Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

KTH Course MJ2429

Part I: Turbomachinery for Incompressible Fluids

Damian M. Vogt
KTH Heat and Power Technology
 Damian Vogt, 2012
All rights reserved

www.exploreenergy.eu www.kth.se compedu.net

Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
Preface
T
urbomachines are exciting machines. They propel
aircrafts, drive machines, move fluids, supercharge,
compress, expand and are essentially found in most
applications that involve the conversion of energy. Their area
of application is vast ranging from miniature sized cooling
fans in computers over modern large bypass ratio turbofans
to gigantic steam turbines providing more than one million
shaft horse powers for use in power generation.
Turbomachines all work on the same principle, which is by
changing swirl momentum. This is also where they get their
name from: turbo in latin means swirl. A turbomachines
is in other words nothing else than a machine that changes
swirl momentum, be it on a small or on a large scale. Has this
teased your curiosity? If so, then you have come to the right
place to learn more about these fascinating machines.
My name is Damian Vogt and I am the
developer of this learning material as
well as the main lecturer in the KTH
MJ2429 Turbomachinery Course. What
you hold in your hands is the first
version of a new type of learning
material that I have developed based on
experiences gained in teaching over the
last years. It looks like a book but it is much more. It is
conceived as an animated interactive document that contains
recorded lecture units, calculation exercises and access to
remote laboratory exercises to name a few. In other words,
this learning material adds new dimensions to your learning
experience and by this supercharges your learning. It is my
intention to have you understanding the basic concepts of
turbomachinery in a truly genuine way and to have you
employing them in your future career with confidence.
I have organized this learning material such that I first take
you through turbomachines for incompressible applications
(pumps and hydro turbines) and thereafter to turbomachines
for compressible applications (compressors and gas/steam
turbines).
Looking forward to ignite your fascination for these types of
machines,
Damian Vogt
Associate Professor (Docent)
I
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
About This Learning
Material
T
he present learning material that you hold in your
hands is a new type of material that non only contains
text but also recorded lecture units and links to online
self-assessment tests. The scope of this material is to provide
new dimensions in learning, going beyond traditional lecture
notes and add a dimension in which virtually are brought into
the classroom anywhere and at any time. The written
sections in this document are kept brief on purpose such as to
allow for additional activities. It is therefore not primarily to
be understood as a replacement for a textbook and instead
presents a structured and enhanced presentation of lecture
notes.
What is New with This Learning
Material?
The novelty of this learning material is that it goes beyond
traditional static books and in addition includes animated
sections. These animated sections are recorded lecture units
that give the learner the possibility to learn by following
II
various short learning units giving a feeling of virtual
classroom attendance. The learners will follow the lecturers
writing on a whiteboard while hearing the corresponding
spoken explanations.
In addition, a number of self-study problems are posed
throughout the learning material such as to give the learners
the possibility to apply their newly gained knowledge. These
problems are of similar types of the ones made available in the
classroom problem solving that are provided if the present
learning material is part of a taught course.
Animations and tools are included to give the learner a
different means of understanding and to provide the
possibility for own experience.
Where available, remote laboratory exercises give the
learners the possibility to acquire test data on real hardware
and by this apply their knowledge on real cases.
Furthermore, links or references to articles are included
such as to link the taught subject to available material and by
this provide additional reading for interested learners.
Last, class-attending learners will have access to a discussion
forum in which several of the aspect can be discussed with
other learners as well as the instructor and course assistants.
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Most items are linked to animated and/or interactive content Remote laboratory exercises are included where available
via the item symbol. and are highlighted as follows:

Recorded lecture units are included throughout the learning Remote Laboratory Exercise
material and are highlighted as follows:
This remote laboratory exercise gives you the

Lecture Unit
possibility to acquire real test data interactively
on a test facility on a specific subject.
This lecture unit covers the theory or practical
application of a specific subject.

Links or references to articles are included throughout the

learning material and are highlighted as follows:
Animations or tools are included throughout the learning

material and are highlighted as follows: Link or Reference

Animations or Tools
This link or reference gives you further reading

in open literature on a specific subject
This animation or tool gives you of a different
viewpoint.

Indications to the Checkpoints are included throughout the

learning material and are highlighted as follows:
Self-study problems are included throughout the learning

material and are highlighted as follows: Checkpoint

Self-Study Problem
This indicates a checkpoint of the learning of the
subject, which must be understood for ensuring
This self-study problem allows you to get hands- the successful mastering of this subject.
on experience.

III
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
A Note on Sustainability
S
ustainability is an often-used word these days and you
probably (and hopefully) have come across it in your
previous education. Sustainability is something that we
want you to work towards once you enter the phase as a
productive engineer after your education.
But what do we actually mean by sustainability? There are
plenty of definitions out there and what I give you here is my
personal view of me seeing you as an engineer working
towards sustainability.
I define sustainability as a state in which you perform
something that impacts on the environment in a way that it
allows you to continue for a given period. The duration of this
period might vary from short durations to longer extending
over several generations. This something that I talk about
above might for example be the operation of a turbomachine.
When we bring in sustainability aspects, we can include them
on several levels. One possible level is the system perspective,
in which you question the reason for a given service to be
performed. Do we need to pump up water to a given height?
Can it be solved differently? Another level, still on the system
perspective, would be to question the way a specific service is
performed. Do we use a rotodynamic pump? Shall we throttle
IV
the pump rather than using speed-control? Yet another level
would be the component level. It is here where you dive
into the basics of the subject that you study, as for example
turbomachinery in our case. How do I need to design a
component such that it operates at maximum efficiency? How
does it affect the way I need to manufacture the pump?
As it gets apparent from these examples, sustainability is
much related to environmental impact in the sense of eco-
friendliness. This is surely an important aspect but it is not all.
Sustainability equally applies to the resources used to provide
a service in terms of material, energy and economic resources
used. In other words, you might very well be able to design a
super-efficient pump, but will it be sustainable from an overall
perspective. Just assume that you foresee the use of an exotic
material for your super-efficient pump, which is hugely
expensive to produce and which leaves a massive
environmental footprint. Will your super-efficient pump still
be the most sustainable solution from an overall perspective?
What I want you to adopt is a general attitude of
responsibility. You as a future engineer are responsible to
propose solutions that are sustainable from an overall point of
view. By mastering the basics in a subject such as
turbomachinery, you will have the tools to recognize
dependencies and propose such solutions. Be proud to have
chosen this career path and get ready to make a difference!
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Conservation of Energy 5
Contents Conservation of Momentum 6
Preface I Eulers Turbine Equation 8
About This Learning Material II Leonhard Euler 9
What is New with This Learning Material? II Pumps 11
A Note on Sustainability IV Pumping Systems 12
Nomenclature VII Classification of Pumps 16
List of Figures IX Pump Elements 17
List of Complementary Material X Pump Types 19
Lecture Units X Pump Velocity Triangles 21
Tools XI Design Parameters 27
Animations XI Constructional Aspects of Pumps 28
Self-Study Problems XI Pump Characteristics 30
Remote Laboratory Exercises XI Pump Operating Point 32
Links and References XII Pump Power 34
Checkpoints XII Pump Efficiency 35
Coordinate System and Views 1 Affinity Laws 36
Turbomachines for Incompressible Fluids 4 Serial and Parallel Operation of Pumps 40
Review of Basic Laws 4 Harmful Effects 41
Conservation of Mass 4 Preliminary Design of Pumps 44

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Hydro Turbines 47
Turbine Systems 48
Application of Euler Turbine Equation to Turbines 49
Turbine Elements 50
Turbine Types 54
Summary of Equations 55
Index 58
References 60

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Q Flow rate m3/s

Nomenclature
r Radius m
Symbol Denotation Unit
u Tangential velocity m/s
A Surface area m 2
w Relative velocity m/s
b Impeller outlet width m
W Mechanical energy J
c Absolute velocity m/s
z Height coordinate m
d Diameter m
Density kg/m3
E Internal energy J
Rotational speed rad/s
F Force N
Efficiency -
g Gravitational constant m/s 2

h Enthalpy J/kg
Subscripts
H Head m
0 Total
m Mass flow rate Kg/s
0 Inlet stator (turbine)
M Moment Nm
1 Inlet impeller
p Pressure Pa
2 Outlet impeller
Q Heat energy J

VII
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

3 Outlet stator (pump)

c Total in absolute frame of reference

f friction

n Normal

p Pressure

r Radial component

s Static

v Velocity

tot Total

w Total in relative frame of reference

x Axial component

Tangential component

VIII
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Figure 20. Pump operating point 33

List of Figures Figure 21. Pump head and efficiency 35
Figure 22. Effect of speed regulation 38
Figure 1. Schematic turbomachine showing the Figure 23. Effect of impeller trim (diameter change) 39
turbomachinery coordinate system 1 Figure 24. Cavitation phenomenon 42
Figure 2. Axial view of a schematic turbomachine 2 Figure 25. Pump and system NPSHs 43
Figure 3. Side view (cut) of a schematic turbomachine 2 Figure 26. Example of a turbine system 48
Figure 4. Unwrapped view of the stream surface in a Figure 27. Hydro turbine stage denotations (axial) 50
turbomachine (no change in swirl) 3 Figure 28. Hydro turbine stage denotations (centripetal) 51
Figure 5. Unwrapped view of the stream surface in a Figure 29. Example of schematic turbine rotor blade row 51
turbomachine (change in swirl) 3 Figure 30. Examples of profiled turbine rotor blade row 52
Figure 6. Example of a pumping system 12 Figure 31. Pump types and their specific speeds 54
Figure 7. Typical system characteristic 13
Figure 8. Example Pump system 14
Figure 9. Pump classification 16
Figure 10. Pump stage denotations (axial) 17
Figure 11. Pump stage denotations (centrifugal) 17
Figure 12. Examples of schematic pump rotor blade row 18
Figure 13. Examples of profiled pump rotor blade row 18
Figure 14. Pump types and their specific speeds 20
Figure 15. General concept of absolute and relative velocity 21
Figure 16. Impeller velocity triangles 22
Figure 17. Concept of relative eddy (adapted from [1]) 25
Figure 18. Effect of slip on velocity triangle at impeller exit 26
Figure 19. Dependence of the pump characteristics from
blade metal angle 31

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 17: Different Shapes of Pump Flow Channels 24

List of Complementary Lecture Unit 18: Change of Total Head in Stator and Rotor
Blade Rows 25
Material Lecture Unit 19: Dependence of Head Coefficient from Flow
Coefficient 27
Lecture Units Lecture Unit 20: Main Components of Axial Pumps 29
Lecture Unit 21: Main Components of Radial Pumps 29
Lecture Unit 1: Conservation of Mass 5 Lecture Unit 22: Separation Phenomena in Pump 29
Lecture Unit 2: Conservation of Energy 6 Lecture Unit 23: Tip Leakage Loss 29
Lecture Unit 3: Conservation of Momentum 7 Lecture Unit 24: Minimizing Leakage Losses 29
Lecture Unit 4: Introduction to Eulers Turbine Equation 9 Lecture Unit 25: Pictures of Pumps 30
Lecture Unit 5: Analysis of Eulers Turbine Equation (1/2) 9 Lecture Unit 26: Pump Operating Characteristics 31
Lecture Unit 6: Analysis of Eulers Turbine Equation (2/2) 9 Lecture Unit 27: Pump Operating Point 33
Lecture Unit 7: Pumping System 12 Lecture Unit 28: Pump Power 34
Lecture Unit 8: Analysis of Pumping Systems 13 Lecture Unit 29: Pump Efficiency 35
Lecture Unit 9: Total Head of a Pumping System 15 Lecture Unit 30: Pump Operation at Off-Design 36
Lecture Unit 10: Different Forms of Energy in a Pumping Lecture Unit 31: Pump Operation at Variable Speed 36
System 15 Lecture Unit 32: Pump Affinity Laws 37
Lecture Unit 11: Concept of Frame of Reference 22 Lecture Unit 33: Pump Operation at Varying Speed 39
Lecture Unit 12: Flow Deviations in Turbomachine Lecture Unit 34: Pump Operation after Diameter Change 39
Components 23 Lecture Unit 35: Reason for Cavitation 41
Lecture Unit 13: Pump Velocity Triangles 23 Lecture Unit 36: Analysis of Cavitation Phenomenon 41
Lecture Unit 14: Influence of Flow Channel Shape on Lecture Unit 37: Implosion of Vapor Bubbles during
Velocities 24 Cavitation 42
Lecture Unit 15: Influence of Blade Shape on Velocities 24 Lecture Unit 38: Measures against Cavitation 43
Lecture Unit 16: Flow at Various Spanwise Positions 24 Lecture Unit 39: NPSHr and NPSHa 43

X
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 40: Preliminary Design of a Pump 45 Self-Study Problems

Lecture Unit 41: Eulers Equation for Hydro Turbines 49
Lecture Unit 42: Deviation of Flow in Turbines and Pumps 50 Self-Study Problem 1: Fluid Forces on a Blade Row 7
Lecture Unit 43: Blade Shapes and Flow Passages in Turbines Self-Study Problem 2: Eulers Turbine Equation 10
and Pumps 53 Self-Study Problem 3: Different Forms of Energy 11
Lecture Unit 44: Flow Direction at Rotor Inlet 53 Self-Study Problem 4: Pumping System 14
Lecture Unit 45: Types of Hydro Turbines 54 Self-Study Problem 5: Deviation of Flow in Blade Rows 19
Self-Study Problem 6: Velocity Triangles 23
Self-Study Problem 7: Design Parameters 28
Self-Study Problem 8: Pump Off-Design Operation 32
Self-Study Problem 9: Pump Operating Point 34
Tools
Self-Study Problem 10: Affinity Laws 39
Tool 1: Preliminary Design of a Pump 45 Self-Study Problem 11: Preliminary Design of a Pump 45
Self-Study Problem 12: Turbine System 48
Self-Study Problem 13: Flow Deviation in a Turbine 49
Self-Study Problem 14: Deviation of Flow in a Turbine Blade
Row 52
Animations

Animation 1: Absolute and Relative Streamlines in a Pump

Rotor 18
Animation 2: Absolute and Relative Streamlines in a Turbine Remote Laboratory Exercises
Rotor 52
Remote Laboratory Exercise 1: Off-Design Operation of
Pumps 38
Remote Laboratory Exercise 2: Serial and Parallel Operation
of Pumps 41

XI
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Links and References Checkpoint 3: Absolute and Relative Flow Paths 19

Checkpoint 4: Pump Velocity Triangles 23
Reference 1: Pump Manufacturer (ITT Flygt) 30 Checkpoint 5: Slip 26
Reference 2: Pump Manufacturer (SULZER) 30 Checkpoint 6: Design parameters 27
Reference 3: Pump Design in Industry 45 Checkpoint 7: Pump Operating Characteristics 31
Reference 4: Hydro Turbine Manufacturer (VOITH) 54 Checkpoint 8: Pump Operating Point 34
Checkpoint 9: Pump Power 35
Checkpoint 10: Pump Efficiency 36
Checkpoint 11: Affinity Law 38
Checkpoint 12: Preliminary Design of a Pump 46
Checkpoints
Checkpoint 13: Types of Hydro Turbines 54
Checkpoint 1: Euler equation 10
Checkpoint 2: Classification of Pumps 16

XII
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Coordinate System and Circumferential direction

Views Radial direction

Flow exits

U
nderstanding the coordinate system and views is of
paramount importance when dealing with
turbomachines. Turbomachines are rotating
Axial direction
machines, hence we use a cylindrical coordinate system that is
aligned with the machine axis.

To start off with, consider a turbomachine as a tube in which

you have an inner and an outer wall. These walls are usually
referred to as hub and casing respectively. The hub and casing Flow enters
walls bound the flow channel and give it an annular shape.
The flow enters the turbomachine on one side and exits on Casing
the other side. As the flow passes through the turbomachine, Hub
the cross section of the annular flow channel will most Figure 1. Schematic turbomachine showing the
probably vary. Also, as you will learn in this course, the swirl turbomachinery coordinate system
of the flow is changed such as to add or extract energy from
the fluid.
The axial view is defined by viewing the machine in positive
Consider a schematic turbomachine as the one depicted
axial direction. Hence, one would see the axial cross-section in
below
such a view, see the Figure 2.

1
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Circumferential direction Radial direction Meridional direction

Radial direction Casing

Flow enters
Flow exits

Hub
Hub Casing

Axial direction
Figure 2. Axial view of a schematic turbomachine

Figure 3. Side view (cut) of a schematic turbomachine

The side view is defined by viewing a cut through the machine

in an axial-radial plane. The cross-section that one would see
In order to address the flow in detail inside a turbomachine,
is referred to as the meridional cross-section. The direction of
an unwrapped view of a stream surface is used. For a 1D
the mean radius is referred to as the meridional direction. For
analysis, this would be the stream surface on the reference
constant mean radii, this is then the same as the axial
radius. This view is the defined by the meridional (or axial)
direction. An example of a turbomachine side view is included
direction and the unwrapped circumferential coordinate ( r )
in Figure 3.
as included in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

2
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Streamlines Streamlines

Meridional direction Meridional direction

Unwrapped circumferential

Unwrapped circumferential
Streamlines
)

Streamlines

)
direction (

direction (
Figure 4. Unwrapped view of the stream surface in a Figure 5. Unwrapped view of the stream surface in a
turbomachine (no change in swirl) turbomachine (change in swirl)

3
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

For steady process, the mass in a control volume is constant

Turbomachines for over time (
m
= 0 ) thus
t
Incompressible Fluids
m = 0 Eq. 2

T
i
urbomachines for incompressible fluids are machines
that use a working fluid, which features constant
density. Water is an example of such a fluid but there Mass flow rate through boundary
are other examples such as oil, liquid fuels or other types of
liquids. Depending on the type of machine, these m = c n A Eq. 3
turbomachines are classified into pups or turbines. In brief, a
pump is a turbomachine that adds energy to a system, whereas
Conservation of mass for control volume featuring one in-
a turbine extracts energy from a system. Before we analyze
and one outflow and assuming incompressibility 1 = 2
these two types of machines more closely, we first review
some basic laws. c n,1 A1 = c n,2 A2 Eq. 4

The indexes 1 and 2 refer to inlet and outlet of the

Review of Basic Laws
control volume respectively as depicted below.
Conservation of Mass
The sum of mass flow rates over all system boundaries equals
Note:
to change in mass in control volume

m
The velocity is in the above case inversely
m =
t
Eq. 1 proportional to the cross section
i

4
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

A smaller cross section means that the velocity will be For a steady flow process the conservation of energy per unit
greater time is regarded, i.e. conservation of power
A larger cross section means that the velocity will be
dE = m (dh0 + gdz ) = Q W Eq. 7
smaller

Where dh0 denotes the change in total enthalpy and the term

Lecture Unit 1: Conservation of Mass

This lecture unit covers the conservation of

mass.
gdz change in specific potential energy. As we now deal with
liquid flows the latter term cannot be neglected. Furthermore
a change in static enthalpy in liquids is rather pressure than
temperature dependent as is the case for gases leading to

dp
dh = Eq. 8
Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics applied to closed process,

i.e. system taken through a complete cycle The change in internal energy can therefore be rewritten as

(dQ dW ) = 0 Eq. 5
de =
dp
+
dv 2
+ gdz Eq. 9
2

Change in internal energy during change in state from one

point to another in the cycle , which contains the same contributions as the total head
introduced further above apart from the fact that the friction
dE = dQ dW Eq. 6 head is not addressed specifically. This can be expressed by

de = H tot g Eq. 10

5
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

, where

H tot =
p 3 p1 v 3 2 v1 2
g
+
2g
+ z 3 z1 Eq. 11
Lecture Unit 2: Conservation of Energy

This lecture unit covers the conservation of

energy.

The energy balance in a hydraulic turbomachine therefore

writes as
W = m H tot g Eq. 12
Note:
For H tot > 0 , which for example is the case if the
pump gives an increase in pressure, velocity or head,
the work is negative work absorbing machine
(pump)
In contrary, if the pressure, velocity or head over the
machine decreases then H tot < 0 indicating the the
work is positive work producing machine (turbine)
Conservation of Momentum
Note that in a steady flow process the momentum is entirely
due to a change in flow velocity as the mass flow rate is
constant, as well as a pressure contribution. This is expressed
in a general form by
F = m (c1 c2 ) + p1 A1 p2 A2 Eq. 13
For a rotodynamic turbomachine, it is the conservation of
moment of momentum (i.e. the momentum in circumferential
direction) that is of interest. Given the rotational symmetry,
the pressure forces cancel out yielding
M z = r F = m (r1c 1 r2 c 2 ) Eq. 14

Note:

From the perspective of the fluid the forces are acting

as pressure forces ( F = p A ).

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

A change in velocity indicates a change in pressure axial direction

remember Bernoullis equation for incompressible
1
fluids: p0 = p + c 2 = const.
2

circumferential direction
From the perspective of the turbomachine the
pressure forces on the fluid are yielding a resultant flow
reaction force (actio=reactio).

Lecture Unit 3: Conservation of

Momentum

This lecture unit covers the conservation of

momentum.
The following is given:

Mass flow rate 50kg/s

Circumferential velocity at blade row inlet 10m/s

Self-Study Problem 1: Fluid Forces on a

Blade Row

Consider a non-rotating blade row as the one

that is depicted below (unwrapped view). The
Circumferential velocity at blade row outlet -40m/s

Assuming that there are 15 blades in this blade row determine

the following:

blade row is used to deviate the flow or in other words change Total circumferential force on all blades
the swirl of the flow. The axial flow velocity is not changed. Circumferential force on one blade
Total torque on blade row

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
Answer the following questions:
Has the total energy in the flow changed?
Has the static pressure in the fluid changed from inlet
to outlet of the blade row? If so, why?
Has the flow velocity changed from inlet to outlet of
the blade row? If so, why?
Eulers Turbine Equation
At this point the conservation of energy and the conservation
of moment of momentum shall be combined. The mechanical
work per unit time ( power) equals the product of moment
and rotational speed
W = M z
Thus the conservation of energy can be related to the
conservation of momentum as follows
m H tot g = m (r1c 1 r2 c 2 ) Eq. 16
Substituting r by the tangential speed u and eliminating
m yields
1
H= (u 2 c 2 u1c 1 ) Eq. 17
g
The above equation is referred to as Eulers turbomachine
equation or Eulers turbine equation.
Note:
A change in total head is equivalent to a change in
tangential flow speed and/or tangential engine speed
For engines with little change in mean radius u1 u 2
(e.g. axial pumps, axial turbines) the change in total
head is entirely due to change in tangential flow speed
H tot u c g blades are bowed
Eq. 15 For engines with large change in mean radius (e.g.
radial engines) the change in total head is to a large
degree due to the change in radius H tot u c g
centrifugal effect, possibility for larger change in
enthalpy
8
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 4: Introduction to Eulers

Turbine Equation

This lecture unit gives an introduction to the

Eulers Turbine Equation.
Petersburg, where he remained until his death. Euler's prolific
output caused a tremendous problem of backlog: the St.
Petersburg Academy continued publishing his work
posthumously for more than 30 years. Euler married twice
and had 13 children, though all but five of them died young.

Leonhard Euler
Lecture Unit 5: Analysis of Eulers
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) Turbine Equation (1/2)
was arguably the greatest This lecture unit gives the first part of an
mathematician of the analysis of Eulers turbine equation.
eighteenth century and one of
the most prolific of all time;
his publication list of 886
papers and books fill about 90
volumes. Remarkably, much
of this output dates from the
the last two decades of his life,
when he was totally blind.
Lecture Unit 6: Analysis of Eulers
Turbine Equation (2/2)

This lecture unit gives the second part of an

analysis of Eulers turbine equation.
Though born and educated in Basel, Switzerland, Euler spent
most of his career in St. Petersburg and Berlin. He joined the
St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1727. In 1741 he went
to Berlin at the invitation of Frederick the Great, but he and
Frederick never got on well and in 1766 he returned to St.

9
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Checkpoint 1: Euler equation

Explain how energy can be added to or extracted

from flow by deviating the flow. What else than
deviation is needed?

Self-Study Problem 2: Eulers Turbine

Equation

Assume that we have a pump with axial inflow

(hence, the circumferential velocity at impeller
inlet is zero). What is the circumferential flow speed needed
for a total head of 200m and a tangential rotor speed of
20m/s?

Assuming that the axial flow velocity is constant in the rotor

and that it amounts to 10m/s, by how many degrees does the
flow need to be deviated in the rotor? In what direction (with
respect to the direction of rotation) does the flow need to be
deviated?

10
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

The friction head reflects the losses in a system and is

Pumps commonly expressed in meters. To choose an appropriate

P
pump for a given installation all the above heads need to be
umps are used to increase the total energy in a fluid. accounted for as follows
Whereas compressors are working with gaseous fluids
pumps are working with liquid fluids. The increase in
energy in a pump is commonly referred to as total dynamic
H tot = H p + H s + H v + H f Eq. 22
head H tot measured in meters. The total dynamic head, or
short head, can be used to increase pressure (pressure
head), overcome a height difference (static head), accelerate

the flow (velocity head) or overcome a friction head in a
system (i.e. friction losses), which can be expressed by the Self-Study Problem 3: Different Forms
of Energy
following expressions
Think about how energy can be experienced in
p p1
Pressure head Hp = 2 Eq. 18 various ways in a pumping system. How does
g
pressure energy translate into kinetic energy for example? Can
H s = h2 h1 you have the equal amount of energy in a system in which the
Static head Eq. 19
fluid is not moving as in a moving system?
v 2 2 v1 2
Hv =
2g
Velocity head Eq. 20

H f = hf
Friction head Eq. 21

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Pumping Systems
A pumping system denotes a system, in which a pump is used
to add energy to the system. The system consists of pipes on
the suction and the discharge side of the pump as well as
eventually valves, reservoirs and other devices. An example of
Each system has its characteristics. The system characteristics
tells us how the head changes with flow rate. Both the parts
of the system on the suction side and the discharge side
contribute to the overall system characteristics.

a pumping system is depicted in Figure 6. Lecture Unit 7: Pumping System

This lecture unit gives an introduction to a

pumping system and explains the various types
of heads.
flow
pump
flow

reservoir

Figure 6. Example of a pumping system

12
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Figure 1 depicts an example of a typical system characteristics, other hand would have roughly equally large contributions
i.e. head versus flow rate. from all aforementioned heads.

H [m]
Lecture Unit 8: Analysis of Pumping
system Systems

This lecture unit provides an analysis of

pumping systems.

Hs

Q [m3/s]

Figure 7. Typical system characteristic

A pump supplying water to a reservoir at high altitude will

consequently have a dominant contribution from the static
head. In the same consideration a pump in a fire fighter
application will have its main contribution from the velocity
head. Pumps in district heating and cooling systems on the

13
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Self-Study Problem 4: Pumping System

This self-study problem allows you to get hands-

on experience on analyzing a part of a pumping
The following is given:

static pressure p1 100.0 kPa
volume flow rate Q 5.0 l/s
system.
pipe inner diameter d1 49.0 mm
height unit H 6.0 m
ratio of pipe inner diameters d2/d1 0.83
Consider the part of a tubing system upstream of a pump as
equal pipe inner diameters at positions 1 and 3
the one depicted below.

Furthermore

fluid density 1000.0 kg/m3

gravitational constant g 9.81 m/s2
neglect friction and separation

Determine the following:

flow velocity at point 1

static pressure at point 2
static pressure at point 3

Figure 8. Example Pump system

14
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 9: Total Head of a Pumping

System

This lecture unit provides an analysis of the total

head of a pumping system. It goes hand-in-hand
with the self-study problem above and prepares for the
conservation of energy.

Lecture Unit 10: Different Forms of

Energy in a Pumping System

This lecture unit gives you an overview of

different forms of energy in a pumping system.

15
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Classification of Pumps

Checkpoint 2: Classification of Pumps
Depending on the method at which energy is transferred to
the fluid pumps can be classified into rotodynamic, positive Give a classification of main types of pumps.
displacement (or short displacement only) and special What is the key difference between rotodynamic
effects pumps. An overview of this classification is included in and displacement pumps?
figure 2. In the current document rotodynamic pumps only
are treated.

Pumps

Rotodynamic Special effects Displacement

Ejector
Electromagnetic
Axial flow Reciprocating
Piston
Diaphragm
Mixed flow
Rotary
Vane
Centrifugal
Screw
Gear

Figure 9. Pump classification

16
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Pump Elements

A rotodynamic pump may consist of one or several stages. A 3

stage includes a rotor and a stator as depicted schematically in stator
figure 3. The figure shows a cross section of a machine in the
axial-radial plane. Note that these machines are axisymmetric. 2
1
rotor

1 rotor 2 stator 3

Figure 11. Pump stage denotations (centrifugal)

The rotor is often referred to as impeller as it gives the flow

impetus (i.e. momentum). The stator is also called diffuser as
it diffuses (i.e. decelerates) the flow. Commonly three control
sections are identified in a stage as follows

1 rotor inlet
Figure 10. Pump stage denotations (axial) 2 rotor outlet, stator inlet (also called interface)
3 stator outlet

17
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Rotor and stator are so-called blade rows. A blade row is a Absolute streamline Relative streamline
row of blades and is used to guide the flow in a specific way.
As it has been shown above by means of the Euler equation,
it is the deviation of the flow in the absolute frame of
reference that matters in a turbomachine. Hence, the blade
rows are designed such that they yield a certain deviation of
the flow at a given operating point. Examples of schematic
blade rows for pump and turbine rotors are included below.

Absolute streamlines Relative streamlines

Figure 13. Examples of profiled pump rotor blade row

Animation 1: Absolute and Relative

Streamlines in a Pump Rotor

This animation shows the absolute on relative

streamlines in a pump rotor.
Figure 12. Examples of schematic pump rotor blade row

18
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Self-Study Problem 5: Deviation of Flow

in Blade Rows

Draw qualitatively the deviation of the flow in a

rotor blade row of a pump and a turbine
Pump Types

Different types of pumps can be classified by their specific

speed, which is defined as follows
(absolute and relative streamlines). With respect to the
Q 0 .5
rotation of the rotor, in which direction is the flow deviated? s = Eq. 23
Can you make any statement on the change of swirl (gH )0.75
momentum for these two cases? How would the following
blade rows look like? In imperial units the specific spead is defined the same way
however with different units. The specific speed is thereby
High change in swirl momentum
referred to as Ns. A comparison of the units used is included
Low change in swirl momentum below in table 1.
No change in swirl momentum

What do you think could be the benefit of a high change in

swirl momentum? Parameter SI Imperial
rad/s rpm
Q m3/s gpm
H m ft

Checkpoint 3: Absolute and Relative
Flow Paths
Sketch and explain the absolute and relative flow
paths in turbomachinery blade rows (turbines
and pumps).
Table 1. Comparison of units in specific speeds for SI
and Imperial definition
The figure below depicts an organization of pumps depending
on their specific speed. Note that high flow rates lead to high

19
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

specific speeds whereas high heads tend to decrease the

specific speed. Centrifugal pumps are therefore located at low
values whereas axial pumps feature high specific speeds.

Figure 14. Pump types and their specific speeds

20
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Pump Velocity Triangles

Velocity triangles are used to describe the kinematics of the

flow in a turbomachine. As it has been shown previously a c w
change in head is due to a change in tangential velocity cx=wx
components times the tangential speed at the respective
location. For that purpose it is essential to know the velocities
in the absolute and relative frame of reference.
u
Note
c w
Absolute frame of reference: non-rotating, fixed with
respect to ground
Relative frame of reference: rotating with rotor, i.e. Figure 15. General concept of absolute and relative
the frame of reference if you as an observer sit on the velocity
rotor

It is the velocity of the frame of reference (here the tangential Absolute and relative flow velocities are related as follows:
speed of the rotor u at the respective position) that relates
wx = c x Eq. 24
absolute and relative velocities. Absolute velocities are
wx = c x Eq. 25
commonly denoted by c whereas relative velocities are
w = c u Eq. 26
denoted by w. The general concept is illustrated in figure 5.

21
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 11: Concept of Frame of

Reference

This lecture unit introduces you to the concept

of various frames of reference.
3
Radial direction

u2

2 c2
w2
Note the following: 1

Absolute and relative axial components are identical
Circumferential components that point in the same
direction as the tangential speed are positive
Circumferential component that point against the
u1
tangential speed must be treated as negative
Centrifugal pump c1
Flow angles behave in the same way; in the above w1
figure would consequently be positive whereas
would be negative
Axial direction

The velocity triangles of the impeller in a centrifugal

Figure 16. Impeller velocity triangles
compressor stage are depicted in Figure 16.

22
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 12: Flow Deviations in

Turbomachine Components

Learn about how the flow is deviated in

turbomachine components and why.
Self-Study Problem 6: Velocity Triangles

This self-study exercise is concerned with

determining the various velocity components in
a velocity triangle.

The following velocity triangle is given:

Lecture Unit 13: Pump Velocity

Triangles

Learn about velocity triangles in pumps.

Checkpoint 4: Pump Velocity Triangles

Absolute flow direction axial
Draw velocity triangles at impeller inlet and Axial flow velocity 25m/s
outlet for an axial and a radial pump.
Tangential rotor speed 40m/s

Determine the following:

Relative flow angle

Relative flow speed

23
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
The velocities in a blade row are heavily affected by the shape
of the flow channel as well as the shape of the blades in a
blade row. It is the task of turbomachinery design engineers
not only to match a design point but also to choose these
shapes such that the turbomachine is operating at maximum
efficiency.
Lecture Unit 14: Influence of Flow
Channel Shape on Velocities
This lecture unit illustrates how the velocities in
a blade row are affected by the shape of the flow
channel.
Lecture Unit 15: Influence of Blade
Shape on Velocities
This lecture unit illustrates how the velocities in
a blade row are affected by the shape of blades.
24
As the blade rows are three-dimensional objects, the flow
velocities do not only change along the blade in a blade row
but also from hub to casing (i.e. along blade span). In the
present course, we exclusively focus on 1D considerations,
which means that we work with one representative velocity
per control stations and disregard changes in spanwise
direction.
Lecture Unit 16: Flow at Various
Spanwise Positions
This lecture unit introduces you to the variability
of the flow along blade span.
Lecture Unit 17: Different Shapes of
Pump Flow Channels
This lecture unit introduces to different flow
channel shapes.
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Note that the directions at impeller inlet and outlet feature
different orientation for centrifugal machines; whereas at the
inlet the components are axial-circumferential, at impeller
outlet the directions are radial-circumferential. Furthermore it
is important to stress that the inflow to the impeller will be
axial unless there are inlet guide vanes. This means that the
circumferential component at impeller inlet equals zero
leading to the following simplified Euler equation
onto the relative main flow direction. This relative eddy
establishes in a blade passage due to the rotation of the
impeller as sketched in figure 7. For a given rotation a
counter-rotating eddy will establish in a blade passage (figure
16a). This eddy affects the outflow from the blade passage
such that the relative outflow is deflected against the direction
of rotation (figure 16b).

u c
H = 2 2 Eq. 26
g

Lecture Unit 18: Change of Total Head

in Stator and Rotor Blade Rows

Learn about how the total head changes in

stator and rotor blade rows.

Figure 17. Concept of relative eddy (adapted from [1])

At impeller exit the relative flow leaves the blade
approximately at the blade metal angle. In reality a
phenomenon called slip leads to the relative outflow being
deflected against the direction of rotation. The underlying
physical phenomenon is the superposition of a relative eddy
A practical consequence of the slip is that the relative
circumferential component at impeller exit is reduced against
the direction of rotation. This in turn implies that the absolute

25
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

circumferential component is reduced as well, which leads to Ideal outflow is thus represented by =1 whereas real outflow
a reduction in pump head. The effect of slip on the velocity features slip factors of <1.
triangle is graphically expressed in figure 8.
By employing the slip factor the Euler equation simplifies
considerably for radial bladed impellers with axial inflow.
c' (ideal) Note that for such impellers the theoretical relative
c (real) circumferential speed equals to zero. Consequently the
theoretical absolute circumferential speed equals the tangential
speed, which would give H = u 2 2 g . Taking into account the
w2 c2 slip the Euler equation is then expressed by
w2 c2
u22
H= Eq. 28
g

Figure 18. Effect of slip on velocity triangle at impeller

exit

Checkpoint 5: Slip

Explain why the flow is not leaving the impeller

at the same direction as the blade metal angle
The slip is expressed by a slip factor as follows
and what the impact on pump operation is.
c
= 2 Eq. 27
c 2 '

26
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Design Parameters

Design parameters are non-dimensional parameters that are

used to characterize a certain pump design. These design
parameters are similar for other types of turbomachines even
for those working with gaseous fluids. The first design
Lecture Unit 19: Dependence of Head
Coefficient from Flow Coefficient

Learn about how the head coefficient depends

on flow coefficient.
parameter is called the head coefficient and specifies the
loading in a pump (note: the comparative parameter for
compressor is called loading coefficient). The head
coefficient is given by

Checkpoint 6: Design parameters
H g
= Eq. 29 Understand the significance of the pump design
u22 parameters and explain what they express.

It relates the achieved head to the head that would be

obtained when having axial absolute inflow and purely radial
relative outflow.

The second design parameter is called the flow coefficient

and is identical for pumps and compressors. It is given by

Q c
= = r2 Eq. 30
A2 u 2 u2

27
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Self-Study Problem 7: Design

Parameters

This self-study exercise is concerned with

determining the design parameters of a pump.
Constructional Aspects of Pumps

From a construction point of view, a single stage pump

consists of the following parts (listed from inlet to outlet):
The concerned pump has a constant reference diameter and
Inlet flange
constant annular cross section.
Inlet guide vane (if applicable)
The following is given: Impeller (rotor)
Stator (if applicable)
Reference radius 0.2m
Volute
Rotational speed 3000rpm
Outlet flange
Axial flow speed 10m/s
Relative flow angle at impeller outlet -10deg

The rotor is included in a casing with tight clearances such as

to avoid leakage flows and is mounted on a shaft, which in
Determine the following: turn is supported by means of bearings in the pump casing.
Shaft is extending in most cases outside the casing, which
Flow coefficient
means that there needs to be a shaft sealing to prevent liquid
Head coefficient
from leaking from the casing. Exceptions are hermetically
closed pumps in which the rotor is either driven by means of
a magnetic clutch or by means of a motor that is integrated
into the pump casing.

28
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 20: Main Components of

Axial Pumps

This lecture unit illustrates

components of axial pumps.
the main
usually non-rotating and the rotor is rotating inside the casing.
Consequently, there must be a gap between rotor and casing
such as to allow the rotor to rotate touch-free. At the same
time, such a gap leads to leakage flows, which deteriorates
pump efficiency. In order to maintain high efficiency of
pumps, such leakage flows consequently need to be avoided
or at least minimized. One way to minimize leakage flows is
to ensure very tight tolerances between pump impeller and

Lecture Unit 21: Main Components of

Radial Pumps

This lecture unit illustrates

components of radial pumps.
the main
casing, which however can drive up pump manufacturing
costs considerably. Learn below about various possibilities to
suppress leakage flows.

Lecture Unit 23: Tip Leakage Loss

This lecture unit explains the reason for tip

Lecture Unit 22: Separation Phenomena

leakage losses.
in Pump

Learn about separation phenomena in pumps

and why we need to care about these.

As there are several parts with varying frames of reference

inside a pump, sealing while allowing for relative motion is an
Lecture Unit 24: Minimizing Leakage
Losses

This lecture unit discusses possibilities to reduce

leakage losses.
important aspect in pump design. The casing of a pump is

29
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 25: Pictures of Pumps

This lecture unit includes a discussion on

different pictures of pumps.
Pump Characteristics

Combining these two design parameters a theoretical pump

characteristic can be obtained that relates head and flow
coefficient, i.e. = f ( ) . In other words it tells us how the
pump head changes as the flow through the pump, which can
also be referred to as off-design performance.

Reference 1: Pump Manufacturer (ITT
Flygt)

This reference links you to the ITT Flygt web For the sake of simplicity let us consider a pump with
site where you can find brochures of pumps. absolute axial inflow. Applying the Euler equation the head
ITT Flygt is a leading manufacturer of submersible pumps. coefficient is then given by

H g u c g c
= = 2 2 = 2 Eq. 31
2
u2 g u22 u2

Reference 2: Pump Manufacturer
(SULZER)
The absolute circumferential velocity component shall be
expressed by the relative flow angle 2 and the radial outflow
This reference links you to the SULZER web velocity as follows
site where you can find brochures of pumps.
SULZER is a leading pump manufacturer c 2 = w 2 + u 2 w 2 = c r 2 tan 2 Eq. 32

With c r 2 = u 2 the head coefficient can now be expressed by

30
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

1 In reality flow separation as well as incidence effects at low

= ( u 2 tan 2 + u 2 ) = 1 + tan 2 Eq. 33
u2 and high flow rates lead to the real characteristics being rather
curved than straight (see dashed line in figure above).

In dependence of the blade metal angle at impeller exit

various simplified pump characteristics are included in figure
9. Lecture Unit 26: Pump Operating
Characteristics

This lecture unit teaches how the total head

qualitatively depends on volume flow rate.
2> 0 forward sweep
theoretical

2= 0 radial blades

Checkpoint 7: Pump Operating
Characteristics

2< 0 backwards sweep Explain the operating characteristics of a pump

real and relate it to the changes in velocity triangles.

Figure 19. Dependence of the pump characteristics

from blade metal angle

31
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Self-Study Problem 8: Pump Off-Design

Operation

This self-study exercise is with determining the

off-design operation of a pump.
Pump Operating Point

The pump operating characteristics give us a picture of how

the pump head changes with changing flow rate but of it own
it does not yet tell us at which operating point a pump will
The following is given: run. An operating point is first established when a pump is
connected to a system, i.e. a consumer. As outlined further
Head at design point 250m above the system characteristics can be described by pressure
Axial flow velocity at design point 10m/s head, velocity head, static head and friction head. Following
Reference radius 0.25m the same consideration as for the pump characteristics a
Rotational speed 2400rpm system characteristics can be established such that
H sys = f (Q sys ) where

H sys = H p, sys + H v, sys + H s, sys + H f , sys Eq. 34

Answer the following:

While the pump speed is kept constant, the operating

In this expression H s, sys is independent of the flow rate.
point is changed such that the axial flow velocity is
increased by 30%. What is the head at the off-design
point?
Assuming that the pump had a reference radius of The operating point of a pump connected to a certain system
0.4m while the other parameters are unchanged, what then yields from
would the head be at off-design operation?
H sys = H pump Eq. 35
Do the results differ for these two cases? If so, explain
why.
This is expressed graphically in Figure 20.

32
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

When determining the operating of a pump connected to a

system, the problem to be solved is to find the intersection
H [m] between two curves. The ways of solving this problem
Operating point
System head depends on the form, in which these curves are available. The
following ways can be listed:

Curves are available graphically: the intersection can

Pump head be determined graphically, i.e. by drawing one curve
on top of the other curve in the same diagram.
Hs
Curves are available as data series: the intersection can
Q [m3/s] be determined using a piecewise linear approach. This
means that the intersection between two straight lines
connecting the two closest lines is determined.
Figure 20. Pump operating point
Curves are available as mathematical expressions: in
this case the intersection can be determined
analytically by subtracting the two equations from
each other. As the pump and system characteristics

Lecture Unit 27: Pump Operating Point

This lecture unit teaches aspects of the

operating point of a pump.
are most probably are parabolic, a quadratic equation
needs to be solved.

33
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Self-Study Problem 9: Pump Operating

Point

This self-study exercise is concerned with

determining the operating point of a pump

Checkpoint 8: Pump Operating Point

Determine the operating of a pump connected to

a system.

when connected to a system.

The system curve is defined as follows: Pump Power

The power needed to achieve a head in a fluid at a given
H sys = 3.4 + 0.7 Q + 0.29 Q 2 [m]
operating point is expressed by
The pump characteristics is given by: P = QH g Eq. 36

H = 41.28 1.42 Q 0.16 Q 2 [m]

Note that this expression contains the same elements as when
= 21.8 + 14.5 Q 1.4 Q 2 [%] dealing with compressors where P = m h0 , as m = Q and
h0 = H g .

Determine the following:

Operating point of the pump when connected to the
system
Efficiency of the pump at this operating point
Lecture Unit 28: Pump Power

This lecture unit discusses power requirements

of pumps.

34
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Checkpoint 9: Pump Power Similar to the pump head characteristic the efficiency peaks
around a certain flow rate, i.e. the so called best point. To
Determine the power that a pumps need when
running at a specific operating point. either side the efficiency decreases as illustrated in figure 11.

H [m]

Pump Efficiency
A number of efficiencies can be defined for pumps as follows: Pump efficiency

Hydraulic efficiency: compare actual head increase to

theoretical head increase obtained from Euler Pump head
equation accounts for friction and hydraulic losses
in pump Hs
Volumetric efficiency: compare actual volume flow to
theoretical volume flow accounts for internal Q [m3/s]
leakage and backflow
Mechanical efficiency: compare actual power supplied Figure 21. Pump head and efficiency
by motor to power received by impeller accounts
for mechanical friction power losses

These efficiencies are combined to a total efficiency as follows

tot = hyd vol mech =

QH g
Eq. 37
Lecture Unit 29: Pump Efficiency

This lecture unit discusses the change of

efficiency with change in pump operating point.
M motor

35
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Checkpoint 10: Pump Efficiency
Determine the efficiency of a pumps need when
running at a specific operating point based on an
efficiency-volume flow diagram.
Better solutions are achieved by regulating the pump, which
can be done by either regulating the speed or as a one-time
measure by reducing the impeller diameter (also called
trimming). The laws that describe how the pump
characteristics change upon either type of these regulations
are called affinity laws.

Affinity Laws

In very few cases it is possible to find a pump that will yield a

certain operating point. Often either the system or the pump
Lecture Unit 31: Pump Operation at
Variable Speed

Learn about off-design operation of pumps at

must be regulated. A straightforward way to regulate the
system is to include an adjustable valve, which leads to an
additional and variable system head. This solution is however
not that energy-efficient as the head over the valve must be
considered as lost.
variable speed.
The question that we start off with is how head, flow rate and
power change upon a) change in rotational speed and b)
change in impeller diameter. To answer this it is necessary to
express these parameters in terms of the regarded variables as

follows
Lecture Unit 30: Pump Operation at Off-
Design
u22 d 2 2 2
H= = Eq. 38
This lecture unit introduces to pump operation g 4g
at off-design.

, as

36
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

d2 Change in rotational speed (diameter constant):

u2 = Eq. 39
2 H 2, Q P 3
Change in diameter (rotational speed constant):
Similar H d2, Q d2 P d4

d 2 2 b2
Q = A2 u 2 = Eq. 40 Practically this means that similar points on pump curves at
2
various rotational speeds lie on parabolic lines emerging from
the origin ( H Q 2 ) in case of speed regulation, see figure 12.
, as
In case of change in impeller outlet diameter the similar
A2 = d 2 b2 Eq. 41 points of different curves will lie on straight lines emerging
from the origin ( H Q ) as depicted in figure 13. Similar in
this context means that the operation of the pump is
Fractional changes of head and flow rate yield from
comparable, i.e. that the pump runs at the same efficiency.
H A d A2 A2
= Eq. 42
H B d B 2 B 2

And Lecture Unit 32: Pump Affinity Laws

This lecture unit introduces to pump affinity

laws.
Q A d A 2 A
= Eq. 43
Q B d B 2 B

From these relations the following conclusions can be drawn

37
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Remote Laboratory Exercise 1: Off-

Design Operation of Pumps

This remote laboratory exercise gives you the

possibility to acquire real test data interactively
on a test facility that operates pump in off-design manner.

Checkpoint 11: Affinity Law

Explain the operating speed needs to be changed

for achieving a certain operating point. From an
energy-usage point-of-view, does variable pump
speed have an advantage over throttling?

Figure 22. Effect of speed regulation

38
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 34: Pump Operation after

Diameter Change

This lecture unit presents the application of the

affinity law and teaches how a radial pump
operates after changed impeller exit diameter.

Self-Study Problem 10: Affinity Laws

This self-study exercise is concerned with

determining the off-design operation of a pump
by applying the affinity laws.

The operating characteristics of a pump running at 3000rpm

is given by
Figure 23. Effect of impeller trim (diameter change)
H = 31.3 + 0.62 Q 0.11 Q 2 [m]

= 64.6 + 26.5 Q 1.28 Q 2 [%]

Lecture Unit 33: Pump Operation at
Varying Speed
he pump is connected to a system that is described by the
This lecture unit presents the application of the following equation:
affinity law and teaches how a pump operates at
changed speed. H sys = 6.63 + 0.02 Q + 0.1 Q 2 [m]

39
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Note: In all equations Q is indicated in m3/s.
Determine the following:
Operating point of the system when connected to the
pump (Q, H)
Power requirement at operating point
Value of pump peak efficiency and flow rate at which
it occurs (current pump curve)
Pump speed if we would like to run the pump at peak
efficiency while still maintaining the same flow rate as
the original operating point
Pump operating point (Q, H) when running pump at
peak efficiency as described above as well as power
required
Serial and Parallel Operation of Pumps
Pumps can be operated in arrangements, i.e. several pumps
can be integrated into a system and be operated
simultaneously. The motivation for operating pumps in
arrangements is to be able to achieve other operating points
that otherwise would not have been possible to achieve with
just one single pump (of the same type).
Assume that two identical pumps (pump A and pump B) are
operated in a certain arrangement. The following identities
apply:
Parallel operation:

The gravitational constant is g 9.81 m/s2. Working Qtot = Q A +Q B Eq. 44

medium is water with a density of 1000kg/m3.
H tot = H A = H B Eq. 45

Serial operation:

Qtot = Q A =Q B Eq. 46

H tot = H A + H B Eq. 47

40
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Remote Laboratory Exercise 2: Serial
and Parallel Operation of Pumps

This remote laboratory exercise gives you the

possibility to acquire real test data interactively
Lecture Unit 35: Reason for Cavitation

This lecture unit explains why cavitation occurs.

on a test facility that operates pump in series of in parallel.

Harmful Effects
One of the most harmful effects of machines working with
liquid fluids (pumps, hydro turbines and propellers) is
cavitation. Cavitation denotes a phenomenon at which the
saturation pressure of the fluid is reached. Recall that the
saturation pressure is dependent on temperature as listed in
table 2.
A sharp pressure decrease (i.e. under-pressure) as it for
example might be the case at the inlet of a pump or in certain
regions on the impeller thus can lead the flow to evaporate
locally having small vapor bubbles formed locally. The
harmful effect itself occurs first upon subsequent pressure
increase that forces the vapor bubbles to collapse. As the
vapor density is some order of magnitudes lower than the one
of the liquid state the collapse induces an implosion yielding
micro jets at extremely high pressures. These pressures are so
high that implosions that occur in vicinity of surfaces can
destroy the material locally. Figure 14 shows a sketch of the
cavitation phenomenon.

T [C] 0 30 50 100

p 0.6 4.2 12.3 101.3 Lecture Unit 36: Analysis of Cavitation
[kPa] Phenomenon

This lecture unit includes an analysis of the

Table 2. Dependency of saturation pressure from cavitation phenomenon.
temperature

41
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

1 2
Lecture Unit 37: Implosion of Vapor
Bubbles during Cavitation

This lecture unit discusses in detail the reason

for the harmful nature of cavitation, i.e. the
implosion of vapor bubbles.

A measure that is used when designing a pump application for

cavitation-free operation is the so-called net positive suction
head or NPSH. The NPSH is a value in meter and indicates,
3 4 what minimum head is allowed at the pump inlet to avoid
cavitation. Its usage is as follows:

The pump manufacturers specify a required NPSH, or

short NPSHr. Similar to the pump operating
characteristics it is a curve dependent on the flow rate
From the system layout and pump placement an
available NPSH, or short NPSHa, can be determined.
This is the head present at pump inlet for a given
operating point.
The criteria applied for avoiding cavitation is finally
NPSHa>NPSHr.
Figure 24. Cavitation phenomenon
To be able to avoid (or remedy) cavitation it is necessary to
understand how the NPSHs are affected by different

42
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

operating parameters and how it can be changed. An For direct assessment of the risk of cavitation, the NPSH
overview is included below: curves are often included in operating diagrams as done in
Figure 25.
High suction height of pump
Leads to: Low NPSHa
Avoid by: Reducing suction height of pump (e.g. low Upper flow rate to
placement of pump) H [m]
avoid cavitation
High inflow losses
Leads to: Low NPSHa
Pump curve
Avoid by: Increasing inflow pipe
NPSHr
High liquid temperature
Leads to: High NPSHr
Avoid by: Reduce liquid temperature
NPSHa
High pump speed
Leads to: High NPSHr
Avoid by: Reduce pump speed Q [m3/s]

Figure 25. Pump and system NPSHs

Lecture Unit 38: Measures against

Cavitation

This lecture unit teaches what measures that can

be taken to avoid cavitation. Lecture Unit 39: NPSHr and NPSHa

This lecture unit introduces the parameters of

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH).

43
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
Preliminary Design of Pumps
The preliminary design of pumps includes the steps of
determining a meridional flow channel and suitable blade row
geometries such that a given operating point as well as a given
operating characteristics is achieved. A note regarding this
shall be made upfront: preliminary design in specific and
design in general is such that there is not just ONE correct
solution. Instead, various solutions might fulfill the requested
task while being slightly different though fully viable. You will
often reach a point at which you need to take decisions or
make choices. When making choices, say for example
choosing the mean radius at pump inlet, do not be afraid of
making a choice. This does not mean that you should make
blind choices. Think first what boundary conditions are given
(i.e. what your design space is) and then make a choice, which
you find suitable. Preliminary design is often about re-iterating
and starting all over again. It is therefore appropriate to use
simple and transparent techniques. Here, we use 1D analysis
for this task.
Below, a suitable way for performing the preliminary design
of a pump is presented.
Step 1: Preparation: establish full awareness of the
task that the pump needs to solve. What is the design
44
operating point? Is the pump likely to be operated at
off-design condition? If so, you also need to design
for off-design characteristics. The design target will be
volume flow rate and head.
Step 2: Meridional flow channel: draft the meridional
flow channel. Here you already need to make the
choice of the pump type in terms of axial, mixed flow
or radial. Again, you might achieve the targeted
operating points with any of these types, but the
pump will look substantially different. High head
pumps are usually of the radial type whereas high
volume flow pumps are usually of the axial type. See
also the diagram on specific speed above.
Step 3: Determine the velocity triangle at rotor inlet. If
the pump does not feature an inlet guide vane, the
flow will enter the rotor axially (in the absolute frame
of reference).
Step 4: Determine the velocity triangle at rotor outlet.
Note that the relative blade angle at rotor outlet will
determine the operating characteristics of the pump.
If the characteristics is not to satisfaction, you might
need to go back to step 2 above and modify the
meridional flow channel.
Step 5: Decide whether you wish to include a stator.
The stator will not change the total energy content of
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

the fluid downstream of the rotor but it can change in Reference 3: Pump Design in Industry
which form the energy is available (pressure head,
Get an impression of how pump design is
velocity head). For example, if you design an axial
performed in industry.
pump and the flow shall leave the pump without swirl
(i.e. axial flow direction), then you need to include a
stator. Determine the velocity triangle at stator outlet.

The preliminary design of the pump is now finished as you
have the velocity triangles at rotor inlet, rotor outlet and stator Self-Study Problem 11: Preliminary
Design of a Pump
outlet. These give you the pump operating point as well as
give you indications of the off-design behavior of the pump. This self-study exercise is concerned with the
preliminary design of a pump. It presents a
representative task in that you are given a required design

Lecture Unit 40: Preliminary Design of a

point and are asked to design a pump that fulfills these
Pump requirements while fulfilling a set of boundary conditions.

This lecture unit teaches how the preliminary

design of a pump is performed.
The following shall be fulfilled:

Design speed 2900 rpm.

Tool 1: Preliminary Design of a Pump Total head at design point 200 m

This tool gives you the possibility to perform the

preliminary analysis of a simple pump (runs in


Volume flow rate at design point 30 l/s
Maximum impeller tangential speed u2,max 100m/s
MS Excel) Maximum meridional velocity at impeller outlet
15m/s

45
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Axial inflow to the impeller

The gravitational constant is g 9.81 m/s2. Working medium is

water with a density of 1000kg/m3.

Determine the following:

Overall geometry including mean radii at impeller inlet

and outlet
Complete velocity triangles at impeller inlet and outlet
Pump characteristics (simplified off-design
characteristics). What is the head at zero volume flow
rate?
Draft drawing of the pump

Checkpoint 12: Preliminary Design of a

Pump

Explain how the preliminary design of a pump is

performed and be able to perform it yourself.

46
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes
Hydro Turbines
H
ydro turbines are so-to-say the counterpart of
pumps; whereas pumps are used to increase the
total energy in a fluid, hydro turbines are used to
extract energy from a fluid and by this decrease the total
energy. We could almost go so far and take a pump and run it
the opposite way, i.e. apply high-pressure fluid on the pumps
discharge side and extract mechanical energy from the pump
shaft. The pump would run as a turbine, maybe not very
efficient and at a low power density, but basically it would
work. The sections below give you the necessary background
to understand the basics of hydro turbines.
The different forms of energy that were listed initially in the
pump section apply equally to turbines. The total energy in
the fluid is measured by a total head that composes of various
forms of energy as follows:
H tot = H p + H s + H v + H f Eq. 48
,where
p 2 p1
Pressure head Hp = Eq. 49
g
47
Static head H s = h2 h1 Eq. 50
v 2 2 v1 2
Hv =
2g
Velocity head Eq. 51
H f = hf
Friction head Eq. 52
The friction head reflects the losses in a system and is
commonly expressed in meters.
A turbine decreases the total head in a system. This implies
that there is high-energy fluid available at the inlet of a turbine
and that the fluid leaves the turbine with reduced energy
content. Depending on the application, the primary
contribution of the high-energy source might be different:
Hydro turbine driven by high-velocity fluid which
results from a great difference in elevation: the
primary high energy source is static head that is
transformed into velocity head by flow acceleration.
Hydro turbine that is driven by the flow in a river: the
primary high energy source is velocity head.
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Turbine Systems

A turbine system denotes a system, in which a turbine is used

to extract energy from a fluid. The system consists of pipes
(or ducts) on the pressure and the discharge side of the
turbine as well as eventually valves, reservoirs or other
Self-Study Problem 12: Turbine System

This self-study exercise is concerned a turbine

system.

devices. An example of a turbine system is included in Figure Consider a turbine system as the one depicted below. The
26. turbine is connected to an upper reservoir on the pressure
side and discharges to a lower reservoir.

reservoir

flow

flow

hydro turbine The following is given:

Static pressure p1 80kPa

reservoir
Volume flow rate at pos 2 10m3/s
Height H 400m
Figure 26. Example of a turbine system
Pipe diameter at turbine inlet d2 0.6m

48
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Pipe diameter d3=d2 H=

1
(u 2 c 2 u1c 1 ) Eq. 53
Static pressure p3 105kPa g

The gravitational constant is g 9.81 m/s2. Working medium is

water with a density of 1000kg/m3. Friction can be neglected. As a turbine is extracting energy from a fluid, the change in
total head gets negative. Compared to pumps, turbines
Determine the following: therefore feature an opposite change in swirl; the flow is
deviated against the direction of rotation in the rotor.
Flow speed at turbine inlet
Total head at turbine inlet

Difference in total head over turbine Lecture Unit 41: Eulers Equation for
Maximum possible power produced Hydro Turbines

This lecture unit introduces to the application of

the Eulers equation on hydro turbines.

Application of Euler Turbine Equation
Self-Study Problem 13: Flow Deviation
to Turbines in a Turbine

By applying the Eulers turbine equation on a turbine, the This self-study exercise is concerned with the
change in total head is related to change in swirl inside the deviation of flow in a hydro turbine.
turbine. The application is identical to the pump keeping in
Assume that you were to design a hydro turbine extracting a
mind that the Eulers turbine equation is always applied over
certain amount of total head from a flow. First consider the
the rotating part of the machine. The Eulers turbine equation
case where you do not have a stator upstream of the rotor.
is given by
Consequently, the flow will enter the rotor axially. At what

49
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

direction will the flow exit the rotor? Will the direction be machines in the axial-radial plane. Note that these machines
affected by the amount of energy that you extract? are axisymmetric.

Now, assume that you include a stator upstream of the rotor.
What deviation of flow would you propose to achieve in this
stator such as to maximize the energy extraction in this
turbine?
In case of axial machines (Kaplan turbines), the rotational axis
is oriented either horizontally or vertically. In case of
centripetal machines (Francis turbines), the rotational axis is
in most cases oriented vertically. There are however also cases
in which these machines are aligned horizontally, especially if
two turbines are arranged in parallel on the same shaft (back-

Lecture Unit 42: Deviation of Flow in

Turbines and Pumps

In this lecture unit, the deviation of flow in

turbines is related to the ones in pumps.
to-back turbines, also referred to as camel-back turbines).

0 stator 1 rotor 2

Turbine Elements

Other than rotodynamic pumps, a hydro turbine usually

consists of one single stage only. The reason for this is that a
single stage turbine can be designed to take care of a very big
change in total head, in extreme cases several thousands of
meters of head. Similar to pumps, a turbine stage consists of a
stationary and a rotating part referred to as stator and rotor as
included in fig. The figures below show cross sections of Figure 27. Hydro turbine stage denotations (axial)

50
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Rotor and stator are so-called blade rows. A blade row is a

row of blades and is used to guide the flow in a specific way.
0 1 As it has been shown above by means of the Euler equation,
stator it is the deviation of the flow in the absolute frame of
reference that matters in a turbomachine. Hence, the blade
rows are designed such that they yield a certain deviation of
the flow at a given operating point. Examples of schematic
rotor blade rows for pump and turbine rotors are included below.
2
Absolute streamlines Relative streamlines

Figure 28. Hydro turbine stage denotations (centripetal)

The rotor is often referred to as runner. If a stator is included

it is sometimes called nozzle or guide vane as it
accelerates and deviates the flow. Commonly three control
sections are identified in a stage as follows

0 stator inlet
1 stator outlet, rotor inlet
2 rotor outlet
Figure 29. Example of schematic turbine rotor blade
row

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Relative streamline
Self-Study Problem 14: Deviation of
Flow in a Turbine Blade Row

Draw qualitatively the deviation of the flow in a

rotor blade row of a turbine (absolute and
relative streamlines). With respect to the rotation of the rotor,
in which direction is the flow deviated? Can you make any
statement on the change of swirl momentum? How would the
Absolute streamline following blade rows look like?

High change in swirl momentum

Low change in swirl momentum
No change in swirl momentum

What do you think could be the benefit of a high change in

Figure 30. Examples of profiled turbine rotor blade row
swirl momentum?

What would be the maximum achievable change of

momentum? How would such a turbine look like?

Animation 2: Absolute and Relative

Streamlines in a Turbine Rotor

This animation shows the absolute on relative

streamlines in a turbine rotor.

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Lecture Unit 43: Blade Shapes and Flow

Passages in Turbines and Pumps

This lecture unit provides a comparative analysis

of the schematic shape of blades in pump s and
turbines and makes the link to the shape of flow passage.

Lecture Unit 44: Flow Direction at Rotor

Inlet

This lecture unit is concerned with the direction

of the flow at rotor inlet and explains the
importance for turbine operation.

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Turbine Types

Different types of turbines can be classified by their total

head. The figure below depicts an organization of turbines
depending on their head capacity and volume flow rate
capacity. Note that depending on the head capacity, different
Lecture Unit 45: Types of Hydro
Turbines

This lecture unit introduces to various types of

hydro turbines.
types of turbines are used.

Checkpoint 13: Types of Hydro Turbines

List the different types of hydro turbines and

explain in what situations you would use them.

Reference 4: Hydro Turbine
Manufacturer (VOITH)

This reference links you to the VOITH web site

where you can find brochures of hydro turbines.
VOITH is a leading hydro turbine manufacturer.

Figure 31. Pump types and their specific speeds

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Summary of Equations
General
p v2
Bernoulli equation + + gh = const
Conservation of energy H tot = H p + H v + H s + H f = const 2

p 2 p1
Pressure head Hp =
g
Mass balance m = A c n

v 2 2 v1 2 , where A cross section, cn velocity normal to this cross

Velocity head Hv =
2g
section, density
Static head H s = h2 h1

Friction head H f = hf Momentum balance (axial) Fx = m (c x1 c x 2 ) + p1 A1 p 2 A2

, where A cross section (normal to axial), cx axial velocity, p

static pressure, m mass flow rate
, where p static pressure, v velocity, h height coordinate,
density, g gravitational constant

Momentum balance (circumferential) F = m (c 1 c 2 )

Note: indices 1 and 2 refer to two arbitrary points in an isoenergetic part

of the system.
Euler turbomachine equation H tot g = u 2 c 2 u1c 1

55
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Affinity Laws

Load line (speed regulation) H = k Q2 Load line (trimming of radial pump) H = k Q

2 2
H 1 N1 H 1 d1
Affinity law (speed regulation) = Affinity law (trimming of radial pump) =
H 2 N 2 H 2 d 2

2
Q1 N Q1 d 1
= 1 =
Q2 N 2 Q 2 d 2

3 4
P1 N 1 P1 d1
= =
P2 N 2 P2 d 2

, where H head, Q Volume flow rate, N pump speed, P pump , where H head, Q Volume flow rate, d pump impeller outlet
power diameter, P pump power

56
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Trigonometry

c
tan =
cx
c
cx
cx
cos =
c

c c
sin =
c

Algebra

Quadratic equation H = a Q2 + b Q + c

b b2 4a c
General solution (H=0) Q1, 2 =
2a

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

Index
absolute frame of reference, 21 inlet guide vane, 28
affinity laws, 36 Kaplan, 50
axial view, 1 leakage flow, 29
blade metal angle, 31 Leonhard Euler, 9
casing, 28 meridional direction, 2
cavitation, 41 micro jet, 41
classification of pumps, 16 NPSHa, 42
clearance, 28 NPSHr., 42
conservation of energy, 5 off-design performance, 30
conservation of mass, 4 outlet flange, 28
conservation of momentum, 6 parallel operation, 40
cross section, 17 Pressure head, 11
cylindrical coordinate system, 1 pump characteristics, 30
design parameters, 27 pump operating point, 33
deviation of flow, 19 pump power, 35
efficiency, 35 pumping system, 12
Eulers turbine equation, 8 relative eddy, 25
flow coefficient, 27 relative frame of reference, 21
frame of reference, 22 reservoir, 12
Francis, 50 rotor, 17
Friction head, 11 serial operation, 40
head coefficient, 27 side view, 2
hydro turbines, 47 slip, 26
impeller, 28 spanwise direction, 24
implosion, 41 specific speed, 19
inlet flange, 28 Static head, 11

58
Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

stator, 17, 28 turbomachinery coordinate system, 1

sustainability, IV unwrapped view, 3
system characteristics, 13 Velocity head, 11
total head, 11 velocity triangles, 21
turbine system, 48 volute, 28
turbine types, 54

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Turbomachinery Lecture Notes

References
[1] Dixon, S.L., 1998, "Fluid Mechanics and
Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery", Fourth edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA, USA, 1998,
ISBN 0-7506-7059-2

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