Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
J. K. Lancaster*
Following a general discussion of performance criteria and testing of dry bearings, the various
materials currently available commercially are classified into four general groups - polymers,
carbons-graphites, solid film lubricants and composites, and ceramics-cermets. The material
properties relevant to bearings are discussed in detail for each group, and the special features
required in design are noted. Finally, an attempt is made to develop a selection procedure for
dry bearings, based on identifying the major requirements in a given application.
Applications ofunlubricated 'dry' bearings have been conjunction with suitable metallic or non-metallic sub-
expanding rapidly in recent years, and there are three main strates. Finally, for high temperature applications (above
areas in which their use is indicated: about 400C) where the magnitude of the wear rate is
a where fluids are ineffective, as at low or high tempera- usually the major consideration, a variety of hard metals,
tures, or in reactive environments, ceramics and cermets is available, either in bulk form, or
b where fluids cannot be tolerated because of the pos- as coatings on a metallic substrate.
sibility of contamination of the product or the The properties of a variety of materials falling within
environment, these four groups are discussed in detail in this survey and
c where fluids are undesirable because of lack of oppor- their advantages and limitations for dry sliding bearings
tunity for. or the impossibility of, maintenance. are compared and contrasted. Some of these materials
can also be used as constituents of rolling element bearings
Cost, although always an important consideration, is not intended for operation in the absence of fluid lubricants
usually the decisive reason for choosing a dry bearing. Some and this aspect is also examined. First, however, it is
of the most successful dry bearing fornmlations are signi- pertinent to discuss some of the more general features
ficantly more expensive than their mass produced metallic associated with the operation of dry bearings and, in
counterparts intended for lubricated service. particular, the problem of wear.
Most of the discussion in this survey is concerned with
sliding bearings, and for these there are two primary pro- Performance criteria
perty requirements. Firstly. the materials must be able to
Strength
support an applied load in the environment concerned
There is no single strength parameter which uniquely
without significant distortion, deformation or loss in
defines the load-carrying capacity of a dry bearing. During
strength. Secondly, both the coefficient o f friction and the
sliding, both tensile and compressive stresses are present
rate of wear must be acceptably low and preferably also
within the contact area, and shear stresses within the sub-
insensitive to minor changes in the conditions of sliding
surface layers. A widely-used limit is one-third of the
likely to be encountered, eg temperature, humidity,
maximum compressive stress, but this is relevant only to
contamination, etc. Four groups of materials satisfy all,
those materials which exhibit similar tensile and compres-
or most of these requirements. The largest group consists
sive properties. For carbon/graphites and ceramics, the
of materials based on synthetic polymers to which are
ultimate tensile strengths may be very much lower than
added various fillers or reinforcements intended to enhance
the compressive strength. A further complication which
particular properties. The second group, in order of general
can arise with polymer-based materials is visco-elastic
usage, comprises carbons and graphites, together with addi-
behaviour: the dependence of mechanical properties on
tives, and these are particularly important for applications
time. The stress-strain relationships at any particular rate
at temperatures above those which can be tolerated by
of loading are non-linear and even under static loading
most of the common polymer-based products. Thirdly,
creep or permanent deformation may occur. Ptfe and
for applications in which a low coefficient of friction is the
main requirement, solid film lubricants, based on ptfe or many of its composites are particularly prone to the
lamellar solids such as graphite or MoS2, can be used in latter. Although carbons and graphites do not exhibit
visco-elasticity, the stress-strain relationships of these
* Materials Department, Procurement Executive, Ministry of materials also tend to be non-linear. It is therefore impos-
Defenee, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, Hampshire, sible, in general, to quote unique values of elastic moduli
England for many of the materials of interest in dry bearings.
Tf = T/oe 0.0038Tf
where 1o is the temperature of the environment, # is the
coefficient of friction and C is a constant characterizing where Tfo is the temperature derived from Equation 5,
the thermal properties of the materials and the particular assuming no change in hardness with temperature. In
geometrical configuration. Values of C usually lie within summary, Fig 2 gives curves for T'/I~ against W 1/2 V for
the range 0.1 1C s/N m, and a typical value for materials of different hardnesses. The full lines are for
25 m m 25 mm polymer-based bearings sliding against polymers whose hardness varies with temperature and
a steel journal is about 0.5C s/N m. In general, an whose thermal conductivities are negligible in comparison
increase in the thermal conductivity of the journal material with the steel counter-face. The dotted lines are for
causes a much greater reduction in the value of C than a carbons-graphites whose hardness is constant and whose
corresponding increase in the conductivity of the bearing thermal conductivities are comparable with those of the
itself. steel journal, and the hatched lines are for ceramics and
For any geometrical bearing arrangement, the mean cermets, again with constant hardness, but with negligible
surface temperature, Ta, is easily measurable with a surface thermal conductivities compared to steel. It may be noted
thermocouple. The flash temperatures at the asperity that despite the higher thermal conductivities of carbons-
contacts, however, cannot be measured in this way and graphites, the values of Tf at high W 1/2 V exceed those for
it is only possible to make theoretical estimates. A con- polymers of similar hardness because thermal softening
venient method is to apply Jaeger's 1 analysis for two semi- does not occur.
infinite bodies in relative motion making contact over a Comparison of the expressions for the mean tempera-
small area of square cross-section. Simplification of the ture rise, Equation 3, and the flash temperature rise,
relevant fommlae has been discussed elsewhere 2 and Equations 4 and 5, leads to the general conclusion that
it is sufficient here merely to quote the end results. For at high speeds and low loads, the temperature limit of
] "~ I / ~ z l PI l I I~ I I I '1 I I I II 1
[0 -3 [0 .2 IO -I I I0 10 2
WV(Nm/s}
where D is the shaft diameter, l is the bearing length, h is
Fig2 Flash temperatures during sliding on steel. Fulllines, the maximum de~th of wear and e is the il~itial clearance.
polymers; dotted lines, carbons-graphites; chain lines, Values of the fn (h/e) are shown in Fig 5. Measurements
ceramics-cermets. FigUres adiacent to each line are hard- of the depth of wear are sometimes complicated by a
nesses, VPN deformation componen'; which may be significant for the
more elastic materials in the early stages o f sliding when line-
a bearing is mainiy the result of the flash temperature,
contact conditions prevail. Deformation wil! not, however.
whereas at low speeds and high loads the mean tempera-
normaity enter into the determination o f the steadyosta~e
ture rise may become more significant. Clearly, therefore,
wear rate.
the temperature conditions attained during the operation
Because wear-testing of bearings can be very rime-
of a particu]ar size of bearing are dependent upon the
consuming, a great deal of the available data on the wear
individual values o f P and V and not direct1?} on the PV
of dry bearing materials has been obtained from accelerated
product. It is also apparent that increasing the size of a
laboratory tests with simpler geometrical configurations.
bearing for constant P and V will again affect the tempera-
In general, these take the form of a smal] rider c f the
ture conditions because of the changes in absolute load
bearing material loaded against a larger, moving, metal
involved in maintaining constant pressure.
surface. The essential feature of this type of test is the
Testing non-conforming geometry, and a number of different
The most satisfactory way in which to assess the perform-
ance o f any dry bearing material is undoubtedly a practical
trial in the intended application. However this is often T a N e 2 Retationshipsfordetermimngwearvo!umesin
impractical for reasons o f time, cost or ]ack o f opportunity, accelerated wear tests of the pin-ring and pM-disc type
arid in such circumstances it is necessary to resort to
laboratory testing. A variety o f simplified bearing test
rigs has been developed, and two examples are shown in Plane-ended v~
[ d2
d3 1
3a2 "\~ -
Fig 3. Ideally, all test rigs should be able to m o n i t o r cylinder
6R
continuously the frictional torque, wear and temperature, on ring
and should also be capable of operating over a wide range a : cylinder radius
of loads, speeds and ambient temperatures. As yet there R = ring radius
has been no agreement on a standard size for dry bearing d = scar width
tests and various sizes between 12.5 and 25 m m bore are
used b y manufacturers of different products. P.ecause
Crossed v ~
~r /~- .[ i d2 [
of the complicating effects o f temperature already described, 64R J R d~ 1+--16 ~ b k 7 -
it is not always valid to compare the reported perform-
cylinders o]
ance of bearings of different types and sizes. a = small cylinder radius
Determination of the limiting P V curve for a partic'alar R : large cylinder radius
material is a relatively simple matter. A constant velocity d = long dimension of elliptical scar
is chosen and the ioad on the bearing is then increased
ir~ stages, sufficient time being allowed at each stage for 7i"
the friction and temperature to stabilize. Fig 4 shows the Cone on V~ d 3 cot 0
results of a typical experiment of this type. At high loads disc 24
it is no longer possible for the friction or temperature to
stab~ize, and the load corresponding to the last region of 0 = semi-apex angle of cone
stab~ity is taken as the limiting value. Repetition o f the d = scar diameter
whole procedure at different speeds enables the limiting
P V curve to be built up.
Sphere on V~
7/
d4 + - -
d2)
The determination of P - V relationships corresponding 64R 12 R ~
disc
to a specified wear rate is much more time-consuming as
it involves measurements o f the rate of wear over a wide R = s~here radius
range o f loads and speeds. As already mentioned, the d = scar diameter
depth or radial wear rate of a dry bearing is of particular
Failure
50 \ Temperature
Accelerated wear tests are often considered to be an
Friction
acceptable alternative to full-scale bearing testing in the
early stages o f materials selection or a development pro- ___L 1
gramme. However, there is still a considerable amount of I 2 3 4 5
controversy about the value of accelerated tests in predict- Time (h)
ing the wear behaviour o f bearings in practical conditions. Fig4 Typical variation of friction and temperature during
In an accelerated test there is little difficulty involved in the determination of 'limiting PV' for a polymer-based
simulating the practical operating parameters of absolute bearing (data from Willis;)
W
w
b
n
W ~L~v
@
v ~2
i \ , \ \ \ \ I
w CO2v' ]
@V2
i
n
I E:ZE3
d
C [ R
Fig 6 Accelerated wear test arrangements for polymer-based materials: a 'Pin and ring', b 'Pin and disc', c 3-body abrasive
wear, d 2-body abrasive wear (Taber abraser)
moduli and thermal conductivities are lower by a factor iO-8 iO-7 iCr io-S iO-4
of about 100, and their thermal expansion coefficients ~WGor rate in pin and ring tests(mnna/Nrn)
are greater by a factor of about 10. These deficiencies Fig 7 Correlation between pin and ring and journal bearing
can be partially offset by suitable choice of fillers or tests for carbon fibre reinforced polymers sliding on m i l d
reinforcing fibres, and a list of the more widely used types steel. Each p o i n t represents a different material
is also given in Table 3. Before describing the properties Bearing tests: load = 8.9 N (P = 0.05 M N / m m 2 ) , V =
of individual groups of polymers and polymer-based com- 0.65 m/s
posites, a few general comments on friction and wear may counterface - cast iron, 0.3 # m cla
be helpful. Pin and ring tests: load = 11.7 N (P variable), V = 0.54 m/s
Friction counterface - mild steel, 0.18/Jm cla
It is often assumed that, in comparison to metals, tile such as glass, mica or asbestos, the load may be preferen-
coefficients of friction of polymers are relatively low, but tially supported by the filler particles and the coefficient
this is not generally correct. Because most polymers of friction is then largely characteristic of the Idler/counter-
exhibit visco-elastic behaviour, the magnitude of the face interactions. For all these reasons, values of the coef-
coefficient of friction involves an appreciable component ficient of friction quoted in the literature, or, in fact,
arising from deformation and elastic hysteresis loss, and even in this section, should be regarded as order-of-
this component varies markedly with the conditions of magnitude values only: there is no such thing as a unique
sliding, and particularly with speed. Thus, although the coefficient of friction for a given material.
coefficient of friction of ptfe is commonly quoted as
0.05- O. 1, these levels are obtained only at very heavy Wear
loads and low speeds of sliding, or when tile ptfe is present A great deal of the information on the wear properties of
as a thin film on a harder substrate. At high speeds or polymers and polymer-based composites has been derived
light loads, ptfe sliding on metals or against itself may from accelerated wear tests of the type already shown in
exhibit friction coefficients as high as 0.3. Similar, though Fig 6. The main objective of these tests has been to deter-
less marked, effects occur with other polymers. The mine how wear depends upon the conditions of sliding,
addition of fillers to polymers also affects the coefficient such as load, speed, temperature, etc, and it is reasonable
of friction. If the filler is a solid lubricant, particles may to assume that the trends observed will be relevant to
transfer to the counter-face, establish a lubricating film bearings. As discussed earlier, however, the absolute mag-
and reduce friction..alternatively with hard, rigid fillers nitudes of the wear rates obtained from accelerated tests
To improve To To improve
Thermosetting mechanical reduce thermal
Thermoplastics resins properties friction properties
Polycarbonate
Factor
Sliding conditions c~.ange
i
:o.,_ Y_ 1 Shaft roughness ,# decreased to 0.2 #zm
t increased to 0.6 g m
X2
X
I stainless steel I
Shaft material chromium plate 2
5i / ~ Porous
OO ~ ~ ~ bF6nze-ptfe- anodized aluminium
[~" , S A Pb bearings
Temperature increased to f 120C X~A
1 200C x ~/_,~
F ler,
Properties ~ glass
12% weight
glass
12% weight 15% weight
MoS 2 graphite
20% weight
carbon
5% weight
graphite
55~ weight
bronze
5% weight
MoS 2 None
Polymer Acetal
Properties Potycarbonate (homopolymer) Nylon 6.6 Po!yimide
Specific gravity 1.33 1.55 1.5 1.75 1.43 1.4o 1.51 1.50
Tensile strength MN/m 2 45 120 40 107 38 163 45 41
Flexural modulus GN/m 2 1.3 8.3 2.1 0.7 2.1 ~).3 3.8 3.5
Heat distortion temperature C 130 145 100 160 82 250 >260 >260
at 1.8 MN/m 2
Izod notched impact strength J/cm 1.1 1.1 0.27 0.38 0.27 0.98
Moisture absorption, 24 h % 0.14 0.06 0.25 0.2 0.55 0.5 0.32 0.32
Specific wear rate 10 7 mm3/N m 5.8 3.2 38 2.3 3.1 5 50
Friction coefficient on steel 0.15 0.2 0.15 0.28 0.18 0.26 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3
0.0S m/s 0.97 >1.4 0.44 >1.4 0.61 6 5
Limiting ~ 0.5 m/s MN/m 2 X m/s 0.06 I .05 0.4 0.42 0.95 0.7
PV at ! 5 m/s 0.46 0.17 0.28 0.28 0.46
are marginal in their effects on friction, but tend to improve bearing is almost inevitable, unit costs tend to be rather
wear resistance by affecting the hardness and crystallinity high.
developed in the polymer during processing. A characteristic feature of reinforced thermosetting
Several thermoplastics, notably nylon 6.6 and acetals, laminates is their anisotropy in mechanical properties.
can benefit greatly from marginal lubrication with fhfids, Both tensile and compressive strengths may vary by
and in these conditions their performance often exceeds factors of up to 5 depending on the direction of testing
that of conventional metallic bearing materials. To opti- relative to that of the laminations. Because of th is, the
mize the load-carrying-capacity, several types of bearings data given in Table 9 only provides order-of-magnitude
are available comprising thin layers of nylon or acetal
bonded to a steel backing. A more sophisticated construc-
tion is a porous bronze layer on a steel backing, impregnated
with acetal, and leaving a layer of polymer about 100/Ira
thick over the surface of the bronze. Regularly spaced
recesses on the surface are provided to retain small amounts
of lubricant. This type of bearing can exhibit a life of
above 1000 h at PV factors up to about 2 MN/m 2 X m/s.
'I
A summary of the available P V relationships for the
various thermoplastics, unfilled and filled, is given in
Fig 15.
Thern?osetting rosins
Although the raw material costs of the more common
thermosetting resins, such as phenol-fornlaldehyde, are
E
less than those of most thermoplastics, fabrication costs g
tend to offset this advantage. The precursors are usually
fluid and the addition of hardeners and a catalyst induces EL
Specific wear rate 10 - 7 mm3/N m With solid lubricants added, values normally within the range 3 - 5 0 0.5
Vaiues may vary appreciably depending on form of reinforcement (cloth, chopped fibre mat, unidirectional ~bres); direction of testing relative
to iaminations; degree of resin cure.
properties. The figures are nevertheless sufficient to show the better filled ptfe composites. Because reinforced
that the strengths and stiffnesses of some composites thermosets do no~ soften appreciably on heating, they
can greatly exceed those of filled or reinforced thermo- continue to be useable up to the temperatures ar which
plastics. In bearings, advantage can only be taken o f these thermal or oxidative degradation of the resin or reinforce-
high strengths if some means are made available either ment begin to be significant. The rates of wear then tend
for dissipating the frictional heat effectively, or minimizing to increase, but not so rapidly as for thermoptastgcs near
its generation by reducing the coefficient of friction. their softening points, t~einforced thermosets will con-
A major area o f application of reinforced thermosets is tinue to operate for short periods at temperatures wetl
thus for water4ubricated bearings in marine engineering, in excess of those quoted in Table 9 because therma! or
rolling mills, etc. For operation as dry bearings, the addi- oxidative degradation are bo-th time and temperature
tion of solid lubricants such as ptfe, graphite or MoS2 is dependent.
virtually essential, but even with these additions the speci- Epoxy resins are considerably more expensive than
fic wear rates seldom fall as low as those obtainable with phenolics, and as shown in Table 9 the mechanical pro-
perties of reinforced composites of both types are broadly
shmilar. However, the fact that some epoxy formulations
,2t can be made less brittle than phenoiics has led ro their
use in a filled rather than reinforced form, which partly
offsets the cost. Epoxies containing graphite or MoS2 are
available as solid bars for machining into bearings, or as
a two-component fluid for casting. Filled epoxies
can also be sprayed as thin layers on to a metat backing.
Bearkr~gs based on reinforced p olyhqqides are st~ll a com~
parative rarity, partly due to the expense of the po!ymer
and partly to the difficulties in fabrication. The introduc-
tion of carbon fibre as reinforcement further increases
cost, but this material is neverthe!ess of interest for
~ "~ graphite, MoS2,pt f specialized aircraft applications because o f the combination
:~ I-
of very high strength and a specific wear rate as tow. or
lower, than those obtained with ptfe composites, see
Table 5.
\\ There is little information avai!able on the F - V re!atmno
\ ships o f many of the reinforced therm_osetting resin com-
posites described, but a generalized grouping is given in
Fig 16, based, as in the earlier results, on an arbitra~
wear rate of 25 gin/100 h.
Design points
It is convenient here to summarize some of t2c~especific
o.oJ design factors which are invo!ved in using polymer-based
0 ~01 0 ' II ~,,"/ I - :
~0
dry bearings.
V{m/s}
Fig 36 P-V relationships for filled and reinforced therrno- Counter-face roughness
setting resin bearings at a depth wear rate of 25/~mtl00 h As already discussed, this is one of the most [mportar-t
(partly from Ref 6) parameters affecting the magnitude of the wear, particulariy
TaMe 11 Raw materials used in the production of carbons- products, being gaseous, do no;: interfere with the wear
graphites process.
F r i c t i o n and wear
Carbons Binders Additives Fig t7 gives some values for the coefficients of fricuon
and rates of wear of a variety of types of carbonsgraphites
{petroleum pitch white metals during sliding against hardened steel. The coesideraNe
pitch variations may be noted. In genera] the friction is lowest
Cokes h retort tar bad bronze
J for the most graphitic materiais, but the wear rates do
~, metallurgical resins silver not appear to depend so much on the grap_hite content
natural ptfe The iowest wear rare of N1, in fact, is that ef an amorphous
Graphites carbon. The ciassical explanation for the low friction of
artificial
MoS 2 graphite relates friction to the cG~stal s~mcture. Graphite
lamp possesses a layer-lattice structure in which networks of"
Carbon ~ channel resins
hexagonally arranged carbon atoms are separated from
blacks ( furnace each other by a distance much !argot than the interatom~e
Charcoal spacb.g within the layers. The binding forces between
layers are comparatively weak; little energy is therefore
needed to induce cleavage or shear, and so the coefficient Apart from the water vapour concentration, there are
of friction is low. ttowever, the cleavage energy is low only two other factors which can influence the magnitude of
when water or other condensable vapours are present in the coefficient of friction. Finely divided debris from tile
the environment, and this observation correlates with tile wear process may become consolidated on the surface of
fact that the coefficient of friction is low only when the the carbon or its counter-face and exhibit a preferred
water vapour content exceeds a critical pressure (of the crystallographic orientation and direction of easy shear
order of 3 inmHg partial pressure in air). The presence thus reducing friction. Alternatively these layers may fill
of water vapour also influences the magnitude of the rate the surface irregularities and increase tile real area o f
of wear, and catastrophic increases can occur, by factors
of up to 103 or 104, when the water vapour content falls
below the critical value. In sliding conditions it should be
J
O-4
realised that the relevant concentration of water vaponr
is not that in the environment as a whole, but that in the
vicinity o f the actual sliding surfaces. If there is a signifi-
cant rise in surface temperatures, the concentration of ~.r o.2
water vapour relative to the saturation concentration 0
decreases and the carbon surface may begin to lose its u O-I
physically adsorbed water vapour, leading to an increase
I I I I
in both the coefficient of friction and the rate of wear.
IOO 2OO 300 4OO 5OO
As the temperature increases further the rate of adsorption
of water no longer suffices to satisfy the fresh carbon Temperature (C)
surfaces produced as a result of mechanical wear, and both
the friction and wear rate increase dramatically. These IO2
effects are illustrated schematically in Fig 18 which shows
typical variations of friction and wear with temperature
for carbons-graphites sliding on metals. High friction and
wear may also be induced at ambient room temperatures
if the combination of load and speed becomes sufticient
to raise the surface temperatures to tire order of 500C 'E
or greater.
,o
_u .~
.-=_~
Specific wear rate {mm3/Nm) Friction coefficient
g.o
10-7 I0 6 io-S 10-4 10-3 0.4 0.8 1:2 16
or)
Compacted natural gCaphlt
~ eiatin-e - ~ o nde~ n aTu~T 9r ~pNt ~
Copper - ~ (a ~ - ~ - ~ 9 t ~ b ~
Copper - g r a phite (low copper)
Spectroscopic st andard ~sg~hLt e' .
Am~r Phous carbon
]E/ectrogr~h~te (brush grade) " m
~ b o n 2 ~ b J ~ l T o w~ _ ~
~ a ~ ~ ~ 12 ..... I
C a r b o n - rag5~hire ~
C a r b on - copp r - ~ _ 1 5 5 ] r ,n 91~a87 !
N a t u r a l qraphite - h i g h temp treated ~
Sr-bdn- white m e t a l - - ~ . . . . . . .
Carbon lead bronze
E J t r ~ r ~ h i t l t (bearing qrade) ~ I
IOO 2OO 3OO 400 500
Amorphous c a r b o n (electrode grade~ m
Temperature (C)
Fig 17 Friction and wear of various carbon/graphites sliding Fig 18 Schematic variation of friction and wear rate of
on hardened 1% carbon steel of 0.025/lm cla roughness. carbons/graphites with temperature during sliding against
Load = ION speed = 18 m/s steel
Maximum Maximum
Temperature Temperature
Lubricants (C) Binders (C) Substrate pretreatments
Lamd|ar solids
MoS2 350 acry~cs 65 grit -blast
WS 2 400 cellulose 65 add-etch
GrapNte 500 any& 95 phosphate (steels)
TaS2 550 phonetics 160 anodize (At, Ti)
CaF 2 1000 epoxies 200 dichromate (Mg)
silicones 300 phosphate-fluoride (Ti)
oxalate (Cu)
Other solids
ptfe 300 polyimides 350 porous sintered or sprayed iavers
phthalocyanine 400 silicates 450
B203-PbS 550 phosphates 500
SiO2oPbO 650 vitreous 550
Na2WO4 700
MoO 3 800
and there is an increasing interest in the use of air-curing by the oxidation products of MoS2' in humid eaviro~ments
resins, such as acrylics and cellulose-based materia/s, which eg H2SO4. Sb203 is a widely-used additive with MoS~
are applied, together with the lubricant itself, from pres- films to increase wear-Ere, but its mode of action still
surized aerosol containers. remains obscure. ~n general, the precise folxnulations G~
The ratio of lubricant to binder varies with the materials commercially-available coatings are no~ avNlable to the
invoNed, but is usually within the range 1 : I - 4 : t. user. Most coatings have been developed in the USA under
Tge higher ratios generally minimize ~ e coefficient of the stimulus of military and aerospace requirements anc~
friction, whilst the lower ones maxLmize the wear-life. because of this a greater degree of standardization has
Apart from lubricant and binder, however, other additives been achieved in the US than elsewhere. Four specifications
are often incorporated to enhance one or more aspects of are relevanu
performance. Soft metals may facilitate re-adhesion of
a air-drying lubricant MIL L-23398B.
debris to the substrate during sliding, smalt additions of
b general purpose, heat-cured, bonded solid fiim lubricant
graphite and other metal sulphides to MoS2 films enhance
M i L L 8937A,
wear-life, and inhibitors prevent corrosion of the substrate
c corrosion resisting, heat-cured, bonaed solid film iuba-
;!
can~ MIL-46010A,
d extreme enviromnem 300F 750F. bonded solid
f t m h b r i c a n t M I L L 81329ASG.
A partial list of some of the commerciN oroducts safisfyin~
these specifications is given in Table 14. There are~ of course
i numerous other products which, whilst not satisfying the
specifications in one or more respects, may nevertheless
be quite suitable for particular applications.
-
App]ica tfon
% The most effective method of application of bonded solid
d~
im lubricant coatings is by spraying on to a carefully
.w
d cleaned and roughened metal substrate. For small nurabers
of components, brushing or dipping is sometimes used_
but it is then much more difficult to control film thickness
and quality to the required standard. Even spraying is
best carried out, if possible, on an automated or semi-
automated basis to ensure consistency. In addition ~o
cleaNng of the substrate, various types of pre-~reatment
can also be "used to enhance the wear-life of bonded coat-
ings, and some of these are ~isted in Table i3. The mos~
0-25 0.5 O'75 !.0 ~'25 1.5 I 75 knportant facet of surface pre~reatment is roughening ~e
Substrate roughr~ess {gin de) increase the~egree of mechanical 'keying' of ~ie N m to
the surface. Fig 21 shows how roughening produced by
Ficj 21 Life-surface roughness relationships for Falex tests grit-blasting is more effective than grinding to the same
on one particular bonded sblid film lubricant {from Peterson numerical cla roughness. Wet git-hlasting is also more
and Finkin 6 ) effective than dry. The essential feature reG;aired in ~ e
M! L-L-8132q
MI L-L-8937A MIL-23398B MIL-L-46010 (A) (ASG)
Acheson Colloids, Dag 254 Electrofitm, Lubri-Bond A Dow ('orning 3400A Dow Corning,
Molykote X1 5
Dow Coming, Molykote X106 Hohman, Surfkote A1625 Everlube, Ecolube 642
Electrofihn, Lub-Lok 5306 Lubrifthn, 600A Fel-Pro C651 A
Everlube 620 Electrofihn, Lub-Lok 2109
Fel-Pro (%40 Lubrifihn LF710A
Hohman, Surfkote M1284 Sandstrom 9A
Lubrifihn, LF700
Table15 Effect of coating different parts in Falextests a variant thereof (LFW 1, one block; Macmillan, one block;
with a bonded MoS 2 coating to MIL-L-8937 '.tohman, two blocks, Dual Rub Shoe, two blocks).
(From McCain 9) Both of these tests are used to obtain wear-lives during
continuous running, or load-carrying-capacity by increas-
Wear life ing the load in stages as shown previously (Fig 4) When
Coating applied to (min) time and opportunity permit, these accelerated tests are
supplemented by plain bearing assessments, either with
V-blocks only 10 continuous rotation or more usually, with oscillatory
Pin only 958 motion, see Fig 23c. In all three tests it is usual to coat
Pin and V-blocks 965 both of the rubbing surfaces with solid film lubricant, but
the layer on the rotating surface is by far the most critical
as is shown in Table 15 for Falex tests. Similar experiments
with plain bearings have shown that coating of the staaft
roughening process is the production of as uniform a distri- surface is responsible for about two-thirds of the wear-life
bution of surface depressions as possible, see Fig 22a. and coating of the bush for about one-third. A major
Techniques other than grit-blasting either give anisotropic difficulty with all testing of solid film lubricants, both
topographies, non-uniform depths of depressions, or both, in accelerated or service conditions, is lack of reproducibi-
see Figs 22b and c. Further improvements in wear-life lity of wear-life. Even under very carefully controlled
can usually be obtained by phosphating of steel surfaces, conditions a scatter of +-50% is common for Falex tests
as shown in Fig 21, but in practice the advantages may and for Timken-type tests the scatter is even worse,
not always be considered to be sufficiently great to justify -+100%. Fig 24 illustrates the variations observed in the
the additional processing cost. In addition, phosphate wear-life of one particular film between different labora-
coatings break down thermally above about 300C, and tories using identical testing conditions and apparatus.
are therefore unsuitable for use with the higher temperature
lubricant formulations.
After spraying, the coating should be carefully examined
to check uniformity and then cured for a time and tempera-
ture appropriate to the binder; these values are usually
specified by the manufacturer. The coating thickness may a G r i t - blasted
be estimated by weighing or, on steel surfaces, measured
with a magnetic gauge. The thickness normally recom-
mended is from 7 17/am, and the solid content of tire
lubricant-resin dispersion is, in fact, often adjusted to give Across grinding marks
fihn thicknesses of this order during a single spraying
operation. Thicker coatings (up to about 50/am) may
sometimes give improved life in low stress conditions and Along grinding marks
for these it is preferable to build-up the coating gradually b Ground
from successive spraying/curing cycles.
Testing
The development of solid film lubricant formulations has
been, and still is largely an empirical process in which C Randomly abraded
friction and wear testing plays the dominant role. Because
the possible combinations of materials are numerous, tests
are frequently made in apparatus specifically designed
to produce data in short time intervals. Fig 23 shows two Fig 22 Profiles of mild steel surfaces prepared in different
of the most common tests; the Falex, and the Timken, or ways to a roughness of 0.5--0.62/am cla ~ X 5000 4+ X 100
Mean specific
wear rate
Coating (mm3/N m)
tO 4
MOS -Te-MO lub icat ea i g Limiting
IX'o',;;~lass
:~';~ ,,~;,o,
X
, r:-- ,oo= Material :emperature
I,;ooI~o,,:'\ ~
II09_
Mo alloys (TZM)
e0 Mo t o o l steels 500C
w $2 -G~ - I n Nitrided steels
[42OOC)
p t f - MoS2-gless
I~8 HastetIoy C
iTs= , 50<} -.....
X Iolr)
(57% NL 17% Mo, 16% Cr, 5%Fe TMn,
=107
Si, C)
750C
Io lo2
Lood,IN)
~1~3 184
Stetlite d
Stellite Star J
(43% Co, 32% Cr, 17% W, 3% Fe, +Ni, C.
Fig 28 Life-load relationships for rolling element bearings
w i t h solid lubricant films or retainers (from various
Mn. Si)
[ncone! X
sources)
(73% Ni, ! 5% Cr, 7% Fe, 2% Ti + Mm Si.
High temperature materials Nb,0
Stellite ] 9 850C
The choice of bearing materials for operation at temperatures
in excess of 500C is somewhat restricted and it is usually Rend 4!
necessary to compromise on the conflicting requirements (55% Ni, t9% Cr, 10% Co, t0% No, 3% Ti
of low friction and low wear. Many hard metals, and super- + At, Fe. Si, Mn, C, B)
altoys exhibit wear rates which tend to d rcrease with increas-
ing temperature as a result of reaction with the environment
and the formation of protective oxide layers: however, the
coefficients of friction of these iayers seldom fall below widely used compositions are shown m Table 20. The
about 0.2-0.3. Some materials which have been used for advantages of cermets (metal-bonded ceramics) over cera-
high temperature bearings are listed in Table t9, together mics alone are increased toughness, ductility and resistance
with an estimate of their limiting temperature. The latter to shock loads. However, with increasing metai content
arises partly as a result of increasing oxidation and loss of the overatl hardness decreases and the wear rate tends to
material during sliding from this cause, and partly because increase, as shown in Fig 29a for tungsten carbide-cobalt
of loss of strength and elastic modulus. For temperatures mixtures. The two cermets containing A1203 have been
in excess of about 800C, or for applications at very high found parficu!arly suitable for high temperature bearing
speeds of sliding where the localized flash-temperatures applications: LTIB 19% A1203.59% Cr, 20% No and
are sufficiently high to me!t most metals, a variety of 2% TiO2; LT2 --- 15% A1203. 60% W and 25% Cr
ceramics and cermets are available. Some of the more There are few general guide lines from which to predict
--.~ZE
I0-'~
I Z IO-S[
E
0 0
~9
0 E?
t_
IO~L- OI
u
u
u
u
a_ IO-~ o_
U3
uO i0_71 0 lC
I I I I R - - o-81 !O2 03
4 8 12 16 20 24
8 O/o C o b a l t b L o a d tNi
246 T R I B O L O G Y December t 9 7 3
Table 20 Types and properties of some ceramics and cermets
Si3N4 A1203 Cr -- Mo
ZrO 2 (MgO-stabilized) A1203 W Cr Cr203 + Cr/A1203
Ni NiO
Typical properties
Thermal
Thermal stress
UTS E diffusivity* resistance
Materials (MN/m 2) (GN/m 2) (10 4 m2/s) factor]" (C)
IO -~
lyric co-deposition from an electrolyte containing ceramic Wear rote {t~m/min) - theoreticol, derived
particles ('Tribomet coatings'). The advantages o f ' f l a m e from W = 1,5 p.R -p25 D -O'75
plating" are an improved adhesion to the substrate metal Fig 30 C o r r e l a t i o n of the wear rates o f ceramics and
and a lower porosity, whereas the advantage of electrolytic cermets at high speeds w i t h an empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p involv-
co-deposition lies in its ability to coat small internal surfaces ing their thermal and mechanical properties ( f r o m Sibley
inaccessible by any olher technique. In each case the and A l l e n 6 }
LA2 O,Z7
LW5 0.~I
Coatinqs
LClC O.l@
against
~hcmselv~ Lr.,5 - - O.ZZ
7~0oC
LA7 0.@ - 0 . 7
LCC;A 0.2.
LCIC 0"f9
C o ~ i ncjs LW 5 __ 0'~9
Qgainst
Haynes c111oy LA7 ~ O-Z3
Z5 LC5
?(~OOC
LAZ 0-17
Bond
Elastic Expansion strength to
Hardness T max modulus coefficient substrate
VPN (C) (GN/m 2) ( t 0 -6 C-1) (MN!m2)
Fig 31 Specific wear rates and friction of various ceramic and cermet coatings at high temperatures
u 80
o_ i -Mo)
6o Table 21 Order of magnitude of the specific wear rates
for various high temperature materials sliding against them-
selves at 500C. Based on pin/disc type tests
40
u Specific
I io/~ r- ~.~, \ ~A~ \ cast wear rate
2o ......... \'~st~'~' N stellit
Material (mm3/N m)
O
o
\ \
3-
Ceramics (A1203, ZrO2, SiC) 10 3 10--5
2dO 400 6dO 8bO I000 Nickel-base alloys 10 3 10 5
Temperature (C)
Tool steels 10 4 10 5
Co-base alloys 10 5 10.-6
Cermets (WC-Co, TiC-Ni-Mo;
Fig 32 Limiting load capacity of various rolling-element Cr3C2-Ni-Cr; A1203-Cr-Mo) 10-5 10-7
bearing materials at high temperatures (from Glaeser 21 )
KEY
1 Unfilled thermoplastics 7 Carbons-graphites
2 Filled/reinforced thermoplastics 8 Metal-grap.hite mixtures
3 Filled/reinforced ptfe 9 Solid film lubricants
4 Filled/reinforced thermosetting resins 10 Ceramics, cermets, hard metats
5 Ptfe impregnated porous metals 11 Rolling bearings with self-lubricating cages
6 Woven ptfe/glass fibre
the detailed properties o f individual materials are either Midland, Michigan, and Fig 27 by the American Society
not always k n o w n or are not available to the user. This of Lubrication Engineers. This paper is Crown Copyright
situation applies particularly to carbons-graphites, ceramic- and is reproduced b y permission o f the Controller, Her
cermet coatings, and some o f the recently developed polymer- .Majesty's Stationery Office.
metalhamellar solid composites. In such cases, final selec-
tion is often possible on the basis of past experience in
similar applications, and most manufacturers o f dry bearings
and materials are able to provide information of this type. Further reading
The follovAng short ~ist of review papers and book chap ~ers maybe
Acknowledgements helpful in providing further detaited information on some of the
A number o f figures have been redrafted from published materia!s described in this survey.
data and in each such case, the original source is quoted.
Figs 3 and 27, however, are direct reproductions by kind Polymer-based materials
Pratt, G. C. , 'Plastic-basedbearings', Lubrication and Lubricm-~ts,
permission o f the copyright holders; Fig 3 by Dow Coming, edited by E. R. Braithwaite, Elsevier. Amsterdam (1967)
Lancaster J. K., 'Friction and wear (of polymers)', Polymer Science:
edited by A. D. Jenkins, North Holland Publishing Co, Amsterdam
(1972)
Carbons and graphites
Mild steel
Metals - lametlar
Badami D. V. and Wiggs, P. K. C. 'Friction and wear (of carbons
solid l u b r i c a n t s and graphites)*, Modem Aspects of Graphite Technology, edited by
I
Ceramics L. C. F. Btaekman, Academic Press~ London (1970)
ptfe
Unfilled t h e r m o p l a s t i c s
Reinforced t h e r m o s e t s
Solid lubricants
+ SOlid l u b r i c a n t s
F i l l e d and reinforced
CampbeU, M. E., Loser, J: B. and Sneegas, E. "Solid Lubricants'.
t hermopIostk:s
Metais-lamlfor solids-ptfe
NASA SP 5059 (1966)
B o n d e d solid film ~bricants I- 1 Benzing, R. J. 'Solid lubricants', Modem Material~ Vol 5, edited
C a r b o n s - gcaphites
by B. W. Gonser and H. H. Hausner, Academic Press, London
Cermets k "I (1964)
Filled p t f
POROUS b r o n z e - P b - p t fe
High temperature materials"
woven p t f /91ass f i b r e
I t I I I I Amatean, M. F. and Glaeser, W. A. 'Survey of materials for high
IO-8 IO-7 [O-6 IO-5 $O-4 IO-S I0-2
Against t hemselves
Specific wear rate ( mmS/Nm )
temperature bea6:ng and sliding applications', Wear, Vol 7, (1964)
p 385
Peterson, M. B. 'High temperature lubrication', Proceedings of the
Fig 33 Order of, magnitude values of wear rates for various [ntemationN Symposium on Lubrication and Wear, edited by
groups of materials during sliding against steel at room D. Muster and B. Sternlicht, McCutchan Publishing Corporation,
temperature Berkeley (1964)