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Definition of articles
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use
of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member
of a group, or to a specific member of a group:
A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member
of a group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the
noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for
plural general nouns. The rule is:
a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with
consonant 'y' sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
I am a teacher.
Brian is an Irishman.
Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.
The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is
particular or specific. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a
particular member of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite articles in
the following examples:
Indefinite (a or an) Definite (the)
a dog (any dog) the dog (that specific dog)
Singular
an apple (any apple) the apple (that specific apple)
some dogs (any dogs) the dogs (those specific dogs)
Plural
some apples (any apples) the apples (those specific apples)
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting
modifying phrase or clause:
In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following
the article possesses one of these paired qualities:
Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at
the beginning of a paragraph or essay.
A, an, and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class
to which individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called
generic, from the Latin word meaning "class."
The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is
that the former means any one member of a class while the latter means all of
the members of a class.
While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they
are countable or noncountable, others simply never take either article. Some
common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
a. Chinese
b. English
c. Spanish
d. Russian
2. Names of sports
a. volleyball
b. hockey
c. baseball
a. mathematics
b. biology
c. history
d. computer science
A or An?
a cat
a dog
a purple onion
a buffalo
a big apple
an honorable peace
an honest error
"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:
an apricot
an egg
an Indian
an orbit
an uprising
with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o
makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.
a union
a united front
a unicorn
a used napkin
a U.S. ship
a one-legged man
Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound)
quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written)
representation of the letter.
If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first
letter would makes a consonant-type sound, you use "a."
So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any
exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound,
in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel;
consequently, 'an' is used.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
Extended time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for,
by, fromto, from-until, during,(with)in
She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not
returned.)
I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and
ending in October.)
The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and
ending in fall.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the
evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
Place
To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: over, above. For more detail, see our handout on
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.
To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below. For more
detail, see our handout on Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.
Close to a point
To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositions of location at, in,
and on. Each pair can be defined by the same spatial relations of point,
line/surface, or area/volume.
Introduction
When the goal is physical, such as a destination, "to" implies movement in the
direction of the goal.
When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to" marks a
verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose. The preposition
may occur alone or in the phrase in order.
("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean about the
same thing.)
(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is why "to" is
inside parentheses in the title of the handout, showing that it is somewhat
optional with the compound prepositions. Thus, the following sentences are
roughly synonymous:
To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition conveys the
completion of an action, while the simple preposition points to the position of
the subject as a result of that action. This distinction helps us understand how
directional and locational prepositions are related: they stand in the
relationship of cause and effect.
Completion Position of
of an Action Subject
(8) Susumu
Susumu is in
dived in(to)
the water.
the water.
Uses of "to"
1. verb + to + infinitive
Examples:
verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate, appeal (in
the sense of 'plead,' not 'be attractive')
verbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly,
travel
Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to.
However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination, while
"toward" suggests movement in a general direction, without necessarily
arriving at a destination:
Uses of "onto"
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes itself
or some physical object to be situated in a certain place (compare
#15-17 above).
Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto, with the
latter being preferred by some speakers.
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.
Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is
put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a
direct object), pour, and add.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple preposition.
This contrast points to a fairly important and general rule:
Note also that in (27), the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a position on
a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather than horizontal-- the
side of a building. The use of "onto" in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25)
above.
3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which are
formally like "add on" but have the meaning "of continuing or
resuming an action" when used in the imperative mood.
(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which takes
both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of these
combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are given in parentheses.
Uses of "into"
In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of the
preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in an information question,
"into" also can be last word except for an adverbial when its object is
questioned by a wh- word:
(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?
2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on" or "in" with the
ordinary meanings of those prepositions.
In (39) and (40) "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; We cannot
say: "The lion moved into for the kill."
This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and (29).
The handout is divided into two sections. The first explains the spatial
relationships expressed by the three prepositions. The second examines more
closely the uses of in and on.
Point
Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows them
is treated as a point in relation to which another object is
positioned.
Surface
Area/Volume
Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together because both
are two-dimensional, in grammar area and volume go together because the
same prepositions are used for both.
at ....... point
on ....... surface
in ....... area/volume
The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some sample
sentences:
All of these sentences answer a question of the form, "Where is _______?" but
each gives different information. Before going on, explain to yourself the
spatial relations shown in each sentence.
Using "at"
At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the prepositions
in its spatial orientation, it has a great variety of uses. Here are some of them:
location
destination
direction
In 5a), the bank can be understood as a point defining Tom's location, much as
in 1) above. It makes less sense to think of a fair as a point in 5b) since fairs
are usually spread out over a fairly large area. Probably at is used in this case
just because it is the least specific preposition; it defines Sue's location with
respect to the fair rather than some other place. In 6a), at exhibits its
cause/effect relationship with to, which cannot be used here: arrival at a place
is the result of going to it. 7a) and 7b) show that with certain verbs of motion
at may be used with the same meaning as its directional counterpart to, that
is, direction toward something. Again, see the directional prepositions handout.
In the remainder of the handout, we will look at special problems that arise in
choosing between in and on.
2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries, such as when
field means "academic discipline," in is used:
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two follow the
general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom that must be learned
as a unit.
a) The children are playing in the
street.
4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used with a car,
on with public or commercial means of transportation:
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship
My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.
Writing Numbers
Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed
in one or two words and use figures for other numbers:
Words Figures
over two pounds after 126 days
six million dollars only $31.50
after thirty-one years 6,381 bushels
eighty-three people 4.78 liters
Time of Day
Addresses
16 Tenth Street
350 West 114 Street
Identification Numbers
Room 8
Channel 18
Interstate 65
Henry VIII
page 30
chapter 6
in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii
Decimals and Percentages
a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton
Notes on Usage
Basic Rules
Adverbs can't modify nouns, as you can see from the following
incorrect sentences.
Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows
point from the adjective to the noun that it modifies.
Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows
point from the adjective to the noun it modifies.
Bad or Badly?
When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an
adjective (Why? Feel is a sense verb;see rule #3 above). So you'd
say, "I feel bad." Saying you feel badly would be like saying you
play football badly. It would mean that you are unable to feel, as
though your hands were partially numb.
Good or Well?
Double-negatives
Sure or Surely?
Here sure to be is an
idiomatic phrase that
functions as an adjective
that modifies the
pronoun she.
Here surely is an
adverb that modifies
the verb has been.
Real or Really?
Here real is an
adjective that
modifies the noun
problems.
Near or Nearly?
Here nearly is an
adverb that
modifies the verb
related.
Here near is a
preposition. The
prepositional
phase near the
end of the
movie modifies
the noun scene.
Count and NonCount Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and
Quantity Words)
Count or Noncount?
The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they
refer to or not.
Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to
what can be perceived by the senses.
Examples:
Example sentences:
I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just
one.)
Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that
can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning
(for example, furniture).
Examples:
Example Sentences:
I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into?
The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is
noncountable.)
Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be
divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be
cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake
Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the
above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is
countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.
Pluralizing
The Rule
From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for
pluralizing them:
This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for
yourself before reading further.
For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both
classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract
and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:
Count
Noncount
She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of
school being difficult)
I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)
Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in
general)
Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification.
Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other
items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages:
food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:
A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural
homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks
from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be
considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.
These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a
count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.
The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular
noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible
to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a
count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.
To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:
Count Noun XX
Count Use XX
Noncount Noun XX
Noncount Use XX
Articles
Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices
depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both
count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.
The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these,
and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite,
which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object
known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously
mentioned in a piece of writing.
these,
a, an the this, that no article
those
Count XX XX XX
singular
Count XX XX XX
plural
Noncount XX XX XX
Examples:
Count Singular:
I ate an apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.
Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.
Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.
Cats are interesting pets.
Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.
Quantity Terms
The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity
words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any
of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no
can also be applied to many of these terms.
Count XX
singular
Count plural XX XX
Noncount XX XX
Examples:
Count Singular:
I practice every day.
I'd like one donut, please.
Count Plural:
Can I have some chips?
She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.
I have fewer pencils than you.
Noncount:
Can I have some water?
She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.
I have less courage than you.
Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives)
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural
form.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.
Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).
While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized
when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of
nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:
Art is often called an imitation of life. I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden.
Religion has been a Many religions are practiced in the United States.
powerful force in history.
The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.
She has beautiful skin.
We have several sculptures in our home.
Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture.
We use only recycled paper in our office. Where are those important papers?
A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is
singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no
article if it is used in a general sense.
Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is
sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that
is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.
Some, Any
Much, Many
These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as
quite a little and is used more commonly.
Enough
Plenty of
No
Some/Any:
Much/Many:
These are informal substitutes for MUCH and MANY. They are used with uncountable nouns when
they mean MUCH and with countable nouns when they mean MANY.
Little/Few:
Plenty of:
No:
Punctuation of appositives
In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive;
the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the
case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the
sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas
are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Here we do
not put
commas
around the
appositive,
because it is
essential
information.
Without the
appositive,
the sentence
would be The
popular US
president was
known for his
eloquent and
inspirational
speeches. We
wouldn't
know which
president was
being referred
to.
Here we put
commas
around the
appositive
because it is
not essential
information.
Without the
appositive,
the sentence
would be John
Kennedy was
known for his
eloquent and
traditional
speeches. We
still know who
the subject of
the sentence
is without the
appositive.
Here we do
not put
commas
around either
appositive
because they
are both
essential to
understanding
the sentence.
Without the
appositives,
the sentence
would just be
John Kennedy
was quite
different from
John
Kennedy. We
wouldn't
know what
qualities of
John Kennedy
were being
referred to
without the
appositive.
Exercise
Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This
list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that
sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and
more complete definition of the word in a new window.
Forms to remember
Accept, Except
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on
accept/except and affect/effect.
Affect, Effect
affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an
effect on your game?
effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have
effected a major change in university policy.
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on
accept/except and affect/effect.
Advise, Advice
Idea, Ideal
Its, It's
its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): The crab
had an unusual growth on its shell.
it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining;
it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when
two words are being shortened into one.)
Lead, Led
Than, Then
Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all
contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains
an extra o ("one too many")
Your, You're
All ready/already
At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.
All right/alright
All together/altogether
Anyone/any one
anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve
this problem deserves an award.
any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a
group; usually used with of: Any one of those papers could serve as an
example.
Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one
Anyway/any way
Awhile/a while
Maybe/may be
accept (transitive verb) [Middle English, from Middle French accepter, from
Latin acceptare, frequentative of accipere to receive, from ad- toward + capere
to take]
2. except (conjunction)
Would you like to try an interactive exercise on using accept and except
correctly?
Affect
Effect
1. effect (noun) [Middle English, from Middle French & Latin; Middle French,
from Latin effectus, from efficere to bring about, from ex- out (of) + facere to
make, do]
Affect:
Usage: The confusion of the verbs affect and effect not only is
quite common but has a long history. The verb effect was used in
place of affect (1, above) as early as 1494 and in place of affect (2,
above) as early as 1652. If you think you want to use the verb
effect but are not certain, check the definitions here. The noun
affect is sometimes mistakenly used for the noun effect. Except
when your topic is psychology, you will seldom need the noun
affect.
Sentence Fragments
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation
and/or words added to make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that
the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the
main clause.
Fragment (phrase or
Possible Revision
dependent clause)
You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a
dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the
preceding main clause, as in the last example above. This is a conventional
journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and
other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such
journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left
unattached to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a
subject or main verb.
These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as
mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They
start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular
predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last
two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the
preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular
subject. Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural
subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and
second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't
should be used.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb.
The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody,
anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a
singular verb.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of
money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars
themselves, a plural verb is required.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs.
(There are two parts to these things.)
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the
verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are
considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team,
committee, class, and family.
In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are
thought of and specifically referred to.
Active Tenses
Simple Present
Present Action Non-action;
General Truths Future Time
or Condition Habitual Action
I hear
I like music.
you. There are thirty The train
I run on
Here days in leaves at
Tuesdays and
comes the September. 4:00 p.m.
Sundays.
bus.
Present Progressive
Activity in Progress Verbs of Perception
I am playing soccer now He is feeling sad
Simple Past
Completed Action Completed Condition
The weather was rainy
We visited the museum yesterday.
last week.
Past Progressive
Past Action that took place over a period of
Past Action interrupted by another
time
They were climbing for twenty-seven We were eating dinner when
days. she told me.
Future
With will/won't -- Activity or event
With going to -- future in relation to
that will or won't exist or happen in
circumstances in the present
the future
I'll get up late tomorrow. I'm hungry.
I won't get up early. I'm going to get something to eat.
Present Perfect
With verbs of state that With events occurring at an
To express
begin in the past and lead indefinite or unspecified time in
habitual or
up to and include the the past -- with ever, never,
continued action
present before
He has
He has lived here for worn Have you ever been to
many years. glasses all Tokyo before?
his life.
Past Perfect
Future perfect
to express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the
future
By next month we will have finished this job.
He won't have finished his work until 2:00.
THE PASSIVE TENSES
Simple present
active: passive:
The company ships the computers to Computers are shipped to
many foreign countries. many foreign countries.
Present Progressive
active: passive:
The chef is preparing the food. The food is being prepared.
Simple Past
active: passive:
The delivery man delivered the The package was delivered
package yesterday. yesterday.
Past Progressive
active: passive:
The producer was making an An announcement was being
announcement. made.
Future
active: passive:
Our representative will pick up the The computer will be picked
computer. up.
Present Perfect
active: passive:
Someone has made the The arrangements have been
arrangements for us. made for us.
Past Perfect
active: passive:
They had given us visas for three We had been given visas for
months. three months.
Future perfect
active: passive:
By next month we will have By next month this job will have
finished this job. been finished.
Modals
active: passive:
You can use the computer. The computer can be used.
Sequence of Tenses
Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone,
present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language
tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries.
Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to recreate much of the reality of
time in his writing. The six are
Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which
are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third
principal part.
Present Perfect
The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with
"has" or "have." It designates action which began in the past but which continues
into the present or the effect of which still continues.
Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and
sometimes problems arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope,"
"plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future (I wanted to
go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a
sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed before
the action in the main verb.
Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect
infinitive has been completed.
The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but
the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another
action.
In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the
part that states the condition.
1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.
2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.
Notice: There can be only one "would have" action group in a sentence.
The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a
specified time in the future.
Review
In this handout, the three types of verbals are discussed: gerunds, participles,
and infinitives.
Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of
this handout because they can both end in -ing but have different functions in a
sentence.
Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different
forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted in the last section
below.
Throughout this document, occasional example sentences with wording that
might be considered nonstandard, ambiguous, or at least peculiar in formal
writing are marked with an asterisk (*).
Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal
indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb
and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund
functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun
ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and
object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s),
or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:
Punctuation
Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or
complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.
Exercise on Gerunds:
Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and
label how they function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject
complement, object of preposition).
1. Swimming keeps me in shape.
2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
3. Telling your father was a mistake.
4. The college recommends sending applications early.
5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
6. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
7. Going to work today took all my energy.
8. Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or
-ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of
verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being.
However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns.
There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles.
Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in
the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the
action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically
understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling
modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any
specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be
doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers
to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in
the second sentence.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no
commas should be used:
The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special
award.
The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes
the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase
directly follows the word it modifies.
The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to remember:
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n
(past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s),
and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns
or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be
clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the
beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential
element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the
word it modifies.
Exercise on Participles:
Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and
draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.
Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly)
with the correct placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.
11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending
on federal social programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment
time passed unnoticed.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest
"stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal
indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb
and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may
function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a
sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form,
deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be
roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the
infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an
infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice
that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in
the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object,
require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other
verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.
Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:
Examples:
Most students plan to study.
We began to learn.
They offered to pay.
They neglected to pay.
She promised to return.
In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite)
verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Examples:
He reminded me to buy milk.
Their fathers advise them to study.
She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
You've convinced the director of the program to change her position.
I invite you to consider the evidence.
In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb
and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that use either pattern:
Examples:
I asked to see the records.
I asked him to show me the records.
Trent expected his group to win.
Trent expected to win.
Brenda likes to drive fast.
Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.
In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with
or without an actor.
Points to remember:
1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be
used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s),
complement(s), and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at
the beginning of a sentence.
Split infinitives:
Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and
the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the
infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal
writing.
Examples:
I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)
On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal
contexts)
I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal
contexts)
Exercise on Infinitives:
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence,
adding any punctuation as needed.
1. I want to go.
2. I want you to go home.
3. We want to see the play.
4. To see a shooting star is good luck.
5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.
Now underline the infinitive phrase and label how it is used in the sentence.
Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund
(functioning as a noun) allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than
in the second. In the first sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is
precisely indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation. In the second the
cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who just happens to have
been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle,
not a gerund, since it functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)
The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of
each pair, a gerund (noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle
(adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in meaning between the two
sentences in each pair.
Examples:
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was
extraordinary.)
The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was
extraordinary, demonstrating the technique.)
He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not
impress him.)
He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as
they competed.)
The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from
comparing the following lists:
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one
or the other functions as the direct object in a sentence. In English some verbs
take gerunds as verbal direct objects exclusively while other verbs take only
infinitives and still others can take either. Many such verbs are listed below,
organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.
Examples:
I hope to go on a vacation soon.
(not: I hope going on a vacation soon.*)
He promised to go on a diet.
(not: He promised going on a diet. *)
get/be
get/be get/be tired get/be used
accustomed
through of to
to
Examples:
They always avoid drinking before driving.
(not: They always avoid to drink before driving.*)
remember
Examples:
She has continued to work at the store.
She has continued working at the store.
Examples:
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)
Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime
later.)
In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive
gerund form having taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible
confusion.
Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb
(infinitive form minus the word to). With many of the verbs that follow the object,
the use of the gerund indicates continuous action while the use of the simple verb
indicates a one-time action. Still, sometimes the simple verb can indicate
continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the context.
The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails. (continuous action)
The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one-time action)
Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main
purpose in writing; sometimes we include brief anecdotes or hypothetical
scenarios as illustrations or reference points in an essay. Even an essay that does
not explicitly tell a story involves implied time frames for the actions discussed
and states described. Changes in verb tense help readers understand the
temporal relationships among various narrated events. But unnecessary or
inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one
tense for the main discourse and indicate changes in time frame by changing
tense relative to that primary tense, which is usually either simple past or simple
present. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses
consistently and clearly.
General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each
action or state is the same.
Examples:
1. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers
and streams.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from
rivers and streams.
2. About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low
rumble announces the approaching storm.
3. Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.
General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or
state to another.
Examples:
1. The children love their new tree house, which they built
themselves.
Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it
now;) built is past, referring to an action completed before the
current time frame (they are not still building it.)
General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional
shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.
Hints:
It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or
progressive tenses from simple ones in isolation, for example, the difference
between simple past progressive ("She was eating an apple") and present perfect
progressive ("She has been eating an apple"). Distinguishing these sentences in
isolation is possible, but the differences between them make clear sense only in
the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions suggested by different
tenses are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding
sentences or clauses.
By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung three times.
As usual, he had been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turned
the stereo down and stood up to answer the door. An old man was
standing on the steps. The man began to speak slowly, asking for
directions.
In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening and was standing
suggest action underway at the time some other action took place. The stereo-
listening was underway when the doorbell rang. The standing on the steps was
underway when the door was opened. The past perfect progressive verb had been
listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative
time frame and that was still underway as another action began.
If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or
present perfect progressive is used to indicate action that is or has been
underway as some other action begins. This narrative style might be used to
describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action in fictional narratives
is conventionally treated as always present. For example, we refer to the scene in
Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his dead father
or the final scene in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present)
the day after Mookie has smashed (present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the
example narrative above were a scene in a play, movie, or novel, it might appear
as follows.
In this scene...
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung three times.
As usual, he has been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turns
the stereo down and stands up to answer the door. An old man is
standing on the steps. The man begins to speak slowly, asking for
directions.
In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is
standing indicate action underway as some other action takes place. The present
perfect progressive verb has been listening suggests action that began in the time
frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that is still underway as another
action begins. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first
example.
In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates
ongoing action, that is, action underway as another action occurs. The general
comments about tense relationships apply to simple and perfect tenses,
regardless of whether there is a progressive element involved.
In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening
and will be standing indicate ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb
will have been listening suggests action that will begin in the time frame prior to
the main narrative time frame and that will still be underway when another action
begins. The verb notices here is in present-tense form, but the rest of the
sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us to understand that it refers
to future time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two
examples.
The present perfect is also used to narrate action that began in real life in the
past but is not completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the
present or future. For example: "I have run in four marathons" (implication: "so
far... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct from the simple past, which is
used for action that was completed in the past without possible continuation or
repetition in the present or future. For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in
four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more
marathons").
Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others--
when used to relate two or more actions in time--can be good indicators of the
need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.
By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had
lost (past perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech,
the audience has lost (present perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his
speech, the audience will have lost (future perfect) interest.
Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect)
at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds have
arrived (present perfect) at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds
will have arrived (future perfect) at the feeder.
Sample paragraphs
The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts are inappropriate and are
indicated in bold.
The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels of the bus as
it swung into the station. Outside the window, shadowy figures
peered at the bus through the darkness. Somewhere in the crowd,
two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman, her son,
and possibly her husband. I could not prevent my imagination from
churning out a picture of them, the town, and the place I will soon
call home. Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images
flashing through my mind. (adapted from a narrative)
Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such as those that appear in the above
paragraph, are sometimes hard to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the
narrative and begins to relive the event as an ongoing experience. The
inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample, will should be would,
and rise should be rose.
The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts--all appropriate--
are indicated in bold.
This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a
particular July morning. However, both past and future tenses are called for when
she refers to its previous actions and to its predictable activity in the future.
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
[HELPER] + [VERB], such as CAN, WILL, SHALL, MAY, COULD, WOULD, SHOULD, MIGHT,
MUST
keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.
Examples:
I|
you |
he | can do that assignment easily.
we |
There are also modal phrases (some of which don't change form), such as:
Example:
OR
USED TO + Verb
HAVE TO + Verb
BE ABLE TO + Verb
OUGHT TO + Verb
BE SUPPOSED TO + Verb
Examples:
Separable
add up - add
back up - cause to move backwards; support; blow up; cause to explode; destroy
by explosives
break down - analyze; list the parts of separately
break into - go into a house or room forcibly; suddenly; begin; bring about -
cause to happen
bring off - accomplish
bring on - cause
bring out - publish; emphasize
bring over - bring
bring to - revive
bring up - raise; care for from childhood
brush out - brush the inside of
burn down - destroy by burning
burn up - consume by fire
buy out - by the other person's share of a business
buy up - buy the whole supply of
call off - cancel; order away
call up - telephone; summon for military service
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue
carry out - fulfill; complete; accomplish; perform
carry over - carry; continue at another time or place
cheer up - cause to become cheerful
chew up - chew thoroughly
chop up - chop into small pieces
clean off - clean the surface of
clean out - clean the inside of
clean up - clarify; tidy
clear out - clear the surface of
clear up - clear the inside of
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
count in - include
count out - exclude
count up - calculate; count; add to a total
cross out - eliminate
cut off - interrupt; sever; amputate
cut out - eliminate; delete
cut down - reduce in quantity
draw up - write; compose (a document)
dress up - put clothes on; adorn
dust out - dust the inside of
eat up - eat completely
figure out - interpret; understand
figure up - compute
fill in - complete (a printed form)
fill out - complete (a printed form)
fill up - fill completely (a container)
find out - discover
fix up - repair; arrange in a suitable manner
get across - cause to be understood
give back - return
give out - distribute; announce
give up - surrender something
hand down - deliver; pronounce formally; leave as an inheritance
hand over - yield control of
hang up - suspend
have on - be dressed in
have over - entertain someone informally at one's home
hold off - delay; restrain
hold up - delay; rob; threaten with a weapon
keep up - continue; keep the same pace
leave out - omit
let down - disappoint
let out - release from confinement; make larger (in sewing)
light up - light; illuminate thoroughly
live down - live in such a way as to cause something to be forgotten
make over - remake
move over - move to the side
pass out - distribute
pass up - not take advantage of (as an opportunity)
pass on - transmit
pay back - repay
pay off - discharge a debt completely; give someone his final pay
pick up - come to meet an escort; lift with hands or fingers; learn casually;
initiate an association publicly
play down - minimize
play up - emphasize
point out - indicate
pull down - pull in a downward direction; raze
push across - cause to be understood or accepted
put off - postpone
put on - dress in; deceive or fool
put up - preserve (food); receive as an overnight guest
quiet down - be quiet
ring up - the telephone
rinse off - rinse the surface of
rinse out - rinse the inside of
rule out - eliminate
run down - trace; disparage; hit with a vehicle
run off - cause to depart; reproduce mechanically
save up - accumulate
see through - complete; in spite of difficulties
see off - accompany someone to the beginning of a trip
send back - send to a place where formerly located
send over - send to where someone is
set up - arrange
show off - exhibit ostentatiously
shut off - cause to cease functioning
slow up - cause to move more slowly
spell out - enumerate; state in detail
stand up - fail to keep an appointment with
sweep out - sweep the inside of
take back - return; retract a statement
take down - remove from a high position; write from dictation
take in - understood; fool; deceive; make smaller (in sewing)
take over - take; assume command of
tear down - destroy
tear up - tear into small pieces
tell off - scold; reprimand
think over - consider
think through - consider from beginning to end
think up - create; invent
throw away - discard
throw over - reject
tie up - tie securely or tight
tire out - cause to be exhausted
touch up - repair
try on - put on a garment to verify the fit
try out - test
turn down - refuse; lower the volume
turn out - produce; force into exile, extinguish (a light)
wash off - wash the surface of
wash out - wash the inside of
wear out - use until no longer usable; tire greatly
wind up - finish, tighten the spring of a watch or machine
wipe off - wipe the surface of
wipe out - wipe the inside of; decimate
work out - solve
write down - record
write out - write down every detail; spell out
write up - compose; prepare (a document)
Inseparable
Intransitive
Irregular Verbs
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?
SIT versus SET
The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.