IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 3 1, NO.
6, NOVEMBEFUDECEMBER 1995
Impact of Iron Loss on Behavior of Vector
Controlled Induction Machines
Ernil Levi, Member, IEEE
Abstruct- Vector control principles are derived under the
assumption that iron core loss may be neglected. The paper
discusses effects of this simplification on performance of vector
controlled induction machines. Indirect stator, air gap and rotor
flux oriented control of a current fed machine are dealt with, with
the emphasis on indirect rotor flux oriented control. Models of
vector controlled induction machines that account for the iron
loss are derived, and the mechanism of core loss influence on
behavior of the drives is highlighted. It is shown that detuning
caused by neglecting the core loss will inevitably take place. The
amount of detuning is investigated for steady-state operation,
for all three types of vector control. Some insight into detuning
during transient operation is provided for the case of indirect
rotor flux oriented induction machine. The concluding part of
the paper presents a new decoupling circuit for indirect rotor
flux oriented control. The circuit accounts for iron loss and thus
eliminates detuning which is otherwise present.
I. INTRODUCTION
F UNDAMENTAL principles of vector control of induction
machines are derived under the assumptions that all the
parameters are constant, and that magnetizing flux saturation
and iron core loss may be neglected [l], [ 2 ] . Unfortunately,
such an idealized situation is not met in practice, where the
parameters are subject to variation and iron loss exists.
Rotor resistance and rotor time constant variation effects,
being most frequently of importance, were the first to be
investigated in detail. As a consequence, numerous adaptation
schemes are currently available [3]. Main flux saturation influ-
ence on behavior of vector controlled induction machines has
been analyzed in detail as well [4]. A series of compensation
schemes were made available [ 5 ] ,which enabled significant
improvement in the drive performance, especially for operation
in the field-weakening region [6].
Iron core loss, as a possible source of performance deterio-
ration in field oriented induction machines, has hardly received
any attention so far. An attempt to compensate for the core loss
is reported in [7] in conjunction with a complete parameter
adaptation scheme for vector controlled induction machines.
However, no insight is provided into either mechanism of core
loss influence on behavior of the drive, or actual amount of
detuning caused by omission of core loss representation in the
Paper IPCSD 95-44, approved by the Electric Machines Committee of the
IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1994 IEEE Industry
Applications Society Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, October 2-7. Manuscript
released for publication May 23, 1995.
The author is with the School of Electrical Engineering, Liverpool John
Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK.
IEEE Log Number 9414386.
0093-9994/95$04.00 0 1995 IEEE
1287
design of the control system. On the other hand, recent inves-
tigations of vector controlled synchronous reluctance machine
[8], [9] indicate that iron core loss has a significant role in
establishing accurate field orientation. Appropriate modified
control schemes are proposed in [8], [9] for synchronous
reluctance machines that compensate for the iron loss.
The approach to inclusion of the core loss representation in
an induction machine model, adopted in this paper, is the one
usually applied in steady-state phasor analysis of sinusoidally
fed induction machines by means of equivalent circuits [lo]. A
resistance, that represents the iron loss, is connected in parallel
to the magnetizing branch. Such an approach has already been
suggested fpr application in orthogonal axis models of electric
machines [ll]. It is worth noting that the method, used in
[SI, [9] in conjunction with a vector controlled synchronous
reluctance motor, is the same.
Indirect vector control schemes of a current fed induction
machine are elaborated in this paper. Stator, air gap, and rotor
flux oriented control are analyzed, with emphasis being placed
on orientation along rotor flux. Mathematical models, that
account for the iron core loss and are valid for each of the
three types of orientation, are presented first. These models are
then utilized to assess qualitatively consequences of omission
of iron core loss representation in standard vector control
circuitry. It is shown that stator d-q axis current components do
not enable direct control of either flux or torque. Furthermore,
inclusion of the core loss introduces additional coupling into
the model, so that decoupled flux and torque control do not
take place.
Steady-state operation in the speed mode in the constant
flux region is analyzed further in order to quantify the amount
of detuning caused by the iron loss. Expressions that relate
commanded and actual torque and flux values are derived,
accompanied by expression for the error in the orientation
angle. The value of the resistance used to model iron loss is
determined from standard no-load test, at first with sinusoidal
supply of rated frequency, and then with a PWM supply of
rated frequency. Numerical results that describe detuning are
presented and it is shown that iron loss inevitably leads to
certain discrepancy between actual and commanded values of
flux and torque and causes an error in the orientation angle.
An illustration of error dynamics during transient operation is
included for the case of an indirect rotor flux oriented induction
machine. Finally, a new decoupling circuit is proposed for
indirect rotor flux oriented control, which compensates for the
iron loss in any steady-state operation.
1288 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,VOL.31, NO 6,NOVEMBERDECEMBER 1995

-U L i -id L i
a (TS qs L a (Tr q r
R (Tr R

-
r
S
+
t II
++
0
A

1 i 1
V
dS dm dr +
dS
-U L i -U r
q
'
a m qm

Fig. 1. Orthogonal d-q axis equivalent circuit of an induction machine, in arbitrary frame of reference, that includes representation of the iron core loss.

All the parameters of the machine are here assumed to be associated with main (magnetizing) flux, and index F e is used
constant and equal to those used in the controller. Hence the for parameters and variables connected with iron core loss
core loss appears as the only source of detuned operation. representation. Indices s and r stand for stator and rotor.
The value of the equivalent iron loss resistance in Fig. 1
11. INCLUSION OF CORE LOSS IN INDUCTION MACHINEMODEL can be found from a standard no-load test, performed at
Iron loss is included in orthogonal d-q axis model of an an appropriate operating frequency. Any vector controlled
induction machine in a way shown in Fig. 1, by connecting a induction machine is fed from a PWM voltage source rather
resistance across the magnetizing branch. The circuit of Fig. 1 than from a sinusoidal supply and the PWM supply is known
thus combines a well-known d-q axis equivalent circuit with to lead to a significant increase in the total iron loss in
neglected iron loss [12] with the customary approach to iron the machine, compared with a purely sinusoidal supply [13].
loss modeling in a steady-state phasor equivalent circuit, valid However, the component of the iron loss that is relevant for
for sinusoidal operation [lo]. As the main goal of this paper is the field orientation detuning is the fundamental iron loss
steady-state analysis under ideal sinusoidal supply conditions, only, as any vector controller operates as the first harmonic
the circuit of Fig. 1 for such an operation can be reduced controller. In order to determine the value of the equivalent
to a steady-state phasor equivalent circuit. The model of the iron loss resistance two no-load tests are performed, both at
induction machine is obtained from Fig. 1, in an arbitrary rated fundamental frequency. The machine is supplied from
frame of reference ( w U ) ,in the form a variable sinusoidal voltage source in the first test, at a
constant 5 0 - H ~frequency. The supply in the second test is
a PWM voltage source inverter with sinusoidal modulation of
the triangular carrier signal. Output voltage is again of variable
value while its frequency is 50 Hz. A power analyzer has
been used for measurements with PWM supply. The analyzer
enables measurement of the fundamental real power, as well
as the FFT analysis of current and voltage waveforms. Results
of the two no-load tests are shown in Fig. 2 for the machine
studied in this paper (data are given in the Appendix), where
the sum of mechanical and (fundamental) iron loss is plotted
against the first harmonic of the stator induced EMF (first
harmonic of the voltage minus voltage drop across stator
resistance). The sum of mechanical and fundamental iron loss
Power invariant transformation is applied and a machine with for the PWM supply is calculated by deducting stator copper
one pole pair is assumed for the sake of simplicity. Symbols v , losses due to fundamental stator current harmonic from the
i, and $' denote voltage, current, and flux linkage, respectively, fundamental input power.
speed of rotation is w , leakage inductances are identified It can be concluded from Fig. 2 that fundamental iron loss
with index U , index m denotes parameters and variables with the PWM supply is essentially the same as with sinusoidal
LEVI: IMPACT OF IRON LOSS ON BEHAVIOR OF VECTOR CONTROLLED INDUCTION MACHINES 1289

111. VECTORCONTROLLED
Sum of mechanical and the
first harmonic iron loss: . CURRENT FED INDUCTION
MACHINE
solid line - sinusoidal supply
dashed line - PWM supply
A. Rotor Flux Oriented Control (RFOC)
-"
U Models (1)-(6) show that incorporation of the core loss
x
- 30.00
I
into the model increases the order of the system by two.
As a current-fed machine is discussed in what follows, (1) is
c
omitted from further consideration. It is interesting to note that
;. 20.00
the torque equation (6) already indicates that total torque of
0
E the motor will be used partially to overcome iron core losses.
10.00
Thus the torque, determined purely with stator current d-q axis
4-

2 components, is not the actual output torque.

i; Rotor flux oriented control is defined with the well-known
constraints
$dr = "hr $qr = 0
wa = wr q5r = / w r d t . (7)
Fig. 2. Sum of mechanical loss and (fundamental) iron core loss, obtained
from no-load tests with sinusoidal supply and with PWM supply at 50-Hz
operating frequency.
Application of the constraints given by (7) in conjunction
with the model of the machine (2)-(6) enables derivation of
supply, for the same values of the frequency and of the the model that describes the rotor flux oriented current fed
fundamental voltage harmonic. The value of the equivalent induction machine. The model is conveniently written as
iron loss resistance determined from Fig. 2 for the rated
operating flux will be, strictly speaking, valid for the 50-Hz
operation only. However, rated frequency operation is, at
the same time, the worst case condition for operation in
the constant flux region, so that the value of the resistance
calculated from Fig. 2 satisfies for numerical calculations of
the worst case detuning, elaborated in Section V. If the value
of the resistance, calculated for 50-Hz operation, is kept Angular slip frequency equals wsl = wr - w in (8). The two
constant and used for calculations at lower frequencies, the time constants, introduced in (8), are defined as To, = L,,,/Rr
iron loss in the machine will be underestimated (the resistance and T F = ~ Lm/R~,.
of Fig. 1 accurately models steady-state eddy-current loss for Examination of ( 8 ) enables qualitative insight into the
any operating frequency in the constant flux region; when effects of core loss on the operation of a rotor flux oriented
frequency decreases, the hysteresis iron loss decreases slower current fed induction machine. Iron core loss introduces un-
than the eddy current loss and the overall iron loss predicted by wanted coupling between the d- and q-axis, as cross-coupling
the constant value of resistance appears to be underestimated). terms are present in the third and the fourth equation of (8).
Thus it follows that equivalent iron loss resistance should be These cross-coupling terms are frequency dependent, as is
determined at various operating frequencies if detuning is to to be expected due to iron loss frequency dependence. The
be predicted accurately at lower operating frequencies, or if higher the frequency is, the greater will be the amount of
compensation for iron loss is to be attempted by means of the cross-coupling. Further, it can be concluded from (8) that
the modified indirect vector controller, proposed in Section stator current d-q axis components do not govern directly
VI. The results of Fig. 2 indicate that an equivalent iron loss either rotor flux or output torque production. The total torque,
resistance can be determined for operation in the constant flux determined with stator currents, is partially used to cover iron
region at various frequencies relatively simply, by performing loss. Both rotor flux and output torque are controllable directly
a series of no-load tests with PWM supply at different fun- by magnetizing current d-q axis components. Hence, it follows
damental output frequencies. It is worth noting that the same that magnetizing current components should be controlled,
conclusions follow from the study presented in [14] as well. rather than stator current components. It should be noted that
By performing a series of no-load tests with PWM supply, these conclusions closely correspond to the conclusions given
it would become possible to express equivalent iron loss in [SI, [9] regarding the core loss influence on operation of
resistance as a frequency dependent parameter for operation synchronous reluctance machine.
in the constant flux region If the vector controlled induction
machine operates at variable levels of commanded flux (for B. Air Gap Flux Oriented Control (AFOC)
example, field weakening region), then iron loss resistance Conditions of field orientation are now
would need to be represented as a function of both frequency
and flux. The appropriate values of resistance for various flux $ d m = $m $qm= 0
levels and frequencies are again obtainable from the same set (9)
wa = w, q5m = / w m d t .
of no-load tests with PWM supply.
1290 EEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 31, NO 6, NOVEMBERIDECEMBER 1995
The mathematical description of a current fed, air gap flux
oriented machine is obtained from (2)-(6) using (9) in the
following form:
where im = idnz,s = d / d t , Tr = L r / R r and wSl = w, - w.
Equation (10) indicates that inclusion of the core loss into
the model leads to minor increase of the overall complexity
of the equations. This type of field-oriented control asks for a
rather complex decoupling circuit even when the core loss is
neglected. Addition of the core loss representation makes the
decoupling circuit, that would compensate for the core loss,
only insignificantly more complex. From (lo), it follows that
The induction machine is represented with the set of equations,
existence of the core loss introduces additional cross-coupling
obtained from (2)-(6), in the reference frame dictated by the
terms and that, once more, torque and flux production in the
controller. Hence the model of the machine accounts for the
machine is not governed solely by stator current d-q axis
core loss and is given with
components.
C. Stator Flux Oriented Control (SFOC)
Stator flux oriented control is achieved if
The model of a stator flux oriented current-fed induction ma-
chine results by application of (1l ) in conjunction with (2)-(6).
The resulting equations are in this case rather complicated and
may be expressed in the form
where S = 1 - L L / ( L s L r ) .Existence of the core loss in
the machine has again the same effects upon flux and torque
control as in rotor flux and air gap flux oriented control.
However, the significant complexity of (12),when compared
with (8) and (lo), indicates that a design of the decoupling
circuit that would compensate for the core loss is going to be
much more involved in the case of stator flux oriented control.
Iv. IMPACT OF IRON LOSS ON STEADY-STATE OPERATION
This section discusses the method employed in order to
quanhfy impact of iron loss on behavior of field-oriented
induction machines. The procedure is explained in detail for
the case of rotor flux oriented control, because this is the
most frequently applied method of vector control. Following
the same procedure, it is possible to derive corresponding
eqtlations that are valid for air gap and stator flux oriented
control. Graphs, presented in the next section, contain results
obtained for all three types of field orientation.
Indirect rotor flux oriented control is realized by means
of the standard indirect vector controller; shown in Fig. 3,
which neglects iron loss. Constant flux operation is discussed
only, so that reference value of the rotor flux is constant and
q u a l to the rated (all reference values are denoted with an
asterisk). Torque command in Fig. 3 is the output of the PI
speed controller. The equations that describe the controller are
As the reference frame imposed by the controller has been
selected and the closed loop speed control is analyzed,, stator
d-q axis currents and angular slip frequency in the model of
the machine are equal to the corresponding reference values, as
indicated by (14). Steady-state operation is discussed only, so
that all the time derivatives in (14) are set to zero. Equations
(13) and (14), with time derivatives equated to zero, enable
derivation of the expressions for ratios of actual to commanded
rotor flux and actual to commanded torque, as well as the
equation for the error in the orientation angle, Ad,,.. Hence
detuning caused by omission of the core loss representation
in the vector controller may be quantified. These expressions
may be given in the following form.
As can be seen from (15), the actual amount of detuning
that will be experienced depends on the operating frequency,
i.e., on the operating speed. In the speed mode, due to the
closed speed control loop, the following conditions have to be
LEVI: IMPACT OF IRON LOSS ON BEHAVIOR OF VECTOR CONTROLLED INDUCTION MACHINES
I I
Fig. 3. Indirect rotor flux oriented controller.
satisfied in any steady-state
W* =w TL = T , (16)
where TL stands for load torque. In other words, actual and
reference speeds have to be equal, and the load torque must
equal induction machine output torque. Thus the load torque
becomes an independent variable, while torque command is
unknown and has to be calculated. Substitution of the second
equation of (15) into the second equation of ( 16) enables
calculation of the torque command, for given load torque
and speed of rotation, from the following expression: where
(see (17) at the bottom of this page) h = L,/$,*2 (or h =
(1/P)Lr/$:2 for a machine with P pole pairs). Equations
(15) and (17) enable determination of the error in orientation
angle and calculation of ratios of actual to commanded rotor
flux and actual to commanded torque for any load torque and
speed.
The equations derived in this section are used for quantifi-
cation of the impact of iron loss on operation of the indirect
rotor flux oriented induction machine, and the results are given
in the next section. As already pointed out, using the described
procedure, appropriate expressions are found for the cases of
air gap and stator flux oriented control. Results in the next
section address all three types of field orientation.
V. NUMERICALRESULTS
If iron loss is not accounted for in the vector controller,
then the loss appears, from the point of view of the controller,
as an unrecognized power demand for which provision has to
be made at the expense of the output power. Thus the actual
amount of detuning, met during operation of the drive, will
strongly depend on the actual amount of iron loss in the given
machine. The amount of iron core loss is expressed as the
percentage of the rated power in subsequent discussions. The
machine used here to assess the amount of detuning caused
by core loss is a squirrel cage 0.75-kW induction motor for
1291
which results of the no-load tests have already been given in
Section 11. The amount of iron loss for rated frequency, rated
voltage operation equals 3% of the rated output power.
Core loss will be the highest at rated operating frequency
in the constant flux region. The amount of detuning will
consequently be the highest at this frequency as well. The
operating regime chosen for illustration of the worst case is the
rated flux (flux reference set to appropriate rated value), and
rated speed operation, which gives rated 50-Hz operation for
the load torque equal to motor rated torque. Speed command
is kept at the rated in numerical investigations and load torque
is varied from zero to twice the motor rated torque. As the
speed is kept constant for all the loadings, stator frequency is
not constant and varies, for example, for RFOC, from 47.7 Hz
for zero load torque, up to 52.3 Hz at twice the rated torque.
Equations (15) and (17) were solved numerically in order to
produce results for the case of indirect rotor flux orientation.
Similar equations, derived for air gap and stator flux oriented
control, were used to produce results for these two types of
vector control.
Ratios of actual to commanded rotor flux and actual to com-
manded torque, the error in orientation angle and percentage
errors in d-q components of the flux along which orientation is
performed, are shown in Fig. 4. All the detuning characteristics
are displayed against normalized load torque. Percentage errors
in d-q axis flux components and error in the onentation angle
are defined as
= ($z* - $dt)/$z x 100 a$qz = (-$qz/$z*) x 100
Qz= arctan($qz/$dz) a = r,m,s (18)
for RFOC, AFOC, and SFOC, respectively. Note that normal-
ization is done with respect to the commanded (rated) value
of the appropriate flux along which orientation is performed.
Hence the same percentage error implies different actual
values.
As can be seen from Fig. 4, a moderate amount of detuning
is introduced, regardless of the type of the orientation when the
iron loss is neglected. The only remarkable difference between
different orientation types is a smaller error in orientation angle
in the case of stator flux oriented control. The reason is higher
value of the flux reference, with the flux q-axis component
being essentially the same as with the rotor and air gap flux
orientation. The maximum value of the error in the orientation
angle appears at very light loads, while flux and torque ratios
are at their lowest values in vicinity of rated load torque.
Strong dependence of all the characteristics on load torque
is evident from the figure.
An explanation of the mechanism by which load torque
influences detuning is based on Fig. 5, where three specific
situations are illustrated for the case of indirect rotor flux ori-
ented control: commanded torque equal to zero (see Fig. 5(a)),
1292 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL 31, NO. 6, NOVEMBERIDECEMBER 1995

SFOC

RFOC. AFOC

i d
ds
J

8t 0.97 : (a)
-I- 2 ;
0.96 :
SPEED=150 md/s
Rfe = so00 ohms *
i
s
i

5.00

2.50

n
&Z.W
.-U
a"
D
1.x,

J?.
U (c)
1.00
B Fig. 5. Commanded ( d * - ~ * and
) actual (d-4) rotor flux oriented reference
h e with appropriate current components, for three values of commanded
torque: zero (a), rated (b), and twice the rated (c).
0.50
-
SpEED=150 md/s
Rfe 5OOO ohms
Fig. 5(c)). The d*-q* axis reference frame is the one dictated
by the control system, while the d-q axis frame denotes the
actual rotor flux oriented reference frame inside the machine.
(C)
Components of the commanded stator current are drawn to
Fig. 4. Detuning in steady-states, caused by core loss, in indirect vector
controlled induction machines (Psi = $, dPsid = A4d,, dPsiq = A$+,
scale in all three illustrations of Fig. 5 . However, the angle that
i = T,m,S). describes the error in orientation angle is shown significantly
greater than it will be (actual values are available from Fig. 4);
commanded torque equal to the rated torque (see Fig. 5(b)), still, the trend of the decrease in the error in the orientation
and commanded torque equal to twice the rated torque (see angle with an increase in load torque is preserved throughout
 LEV1 IMPACT OF IRON LOSS ON BEHAVIOR OF VECTOR CONTROLLED INDUCTION MACHINES
Fig. 5. The behavior of the error in the orientation angle is
easily understandable from Fig. 5. At zero commanded load
torque (see Fig. 5(a)), the control system attempts to supply
the machine with reactive power only (mechanical loss is
neglected throughout this discussion; as the machine is current
fed and commanded torque is zero, then the real power to be
transferred from stator to rotor is zero). However, iron loss
takes place in the machine, and that means that some real
power must be taken from the source. Hence the detuning of
the actual d-q axis frame takes place and an error in orientation
angle occurs. This value of the orientation angle error is at the
same time the maximum value. When output power demand
is increased to rated (see Fig. 5(b)), iron loss represents a
tiny portion of the total real power that is to be supplied to
the motor. Hence the error in the orientation angle becomes
significantly smaller than it was for light loads, where iron loss
was comparable to the required output power. If the required
output power is further increased to, for example, twice
the rated (see Fig. 5(c)), iron loss becomes negligibly small
compared with the total real power and error in the orientation
1293
angle becomes very small. Hence the error in orientation angle
steadily decreases with an increase in loading of the machine.
The behavior of the error in flux amplitude (and hence in
torque ratio as well) can be explained again by means of Fig. 5.
Although the error in the orientation angle is at a maximum for
zero load torque, amplitude of the rotor flux is hardly affected.
The reason is that the actual stator d-axis current component is
determined with the cosine function of the commanded stator
current; as the orientation error angle is very small (although at
maximum), the cosine is basically equal to unity and the actual
rotor flux is insignificantly different from the commanded
value. As the loading increases, the error in the orientation
angle decreases, but the angle of the commanded stator current
vector a increases. In the situation depicted in Fig. 5(b), the
angle a is equal to 45". The error in the orientation angle has
now a smaller value than in Fig. 5(a), but the actual stator
cl-axis current component is smaller than before, because it
is determined with the cosine of the sum of the orientation
angle error and the angle a. Hence the rotor flux has a smaller
value than in Fig. 5(a) and the situation illustrated in Fig. 5(b)
1294 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 31, NO. 6, NOVEMBERDECEMBER 1995

1 .w

0.99

.-
t
U)

t0.98
.-ffl
a

L
w-3.00 ? . . , . . , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , ~ ~,,,~,
0.00 0.50 1.oo 1.so 2.00
Te=TL (P.u.)

4.00

.3
-93.w
5
U

-
SPEEDrl50 md/s
Me 3ooo ohms

(C)

Fig. 7. Effects of iron loss in steady-state operation of indirect vector controlled induction machines (iron loss at rated voltage, rated frequency equals
5% of rated power).

corresponds to the minimum value of the rotor flux. As the
loading increases further, the error in the orientation angle
further reduces. Ultimately, it becomes so smdl (see Fig. 5(c))
that actual stator current d-axis component starts increasing
again, compared with the case of Fig. 5(b). In other words,
the error in the orientation angle is at twice the rated load,
sufficiently small so that its impact on cosine function becomes
smaller than it was in Fig 5(b)
The results given in Fig. 4 indicate that detuning in a steady-
state operation is rather small. However, two important facts
have to be remembered. First, any steady-state error in an
orientation angle creates unwanted transients during dynamic
operating regimes. In order to illustrate this statement, a
simulation of transient operation of the indirect rotor flux
oriented induction machine is performed. The indirect vector
controller of Fig. 3 is interfaced with the machine model
given with (14). The machine is at first excited with rated
rotor flux command at standstill with zero load torque. In
order to avoid dependence of response on speed PI controller
settings, the output of the speed controller is taken as step
torque command of constant value throughout the acceleration
interval. Acceleration of the machine from zero to rated speed
is investigated under no-load conditions. Two different step
torque commands are applied, 1 p.u. and 0.5 P.u., respectively.
Torque command is removed in both cases when the machine
speed becomes equal to rated. Results of the simulations are
given in Fig. 6, where rotor speed, orientation angle error
dynmics, and dynamics of the error in actual output torque
are shown. The,torque percentage error in Fig. 6 is defined as
(1-T,/T,*) x 100 (note that the base value for the commanded
torque differs for the two cases illustrated in Fig. 6).
In the simulation test of Fig. 6, operating frequency changes
from zero up to almost rated. The results of Fig. 6 are
obtained with the constant, 50 Hz, value of equivalent iron
loss resistance. The value of the equivalent iron loss resistance
should ideally change with operating frequency in order to
provide an accurate representation of the iron loss at all
frequencies, as discussed in Section TI. Hence Fig. 6 gives
an insight into the nature 07 the error dynamics, rather than
accurate values of detuning at all of the frequencies. It is
LEV1 IMPACT OF IRON LOSS ON BEHAVIOR OF VECTOR CONTROLLED INDUCTION MACHINES 1295

interesting to note that the value of the orientation angle

error in Fig. 6 in the final steady-state operating point (zero
load torque operation at rated speed) can be checked against
the results given in Fig. 4 and arrived at on the basis of
steady-state analytical expressions for detuning. As the value
is the same, simulations of Fig. 6 prove the correctness of the
expressions for detuning derived in Section IV.
The other important note is that the machine analyzed here
has a rather low amount of iron loss. Iron loss in machines
of comparable power ratings may be up to 5% of the rated
power. Higher values of iron loss will cause more pronounced
detuning. In order to illustrate this, one more simulation test is
performed. The machine and conditions of analysis are exactly
the same as in the case described in conjunction with Fig. 4.
However, it is now assumed that the iron loss equals 5% of the
rated power. The value of the equivalent iron loss resistance
in the model is changed accordingly, from 5 kR to 3 kR. The
results for this case are summarized in Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Modified indirect rotor flux oriented controller with iron loss corn-
The trends of various curves in Fig. 7 are the same as in pensation in steady-state operation.
Fig. 4. However, Fig. 7 shows that a higher value of the iron
loss leads to a significant increase in the errors met in all it is recognized that the same model was used in both the
the relevant characteristics. These errors should be eliminated derivation of the modified controller and in the representation
if the dynamic response during operation of the drive is to of induction machine with included iron loss. The equivalent
approach its theoretical counterpart. From the results given in iron loss resistance in Fig. 8 can be given as a look-up table
this section, it is evident that the decision whether to provide in terms of operating frequency, provided that the appropriate
compensation for the iron loss within the control system or not resistance values have been determined experimentally for
predominantly depends on how high or low the iron losses in different operating frequencies, as explained in Section 11.
the given machine are. As will be shown in the next section,
compensation of iron loss can be achieved in a rather simple
manner, by modifying the indirect vector controller. VII. CONCLUSION
The paper first presents mathematical models of current fed
VI. MODIFIEDINDIRECTROTOR vector controlled induction machines that account for iron
FLUXORIENTED CONTROLLER loss. Using the derived models, it is shown that iron loss
A modified indirect rotor flux oriented controller, proposed introduces unwanted cross-coupling, so that decoupled flux
in this section, accounts for the core loss and thus enables and torque control does not take place when iron loss is
elimination of the detuning present when the iron loss is neglected in indirect vector controllers. Furthermore, torque
neglected. It is assumed that the drive is aimed for operation and flux production are governed directly by magnetizing
in constant flux region only, so that rotor flux reference is set current components, rather than by stator d-q axis currents.
to a constant value. The equations of the modified controller The amount of detuning which is present in steady-state
are obtained directly from the model that describes current-fed operation, when iron loss is neglected in the design of the
rotor flux oriented induction machine (8) in the form control system, depends on the machines rated voltage, rated
frequency iron losses. However, even in the machines with
low amount of iron loss, the impact is not negligibly small.
It is suggested to compensate for iron loss by utilizing a
modified indirect rotor flux oriented controller. This controller
is insignificantly more complex, compared with the standard
one. The only additional datum required in realization of the
controller is the value of the equivalent iron loss resistance.

The modified indirect rotor flux oriented controller, described

APPENDIX
with (19), is shown in Fig. 8. As the method of accounting
INDUCTION MOTOR DATA
for the core loss is strictly valid for steady-states only, the
derivative term present in the equation for stator y-axis current P, = 0.75 kW 2201380 V 3.612.1 A P = 2
in (19) is omitted. As can be seen from Fig. 8, complexity R, = 10 0 Rr = 6.3 0 L, = 0.421 H A/Y
added to the controller by iron loss compensation is very mod- L,, = 43 mH L,, = 40 mH iqsn/idsn = 1 50 Hz
erate. The fact that the controller will provide compensation Ten= 5.15 Nm (index n denotes rated values)
for iron loss in any steady-state operation is easily proved if J = 0.01 kgm2.
1296 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL 31, NO. 6, NOVEMBERDECEMBER 1995
Iron loss with rated fundamental voltage, rated frequency
supply
Ppen = 22.8 W (3% of rated power); R F =
~ 5 kfl.
Rated rms values of flux linkages
Q,n = 0.8866/& qmm
= 0.89/& q,, = 0.991/&.
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Emil Levi (M90) was born in Yugoslavia in 1958
He graduated from the University of Novi Sad,
Yugoslavia, in 1982 and received the M S c and
PhD degrees from the University of Belgrade,
Yugoslavia, in 1986 and 1990, respectively
In 1982, he joined the Department of Electrical
Engineenng, University of Novi Sad, where he
became Assistant Professor in 1991 He joined the
Liverpool John Moores University, U K in May
1992, as a Senior Lecturer His m a n areas of
research interest are modeling and simulation of
electric machines, coni3 01 of high performance electric drives and power
electronic converters.