Review of High Speed Electrical Machines in Gas

Turbine Electrical Power Generation

Ma Xiaohe', Su Rong2, Tseng King Jetl, Wang Shuai', Zhang Xiaolong', Viswanathan VaiyapurP, Gajanayake
Chandana3, Gupta Amit3, Nadarajan Sivakumar3
1: Rolls-Royce @ NTU Corporate Lab, 65 Nanyang Drive, 637460, Singapore
2: School of Electric & Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore
3: Advanced Technology Centre, Rolls-Royce Singapore Pte. Ltd., 6 Seletar Aerospace Rise, 797575, Singapore
maxh@ntu.edu.sg, RSu@ntu.edu.sg, KJ.Tseng@pmail.ntu.edu.sg, shuai@ntu.edu.sg, ZhangXiaoLong@ntu.edu.sg,
Vaiyapuri.Viswanathan@Rolls-Royce.com, chandana.gajanayake@rolls-royce.com, Amit.Gupta@Rolls-Royce.com,
sivakumar.nadarajan@rolls-royce.com

and are key elements in the development of the MEE concept.

Abstract-The concept of a More Electric Aircraft (MEA)
demands a highly optimized airframe power system which is
achieved by replacing pneumatic and hydraulic systems with
energy efficient electrical systems. With increasing power offtake
requirements, the More Electric Engine (MEE) could play a key
role in future MEA, where more electrical power will be drawn
from gas turbine shaft using the conventional gear driven
electrical machine, which is known to present inefficiencies and
reliability issues. Embedding an electrical machine directly at the
engine shaft would help eliminate the need for the accessory
gearbox along with potentially improving the reliability and
efficiency of the whole system. However embedding the electrical
machine presents significant design challenges to meet the key
requirements. Some of these include: the necessity of
electrical machine to operate in high temperatures and high
vibration environments, the mechanical constraints such
space limitations, and the need to operate at high speeds. Other
requirements include the need for high power density, high
torque density, high efficiency and maintenance-free operation
of the electrical machines. At present, different electrical
machine topologies have been developed for a number
challenging industrial and automotive applications where some
of the requirements and criteria have been partially met. In this
paper the detailed investigation and the trade study carried out
of the various electrical machine topologies to understand their
advantages, constraints and drawbacks is presented to provide a
preliminary evaluation of their suitability for meeting
stringent requirements of embedded machines in aerospace
applications.
Keywords-High Power Density; High Speed; Starter /
Generator
I. INTRODUCTION
Aircraft power system architectures have undergone
significant changes in the last decade. A conventional aircraft
typically has multiple secondary power distribution systems,
which are the combination of mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic and electrical. Recent technology advancement in
power electronics, electric drives and control electronics are
already providing the impetus to improve the performance of
aircraft electrical systems and their corresponding reliability
There are strong linkages between the MEA and the MEE,
which have far reaching implications for electrical generation
systems [1]-[3]. Many projects and initiatives have been
undertaken on MEAIMEE concepts. In 2000 the MESA
(Magnetostrictive Equipment and Systems for More Electric
Aircraft) project [2] was launched to increase power density of
on-board aircraft systems through the development of
magnetostrictive motors and actuators. In 2002 the POA
(Power Optimized Aircraft) [2] was launched to validate the
ability of alternative equipment systems to reduce weight, fuel
consumption and maintenance costs at the aircraft level. In
2004 the MESEMA (Magnetoelastic Energy Systems for Even
the
More Electric Aircraft) project [2] was launched to produce
innovative transducer systems for high torque actuation,
as vibration and noise reduction, electrical energy generation and
structural health monitoring. In 2006 the MOET (More Open
Electrical Technologies) project [2] was launched to establish
new industrial standards for commercial aircraft design, to
reduce emission and to improve operational capacity. During
of 2008-2013, MEA/MEE topics have been investigated in the
Clean Sky program, a joint undertaking between the European
Commission and the aerospace industry [2]. Many of the
contributions have been adopted in Airbus A380 and Boeing
B787, which are currently the state-of-the-art products and can
be considered as being MEA [2]. In 2001 the TIMES (Totally
the
Integrated More Electric Systems) project was established[3]
led by TRW Aeronautical Systems involving many parties
such as AIRBUS, Rolls-Royce Pic, BAE SYSTEMS Avionics
Ltd, FR-HiTEMP Ltd, Smiths Aerospace, FHL Division,
Claverham Ltd, QinetiQ, Birmingham University, Cranfield
University and Moir Associates. A Variable Frequency direct
driven Starter Generator (VFSG) suitable for future civil
aircraft capable of providing l20kVA electrical power,
l15VAC variable voltage with a frequency range of 350-
800Hz was developed. In this article, a small gas turbine
engine has been chosen as the scenario to select the possible
starter/generator (S/G) candidate design. The generated power
is used when the aircraft is on the ground during maintenance
or to start the engines in case of on-flight failure. The selected
S/G with associated power converters can provide 400 Hz,
l15/230V AC output voltage and be connected to AC buses as

978-1-4799-8641-5/15/$31.00 2015 IEEE

a backup power source. It is anticipated that other engines .---_ [ I eelntlly Co/from Core Molar/Generllon
Elecuicll)' 10 Air-frUit
designs (such as three shaft engines) and power distribution Airframe
I':ltClrtul S)'SI I'III and/or
EDallll'
systems could also benefit from a similar approach. Fig. 1 bydr:lullcmotor/punlp
numbly

shows the whole engine/airframe interfaces [1]. No Oil 00 Enai o "

Power Transfer
IOlegralfil Power Generallon,
Controller
The S/G will be directly connected onto the high pressure Distribution and Manageml'Dt

(HP) shaft. This direct motor drive design could enable the 1100 Uydraullnoo [lIgloe

Electric [oglneSUlrtlog
reduction of the overall aircraft weight and improve power
No Pneumalks 011 EDginI'
output capability. It supports the desire to remove hydraulic
pumps from the engine which simplifies the engine interface,
power extraction from wind-milling engines which makes the
provision of Ram Air Turbine(s) unnecessary; transfers power Combined
tlllbeddtd Inside core)

between shafts improving engine starting and relighting; and A,US.ad

replaces current pneumatic starting with electrical starting
which further simplifies the engine interface [1]. A study
conducted by NASA [58] demonstrated that using such
technologies could, for a typical 200-seater aircraft, result in a
10% reduction in aircraft empty weight, a 13% reduction in
required engine thrust and a 9% reduction in aircraft fuel burn,
which are significant improvements both economically and
environmentally [1]. An optimum design of S/G is expected to
maximize power density and maintain desired efficiency while
meeting system constraints. Several key design challenges to
be considered are listed below:
1) Space envelope: The space inside the gas turbine is
very limited. Generally there is barely enough for holding a
high-power-density electrical machine.
2) High power-to-active weight ratio: This is one of the
most important performance indices in aerospace applications.
3) High operating speed: The HP S/G requires operations
at a speed of 10 - 50 krpm.
4) High torque density at low speed: Due to the high
inertia of the gas turbine, high torque capacity is needed at
low and even zero speed.
5) High efficiency over a wide operating speed range.
6) High operating temperature: Since the location is near
the exhausted air outlet, the ambient operating temperature is
around 300400oC. Permanent magnet materials (if any), soft
magnet iron losses and cooling issues will also affect
electromagnetic design.
7) Stringent reliability requirements.
8) Large airgap: it needs to ensure rotor and stator do not
come into contact under high acceleration.
In the next few sections we will compare different
electrical machine (EM) prototypes with respect to several
major application considerations.
II. HIGH SPEED ELECTRICAL MACHINES
In industrial applications, super high-speed motors and
generators have played an increasingly important role. They
have wide applications such as micro gas turbines,
compressors, blowers, pumps, hybrid electric vehicles, turbo
molecular pumps, machine tool spindle drives, information
storage disk drives etc. [4]. The converter is not a major
constraint any more. Modern frequency converters can provide
up to 0.5-1 MW power at frequencies of 1-2 kHz to support an
electrical machine to run within the speed range of 20-120
krpm [21] at switching frequencies well above 20 kHz.
However, mechanical and thermal constraints limit the
maximum power and speed. High speed machines cover the
Al\IB - Acth't Mflgnellc Be:uillg
tlllbeddf'd
Molor/Gl'DI'Mllor
unll
Combined,
llPe AMB aDd
Motor/GtDenlllor unil
Fig. 1 . A 2D view of more electric engine system [ 1 ] .
following prototypes [4]:
- Permanent magnet brushless machine (PMBM)
- Switch reluctance machine (SRM)
- Induction machine (1M)
- Claw pole machine (CPM)
- Homopolar machine (HM)
- Synchronous reluctance machine (Syn. RM)
The positive and negative attributes of each prototype are
summarized in Table I [4]. A S/G needs to operate over a wide
speed range [11]. CPM has a complicated rotor structure which
is usually unsuitable for confmed space. HM has large
windage and iron losses which dramatically decrease its
efficiency. Syn. RM has a low saliency ratio with a solid rotor
resulting in a poor power-factor and a low torque density. And
tooth ripple fields cause significant rotor eddy current loss.
The rotor structure also encounters more windage loss than a
smooth cylinder, hence small airgap is needed which may
cause low efficiency and low stiffness under high
accelerations. Its stator windings are similar to 1M which also
produces strong mutual coupling between phases and limits its
application in aircraft due to poor fault tolerance.
III. HIGH POWER DENSITY ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Power density is one of the most important machine
characteristics, but researchers usually get little information
about the machine's eventual dimensions and specifications
during the initial design stage. The machine's size is
determined mostly by energy storage when speed is in excess
of 30 krpm and by torque requirements when speed is below
20 krpm within rotor's mechanical stress limits [18]. So torque
per rotor volume is usually regarded as a more convenient
characteristic for predicting the sizing trend. It can also be
reflected as tangential force per air gap surface area and is
commonly referred to as air gap stress [24]. It is generally
reported in the literature reviews that PMBM, SRM and 1M are
the mainstream of S/G applications [2][5][6][8][9][11]
[14][16][31].
A. Switch Reluctance Machines
SRM is the state-of-the-art commercial S/G due to the
absence of permanent magnets, mechanical robustness, high
reliability and durability in hostile environment
[5][22][28][65]. With improvements of steel material, cooling
technology and machine design methodology, SRM is
expected to provide even better performance and will continue
to be strong candidate topology for MEE starter/generators.
 TABLE I motor. A three-phase 6s/2r SRM with speed of 130 krpm for
POSITIVE & NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTES OF HIGH SPEED MACHINE PROTOTYPES .
super high speed drive is reported in [68]. To maximize the
Types Positive Attributes Negative Attributes minimum starting torque and reduce the torque ripple, a
High power density Rotor robustness (require stepped rotor structure is adopted. The minimum starting
High efficiency in the full careful rotor construction
speed range design)
torque is increased greatly and the torque ripple is much
Large airgap length Intolerance to elevated smaller than those of the conventional structure. A rib structure
PMBM
Simple power converter temperature is proposed in [69] to reduce the windage loss. This new rotor
(Self-excitation at all times) Iron loss at idling Field shape does not compromise the advantages of the simple
High phase inductance to weakening conventional SRM rotor structure. Two different fault-tolerant
limit short- circuit currents High cost
SRM topologies for fuel pump drive in aircraft are analytically
High intrinsic fault tolerance
High reliability compared in [70] which suggested a dual-redundancy 6s/4r
High rotor/inertia ratio Inferior power and torque SRM can include many of the advantages. Ref. [71] compares
High efficiency density than PMBM mechanical stress of different rotor topologies and a modular
Robust rotor structure H i gh torque r ipple rotor structure is proposed which facilitates a significant
Simpler construction High ventilation losses
reduction in the mechanical stress in rotor laminations, and
SRM thermal management easier High vibration
Without magnet saturation High windage losses
thereby an increase in the diameters. K. Vijayakumar, et ai,
concern Small airgap length explored various issues such as vibration, torque/weight
Wide speed operational Sophisticated power improvement and combined magnetic and thermal analysis in
capability converter [72]-[74] applying SMC material SOMALOY 500 in high
Low copper and iron loss speed SRM for aircraft. Basic frequency and core loss is the
Field adjustment
lowest for 6s/4r structure. Both 8s/6r and 6s/4r structures are
Constant voltage over a Lower power
reasonable speed range High rotor loss recommended for aviation industry [10][11][12][24][28].
Robust rotor structure Sophisticated power Although it has a strong fault tolerance capability, its doubly
IM High reliability converter to provide both salient structure leads to the high nonlinearity which causes
Easy starting control and excitation both electromagnetic design and control complexity. Under
Open loop speed regulation Low fault tolerance
high speed operations, friction and windage losses are the
Low cost
High power factor Complicated rotor structure
dominant factors affecting efficiency due to the salient
CPM structure. But its construction simplicity and higher power
Field adjustment Rotor loss
High power factor density make it superior to an 1M. However, mechanical
High windage losses
HM Field adjustment
High iron losses
strength of the lamination will be a critical issue when meeting
Simple rotor structure the demanding requirements in a hostile environment. 18sl1Or
Simple rotor structure Low power factor inner and 18sl15r outer rotor segmented SRM for a HP S/G is
Singly excited Low torque density
Syn. RM
Low rotor losses High windage losses
proposed in [25]. Although its modular rotor structure can
Field adjustment Small airgap length reduce mechanical stress significantly, practical issues such as
.. the large number of segment attachments to a high-strength,
Imtml study of the SRM system In arrcraft was reported by
MacMinn et al. from GE Aircraft Engines [8]. An integrated nonmagnetic hub are still needed to be resolved. The range of
32 kW, 48 krpm electric starter/generator was designed and power and speed of SRM for aircraft shown in Table II are
built. Radun from GE described the details of a 90 kW from 3.7 to 8000 kW and from 12 to 52 krpm, respectively.
Variable-Speed-Constant-Frequency system which used an The power density and torque density of high speed SRM are
SRM to deliver power to a fuel pump [9]. The study in the range of 24 kW/kg and 41O Nmldm3 These are
demonstrated a high power density system operating over wide similar to those of conventional induction motors. However,
speed range. The SRM has a top speed of 25 krpm and can the torque density is lower than that of PMBM.
produce a limited of 100hp. Ref. [11][12] reported a SRM SRM has some prominent features, which add to its
starter/generator system for operating speeds of 27 46.850 advantage in aerospace application [15]. Firstly, the rotor
krpm. The system is capable of delivering 30 kW of power in a employs a simple, salient structure, with no magnets or
continuous mode and 45 kW for 5 seconds overload condition. windings. The mechanical integrity of the rotor permits high
In 1997-1998, researchers from GE had developed a SRM speed, high power density operations. Secondly, it utilizes
which is operating both as a motor and generator in a speed concentrated windings and thus the resulting magnetic and
range of 0 to 22.224 krpm and published a series of papers electric independence of the machine phases improves its
[12]-[14]. The maximum power is up to 250 kW. The machine fault-tolerance and reliability. Thirdly, the absence of rare
employed a 12/8 pole topology. SRM for a Low Pressure earth magnets enables it to operate in harsh environment, e.g.
Generator has been studied on the Rolls-Royce ANTLE engine under high ambient temperature. Though with many merits,
demonstrator by TRW Aeronautical Systems, TRW Conekt SRM still has some drawbacks in specific applications [66].
and University of Bristol [28]. Investigation of the usage of Firstly, its airgap is larger than that of normal machines to
SRM as a S/G has been developed by Sundstrand Aerospace, ensure smooth operation and this requires additional current to
GE and the University of Kentucky for the US Army More set up the magnetic field; Secondly, the doubly salient
Electric Aircraft program [11]. The work has been done at structure, though robust, can cause significant torque pulsation
different power levels up to 250 kW and under different and acoustic noise, which cannot be mitigated by simple
loading conditions directly applicable to the aircraft system means; Thirdly, in high-speed application, SRM may suffer
[11]. Two high-speed SRM for hybrid electric vehicles have from high rotor loss due to the fast-pulsating fields.
been prototyped in [67] whose performances are competitive
to the 50 kW, 6 krpm interior permanent magnet synchronous
 TABLE II
APPLICATIONS OF HIGH SPEED SRMs.

Max. Max. Dimensions

Power Density Torque Density Pub.
SRM Power Speed <I> L Applications
(kW/kg) (Nm/dm3) Year
(kW) (kr/min) (mm) (mm)
[ 1 0] 3.7 12 96.9 4 1 .9 2.2 9.1 Fuel/lube pump drive i n aircraft 1 994
[47] 8000 12 750 850 - - Compressor for natural gas transmission stations 2010
[57] 1 00 15 400 1 00 - - High-pressure S/G 2003
[ 1 5] 250 18 339 1 14 3.9 12.9 Aircraft S/G 1 999
[ 1 6] 18 20 355.6 3 1 . 75 1.1 2.8 Aircraft S/G 2003
[ 1 2- 1 4] 250 22 266.7 254 2.6 7.6 Aircraft S/G 1 998
[9] 90 25 1 6 1 .3 83.8 9.1 20. 1 Fuel pump in aircraft 1 989
[28] 25 28 1 70 120 1 .3 3.1 Low-pressure Generator 2002
[8] 32 48 1 58.75 8 3 . 82 3 .2 3.8 Fuel pump 1 989
[ 1 1 - 1 2] 30 52 1 58.75 63 . 5 3.9 4.9 S/G by Sundstrand Aerospace and GE 1 995
B. Permanent Magnet Brushless Machines III the DSAFPM archItecture. DSAFPM has the Illtnnsic
With the progress in high energy permanent magnet architecture suitable for medium power rating, high power
materials such as HiSat-50, 2V49FeCo (lron-Cobalt density, compact size and high reliability requirement.
Vanadium) [11][28] and the enhanced spray oil cooling Comparisons of various topologies from RFPM and AFPM
method, PMBM can provide superior power density and have been conducted in [29][38][45]. Four AFPM prototypes
efficiency than SRM and 1M. Various comparisons have been and one RFPM counterpart are compared and the results have
conducted among PMBM and SRM, 1M [6][21][30-33]. Ref. been illustrated in Fig. 2-Fig. 5 [29], which quantitatively
[21] indicates that the stator of a Solid Rotor 1M (SRIM) reveals RFPM and AFPM with single airgap are claimed to be
weights about twice as much as that of a PMBM of equal more economically attractive in terms of magnet utilizations,
power. Efficiency and power factor are higher in PMBM than while the loss profiles for all these prototypes are almost
in SRIM. Furthermore, dimensions, core length and controller similar, slotless AFPM possesses some slight advantages. As
cost are all lower in PMBM than those in 1M. Ref. [30] reveals far as power density is concerned, AFPM's appears to be
that maximum shear stress, power density, efficiency, power higher than RFPM's by 1.6-5 times. Comparison between
factor, airgap length in PMBM are higher than those of SCIM RFPM and AFPM in [38] indicates that if the axial length to
and SRM, and the performance at a low speed is also the best external diameter ratio is large (usually above 1), it is more
in PMBM. Torque vs. voltage characteristic in PMBM and advantageous to use RFPM and if small (below 0.3), AFPM
SRM are both proportional to the voltage, while that in 1M is may be an attractive solution to provide both a higher absolute
proportional to the voltage squared. The rated current of a torque and a higher torque density.
magnetic machine scales proportionally with the machine There are two main types of DSAFPM: TORUS (one
dimensions [54]. The flux density in an electrically excited internal stator and two external rotors) and AFIR (two external
machine (1M, SRM) decreases with decreasing size whilst stators and one internal rotor). Both have slotted, slotless and
remaining constant with decreasing volume in PMBM. salient-pole stator architecture as illustrated in Fig. 6. Ref. [43]
Therefore, only PMBMs are considered for a low system indicates each slotless design has reduced cogging torque and
volume [54][55]. ripple torque than its slotted counterpart. TORUS exhibits
There are two main categories of PMBM: radial flux higher maximum torque density than AFIR where the airgap is
(RFPM) and axial flux (AFPM). RFPM can be further large. Volume differences above lOkW are distinguished with
subdivided into the surface-mounted (SPM), surface -inset the sequence of AFIR slotless < TORUS slotless < TORUS
(SIPM), the interior (IPM), the circumferential oriented slotted < AFIR slotted. Therefore, TORUS attains a high
interior (CIPM) and Halbach array PMBM [34]; AFPM can be power density under high current density and low electrical
further subdivided into single sided (SSAFPM), double sided loading conditions while AFIR attains a high power under low
(DSAFPM) and multistage (MSAFPM) [39]. current density and high electrical loading conditions. TORUS
has NN (magnet driven flux enters the stator and travels
Both SPM and IPM can be designed for wide speed ranges circumferentially along the stator core) and NS (the flux enters
and constant power application [36][37]. SPM with fractional the stator and travels axially along the machine axis of rotation
slot concentrated windings minimizes mass while constraints resulting in theoretically no stator yoke) types, which are
on high back EMF at elevated speed enable SPM to perform illustrated in Fig. 7 [44]. TORUS NS increases power density
better in terms of magnetic unbalanced forces and dynamic and efficiency by reducing stator core length and hence iron
responses, compared to IPM [37]. RFPM offers simplicity of loss. Ref. [45] gives a general prediction that optimization of
manufacture and assembly and they accordingly have earned ratio will achieve a maximum power density as well as almost
overwhelming popularity and presence in the market place. maximum efficiency. But optimal diameter ratio cannot be
SSAFPM has the unwanted attraction force between the stator simply estimated, as it depends on the electrical loading, flux
and the rotor magnets, the uneven axial forces due to density, frequency, materials and machine topology etc. It also
manufacturing tolerances, the low integrity of mechanical joint shows both TORUS and AFIR have higher power density, by a
between the disc and shaft, and the low disc stiffness. These factor of 3, compared to traditional 1M in a 75kW, 6 krpm case
limitations can be eliminated or at least significantly mitigated
 t:
'.
,
---
.
...
.
Output f>ower. kW
_Radial _Axial single gap
_Axial dual gap AJlia( single gap slotless
A"illl dual gap SIOllcss
Fig. 2. Magnet weight versus
output power.
'i
i*
z_
.;
.1-
!IOO
i (a) TORUS NN
!.
OUlpIlIPo....eT.kW
. _Radial
_Kadial "xialsinglcIP'P
_Allialdualgap
-l\xllldualppslOlleu
"xialsingkgapslollcS$
Fig. 4. Torque per unit moment
of inertia versus output power.
study. TORUS NS has three major stator architectures namely
slotted, slotless and salient pole [39]. Ref. [43] shows slotless
TORUS is superior to slotted TORUS in terms of power
density and torque quality. Besides, Siotiess stator TORUS NS
type can also be subdivided into "iron core stator", "coreless
stator" and "coreless stator and rotor". The mass of each
machine reduces in sequence and the last one uses a Halbach
array PM arrangement. Ref. [46] shows coreless stator and
rotor TORUS NS exhibiting higher torque density than
coreless stator TORUS NS in a 250rpm, 700W case study. The
former has torque density of 1.89Nm/kg and active mass of
13.17kg while the latter only has 1.42Nmlkg and 18.9kg
respectively.
The range of power and speed of PMBM shown in Table
III are from 3 to 200 kW and from 20 to 120 krpm,
respectively, which indicates that PMBM might be a suitable
substitute topology for S/G in aircraft application.
AFPM design has been considered for applications of wind
generation and electrical vehicles where speed is usually much
lower than 10 krpm. While for high speed operations, the
available literatures are considerably less. AFPM machines
with two discs or three discs have been proposed with a rated
speed of 20 krpm for high performance compressors and co
generation systems, which can withstand large centrifugal
force caused by the super high speed [40]. High speed AFPM
designs for a gas turbine drive of an electric traction vehicle
with a speed up to 100 krpm and a power rating up to 50 kW
have been studied [41]. Generally, an AFPM machine tends to
have a larger air gap than that in a RFPM machine, which
causes an increase in copper loss and a decrease in power
density. For AFPM adoptions in high speed applications, the
rotor disc itself serves as a strong retaining structure of the
PMs. Since the centrifugal force direction is perpendicular to
the field flux direction, the structure retaining the PM does not
increase the magnetic gap. However, a high operation speed
poses excessive loads and vibrations to the bearings due to
axial magnetic pulls. An expanded rotor disk also results in
reduced bending mode at critical speed and increased moment
of inertia, which reduces the dynamic and transient
performance of the rotor. In addition, although being able to
. -:-
Output Powt"!', kW
Radial _ Axial single gap
Axial dual gap _Axial single gap slOllen
_Axial dual gap:.IOlless
Fig. 6. TORUS slotted, slotless stator, AFIR slotted, slotless stator.
Fig. 3 . Sum total of iron and copper
losses versus output power.
I
,
'
)
(b) TORUS NS
Outputl'Qwcr,kW
_Axial single gap Fig. 7. TORUS slotted NN and NS type [44].
Axial dual gap .Axialslnglcgapslolless
i\x;al dual gap slolless enhance AFPM's power density, a multipolar arrangement
Fig. 5. Power/active weight versus with short coil ends may also reduce the power factor and
output power. efficiencies. A review of commercially available AFPMs has
also been conducted and the results tabulated in Table IV. It
shows most AFPM products are designed for comparatively
low speed ranges below 10 krpm. The speed gap alone
warrants further research [41]. Potential benefits of AFPM
design include compactness, high acceleration capability, high
power density and efficiency. However, they have drawbacks
such as excessive windage loss, higher cost and more acoustic
noise. Conceptually, the construction of AFPM machines
seems simple although there are practical manufacturing
issues. Given the manufacturing complexity, AFPM is usually
considered only in the applications where the required power
density is high, e.g. in aerospace, marine and flywheel energy
storage [39]. However, the demand for them in commercial
applications may increase significantly in future due to new
manufacturing technologies such as 3-D printing.
C. Induction Machines
1M offer a rugged, simplified and inexpensive construction
and can be operated at constant voltage over a reasonable
speed range. There are many practical cases in which an 1M is
used for high speed applications [4]-[5][7][23][47]-[53]. A
summary of all the 1M prototypes of various topologies in
research has been conducted and detailed information has been
listed in Table V. The range of power and speed of IM shown
are from 10 to 2000 kW and from 15 to 75 krpm.
Various topologies of IMs include Solid Rotor (SRIM),
Squirrel Cage (SCIM), Wound Rotor (WRIM), Doubly Fed
(DFIM), Double Cage (DCIM), Axially Slit Solid Rotor
(ASSRIM), Copper Coated Solid Rotor (CCSRIM), Caged
Solid Rotor (CSRIM), Moteur Grande Vitesse (MGV) and
other newly emerged 1M topologies in research. SRIM can
operate with surface speeds above 400 mis, however, they
suffer from a low power factor which leads to a dramatic stator
loss. The utilization factor of IM is almost 50% lower than that
of PMBM [21]. SCIM has been studied for more than decade
at the University of Wisconsin as substitutes for an isolated
S/G unit for aerospace applications supported by NASA Lewis
Research Center [22]. DFIM which comprise of SCIM and
SRIM have been well used for wind power applications. It is
recommended by NASA Lewis that further aircraft application
of DFIM should be investigated due to significant speed range
 TABLE TIT
ApPLICATIONS OF HIGH SPEED PMBMs.

Dimensions
PMBM Max. Power (kW) Max. Speed (kr/min) Applications Pub. Year
<D (mm) L (mm)
Low Pressure Generator by TRW Aeronautical
[28] 25 20 1 60 120 2002
Systems
[4] 70 45 - - Machine tool spindles 2004
[4] 200 60 - - Hybrid vehicles, cogenerations and compressor drives 2004
[5] 3 60 - - S/G by NASA 2014
[58] 10 70 1 17 45 Turbocharger 2013
[35] 4.9 120 - - Mobile Generator, hybrid and fuel cell EV' s 1 999
[55] 12 120 - - Automotive fuel cell air compressor 2009

TABLE IV
temperature tolerance and ease of sensor-less control have out
A COMMERCIAL SURVEY OF AFPM PRODUCTS. weighed the additional system costs for power quality
regulation.
Manuf Power Peak
Products Power Speed Effici-
- Density Torque Purely SRIM has been fabricated as a single monolithic
Type (kW) (rpm) ency
acturer (kW/kg) (Nm)
piece and is renowned for its mechanical robustness. Rotor
750 75 2.27 790 3250 >95% peripheral speed up to 500mls can be achieved, corresponding
YASA 400 85 3 . 54 360 7500 >95% to a 190mm diameter rotor at 50 krpm. For higher torque
250 65 3.61 250 9000 >95%
production capability low surface impedance and high
Ash-
207 HV 70 3 . 76 1 60 5000 93 -96% saturation flux density are preferred yet the high surface
228 HV 1 00 4.06 240 4000 93 -96% impedance will also increase the surface rotor loss due to stator
wood
268 HV 1 60 4.43 450 4000 93 -96%
space and time harmonics. The compromise between maximal
GKN-
130 64 2.10 350 8000 95. 1% fundamental power and minimal surface harmonic loss is
Evo
eDrive
140 75 1 .88 400 5000 96.5% usually arrived at via enlarging the airgap, up to 3mm in some
230 128 2.23 500 8000 95. 1% cases. This has rendered SRIM primarily in high power ends
Syste
240 1 50 1 .88 800 5000 96.5%
ms of several MWs. The same restriction is also applicable for
3 7-4000
37 0.28 6500 CSRIM since it has smooth ferromagnetic material at the
45 -6000 exposure as well. Besides, the cast copper cage 1M will soften
AXCO 45 0.35 6500
5 5 -6000
Motor
7 5 -4000
55 0.37 6500 under high rotor temperatures together with a drop in the
s OY
250-
75 0.38 5000 conductance. Although Glidcop could be adopted to solve this
250 0.42 6000 problem, it would be rather complicated, if not impossible to
6000
difference [22]. Lammated rotor topology has 2-3% hIgher manufacture with current metallurgical technologies. An
efficiencies than those of SRIMs [23]. exception for the large air-gap requirement for SRIMs is
introduced by slitting the rotor axially. ASSRIM serves to
For motor driven prime mover applications below 500kW, exponentially increase the surface impedance of higher
IMs mainly dominate while PMBMs take the majority for harmonics while maintaining essentially the same surface
generator actions [64]. For reasons of mechanical ruggedness, impedance of fundamental current. Rotor sleeves will be
highest product of power and speed could only be reached with required to reduce the high windage loss as well as the audible
SRIMs. Currently IMs are mainly employed as prime movers noise incurred. Besides enlarging the air-gap and slitting the
instead of electrical generators except in the flywheel KERS rotor, coating the solid rotor with copper layers also proved to
where only occasionally the 1M was operated in generation be an effective approach in reducing the rotor surface losses.
mode. The reason could largely be attributed to the additional The copper layer will serve as a low impedance reflection
magnetizing reactive power needed to keep the rotor excited, panel for harmonic currents before they enter the highly
which incurs at low power factors and therefore oversized resistive rotor core. SCIM also proves to be a viable solution
operated in unity power factor mode, meaning additional given the machine materials and structures optimized for high
system requirements are minimized. Besides, the non-linearity speed high temperature environments. Other rotor bar and end
associated with control of IMs tends to complicate the digital ring materials could barely meet such requirements other than
controllers. From the fault tolerance point of view, mutual the Glipcop series and even fewer materials for the rotor
coupling between phases and the rotor almost makes it lamination could out-perform Co-Fe alloys. Vacuum
impossible to be magnetically isolated. It can only withstand impregnation will be necessary, multi-stranded litz wire will be
an open-circuit failure and cannot operate with a sustained preferred and organic varnish for the rotor laminations will be
short-circuit condition. Hence 1M has a low fault tolerance. applied. Thin laminations down to the thickness of 0.3mm will
Some improvements have been suggested but with the penalty pose manufacturing challenges which water or laser cutting
of more complicated control techniques. These are difficult to could resolve. The design of high speed high temperature
implement and synchronize owing to the safety requirement of SCIMs has been thoroughly explored during the past, closed
separate control electronics and processing for each phase [20]. slots, deep bar or even double cage SCIM topologies should be
However, with the growing interests in high speed IMs of adopted in an effort to enhance the starting torque
several tens of KW in recent years, it becomes doubtful performance. The MGV induction machines, although high in
whether the merits of induction generators like the robustness, operation speed, power ratings and rotor temperature tolerance,
 TABLE V
APPLICATIONS OF HIGH SPEED IMS.

Max. Power Max. Speed Dimensions Pub.

IM Applications
(kW) (kr/min) 11> (mm) L (mm) Year
SC1M [48] 2000 15 840 890 Locomotive flywheel motor-generator 20 1 1
Slit Rotor SR1M [49] 30 24 1 50 90 Electrically assisted turbo-chargers 2010
Drag Cup 1M [50] 50 24 1 70 1 02 Automobile KERS flywheel motor-generator 2014
Slit Rotor SR1M [5 1 ] 30 29 1 77 120 Natural gas compression and transmission 2009
IM [59] 200 30 290 - General purpose 2007
SCIM [52] 250 30 355 280 General purpose 1 999
I M [4] 556 30 - - Cogeneration 2004
SCIM [60] 45 45 1 67 . 64 88.9 Turbo-generator 1 999
SCIM [53] 21 50 127 1 02 Automobile turbo-generators 2007
Copper Coated SRIM [54] 300 60 250 1 73 Integrated centrifugal compressor 2012
IM [5] 10 75 - - Electrically assisted turbocharger 2014
wIll be dIfficult to scale down. The separated end plates wIll elevated temperature, but at the expense of lowest power
require altering the engine structure and hence not feasible for density, and requiring sophisticated power converter to
current phase of machine prototyping. Drag-cup 1M, although provide both control and excitation, which decreases its fault
low in the inertia, has poor power factor due to the large air tolerant capability. The conclusions drawn from Section 2 and
gap containing two mechanical clearances plus the copper cup. 3 show that among all types of PMBM designs, TORUS NS is
The efficiency is also low due to the high rotor loss in the slightly preferred in terms of its high torque density and power
copper cup. density. Among all types of 1M designs, CCSRIM topology
shows slightly more prospect due to its better compromise
The above qualitative assessments for each 1M topology
between electrical and mechanical performance. In practical
have been summarized in Table VI. From mechanical
application, several tradeoffs such as the weighting factor of
robustness point of view, smooth SRIM might prove to be the
the above mentioned aspects might be used when considering
best candidate but copper coating should be applied to improve
electromagnetic, mechanical, thermal and acoustic aspects in
the electro-magnetic performance. ASSRIM could also be used
response to meeting different design goals. Given the design
for electric performance enhancement. SCIM may also prove
scenario of gas turbine electrical power generation field, the
to be a viable solution, considering the possibility of utilizing
selection process may be subjectively quantified by assigning
retaining sleeve due to the large air-gap required for high
each topology with scores concerning the above considered
speed operations. Double cage or deep bar 1M will induce
aspects. Table VII shows the total comparisons among these
huge centrifugal stress under high speed operation while caged
three typical topologies. SRM seems to be better than 1M and
SRIM and MGV topologies will be impractical for
PMBM due to its total higher scores.
manufacturing due to small dimensions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
IV. SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
This research was conducted within the Rolls-Royce @
This article reviews various electrical machine prototypes
NTU Corporate Lab with support from the National Research
in terms of high speed, high power density, high torque
Foundation (NRF) Singapore under the Corporate Lab @
density, compact size and high reliability aspects. The results
University Scheme.
may be useful for an EM designer to do some qualitative
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