ME 306 Fluid Mechanics II

Part 4
Compressible Flow

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cneyt Sert
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
csert@metu.edu.tr

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.

4-1
 Compressibility and Mach Number
Compressibility effects become important when a fluid moves with speeds comparable
to the local speed of sound ().
Mach number is the most important nondimensional number for compressible flows
= /

< 0.3 Incompressible flow (density changes are negligible)

0.3 < < 0.9 Subsonic flow (density affects are important, but shock waves
do not develop)
0.9 < < 1.1 Transonic flow (shock waves appear and divide the flow field
into subsonic and supersonic regions)
1.1 < < 5.0 Supersonic flow (shock waves are present and there are no
subsonic regions)
> 5.0 Hypersonic flow (very strong shock waves and property
changes)
4-2
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics
Ideal gas equation of state is
=
where is the gas constant.
By defining specific volume as = 1/ ideal gas law becomes
=
For an ideal gas internal energy () is a function of temperature only.
Ideal gas specific heat at constant volume is defined as

=

is also a function of temperature, but for moderate temperature changes it can be
taken as constant. In this course well take as constant.
Change in internal energy between two states is (considering constant )
2 1 = (2 1 )

4-3
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (contd)
Enthalpy is defined as

= + = +

For an ideal gas enthalpy is also a function of temperature only.
Ideal gas specific heat at constant pressure is defined as

=

will also be taken as constant in this course. For constant change in enthalpy is
2 1 = (2 1 )
Combining the definition of and

= =

4-4
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (contd)
For air
=

1.005 0.287

0.718

Specific heat ratio is used frequently in compressible flow studies

=

which has a value of 1.4 for air.

Combining the above relations we can also obtain

= , =
1 1

4-5
 Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (contd)
Entropy change for an ideal gas are expressed with relations
1 1
= + , =

Integrating these relations for an ideal gas

2 1 2 2
2 1 = + , 2 1 =
1 2 1 1

For an adiabatic (no heat transfer) and frictionless flow, which is known as isentropic
flow, entropy remains constant.

Exercise : For isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat values, derive
the following commonly used relations, known as isentropic relations

/(1)
2 2 2
= =
1 1 1
4-6
 Speed of Sound ()
Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure pulse (wave) of infinitesimal
strength through a still medium (a fluid in our case).
It is a thermodynamic property of the fluid.
For air at standard conditions, sound moves with a speed of = 343 /

http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/demos.html

4-7
 Speed of Sound (contd)
To obtain a relation for the speed of sound consider the following experiment
A duct is initially full of still gas with properties , , and = 0

=0

Piston is pushed into the fluid with an infinitesimal velocity of

A pressure wave of infinitesimal strength will form and itll travel in the gas with the
speed of sound .
As it passes over the gas particles it will create infinitesimal property changes.

Moving wave front

+ +
+ =0

4-8
 Speed of Sound (contd)
For an observer moving with the wave front with speed , wave front will be stationary
and the fluid on the left and the right would move with relative speeds

+ +
+ = =

Stationary wave front

Consider a control volume enclosing the stationary wave front. The flow is one
dimensional and steady.

out in

Cross sectional area

4-9
 Speed of Sound (contd)
Continuity equation for the control volume
=
= + ( )
= +

Negligibly
small term

=

Linear momentum equation in the flow direction is (consider only pressure forces, but
no viscous forces since they are negligibly small for the process of interest)

= + = ( )

= =
4-10
 Speed of Sound (contd)
Momentum equation simplifies to
1
=

Combining continuity and momentum equation results

= Propagation of a sound wave
is an isentropic process

Exercise : In deriving speed of sound equation, we did not make use of the energy
equation. Show that it gives the same result.

Exercise : What is the speed of sound for a perfectly incompressible fluid.

Exercise : Show that speed of sound for an ideal gas is equal to

=
4-11
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid
Consider a point source generating small pressure pulses (sound waves) at regular
intervals.
Case 1 : Stationary source
Waves travel in all directions symmetrically.
The same sound frequency will be heard everywhere around the source.

4-12
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)
Case 2 : Source moving with less than the speed of sound ( < 1)
Waves are not symmetric anymore.
An observer will hear different sound frequencies depending on his/her location.
This asymmetry is the cause of the Doppler effect.

4-13
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)
Case 3 : Source moving the speed of sound ( = 1)
The source moves with the same speed as the sound waves it generates.
All waves concentrate on a plane passing through the moving source creating a
Mach wave, across which there is a significant pressure change.
Mach wave separates the filed into two as zone of silence and zone of action.

Zone of Zone of
action silence

First aircraft exceeding the speed of sound : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1

4-14
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)
Case 4 : Source moving with more than the speed of sound ( > 1)
The source travels faster than the sound it generates.
Mach cone divides the field into zones of action and silence.
Half angle of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle .

Zone of Zone of
action silence

>

4-15
 Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)
Exercise : For Case 4 described in the previous slide show that
sin = 1/
Exercise : A supersonic airplane is traveling at an altitude of 4 . The noise
generated by the plane at point A reached the observer on the ground at point B after
20 . Assuming isothermal atmosphere, determine
a) Mach number of the airplane
b) velocity of the airplane
c) distance traveled by the airplane before the observer hears the noise
d) temperature of the atmosphere
F/A-18 breaking
= 5 the sound barrier
A

= 4

http://en.wikipedia.org

B
4-16
 1D, Isentropic, Compressible Flow
Consider an internal compressible flow, such as the one in a duct of variable cross
sectional area

Flow and fluid properties inside this nozzle change due to

Cross sectional area change
Frictional effects
NOT the subject of ME 306
Heat transfer effects

In ME 306 well only study these flows to be one dimensional and consider only the
effect of area change, i.e. assume isentropic flow.

4-17
 1D, Isentropic, Compressible Flow (contd)

1 2

Conservation of energy for a control volume between sections 1 and 2 gives

12 22
1 + + 1 = 2 + + 2
2 2
Heat transfer is neglected for
adiabatic flow. There is no
shaft work and shear work is
zero for the selected CV.

For gas flows potential energy change is negligibly small compared to kinetic energy
change.
12 22
Energy equation reduces to 1 + = 2 +
2 2
4-18
 Stagnation Enthalpy
2
The sum + is known as stagnation enthalpy and it is constant inside the duct.
2

2
0 = + = constant
2
stagnation
enthalpy

It is called stagnation enthalpy because a stagnation point has zero velocity and the
enthalpy of the gas is equal to 0 at such a point.

Fluid is sucked into the duct from

this reservoir, where it is almost
stagnant. This reservoir is said to
be at the stagnation state.

4-19
 Stagnation State
Stgnation state is an important reference state used in compressible flow calculations.
It is the state achieved if a fluid at any other state is brought to rest isentropically.
For an isentropic flow there will a unique stagnation state.

State 1 State 2
1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , etc. 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , etc.

1 2

Isentropic
Isentropic
deceleration
deceleration
0
Unique stagnation state
0 = 0, 0 , 0 , 0 , etc.
4-20
 Stagnation State (contd)
Isentropic deceleration can be shown on a diagram as follows

0 Stagnation state
0 = 0, 0 , 0 ,
0 0 , 0 , etc.

Isentropic
2/2
deceleration
Any state
, , ,
, , etc.

During isentropic deceleration entropy remains constant.

02 2 2
Energy conservation: 0 + =+ = 0 =
2 2 2
4-21
 Stagnation State (contd)
Exercise : For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas, express the following ratios as a
function of Mach number and generate the following plot for air with = 1.4.

, ,
0 0 0

1 1.0
=
1 + 1 2
2 0
/(1) 0
1
= 0.5 0
1
1+ 2
2
1/(1)
1
=
1
1+ 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
2

Adapted from Whites Fluid Mechanics book

4-22
 Stagnation State (contd)
Exercise : An airplane is crusing at a speed of 900 km/h at an altitude of 10 km.
Atmospheric air at 60 comes to rest at the tip of its pitot tube. Determine
the temperature rise of air.

Read about heating of space shuttle during its reentry to the earths atmosphere.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system

Exercise : An aircraft cruises at 12 km altitude. A pitot-static tube on the nose of

the aircraft measures stagnation and static pressures of 2.6 kPa and 19.4 kPa.
Calculate
a) the flight Mach number of the aircraft
b) the speed of the aircraft
c) the stagnation temperature that would be sensed by a probe on the aircraft.

4-23
 Stagnation State (contd)
Exercise : Using Bernoullis equation, derive an expression for 0 / for
incompressible flows. Compare it with the one derived in the previous exercise and
determine the Mach number below which two equations agree within engineering
accuracy.

2.0 Adapted from Fox, Pritchard & McDonalds book

1.8 Compressible

0 1.6
Incompressible
1.4
1.2
1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

4-24
 Simple Area Change Flows (1D Isentropic Flows)
Exercise : Consider the differential control volume shown below for 1D, isentropic
flow of an ideal gas through a variable area duct. Using conservation of mass, linear
momentum and energy, determine the
a) Change of pressure with area
b) Change of velocity with area

+
+
+
+
+
4-25
 Simple Area Change Flows (contd)
Results of the previous exercise are

1 1
= , =
2 1 2 1 2

Subsonic Flow < 1 Supersonic Flow > 1

Diffuser

> 0 > 0 < 0

< 0

Nozzle

< 0 < 0 > 0

> 0
4-26
 Simple Area Change Flows (contd)
Sonic flow is a very special case. It can occur
when the cross sectional area goes through a minimum, i.e. = 0

Sonic flow may occur at the throat.

or at the exit of a subsonic nozzle or a supersonic diffuser

< 1

Sonic flow may occur at these exits.

> 1
4-27
 de Laval Nozzle (C-D Nozzle)
Exercise : The nozzle shown below is called a converging diverging nozzle (C-D nozzle
or Con-Div nozzle or de Laval nozzle).
Using the table of Slide 4-26 show that it is the only way to
isentropically accelerate a fluid from subsonic to supersonic speed.
isentropically decelerate a fluid from supersonic to subsonic speed.

de Laval nozzle

4-28
 Critical State
Critical state is the special state where Mach number is unity.
It is a useful reference state, similar to stagnation state. It is useful even if there is no
actual critical state in a flow.
It is shown with an asterisk, like , , , , etc.

Ratios derived in Slide 4-22 can also be written using the critical state.

/(1) /(1)
1 1
= 1+ 2 = 1+
2 2
1 = 1 1
=1+ 2 =1+
2 2
1/(1) 1/(1)
1 1
= 1+ 2 = 1+
2 2

4-29
 Critical State (contd)
Exercise : Similar to the ratios given in the previous slide, following area ratio is also a
function of Mach number and specific heat ratio only. Derive it.

3.0
2.5
+1
1 2 2(1)
2.0
1 1+
= 2
+1 1.5
2
1.0 Adapted from Fox, McDonald and Pritchards textbook
= 1.4
0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Exercise : Derive an expression in terms of and for the following non-

dimensional mass flow rate.
0
0
4-30
 Isentropic Flow Table
It provides the following ratios at different Mach numbers for a fixed value.
0
0 0 0 0

Aksels Fluid Mechanics textbook

4-31
 Exercises for Simple Area Change Flows
Exercise : A converging duct is fed with air from a large reservoir where the
temperature and pressure are 350 K and 200 kPa. At the exit of the duct, cross-
sectional area is 0.002 m2 and Mach number is 0.5. Assuming isentropic flow
a) Determine the pressure, temperature and velocity at the exit.
b) Find the mass flow rate.

Exercise : Air is flowing isentropically in a diverging duct. At the inlet of the duct,
pressure, temperature and velocity are 40 kPa, 220 K and 500 m/s, respectively. Inlet
and exit areas are 0.002 m2 and 0.003 m2.
a) Determine the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit.
b) Find the mass flow rate.

4-32
 Exercises for Simple Area Change Flows (contd)
Exercise : Air flows isentropically in a channel. At an upstream section 1, Mach
number is 0.3, area is 0.001 m2, pressure is 650 kPa and temperature is 62 . At a
downstream section 2, Mach number is 0.8.
a) Sketch the channel shape.
b) Evaluate properties at section 2.
c) Plot the process between sections 1 and 2 on a diagram.

4-33
 Shock Waves
Waves are disturbances (property changes) moving in a fluid.
Sound wave is a weak wave, i.e. property changes across it are infinitesimally small.
across a sound wave is in the order of 109 103 atm.

Shock wave is a strong wave, i.e. property changes across it are finite.
Shock waves are very thin, in the order of 107 m.
Fluid particles decelerate with millions of s through a shock wave.
Shock waves can be stationary or moving.
They can be normal (perpendicular to the flow direction) or oblique (inclined to the
flow direction).

In ME 306 well consider stationary normal shock waves for 1D flows inside ducts.

4-34
 Shock Waves (contd)

Normal shock wave in a supersonic

nozzle. Flow is from left to right. Extra
waves are due to surface roughness
Oblique shock wave ahead of a
bullet moving at supersonic speed

Whites Fluid Mechanics textbook

4-35
 Formation of a Strong Wave
Strong wave are formed by the accumulation of weak compression waves.
Compression waves are the ones across which pressure increase and velocity decrease
in the flow direction.
Sound wave is an example of weak compression waves.

Consider a piston pushed with a finite velocity in a cylinder filled with still gas.
We can decompose pistons motion into a series of infinitesimally small disturbances.
Weak compression waves will emerge from the piston, one after the other.
The first two of such waves are sketched below.

Second wave front First wave front

2 + 1
+
=0
4-36
 Formation of a Strong Wave (contd)
First wave will cause an increase in temperature behind it.
Second wave will move faster and eventually catch the first one.
2 > 1
A third one, which is not shown, will move even faster and catch the first two waves.
3 > 2 > 1
Weak compression waves have a chance to accumulate into a strong wave of finite
strength.
Weak expansion waves thatll be generated by pulling the piston to the left will not
form such a strong wave.

Accumulated
strong wave

+
+
=0
4-37
 Normal Shock Wave

Consider a stationary normal shock wave in a
duct of variable cross sectional area.
Upstream and downstream states are denoted
by and .

Due to very sudden, finite property changes, the process across the wave is
considered to be non-isentropic. But it can be assumed to be adiabatic.
There are two different stagnation states, state 0 for the flow before the shock and
state 0 for the flow after the shock.
0 0 and 0 0
However, because of adiabatic assumption, stagnation temperatures and enthalpies
are the same.
0 = 0 = 0 and 0 = 0 = 0
4-38
 Stagnation State of a Non-isentropic, Adiabatic Flow
Stagnation state concept can also be used for non-isentropic flows, but there will be
multiple such states.
If the flow is adiabatic 0 , 0 and 0 will be unique, but not other stagnation
properties such as 0 or 0 .

State 1 State 2
1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , etc. 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , etc.

Non-isentropic,
adiabatic flow Isentropic
Isentropic (such as the one deceleration
deceleration across a shock)
Stagnation state of state 2
0 = 0, 02 , 02 , 0 , 0 , etc.
Stagnation state of state 1
0 = 0, 01 , 01 , 0 , 0 , etc.
4-39
 Adiabatic Stagnation State
Adiabatic stagnation is reached if the deceleration from a state is not isentropic, but
only adiabatic.

(Isentropic ) stagnation
0 0, state
0
Adiabatic stagnation
Isentropic Adiabatic state
deceleration deceleration

Any state

During adiabatic deceleration entropy increases.

But the achieved adiabatic stagnation state will have the same stagnation enthalpy 0
and stagnation temperature 0 as isentropic stagnation state.
4-40
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave
Governing equations for the 1D flow inside the control volume enclosing the shock
wave are

Continuity : = = where = =
Momentum : =
2 2
Energy : 0 = + = +
2 2

Second Law : >

4-41
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)
For the flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats, these equations can be
simplified as follows

1 2 + 2
Donwstream Mach number : =
2 ( 1)

1 2 2 2
1+ 2 1
1
Temperature change : =
+1 2

2( 1)
2 2
1
Pressure change : =
+ 1 +1

( + 1)2
Density change : =
2 + ( 1)2

Velocity change : =

4-42
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)

+1 2 1
0 2 1
Stagnation pressure change : = 2 2
0 1 +1 +1
1 + 2 2

0
Critical area change : =
0

0
Entropy change : =
0

According to the last equation for values of all known gases entropy increase occurs
only if > 1.
Therefore in a 1D flow, a shock wave can occur only if the incoming flow is supersonic.

Exercise : Using relation of the previous slide and the above fact, show that the
flow after a shock wave must be subsonic, i.e. < 1
4-43
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)
All the relations of Slide 4-42 and 4-43 are given as functions of and only.
Usually graphical or tabulated forms of them are used.

Aksels Fluid Mechanics textbook

4-44
 Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)
Across a normal shock wave
6
0 , , 0 decreases
=
0
5 , , , , increases
0 remains the same
4 =

3
Kinetic energy of the fluid after the shock

wave is smaller than the one that would
2 0
0 be obtained by a reversible compression
1 between the same pressure limits.

0 Lost kinetic energy is the reason of
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
temperature increase across the shock

Adapted from Whites Fluid Mechanics book
wave.

4-45
 Normal Shock Wave (contd)
Exercise : Air traveling at a Mach number of 1.8 undergoes a normal shock wave.
Stagnation properties before the shock are known as 0 = 150 kPa, 0 = 350 K.

Assuming adiabatic flow determine , , , , 0 , 0 ,

Exercise : Supersonic air flow inside a diverging duct is slowed down by a normal
shock wave. Mach number at the inlet and exit of the duct are 2.0 and 0.3. Ratio of
the exit to inlet cross sectional areas is 2. Pressure at the inlet of the duct is 40 kPa.
Assuming adiabatic flow determine the pressure after the shock wave and at the exit
of the duct.

4-46
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle
Consider a converging nozzle.
Gas is provided by a large reservoir with stagnation properties, 0 and 0.
Back pressure is adjusted using a vacuum pump to obtain different flow conditions
inside the nozzle.
Well differentiate between exit pressure and back pressure . They are often
equal, but not always.

0

0

4-47
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle (contd)
First set = 0 . There will be no flow.

Gradually decrease . Following pressure distributions will be observed.

0 1 : No flow ( = 0)
2 : < < 0 Subcritical
regime
3 : Critical ( = )
Supercritical
4 : <
regime
4-48
 Choked Flow
Flow inside the converging nozzle always remain subsonic.

For the subcritical regime as we decrease mass flow rate increases.

State shown with * is the critical state. When is lowered to the critical value , exit
Mach number reaches to 1 and flow is said to be choked.

If is lowered further, flow remains choked. Pressure and Mach number at the exit
does not change. Mass flow rate through the nozzle does not change.

For < , gas exits the nozzle as a supercritical jet with > . Exit jet undergoes a
non-isentropic expansion to reduce its pressure to .

2 /(1)
From slide 4-29 = . For air ( = 1.4) choking occurs when = 0.528.
0 +1 0

4-49
 Operation of a Converging Nozzle (contd)

Variation of with Variation of with

0 1 4 3

2 2
4 3

1
0 0

Case 1 is the no flow case.

From case 1 to case 3 drops and increases.

Case 3 is the critical case with minimum possible and maximum possible .
4-50
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle
We first set = 0 and then gradually decrease .

Throat

0 1 : No flow ( = 0)
2 : Subsonic Flow
3 : Initial choked flow ( = 1)
4 : Flow with shock
5y : Shock at the exit Choked

flow.
6 : Overexpansion Same
7 : Design condition
8 : Underexpansion
4-51
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)
Flow inside the converging section is always subsonic.
At the throat the flow can be subsonic or sonic.
The flow is choked if = 1. This corresponds to the maximum that can pass
through the nozzle.
Under choked conditions the flow in the diverging part can be subsonic (case 3) or
supersonic (cases 6, 7 ,8).
Depending on there may be a shock wave in the diverging part. Location of the
shock wave is determined by .
Design condition corresponds to the choked flow with supersonic exit without a shock.
Overexpansion ( < ): Exiting jet finds itself in a higher pressure medium and
contracts. Underexpansion ( > ): Exiting jet finds itself in a lower pressure
medium and expands. For details and pictures visit http://aerorocket.com/Nozzle/Nozzle.html
and http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0224.shtml 4-52
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)

Throat
0 1
2
3
4
5y

6
7
8

Variation of with Variation of with

0 1
3 2 7 5y 3
4 8 6 4
5y
2
5x
876
1
0 0 4-53
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)
Exercise : Air is supplied to a C-D nozzle from a large reservoir where stagnation
pressure and temperature are known. Determine
a) the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit
b) the mass flow rate

= 0.0022 2 = 0.0038 2

0 = 318
= 30
0 = 327

4-54
 Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)
Exercise : Air flows in a Conv-Div nozzle with an exit to throat area ratio of 2.1.
Properties at a section in the converging part are as shown below.
a) Determine the ranges of back pressure for subsonic, non-isentropic (with shock),
overexpansion and underexpansion flow regimes.
b) If there is a shock wave where the area is twice of the throat area, determine the
back pressure.
1 = 128
1 = 294
1 = 135 /

1
4-55