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Temporary
over-voltages and
20 system grounding
Contents
Ground leakage
These currents may develop dangerous over-voltages
capacitances
across the healthy phases, under certain ground circuit a
impedance conditions, as discussed in Section 20.2.1(1).
It is thus possible to encounter a ground fault, even when Cg Cg Cg
Load
the system is not grounded, the fault current finding its
return path through the ground leakage capacitances. While c b
G
an LV system, in view of a far too low ground voltage,
Vg (equal to line voltage, Section 20.2.1(1)), as compared
to high ground capacitive leakage reactance, Xcg, would G Ig
cause a near open circuit (Vg/Xcg being too meagre) and
stay immune, leaving the grounded conductor floating at
V g = V . Figure 20.3 Case of ground fault within the load
B B V V V R
V V 3 3 3
N Y
V V B
R R
Ground leakage
a
capacitances
G
Y V Y V Load Cg Cg Cg
(a) (b) (c)
c b
Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence or
residual quantities G
Ig
Vr = Vy = Vb = V
Figure 20.1 Phasor representation of an unbalanced power Figure 20.4 Case of a ground fault on a power system on
system on a ground fault the load side
20/762 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Y
May attenuate at about 810 2V l
6
Xcg
Zg
Vl 5
2V l
G
Xcg = Ground leakage capacitive reactance 3
in terms of
Z g = Additional ground impedance (R, Xc or XL)
R 1
1
N Y 2
B 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Ratio of additional impedance Zg to Xcg
a
1 Resistive reactance
Cg Cg Cg 2 Capacitive reactance
Load 3 Inductive reactance
c b
Figure 20.7 Influence of external impedance Z g in the ground
G
circuit on the system voltage in the event of ground fault in an
On a healthy system the ground leakage capacitances find no return ungrounded system
path and therefore do not activate. They do so when there is a ground
fault as illustrated in Figures 20.3 and 20.4
The variation in Vgmax with the variation in resistive
Figure 20.6 A healthy system reactance, R, in the ground circuit, is shown in Figure
20.7, curve 1.
and 20.4, then the voltage across the impedance Z g can
be determined as follows: Inference
Irrespective of the value of the external resistance (R) in
When the impedance is a resistive reactance the ground circuit, the maximum voltage the healthy
The peak voltage Vg(max) across R will be phases may have to sustain will not exceed 2 V , in the
event of a ground fault on an ungrounded system.
Vg(max) = R 2 V (20.1)
R 2 + X cg
2
When the impedance is a capacitive reactance
Computing values of Vg(max) by approximating, in terms of Referring to Figure 20.5, the peak voltage Vg across Xc
circuit resistance R and ground capacitive reactance Xcg, will be
when Xc
Vg max = 2 Vl (20.2)
R = 0, Vg(max) =0 X c + X cg
Computing Vg max along similar lines to those above, i.e.
1/2
R = 1 X cg , Vg(max)
= 2 Vl = 45% of 2 Vl when
2 (1/4 + 1)
Xc = 0, Vg max = 0
R = X cg , Vg max = 1 2 Vl 71% of 2 Vl 1
2 Xc = 1
X cg , Vg max = 1
2
2 Vl = 33.3% of 2 Vl
2 +1
1 5 2
R = 1 5Xcg, Vg max = 2 V 83% of 2 V
3 25 X c = X cg , Vg max = 1
2
2 Vl = 50% of 2 Vl
1 5
R = 2Xcg, Vg max = 2 2 Vl 89% of 2 Vl X c = 1 5 X cg , Vg max = 2 Vl = 60% of 2 Vl
25
5
As R approaches infinity; Vg(max) will tend to approach X c = 2 X cg , Vg max = 2 2 Vl = 66.7% of 2 Vl
2V . 3
20/764 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
As Xc approaches infinity, Vg max will tend to approach 2 V . This variation in Vg max , with the variation in
2 V . The variation in Vg max with the variation in inductive reactance, XL, is also shown in Figure 20.7.
capacitive reactance, Xc, in the ground circuit is shown The inductive reactance, XL, will tend to offset the
in Figure 20.7, curve 2. ground capacitive reactance X cg and diminish the
denominator to a certain value of XL, say, until it
completely offsets the content of Xcg (XL = Xcg). At higher
Inference ratios, when XL > 3Xcg, the denominator will rise more
This is same as for resistive impedance. In these two rapidly than the numerator and will tend to attenuate the
cases, when the external impedance is resistive or Vg max , as with R and X c , but at a slightly higher value
capacitive, there is no excessive voltage rise across the of Vg max (Figure 20.7, curve 3).
healthy phases of the system beyond 2 V . The voltage
developed across the ground capacitance, Xcg, and the (ii) Ferro-resonance effect
external impedance R or Xc is shared in the ratio of their The above analysis of over-voltages in the healthy phases
own values, the sum total of which will remain constant of an ungrounded system in the event of a ground fault
at 2 V . on one of the phases was based on the assumption that
the inductive reactance of the electromagnetic circuit,
(2) When the external impedance is an inductive i.e. the magnetic core of the connected equipment (which
may be a transformer or an induction motor) was linear
reactance over its entire range of operation. But this may not always
Now the situation is different, as resonance and ferro- be true. It is also possible that some components such as
resonance effects in the series inductive-capacitive circuits a CT or a CVT, may have their magnetic core gradually
may cause dangerous over-voltages. saturated* during normal operation, under certain circuit-
conditions and resonate with the ground capacitive
(i) Resonance effect reactance Xcg. This may lead to a high voltage in a healthy
system, even when there is no ground fault, the ground
Referring to Figure 20.5, the peak voltage Vg across XL circuit becoming completed through the grounded neutral
will be of such a device (Figure 20.8).
XL The phenomenon of saturation of the magnetic core
Vg max = 2 V (20.3) of such a device during normal operation and its resonance
X cg X L with the ground capacitive reactance, Xcg, is known as
Computing Vg along similar lines to those for resistive ferro-resonance. It would have the same effect on the
impedance, healthy phases/system as in (i) above.
The inductive reactance of the magnetic circuit on
i.e when XL = 0 Vg max = 0 saturation may fall to a much lower value than the linear
1
XL = 1
2 X cg Vg max = 2
1
2 V = 2 V
1 2
*Saturation of transformers also produces high currents, rich in
harmonics.
XL = Xcg, Vg max will tend to approach infinity
This is known as a resonating condition. It is, however, R
seen that in view of some in-built impedance in the ground
N Y
circuit it will tend to attenuate the alarmingly rising voltage
Vg max , to oscillate at around 8 to 10 times 2 Vl. This B
voltage will tend to raise the ground potential substantially,
depending upon the value of the external impedance XL.
It will also raise the ground potential of the healthy phases,
which may cause arcing grounds and become dangerous XL XL XL
Star Xcg Xcg Xcg
to the line insulators and the terminal equipment. This is
Residual voltage
star/open delta
transformer
inductive reactance of the magnetic core, as a consequence 20.4 Analysis of a grounded system
of design requirements, and lead to a condition of low
XL to Xcg ratio (say XL 1.5 to 2Xcg) in curve 3 of Figure
Consider Figure 20.12 again, when the neutral N is solidly
20.7. Under such a condition, the voltage across XL will
grounded. Also refer to Figure 20.1. If
tend to oscillate automatically between certain over-
voltage limits. The effective XL is seen to match the V = line voltage
ground capacitive reactance Xcg such that it helps to damp Z = positive sequence impedance
the over-voltages across the healthy phases, to oscillate This is measured between phase to phase or phase
at around two to three times 2 Vl . to neutral, depending upon the availability of the
Such a situation may also arise in electromagnetic neutral. The test current is kept at the rated value
equipment, which is subject to a varying system voltage for the equipment or the system under test. For the
during normal operation. One example is a residual voltage system shown in Figure 20.9(a).
transformer (RVT) (Section 15.4.3) which is required to VI
detect an unbalance (zero sequence) or a ground fault in Z =
the primary circuit and may reach early saturation. A 3 Ir
similar situation is also possible in a measuring CT and Z2 = negative sequence impedance.
even a protection CT, as both may saturate at a certain The same way as above, but now a negative
level of fault current in the primary. The same situation sequence voltage is applied (by interchanging one
would arise in a CVT (Chapter 15). Such devices (CTs, of the phases of the source of supply)
RVTs and CVTs) are generally grounded as a safety Z0 = zero phase sequence or residual impedance. This
requirement, and may give rise to such a situation during is measured between the three-phase terminals of
normal operation, even in a healthy system. a star winding shorted together and the neutral
(Figure 20.9(b)) and is calculated by
V 1 V
20.3 The necessity for grounding an Z0 = 3 or 3
3 Ir 3I
electrical system where
V = test voltage and
An ungrounded system, in the event of a ground fault, is
subject to an over-voltage, as noted in Section 20.2.1. It 3
is prone to cause yet higher voltages in the healthy phases I = test current, to be around the current-
when its ground circuit becomes inductive, as discussed carrying capacity of the neutral.
above. The over-voltage may damage the supporting
insulators and the terminal equipment. Should a system Also Z 0 = 3R0 + 3 X 0
be left ungrounded? This aspect must be viewed with the where
above phenomena in mind. It may also cause arcing R0 = zero phase sequence or residual resistance,
grounds and prove fatal to a human body coming into and
contact with the faulty equipment or the conductor. X0 = zero phase sequence or residual reactance
Assuming that a total power system, from its generating Zg = total impedance through the ground circuit
station to the far end LV distribution network (Figure Ig = ground fault current, zero sequence current
13.21) is left ungrounded and a ground fault occurs or residual current through the ground circuit
somewhere on the LV side, the fault current through the
human body will find a return path through the grounding Supply source
capacitances, no matter how feeble it may be. This current
may be dangerous to a human for which even 10 mA is 3f
fatal, as discussed in Section 21.1.1.
I
Generally, neutral grounding should be adopted in R Y B I
principle to avoid generation of over-voltages and to R Y B
System or equipment
I/3
I/3
I/3
Z0
shortest solid ground conductor, having a low resistance, 3
rather than through the ground capacitances, which have
a relatively much higher capacitive reactance. (See Figure
20.12.) N N
Below we briefly discuss the criteria and theory of
selecting a grounding system to achieve a desired level
I
of fault current to suit a predetermined ground fault
protection scheme, i.e. type of grounding and grounding (a) To measure positive (b) To measure zero
sequence impedance sequence impedance
impedance to suit the system voltage, type of installation,
and location of installation. Figure 20.9 Measuring system impedances
20/766 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Vg = ground potential, which is the same as the zero When some extra impedance R, XC, XL or a combination
sequence voltage or residual voltage. In a of these is introduced into the ground circuit it will become
ground fault, it would remain at V / 3 unlike possible to alter the magnitude and the characteristic of
at V in an ungrounded system (Section 20.2). the ground circuit current, Ig, to suit an already designed
ground fault protection scheme as discussed below.
The residual voltage may also be measured by a A three-phase four-wire system may be grounded in
residual voltage transformer (RVT) (Figure 20.10). Refer the following ways:
to Section 15.4.3 for more details.
Then the total impedance through the ground circuit 1 Solid neutral grounding system or
Z g = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 2 Impedance neutral grounding system
(For approximate values at design stage see Table 13.6.) 20.4.1 Solid neutral grounding system (also
and the fault current through ground circuit known as effectively grounded system)
3Vg
Ig = We have already discussed a solid neutral grounding
Zg system in Section 20.3. The residual voltage or the ground
3 Vl potential rises to the phase voltage V / 3 and does not
or Ig = alter the voltage of the healthy phases. To analyse this
3 Zg
system, we have redrawn the circuit of Figure 20.2 in
The residual current may also be measured by a three- Figure 20.12, grounding the neutral solidly. The impedance
CT method as illustrated in Figure 20.11. to ground, Zg, through the neutral circuit will be extremely
small and resistive in nature, compared to the ground
R capacitive reactance Xcg, i.e. Zg << Xcg, and will share
V
most of the fault current. The current through the ground
leakage capacitances may be ignored to derive an easy
N Y
inference. The effectiveness of grounding and its
V impedance will play the most decisive role in determining
B the fault current and the most appropriate protection.
Ig
G G G
A
G I g
I g + I g = 3I g Negligible
Figure 20.11 Measuring the residual current Figure 20.12 A solid neutral grounding system
Temporary over-voltages and system grounding 20/767
G Y
b b
20.5 Arc suppression coil or ground B
fault neutralizer
Line Line
reactor reactor
This is also known as a Petersen coil, named after its
inventor. With an inductive reactance, XL, in the ground
circuit the ground fault current can be substantially Neutral Neutral
neutralized by tuning the inductor correctly. A small grounding grounding
residual ground current however, will still flow through reactor (NGR) reactor (NGR)
the ground circuit as a result of its own resistance, insulator G G
leakage and corona effect. In all likelihood, it would be
sufficient to operate the protective scheme. Since the Figure 20.14 A ground fault neutralizer
20/768 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
where the total ground capacitive reactance 20.6 Ground fault factor (GFF)
1 X cg
= = This is an important indicator that shows the grounding
1 1 1 3
X + X + X condition of a system and helps to determine the most
cg cg cg appropriate ground fault protective scheme as well as
If L = inductor coil inductance in henry the insulation level for that system. It is defined as the
Cg = ground capacitance per phase in farad and ratio of the highest voltage to ground, Vg (r.m.s.), of the
healthy phase or phases during a ground fault to the
f = system frequency in Hz
then corresponding power frequency phase voltage V / 3,
when the system was healthy. Refer to Figure 20.15.
2p f L 1
3(2 p f C g ) Vg
\ Ground fault factor (GFF) = (20.5)
1 V / 3
or L henry (20.4)
3(2 p f ) 2 C g which is usually more than 1.
It is likely that for reasons of system disturbances, It is also established that in an effectively grounded
frequency fluctuations and switching of a few sections system the voltage to ground, Vg, of the healthy phases
of the system, both XL and Xcg may vary in actual operation does not exceed 80% of the line-to-line voltage V and
and upset the resonance condition, leading to transient consequently the GFF does not exceed 0.8 3 , i.e
over-voltages. To overcome this, the inductor coil may 1.4. The system may be considered as effectively grounded
be made variable (the setting of which may be altered when
automatically) through a motor-driven tap changer to
achieve the tuning again. If the ground fault persists the X0
inductor coil may be rated continuously rather than for a = between 0 and 3, and
X+
short-time and for the full fault current that the coil may
have to carry. R0
To overcome the generation of over-voltages across = between 0 and 1
X+
the inductor coil (Section 20.2.1(2)) its inductance, L, is
generally selected high, so that the resonance condition
with the ground capacitors, Cg, occurs near the natural R
frequency of the system (50 or 60 Hz) and the voltage
developed across the inductor coil, Vg, may oscillate only
at around V / 3. Generally, the Petersen coil neutralizer N
Y
is a high-reactance grounding and is also termed resonant Vl /3
grounding, free from over-voltages and restrikes.
Accordingly the voltages developed across the Petersen coil B
Vl /3
XL V V
Vg = (XL >> Xcg) Vl /3
X cg X L 3 3
The voltage developed would thus oscillate around the G
normal voltage and fall in phase with the fault current to
achieve a near-strike-free interruption of the interrupting (a) Healthy system
device on a ground fault.
R
Note
1 As in IEC 60071-1,2 a higher insulation level (BIL) will be
necessary for all insulators and terminal equipment when the N
Y
ground fault persists for more than 8 hours per 24 hours or a
total of more than 125 hours during a year.
Vg
2 Because of likely de-tuning and generation of over-voltages,
this system is seldom in practice. B
Vg
Sometimes such a situation may arise on its own,
even on a normally grounded system, not intended for
ground current neutralizing. It can happen when an
G
overhead line snaps due to a storm, wind or any other G
factor and falls on trees, hedges or dry metalled roads (b) Faulty system
and remains energized in the absence of a proper return R & Y Healthy phases
path and cause a low leakage current, insufficient to trip B Faulty phase
the protective circuit. This is a situation not really desirable Vg (rms) value of ground voltage measured on fault
on a normally grounded system, as it may lead to an
ungrounded system and may develop over-voltages. Figure 20.15 Determining the ground fault factor
Temporary over-voltages and system grounding 20/769
essential for all equipment being used on the system to voltages may have a tendency to cause a short-circuit
withstand a higher level of a one-minute power frequency from line to ground, even in the healthy phases.
voltage test as well as an impulse voltage withstand test 2 A ground fault protection scheme that is easy to handle,
if such levels (Lists I, II and III) are prescribed in the clear the fault quickly and prevent it from spreading.
relevant Standards. If not, then it may be assumed, that 3 To eliminate prolonged arcing grounds as a matter of
the prescribed test values take account of such an safety to human lives. A live conductor falling on ground
eventuality. Refer to Tables 11.6, 14.1, 14.3(a), 32.1(a), will remain live if not grounded and cause an arcing
13.2 and 13.3 for more details. through ground leakage capacitances. It may generate
excessive heat and become a hazard to life and property.
4 On higher voltage systems, due to ground leakage capa-
20.9 Artificial neutral grounding of a citances, the voltage of the two healthy phases may
three-phase three-wire system increase to twice the voltage, similar to double charging,
when switching a capacitor unit (Section 23.5.1).
5 Electrostatic induction may take place on overhead
In the previous section we have discussed the theory of power-carrying systems, through charged clouds, dust,
providing a ground fault protection when a neutral was rain, fog and sleet and due to changes in the altitudes
already available on the system. This could be utilized of lines. If these induced charges are not freed through
for a solid or an impedance grounding to achieve the grounding, they will continue to rise gradually and
required level of fault current on a ground fault, and accumulate on the system. This is called floating
meet the requirement of the protection scheme or the potential and may result in a breakdown of the system
stability of the system. Here we discuss circuits which insulation or the terminal equipment.
do not have a neutral as a matter of system design, such
as for the purpose of transmission and long HV If the above are not taken into account the devices
distribution, where the power is transmitted on a delta and components used on the system may have to be
circuit to economize on the initial cost. Such as from the selected or braced for a higher system voltage, say, up to
generating station through a generator transformer where twice the rated voltage or even more. The over-voltage
the transformer can be Y /D, say, 15.75/400 kV. In such a condition may almost be the same as for ungrounded
case, when grounding is required on the delta side of the capacitor switching (Section 23.5.1(ii)).
transformer, this is possible by creating an artificial neutral
point. The basic need for such a provision, where a neutral Neutral grounding transformers
does not exist, may be necessary, primarily to achieve
the following: The artificial neutral point on the delta side can be created
by providing an inter-connected star neutral, also known
1 To reduce the high-voltage transient oscillations in an as a zig-zag transformer. It can also be provided through
isolated neutral system and to prevent the voltage of the a stardelta transformer. Both arrangements are illustrated
healthy phases from rising beyond their line to neutral in Figures 20.17 and 20.18 respectively. Such transformers
voltage, as far as possible. Prolonged existence of over- are of a standard core type, with only a single winding on
Delta connected Delta connected
transformer transformer
windings windings
R R
Ig Ig
Y Y
Ig 3I g Ig 3 Ig
B B
2 Ig 2 Ig
Ground Ground Neutral may be
G fault G fault resistor grounded
or solidly grounded
Resistors
Ig
R Y B Ig Ig Ig
Ig Ig Ig R Y B R
3 Ig
R Y B 3 Ig
Ig Ig Ig R
Ig 2 Ig 3 Ig Interconnected R Y B Ig
B Y B N
Grounding
N star neutral
resistor
Ig 2I g 3I g
grounding R 3I g
Ig Ig Ig Ig Y Y
transformer N Ig
G B
Ig Ig Ig
R Y B Ig Ig
G
R Y B
(a) Current-limiting resistor in neutral (b) Current-limiting resistors in line (c) Phasor representation of
the grounding transformer
Figure 20.17 3f inter-connected star-neutral grounding transformer
Temporary over-voltages and system grounding 20/771
B Ig
Ground Ground
G fault G fault
Resistors N
3I g
R Y B R Y B
3 Ig Ig
Ig Ig Ig Ig Ig Ig
Y Ig R
3 Ig b2
transformer
Grounding
Ig 2I g 3I g
Grounding
Ig 2I g 3 Ig Y
N transformer N a2 B
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
R Y B Grounding R Y B R
resistor
c2
a2 b2 c2 G a2 b2 c2 G
(a) Current-limiting resistor in neutral (b) Current-limiting resistors in line (c) Phasor representation of
the grounding transformer
Figure 20.18 3f Star/delta neutral grounding transformer
each transformer limb, split into two halves as shown. The normal operation to avoid a ferro-resonance condition. The knee
total winding arrangement is like a 1:1 autotransformer, point voltage is kept at about 1.3 times the system line voltage.
with the provision of altering the ground impedance, similar
to that in a normal ground circuit, as discussed above. The Residual voltage transformer (star/open delta
additional resistance or impedance, as required in the ground transformer)
circuit, may be provided either by inserting it between the
neutral point and the ground or in the three individual This is not a method of providing an artificial neutral, as
phases as shown in Figures 20.17 and 20.18. in the previous case, but to detect an unbalance or residual
The rating of the auxiliary transformer can be short- voltage (zero sequence voltage) in a three-phase three-
time, sufficient to feed the fault current and its own no- wire or a three-phase four-wire ungrounded system. The
load losses for, say, 30 seconds or so, according to the residual or zero sequence voltage that may appear across
maximum tripping time of the protective scheme. The the open delta will be the reflection of an unbalance or a
normal rating of such transformers is generally between ground fault in the system (Figure 20.10). Also refer to
5 and 100 kVA, sufficient to carry the full ground fault Section 15.4.3 for more details.
current. The winding is designed for line-to-line system
voltage.
20.10 Grounding of generators
Note
The magnetic core is designed so that it will not saturate during Refer to Section 16.13.2.
20/772 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Relevant Standards
IEC Title IS BS
60071-1/1993 Insulation coordination phase to earth Principles and rules. 2165-1/2001, BS EN 60071-1/1997
Insulation coordination phase to phase Principles and rules. 2165-2/2001
60071-2/1996 Insulation coordination Application guide. 3716/2001 BS EN 60071-2/1997
Vg(max) = R 2 V1 1
(20.1) L henry (20.4)
R 2 + X cg
2 3(2 p f ) 2 C g
Vg = voltage across the external resistance R L = inductor coil inductance in henry
R= external resistance Cg = ground capacitance per phase in farad and
f = system frequency in Hz
Xcg = ground capacitive reactance
V = line voltage Ground fault factor
When the external impedance is capacitive Vg
GFF = (20.5)
Xc V1 / 3
Vg max = 2 V1 (20.2)
X c + X cg Vg = highest voltage to ground (r.m.s)
Vg = voltage across Xc
Xc = external capacitive reactance Further Reading
When the external impedance is inductive Kaufmann, R.H. and Halberg, M.M., System over-voltages, causes
and protective measures.
XL Lythall, R.T., The J & P Switchgear Book, Butterworths (on balanced
Vg max = 2 V (20.3) and unbalanced components).
X cg X L