

Average 50 1790 35 34
Loose 25 1700 b15 30
SP: poorly graded sand Dense 75 1760 50 36
Average 50 1670 30 33
Loose 25 1590 b10 29
SM: silty sand Dense 75 1650 45 35
Average 50 1550 25 32
Loose 25 1490 b8 29

in the range dened by Hunt (1984) see fth column in Table 1 (the
values that are underlined in Table 2 are the same values listed in
Table 1; also, the values in between underlined values, are interpolated
values). Similarly, the second column in Table 2 corresponds to the last
column in Table 1. In Table 2, the third to fth column are similarly
interpolated values of friction angle for the different types of soils
presented in the rst column of Table 1 (again, underlined values
correspond to values listed in Table 1). Also, in Table 2, the sixth column
corresponds to interpolated values of qc in the range of values measured
with the penetrometer for the DGs in Galicia note that by placing
columns rst and sixth side to side, it is assumed that the maximum
value of N reported by Hunt (1984) for SW type of soils (see rst column
in Table 1) corresponds to the maximum value of qc measured in the
eld. Finally the seventh column in Table 2, is simply the tangent of the
friction angles listed in the second column.
The squares in the diagram of Fig. 4 represent values of qc (in MPa)
and tan from the last two columns in Table 2, while the straight line
in the same diagram represents the best t to the scattered data. The
equation of this best t line is found to be:
= arctan0:2365 qc + 0:5246
where qc is input in units of MPa.
Table 2
Relationship between penetrometer strength, qc, and tangent of friction angle, tan,
constructed from Table 1. The values that are underlined in this Table are the same
values listed in Table 1; also, the values in between underlined values, are interpolated
values. The symbols in the headings of the fourth and sixth columns of the table are
according to ASTM, 2006.
N (STP test) Friction angle [deg] qc tan
[] [deg] [MPa] []
SW SP SM
In this study, Eq. (2) has been used to derive estimative values of
friction angle for the DGs disregarding the cohesive component of the
material.
Decomposed granites may also present cohesion see, for example,
Jimnez-Salas et al. (1981), GEO (1988). The cohesive nature of DGs is
associated to the presence of clay minerals (typically kaolinite and
halloysite) resulting from the weathering process and also from relicts
of the original cohesion of the parent granite. For soils with a signicant
cohesive strength (and reduced frictional component), the cohesion can
be estimated using a eld inspection vane tester see Fig. 3.
In this study the vane tester has been applied to get an estimation
of the bonding strength of the DGs through an estimative value of
cohesion i.e., in applying the vane test device to the DGs, the
frictional component has been disregarded.
According to the test procedure (ASTM, 2008), assuming the
material is frictionless, the value of unconned compressive strength
for the material, cv (where v stands for vane test), can be computed
as follows:
v
c = 2Su 3
2
where Su is the value of cohesion given by the vane test device note
that Eq. (3) is obtained from Eq. (1), when friction angle is assumed
null.
For cohesive-frictional materials, the pocket penetrometer used to
characterize the frictional component (Eq. (2)) can also be used to
infer values of cohesion or, alternatively, the value of c according to
Eq. (1). The relationship between cp (where p stands for pene-
trometer test) and the penetration strength qc proposed by Jimnez-
Salas et al. (1981) will be considered, i.e.,
p qc
c = 4
4:5

65 37 37.0 1.00 0.75355 In view that the Eqs. (3) and (4) have been used to compute
60 36.7 0.95 estimative values of c for DGs in conditions of predominant cohesion
55 36.3 0.90 (i.e., disregarding the frictional component), and predominant friction
50 36 36.0 36.0 0.85 0.72654
(i.e., disregarding the cohesive component), respectively, the authors
48 35.5 35.5 0.80
45 35 35.0 35.0 35.0 0.75 0.70021 computed a weighted average the two values using the following
42 34.6 34.6 34.6 0.70 relationship:
39 34.3 34.3 34.3 0.65
v p
35 34 34.0 34.0 34.0 0.60 0.67451 c = Wv c + Wp c 5
33 33.5 33.5 33.5 0.55
30 33 33.0 33.0 33.0 0.50 0.64941
27 32.5 32.5 32.5 0.45 where Wv and Wp are weighting factors obtained from Table 3 based
25 32 32.0 32.0 32.0 0.40 0.62487 on the classication of the DGs according to the USCS system (note
21 31.5 31.5 31.5 0.35 that the symbols in the rst column of the table are according to
18 31.0 31.0 31.0 0.30
ASTM, 2006).
15 30 30.0 30.0 30.0 0.25 0.57735
12 29.5 29.5 0.20 Finally, with the value of given by Eq. (2), and the value of c
9 29 29.0 29.0 0.15 0.55431 given by Eq. (5), the cohesion of the DG can be computed solving for c
6 0.10 in Eq. (1).
3 0.05 Further to Table 3, it should be emphasized that the weighting
0 0.00
values in this table have been assigned considering that the quantity
 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102 95

Table 3 1.0
from Table 2 - adapted from Hunt (1984)

tangent of friction angle, tan [-]

Weighting factors Wp and Wv to compute the value of shear strength, c, with Eq. (5). best fit to scattered data (see equation 2)
The symbols in the rst column of the table are according to ASTM, 2006. 0.8
Soil type Wv Wp

SP 0.25 0.75 0.6

SW 0.30 0.70
SW-SM 0.40 0.60 0.4
SM 0.50 0.50
SC 0.60 0.40
0.2

0.0
of nes in the DG will dictate the cohesiveness of the material e.g., 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
DGs characterized as SC (according to the USCS) will be expected to be penetration strength, qc [MPa]
more cohesive than frictional. The exact limiting values of weighting
factors have been empirically chosen and have proven to lead to Fig. 4. Graphical representation of relationship between penetrometer strength, qc, and
tangent of friction angle, tan , as dened in Table 2.
reasonable results (values of friction angle and cohesion) when
applied to back analyze the slope failures described in the sections
that follow. conveniently account for the variability of the mechanical parameters
The following are some additional remarks about application of within the rock or soil mass.
the approach used when characterizing shear strength of DGs in During recent years, the authors have compiled various cases of
Galicia. As mentioned earlier on, testing was performed on dry parts slope failure in decomposed granites in different engineering geology
of the formations, with the aim of measuring effective values of settings. In this paper, the following three cases will be discussed,
strength parameters. When carrying out the eld testing, at least namely: i) a slope failure in a road cut; ii) a natural slope failure; and
three different tests (for each, penetrometer and vane tests) were iii) a failure in the wall of an open pit mine. As it will be seen, in a rst
performed and the results were averaged. The tests were performed step of the analysis the back analysis will provide ranges of possible
always on the DGs and not on organic soils that sometimes were values of cohesion (c) and friction angle () that characterize the
found to be overlaying the DGs i.e., care was put into cleaning up the material. Thereafter, values of c and will be determined according to
area or digging a small hole in outcrops to reach sound DGs. In terms the approach discussed in Section 3, and acceptable agreement
of density of sampling and testing, a large enough number of between values from both approaches will be observed.
sampling/testing data was always sought, so as to be able to get
values of strength that were statistically representative of the DG
formation. For example, for slopes 100 to 200 m long, soil classica- 4.1. Slope failure in a road cut
tions every 50 m (and less than this, when the changes in lithology
dictated) were performed along the slope; also, for the same reference Fig. 5 shows a photograph of the studied slope failure. This failure
slope, penetrometer and vane tests were done every 10 to 15 m along took place in 2004 during construction of a new access road to Vigo,
the slope. Measurements were always on (or close) to the exposed Spain. From geological maps, the rock mass at the site was
surfaces of decomposed granites i.e., depths of holes dug to reach characterized as a grayish hercynian granite, predominantly alkaline,
sound DGs were never larger than 20 cm or 25 cm. Also, no trenches medium to coarse and uniformly grained sized. On the surface of the
were excavated to perform penetrometer or vane tests. slope most of the granite appeared as completely weathered (CDG,
degree V, according to the scale by Moye, 1955), although there were
localized zones where the granite appeared as highly weathered
4. Back analysis of three slope failures in decomposed granites (degree IV) or residual soil (degree VI according to the same scale). By
inspection of fresh cuts in the rock mass, a quite irregular prole of
To illustrate the application of the methodology presented in the weathering could be observed, with signicantly large thicknesses of
previous section, three cases of back analyses of slope failure analysis
in decomposed granites in Galicia, Spain, are discussed here. The cases
of slope failure correspond to different mechanisms of failure,
including circular and planar failure types. The purpose of presenting
these examples is to illustrate the estimation of shear strength
parameters in the context of actual engineering works. It will be seen
that the values of (MohrCoulomb) shear strength parameters
derived from back analysis of these slope failures, are in good
agreement with mean values of shear strength parameters obtained
with the approach discussed earlier on.
One of the widest used techniques for inferring values of shear
strength of rock and soil masses involves carrying out back analyses of
slope failure (Hoek and Bray, 1977; Hoek, 2002). The technique can be
conveniently applied to quantify the shear strength of soil and rock
masses provided the material constitutive models are assumed simple
enough and that they do not involve a large number of unknown
parameters. The back analysis technique has the advantage that the
derived parameters are representative of the behavior of the rock or
soil mass in relation to the particular engineering work as a whole (a
slope, a foundation, etc.). This is a relevant issue in rock and soil
masses where scale effects normally play an important role in their Fig. 5. Photograph of circular failure in a road cut in decomposed granite during
mechanical behavior. Moreover the back analysis approach can construction of a new access road to Vigo, Spain.
96 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102
totally altered granite. Also, large boulders of sound granite embedded
in altered granite could be recognized in the vicinity of the slope. The
rock mass setting was clearly that of a typical decomposed granite or
jabre.
A slope approximately 27 m high, 180 m long and inclined 45 was
excavated to accommodate the road in the decomposed granite. At
the beginning of 2004 a failure of part of the slope took place (see
Figure 5). This was a circular rotational failure with a clearly
developed scarp at the crest of the (failed) slope, a typical feature of
circular slope failures in soil masses.
To perform the back analysis, the stability charts for circular slope
failure discussed in Hoek and Bray (1977) (see also Willie and Mah,
2004) have been used. The charts correlate the geometry of the slope
(inclination angle and height) with the unit weight of the material,
the cohesion (c) and the tangent of the internal friction angle, (tan ),
with the corresponding factor of safety (FS) representative of the
slope. The charts correspond to different conditions of elevation of the
water table assumed for the slope more details about these
conditions can be found in Hoek and Bray (1977), and Willie and
Mah (2004). For the present analysis, the stability chart shown in
Fig. 6a has been used. This chart corresponds to the groundwater
condition number 2 (of the various groundwater conditions described
in Hoek and Bray (1977), involving a partially saturated slope as
shown in Fig. 6b this is the groundwater condition assumed to be the
closest to the slope in Fig. 5 (this will be further discussed in this
section, after presenting the results). Thus, for the slope of Fig. 5, given
that the geometry of the slope, unit weight and factor of safety were
known (the factor of safety could be assumed to be equal to 1.0 at the
time the failure), the stability chart in Fig. 6b allowed to obtain pair
values of strength parameters, c and , corresponding to a factor of
safety equal to 1.0. The corresponding values of c and obtained in
this way are represented graphically in the diagram of Fig. 7, as the
a)
b)
Surface water 8 times height
behind the toe of the slope
Fig. 6. Stability chart for circular failure dening the relationship between factor of safety,
geometry of the slope (including water table denition), density and MohrCoulomb
shear strength parameters and c for the ground after Hoek and Bray (1977).
piece wise curve with hollow squares (this diagram will be discussed
in more detail later in this section).
For the slope in Fig. 5, the decomposed granite was classied as a
Poor Graded Sand (SP) based on classication done at four sampling
locations. The penetrometer and vane eld testing was carried out at
18 locations throughout the length of the slope. The values of qc and Su
obtained from these tests, are presented in Table 4. The table also lists
the values of cv and cp obtained with Eqs. (3) and (4), respectively,
the value of c obtained with Eq. (5) (assuming Wp = 0.75 and
Wv = 0.25, according to Table 3) and nally, the values of c and
obtained with Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively. The values of c and are
represented as full squares in the diagram of Fig. 7. The diagram
indicates a signicant spread in values of strength parameters,
particularly cohesion values. The reason of this spread is the natural
variability of strength normally displayed by DGs within a same
formation, as it was already mentioned in Sections 1 and 2, and as also
found by other authors e.g., Jeong et al. (2000); Onodera et al.
(1976); Onitsuka et al. (1985); and Tsuchida et al. (2008).
The average values of and c represented in the diagram of Fig. 7,
also listed in Table 4, are found to be = 30 and c = 22 kPa,
respectively. These values dene the point represented as point A in
Fig. 7. Point A is seen to fall on the curve of possible values of c and
from the back analysis. In summary, the values = 30 and
c = 22 kPa were considered as representative of the shear strength
of the decomposed granite as a whole, and were used to re-design the
slope.
Further to the assumption of water table in Fig. 6b, to analyze the
impact of the shape of the phreatic surface on the results obtained, the
analysis has been repeated for other congurations of the water table
in the stability charts in Hoek and Bray (1977). Disregarding the case
of totally saturated slope with heavy surface recharge (Case 5 in Hoek
and Bray, 1977) which was not representative of the water conditions
for the road slope described here (due to the known meteorological
and hydrological conditions in the area), the maximum difference in
factor of safety obtained for the slope when performing the
computations for the different congurations of phreatic surface
was approximately 10% this difference corresponding to the case of
dry slope. Indeed, the assumption of dry slope resulted in a difference
of average values of cohesion and friction angle of less than 5% respect
to the values presented in Fig. 7 i.e., it resulted in acceptable
differences of values of cohesion between 2 and 5 kPa and values of
friction angle between 2 and 3.
Fig. 8, shows a photograph of the remedial works for the re-
designed slope which involved covering the slope face with a layer of
rip-rap, and constructing a bench of rip-rap sprayed with shotcrete at
the toe of the slope (the photograph was taken before the bench was
constructed). Limit equilibrium analyses of the re-designed slope
were performed with the software Slide (Rocscience, 2002), based on
50
back analysis
field measurements
A average (measurements)
40
cohesion [kPa]
30
A
22
20
10
20 25 30 35 40
friction angle [deg]
Fig. 7. Shear strength diagram for the DG in the slope failure in Fig. 5. The piecewise
curve with hollow squares corresponds to possible values of c and from the back
analysis. The full squares represent measured values of c and from Table 4.
 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102 97

Table 4 Legend:
Parameters obtained from penetrometer and vane eld testing and computed values of
c and from the described procedure.
M Characterization and testing
P Testing only (penetrometer and vane testing)
Location Vane test Penetrometer c
[deg] [kPa] (a), (b) and (c) Location of corresponding photographs
Su vc Wv qc pc Wp in Figure 9
[kPa] [kPa] [] [MPa] [kPa] []
Direction of cross-section in Figure 10
P1 106 212 0.25 0.3 66.67 0.75 30.8 29.3
P2 74 148 0.25 0.15 33.33 0.75 29.3 18.2
P3 92 184 0.25 0.2 44.44 0.75 29.8 23.0
(c) M5
P4 100 200 0.25 0.15 33.33 0.75 29.3 22.0
P5 70 140 0.25 0.15 33.33 0.75 29.3 17.6 P1
P2
P6 74 148 0.25 0.15 33.33 0.75 29.3 18.2 P17
P3
P7 62 124 0.25 0.1 22.22 0.75 28.7 14.1 P4
P8 108 216 0.25 0.35 77.78 0.75 31.3 31.6 M2
P5
P9 46 92 0.25 0.2 44.44 0.75 29.8 16.3
(b) P6 P6B
P10 50 100 0.25 0.2 44.44 0.75 29.8 16.9 P7
P11 108 216 0.25 0.3 66.67 0.75 30.8 29.6 P8
P12 114 228 0.25 0.25 55.56 0.75 30.3 28.3 P10 P9
P11 M6
P13 60 120 0.25 0.25 55.56 0.75 30.3 20.6 P12 P16
P13 M1
P14 70 140 0.25 0.3 66.67 0.75 30.8 24.2 P9B
P15 72 144 0.25 0.1 22.22 0.75 28.7 15.6 P15
P16 78 156 0.25 0.25 55.56 0.75 30.3 23.2 M4
(a) M3
P17 62 124 0.25 0.25 55.56 0.75 30.3 20.9
P18 108 216 0.25 0.3 66.67 0.75 30.8 29.6
Average values 30 22

P14

the methods by Bishop and Janbu see, Bishop, 1955 and Janbu, 1973,
respectively; these analyses were done based on the average values of
friction and cohesion ( and c, respectively) computed earlier on. The
100 m
analyses indicated that the re-designed slope shown in Fig. 8 had a
global factor of safety 1.3, which was considered adequate for this
particular project.
Fig. 9. Schematic plan view of a natural slope failure in Tebra, Pontevedra, Spain. The
locations of sampling and testing points are indicated as points M and P, respectively.
4.2. Failure of a natural slope

Fig. 9 shows a plan view of the studied natural slope failure. The
slope was located in the village of Tebra, Pontevedra (Spain) and the
failure took place at the beginning of 2000. Fig. 10 shows photographs
taken at various locations (indicated with corresponding letters in the
plan view of Figure 9) after the failure event. The slope had a mean
inclination angle of 24 and the failure had a crescent shape, affecting
an area of approximately 120 m wide and 200 m long (see Figure 9).
Tension cracks near the crest of the slope, with a scarp of
approximately 0.4 m high, could be observed (see Figure 10a); also,
lateral shear cracks, with tangential displacements of approximately
0.15 m, and bulging of the slope could be seen. At the base of the failed
mass, toppling of a small retaining wall, approximately 1 m high, took
place (see Figure 10c); also, cracks developing in walls of a house
located in the vicinity of the slope, were observed. At approximately
mid-height of the failed rock mass, traction cracks, almost parallel to
the ones at the crest appeared (see Figure 10b).
The landslide was most probably triggered by excess of water
inltrating into the ground, considering that the event took place in a
period of heavy rainfall. In this sense, it could be conrmed later on

Fig. 10. Photographs of various failure features in the slope (location of these
photographs are identied with corresponding letters in Figure 9); a) is a scarp near the
Fig. 8. Photograph showing the (partially completed) re-designed slope after the slope crest of the failed mass; b) is a tensile crack at the mid-height of the slope; and c) is the
failure in Fig. 5. bulging of the slope toe.
98 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102
that the date in which major ground movement was observed
(including occurrence of cracks, toppling of the wall, etc.) correlated
very well with the peak amount of rainfall obtained from daily
meteorological records for the area.
The slope failure involved a mass of altered granite that at rst
appeared to be of shallow extent. An engineering geology study indicated
that the original rock was a ne grained granite with an advanced degree
of weathering. The thickness of the altered granite zone was determined
to be very variable throughout the slope (e.g., in the vicinity of the failed
slope, an outcrop of sound granite could be observed). The mean in situ
density for the DG was determined to be approximately 1600 kg/m3
while the saturated density was roughly 1800 kg/m3; a permeability
coefcient of approximately 1.75 10 4 m/s was also estimated. The
position of the water table was established by constructing ow nets,
based on existing information of topography, presence of some springs
and amount of precipitation prior to the failure event. The prole of the
slope with the estimated position of water table is represented as a cross
section in Fig. 11 (the position of this cross section is indicated in the plan
view of Figure 9). Note that Fig. 11 also shows the interpreted position of
the contact between sound granite and the overlying DG.
With the information described above and using the software Slide
(Rocscience, 2002), a back analysis of the slope failure was carried out.
The analysis involved assuming a value of cohesion (c) for the DG and
computing iteratively the value of friction angle () that led to a factor
of safety equal to one. Note that due to the irregular topography and
the existence of two different materials, for this slope failure case, the
stability charts used in the slope of Section 1 could not be applied, and
for this reason, a limit equilibrium software package was used instead.
As in the case described in Section 1, the resulting pairs of values c and
for the DG are shown as a piecewise curve with hollow squares in
the diagram of Fig. 12.
For the determination of shear strength parameters in this slope, a
series of 6 locations (indicated as points M in Figure 9) were selected.
At these locations the DG was fully characterized and tested (i.e., soil
classication, density and water content determination were per-
formed; also, penetrometer and vane tests were conducted). Results
of the classication and testing at locations M are summarized in
Table 5. Also, a series of 19 additional locations (indicated as points P
in Figure 9) were selected at these locations only penetrometer and
vane tests were conducted. The values of and c for the 25 locations,
computed as described in the previous section, are summarized in
Table 6 and represented as full squares in Fig. 12 note that the same
comment done in Section 1 about signicant scattering of the
computed values of and c in Fig. 7 applies here as well.
Fig. 12 (and Table 6) also indicate the mean values of friction and
cohesion which result to be = 33 and c = 32 kPa, respectively. The
average values and c are represented as point B in Fig. 12. This point
is seen to fall on the curve of possible values of c and from the back
analysis. In summary, the values = 33 and c = 32 kPa were
Ground surface
Water table (interpreted)
Jabre-granite contact (interpreted)
300
'crest'
scarps
elevation [m]
250
sliding
surface
200
150
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
distance [m]
Fig. 11. Schematic representation of the interpreted prole, including water table and
contact of sound granite and decomposed granite along the direction of major ground
movement (see Figure 9).
back analysis
field measurements
B average (measurements)
50
40
cohesion [kPa]
B
32
30
20
10
25 30 33 35 40
friction angle [deg]
Fig. 12. Shear strength diagram for the DG in the slope failure in Fig. 9. The piecewise
curve with hollow squares correspond to possible values of c and obtained from the
limit equilibrium analysis. The full squares represent measured values of c and from
Table 6.
determined to be representative parameters of the shear strength of
the decomposed granite as a whole.
As for remedial measures taken by the local authorities after the
failure, it is worth mentioning that since unusual water inltration
was determined to be the triggering factor of instability of the slope
(water increased the weight of the material in the slope and
decreased the shear strength of the decomposed granite), a draining
system for the slope was designed. Further stability analyses
performed with the software Slide (Rocscience, 2002) and FLAC
(Itasca, 2008a) considering the improved groundwater conditions
(and using the average values of strength computed earlier on),
showed that there was an improvement of safety for the natural slope
(the new analysis gave a factor of safety of 1.3, above the critical value
1.0).
4.3. Failure of bench in an open pit mine
This case involves a benched open pit mine near El Barquero, La
Corua (Spain). The photograph in Fig. 13a shows a view of one of the
walls of the mine. The ore is a massive quartz seam (the quartz is
being mined out for industrial purposes) approximately 50 m thick,
dipping 45 and intruded in between a granite batholith and the eld
rock consisting of slates. The quartz seam has an extension of
approximately 1 km. The photograph in Fig. 13b, shows the contact
between the quartz seam (on the left) and the overlying slates (on the
right).
A typical layout of deposit and mine excavations are represented in
the sketches of Fig. 14. Fig. 14a shows the initial topography and rock
formations, together with the interpreted position of the phreatic
surface. Fig. 14b shows the benches and berms used to mine out the
quartz deposit. As represented in the sketch, the global slope angle of
the wall was 45, with benches 15 to 18 m high, inclined 75.
Due to the geological process of formation of the quartz deposit,
the contact zones with granite and slate formations were signicantly
altered. At the contact with granite, alteration associated with the
quartz intrusion most probably led to a path for water to inltrate and
decompose the granite, producing, as a result, a zone of jabre or DG
(see Figure 14a). In the few areas at the mine where the DGs
outcropped, the jabre layers were observed to have thicknesses
varying in the range of 0.5 to 4 m see, for example, photograph in
Fig. 15.
350 Excavation of the benches of highly competent quartz resting on
the DGs of relatively low strength, posed instability problems during
mining. In fact, as schematically shown in Fig. 14b, in a stretch of
approximately 30 m of mine wall, a lower bench collapsed, triggering
the progressive failure of the upper benches.
 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102 99

Table 5
Summary of laboratory and eld testing for DG at the locations M indicated in Fig. 9.

Property Location

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6

(in-situ) 1550 1650 1550 1530 1440 1740

[kg/m3]
Water 20.77 13.67 20.01 22.86 18.28 20.87
content [%]
sat 1760 1890 1760 1740 1710 1840
[kg/m3]?
dry 1280 1450 1270 1250 1220 1440
[kg/m3]?
n (porosity) 0.48 0.44 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.40
[%]
e (void ratio) 0.92 0.79 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.67
[]
D10 (Hazen diam.) 0.10 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.16
[mm]
k (Hazen perm.) 1.00 10 4 2.56 10 4 1.44 10 4 1.96 10 4 1.44 10 4 2.56 10 4
[m/s]
Su (Vane test) 27.5 30.4 75.0 51.0 30.1 57.3
[kPa]
qc (penetrometer) 420 840 720 420 370 580
[kPa]
Description DG, almost residual soil DG, coarse grain Hard DG, avg. size grains Soft CDG, small grain size DG, almost residual soil CDG, avg. grain size
USCS SP (poor graded sand) SW (well graded sand) SP (poor graded sand) SP (poor graded sand) SP (poor graded sand) SW (well graded sand)

Considering that the stability of bench was critical for the stability of
the whole mine wall, a study of stability of the lower bench resting on DG
was carried out. Fig. 16 shows the geometrical and geological model
assumed for the unstable bench. In this model, the DG has a mean
thickness of 3 m, which was inferred from measurements of DG
outcropping in the vicinity of the failed bench. Water was observed in
blast holes and in small springs at the base of the some benches, therefore
a phreatic surface as shown in Fig. 16 was assumed for the analyses.
The slope conguration in Fig. 16 corresponds to a planar type of
failure of the quartz block above the DG. The back analysis for planar

Table 6
Summary of computed values of and c for the DG at the different locations (M and
P) indicated in Fig. 9.

Location Type Vane test Penetrometer c c

[kPa] [deg] [kPa]
Su vc Wv qc pc Wp
[kPa] [kPa] [] [MPa] [kPa] []

M1 SP 27.5 55.0 0.25 0.42 93 0.75 83.8 32.0 23.2

M2 SW 30.4 60.8 0.30 0.84 184 0.70 147.4 35.8 37.7
M3 SP 75.0 150.0 0.25 0.72 160 0.75 157.5 34.8 41.2
M4 SP 51.0 102.0 0.25 0.42 93 0.75 95.5 32.0 26.5
M5 SP 30.1 60.2 0.25 0.37 82 0.75 76.7 31.5 21.5
M6 SW 57.3 114.6 0.30 0.58 129 0.70 124.6 33.5 33.5
P1 SP 57.5 115.0 0.25 0.60 133 0.75 128.8 33.7 34.5
P2 SP 23.3 46.6 0.25 0.29 64 0.75 60.0 30.7 17.1
P3 SP 23.6 47.2 0.25 0.52 116 0.75 98.5 32.9 26.8
P4 SW 42.6 85.2 0.30 0.73 162 0.70 139.1 34.9 36.3
P5 SW 68.3 136.6 0.30 0.79 176 0.70 163.9 35.4 42.3
P6 SW 45.3 90.6 0.30 0.68 151 0.70 133.0 34.4 35.0
P6B SP 31.5 63.0 0.25 0.35 78 0.75 74.1 31.3 20.8
P7 SP 45.3 90.6 0.25 0.48 107 0.75 102.7 32.5 28.1
P8 SW 71.3 142.6 0.30 0.67 149 0.70 147.0 34.3 38.8
P9 SP 44.0 88.0 0.25 0.42 93 0.75 92.0 32.0 25.5
P9B SP 17.3 34.6 0.25 0.23 51 0.75 47.0 30.1 13.5
P10 SP 180.0 360.0 0.25 1.10 244 0.75 273.3 38.1 66.5
P11 SP 35.3 70.6 0.25 0.55 122 0.75 109.3 33.2 29.5
P12 SP 54.0 108.0 0.25 0.58 129 0.75 123.7 33.5 33.2
P13 SP 74.7 149.4 0.25 0.63 140 0.75 142.4 34.0 37.9
P14 SW 31.5 63.0 0.30 0.64 142 0.70 118.5 34.1 31.5
P15 SP 52.0 104.0 0.25 0.47 104 0.75 104.3 32.4 28.7
P16 SP 62.0 124.0 0.25 0.51 113 0.75 116.0 32.8 31.6
P17 SP 43.8 87.6 0.25 0.45 100 0.75 96.9 32.3 26.7
Fig. 13. a) General view of the benched slopes at the Mina Sonia, El Barquero, La Corua,
Average values 33 32
Spain. b) Contact of quartz deposit and overlaying sedimentary formations.
100 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102

a) 75o
45o

phreatic surface
phreatic surface
(interpreted) quartz (interpreted)
18m 3m
slate quartz jabre granite

granite
b)
bench
failure Fig. 16. Schematic representation of an unstable lower bench. Note that the bench toe
intersects the jabre.
new phreatic
surface (interpreted)
sands (SM) and silty sands (SM). The values of friction angle and c
obtained from the classication and eld testing are represented as
quartz the full squares in the diagram of Fig. 18 the same comments about
scattering of values of and c as done in Sections 1 and 2 apply here.
The average values of these parameters resulted to be = 33 and
Fig. 14. Schematic prole representation of typical geology and mining of the quartz c = 44 kPa. These values dene point C in Fig. 18, which is seen to
deposit. a) Initial conditions; b) conguration of benching when failure of the lower agree reasonably well with the back analysis results.
bench took place. Further to the assumption of the phreatic surface conguration in
Fig. 16, and as in the case of the slope discussed in Section 1, other
failure was carried out based on the model and equations proposed by congurations of phreatic surfaces were considered. Disregarding the
Hoek and Bray (1977) and Hoek (2002), and presented in Fig. 17. The case in which the slope was totally saturated (condition that was not
model includes a tension crack at the crest of the bench (which was representative of the slope in the mine, due to the known
observed in some benches) and water pressure on the sliding and meteorological and hydrological conditions in the area) the maximum
tension crack planes, with a maximum value assumed at the difference in values of cohesion and friction angle was obtained for
intersection of both planes (see Figure 17). To account for the the case in which the slope was considered to be dry. In this case the
unfavorable effect of vibrations produced by nearby blasting, a difference resulted to be in the order of 5% and considered to be
pseudo-dynamic horizontal force was considered as a body force within acceptable limits.
acting at the centroid of block. The values of the geometrical and
physical variables in Fig. 17 considered in the analyses were as
follows: H = 18 m; p = 47 f = 75; Zw = 2 m; r = 25.32 kN/m3;
w = 9.81 kN/m3; = 0.015; and z = 4 m.
As in the cases of previous back analyses, the model in Fig. 17 was
used to obtain the pairs of values of and c for a factor of safety equal
to one. The resulting values are represented in the diagram of Fig. 18,
as linked hollow squares.
The estimation of shear strength for the DG discussed in Section 3,
was done based on sampling (for classication) at four outcrops, and
eld measurements (with penetrometer and vane test) at approxi-
mately 30 locations. The DG samples were classied as well-graded

According to Hoek and Bray (1977), the factor of safety for the block is:
quartz

jabre
where the different parameters in the equation above are computed as
follows:

Fig. 15. Photograph showing a bench with decomposed granite outcropping at the base, Fig. 17. Planar failure model used to carry out a back analysis of the bench in Fig. 14b
according to the schematic representation in Fig. 14b. after Hoek (2002).
 L.R. Alejano, C. Carranza-Torres / Engineering Geology 120 (2011) 91102
back analysis
field measurements
100
C average (measurements)
80
cohesion [kPa]
60
44
40 C friction angle with corresponding values obtained from triaxial tests).
20
0 (1976) (0200 kPa) on direct shear tests, and Onitsuka et al. (1985)
20 25 30 33 35 40 45 50
friction angle [deg]
Fig. 18. Shear strength diagram for the DG layer in the bench failure of Fig. 14b. The
piecewise curve with hollow squares correspond to possible values of c and obtained
from the planar failure model of Fig. 17. The full squares represent measured values of c
and obtained with the approach described in this paper.
It should be noted that more elaborated models using the distinct
element code UDEC (Itasca, 2008b) were computed for the same
problem shown in Fig. 16, using the average properties of shear
strength mentioned above. These models indicated critical stability
conditions for the benches, conrming the appropriateness of the
simple planar failure model in Fig. 17. These more elaborated
numerical models were later on used to validate the nal recom-
mendation of avoid undercutting the DGs with the benches (Alejano
et al., 2001).
5. Conclusions
An approach to estimate the MohrCoulomb shear strength
parameters of decomposed granites (or jabres, as known in Galicia,
Spain) has been presented. The natural heterogeneity and variability
of physical and mechanical properties of the DGs in Galicia dictated
the use the strategy presented here.
As discussed in Section 3, the approach is based on simple in situ
testing of DGs, including eld testing with a pocket penetrometer and
a portable vane-tester, and in combination with standard soil
classication systems. From the test results and from application of
empirical relationships it has been possible to derive expressions to
compute values of internal friction angle and cohesion, representative
of the DG formation. In Section 4, the results obtained with these
expressions have been shown to compare reasonably well with
results obtained from back analysis of slope failures, suggesting the
appropriateness of the approach.
The method presented here is currently being used by the authors
in other projects involving jabres in Spain. In particular, it is being
used to estimate strength behavior of lls of removed decomposed
granite used in the design of (dry stone masonry) retaining wall
systems in Galicia.
It should be emphasized again that it has not been the purpose of
this study to develop a highly accurate method to estimate strength of
decomposed granites. This is in view of the rather complex
mechanical behavior of decomposed granites, and most importantly
the variability of physical and mechanical properties of the DGs within
the same deposit. Instead the approach presented here is relatively
easy, quick and inexpensive to apply, and therefore suitable to obtain
a large number of measurements in the area of interest. This aspect
was of signicant value when dealing with highly heterogeneous
materials such as decomposed granites in Galicia.
It could be argued that typical penetrometer and vane tests are
conducted at depth with some degree of conning stress which,
among others, facilitates the existence of undrained conditions in the
case of saturated clays. In the case described in this paper, the
101
penetrometer and vane tests were performed at shallow depths
(between 20 and 25 cm, as already discussed in Section 3) and in dry
DGs. The shallow depths used during the penetrometer and vane
testing in this study may have produced some of the scattering in
apparent values of cohesion values recorded; indeed, the effect of
depth of testing is a topic that requires further research in the
approach used here (e.g., by comparison of values of cohesion and
However, the scattering of the presented results (1570 kPa) lies on
similar ranges as those presented by Jeong et al. (2000) on direct
shear and compression triaxial tests (1235 kPa), Onodera et al.
on direct shear tests (1570 kPa) for different DGs in Asia. Moreover,
in the light of Fig. 2 that illustrates the natural variability of DGs in
Galicia, the scattering in apparent values of cohesion values that have
been recorded is not surprising.
All in all, the approach presented in this paper can provide an
adequate number of sufciently representative strength information
for decomposed granites as to perform statistical analyses of the
gathered data. This can contribute to the mitigation of uncertainty of
mechanical properties of rock masses, one of the fundamental
problems in engineering geology and geotechnical engineering
design.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Spanish Ofce of Science and
Technology for nancial support through Contract Reference Number
BIA2009-09673, which funded developments in this paper related to
rock mass strength characterization. The authors would also like to
thank graduate student Jose Luis Ares Araujo, who assisted in the
analysis of the road cut failure described in Section 4.1.
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