1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
A bridge is a structure that crosses over a river, bay, or other obstruction, permitting the smooth
and safe passage of vehicles, trains, and pedestrians. An elevation view of a typical bridge is A
bridge structure is divided into an upper part (the superstructure), which consists of the slab, the
floor system, and the main truss or girders, and a lower part (the substructure), which are columns,
piers, towers, footings, piles, and abutments. The superstructure provides horizontal spans such as
deck and girders and carries traffic loads directly. The substructure supports the horizontal spans,
elevating above the ground surface.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES

1.2.1 Classification by Materials

Steel Bridges steel bridge may use a wide variety of structural steel components and systems:
girders, frames, trusses, arches, and suspension cables.

Concrete Bridges: There are two primary types of concrete bridges: reinforced and pre-stressed.

Timber Bridges: Wooden bridges are used when the span is relatively short.

Metal Alloy Bridges: Metal alloys such as aluminum alloy and stainless steel are also used in
bridge construction.

Composite Bridges: Bridges using both steel and concrete as structural materials.
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1.2.2 Classification by Objectives

Highway Bridges: Bridges on highways.

Railway Bridges: Bridges on railroads.

Combined Bridges: Bridges carrying vehicles and trains.

Pedestrian Bridges: Bridges carrying pedestrian traffic.

Aqueduct Bridges: Bridges supporting pipes with channeled water flow. Bridges can
alternatively be classified into movable (for ships to pass the river) or fixed and permanent or
temporary categories.

1.2.3 Classification by Structural System (Superstructures)

Plate Girder Bridges: The main girders consist of a plate assemblage of upper and lower flanges
and a web. H or I-cross-sections effectively resist bending and shear.

Box Girder Bridges: The single (or multiple) main girder consists of a box beam fabricated from
steel plates or formed from concrete, which resists not only bending and shear but also torsion
effectively.

T-Beam Bridges: A number of reinforced concrete T-beams are placed side by side to support the
live load.

Composite Girder Bridges: The concrete deck slab works in conjunction with the steel girders to
support loads as a united beam. The steel girder takes mainly tension, while the concrete slab
takes the compression component of the bending moment.

Grillage Girder Bridges: The main girders are connected transversely by floor beams to form a
grid pattern which shares the loads with the main girders.

Truss Bridges: Truss bar members are theoretically considered to be connected with pins at their
ends to form triangles. Each member resists an axial force, either in compression or tension.

Arch Bridges: The arch is a structure that resists load mainly in axial compression. In ancient
times stone was the most common material used to construct magnificent arch bridges.
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Cable-Stayed Bridges: The girders are supported by highly strengthened cables (often composed
of tightly bound steel strands) which stem directly from the tower. These are most suited to bridge
long distances.

Suspension Bridges: The girders are suspended by hangers tied to the main cables which hang
from the towers. The load is transmitted mainly by tension in cable

1.2.4 Classification by Design Life

Permanent Bridges
Temporary Bridges

1.2.5 Classification by Span Length

Culverts: Bridges having length less than 8 m.

Minor Bridges: Bridges having length 8-30 m.
Major bridges: Bridges having length greater than 30 m.
Long span bridges: Bridges having length greater than 120 m.

1.3 T-BEAM BRIDGES

Beam and slab bridges are probably the most common form of concrete bridge today, the success
of standard precast prestressed concrete beams developed originally by the Prestressed Concrete
Development Group (Cement & Concrete Association) supplemented later by alternative designs
by others, culminating in the Y-beam introduced by the Prestressed Concrete Association in the
late 1980s.
They have the virtue of simplicity, economy, wide availability of the standard sections, and speed
of erection.
The precast beams are placed on the supporting piers or abutments, usually on rubber bearings
which are maintenance free. An in-situ reinforced concrete deck slab is then cast on permanent
shuttering which spans between the beams.
The precast beams can be joined together at the supports to form continuous beams which are
structurally more efficient. However, this is not normally done because the costs involved are not
justified by the increased efficiency. Simply supported concrete beams and slab bridges are now
giving way to integral bridges which offer the advantages of less cost and lower maintenance due
to the elimination of expansion joints and bearings.
This is most commonly adopted type of bridge for span range of 10 to 25m.
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It is so name because the main longitudinal girder are designed as T-beam which is integral part of
deck slab cast monolithically with the deck slab.
Simply supported T-beam spans of over 25m are rare as the dead load then becomes too heavy.
However there is a bridge have single span of 35m named Advice Bridge in Goa.
In other words we can say T-beam Bridge is the combination of [deck slab with longitudinal
girders & cross girders] superstructure & [piers, abutment & foundations] substructure.

COMPONENTS OF A T-BEAM BRIDGE

Deck slab
Cantilever portion
Longitudinal girders
Cross girders
Abutments & piers
Bearing
Foundations

1.4 BACKGROUND
Nearly 590,000 roadway bridges span waterways, dry land depressions, other roads, and railroads
throughout the United States. The most dramatic bridges use complex systems like arches, cables,
Figure 1 Beam Bridge Timber Framed
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or triangle-filled trusses to carry the roadway between majestic columns or towers. However, the
work-horse of the highway bridge system is the relatively simple and inexpensive concrete beam
bridge.

Also known as a girder bridge, a beam bridge consists of a horizontal slab supported at each end.
Because all of the weight of the slab (and any objects on the slab) is transferred vertically to the
support columns, the columns can be less massive than supports for arch or suspension bridges,
which transfer part of the weight horizontally.

A simple beam bridge is generally used to span a distance of 250 ft. (76.2 m) or less. Longer
distances can be spanned by connecting a series of simple beam bridges into what is known as a
continuous span. In fact, the worlds longest bridge, the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in
Louisiana, is a pair of parallel, two-lane continuous span bridges almost 24 mi (38.4 km) long.
The first of the two bridges was completed in 1956 and consists of more than 2,000 individual
spans. The sister bridge (now carrying the north-bound traffic) was completed 13 years later;
although it is 228 ft. longer than the first bridge, it contains only 1,500 spans.
A bridge has three main elements. First, the substructure (foundation) transfers the loaded weight
of the bridge to the ground; it consists of components such as columns (also called piers) and
abutments. An abutment is the connection between the end of the bridge and the earth; it provides
support for the end sections of the bridge. Second, the superstructure of the bridge is the
horizontal platform that spans the space between columns. Finally, the deck of the bridge is the
traffic-carrying surface added to the superstructure.

1.5 HISTORY
Prehistoric man began building bridges by imitating nature. Finding it useful to walk on a tree that
had fallen across a stream, he started to place tree trunks or stone slabs where he wanted to cross
streams. When he wanted to bridge a wider stream, he figured out how to pile stones in the water
and lay beams of wood or stone between these columns and the bank.

The first bridge to be documented was described by Herodotus in 484 B.C. It consisted of timbers
supported by stone columns, and it had been built across the Euphrates River some 300 years
earlier.

Most famous for their arch bridges of stone and concrete, the Romans also built beam bridges. In
fact, the earliest known Roman Bridge, constructed across the Tiber River in 620 B.C., was called
the Pons Sublicius because it was made of wooden beams (sublicae). Roman bridge building
techniques included the use of cofferdams while constructing columns. They did this by driving a
circular arrangement of wooden poles into the ground around the intended column location. After
lining the wooden ring with clay to make it watertight, they pumped the water out of the
enclosure. This allowed them to pour the concrete for the column base.

Bridge building began the transition from art to science in 1717 when French engineer Hubert
Gautier wrote a treatise on bridge building. In 1847, an American named Squire Whipple wrote A
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Work on Bridge Building, which contained the first analytical methods for calculating the stresses
and strains in a bridge. "Consulting bridge engineering" was established as a specialty within civil
engineering in the 1880s.
Further advances in beam bridge construction would come primarily from improvements in
building materials.

1.6 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT

Most highway beam bridges are built of concrete and steel. The Romans used concrete made of
lime and pozzalana (a red, volcanic powder) in their bridges. This material set quickly, even under
water, and it was strong and waterproof. During the middle Ages in Europe, lime mortar was used
instead, but it was water soluble. Today's popular Portland cement, a particular mixture of
limestone and clay, was invented in 1824 by an English bricklayer named Joseph Aspin, but it
was not widely used as a foundation material until the early 1900s.

Concrete has good strength to withstand compression (pressing force), but is not as strong under
tension (pulling force). There were several attempts in Europe and the United States during the
nineteenth century to strengthen concrete by embedding tension-resisting iron in it. A superior
version was developed in France during the 1880s by Francois Hennebique, who used reinforcing
bars made of steel. The first significant use of reinforced concrete in a bridge in the United States
was in the Alvord Lake Bridge in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park; completed in 1889 and still
in use today, it was built with reinforcing bars of twisted steel devised by designer Ernest L.
Ransome.

The next significant advance in concrete construction was the development of prestressing. A
concrete beam is prestressed by pulling on steel rods running through the beam and then
anchoring the ends of the rods to the ends of the beam. This exerts a compressive force on the
concrete, offsetting tensile forces that are exerted on the beam when a load is placed on it. (A
weight pressing down on a horizontal beam tends to bend the beam downward in the middle,
creating compressive forces along the top of the beam and tensile forces along the bottom of the
beam.)

Prestressing can be applied to a concrete beam that is precast at a factory, brought to the
construction site, and lifted into place by a crane; or it can be applied to cast-in-place concrete that
is poured in the beam's final location. Tension can be applied to the steel wires or rods before the
concrete is poured (pretensioning), or the concrete can be poured around tubes containing
untensioned steel to which tension is applied after the concrete has hardened (posttensioning).

1.7 DESIGN
Each bridge must be designed individually before it is built. The designer must take into account a
number of factors, including the local topography, water currents, river ice formation possibilities,
wind patterns, earthquake potential, soil conditions, projected traffic volumes, aesthetics, and cost
limitations.
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Figure 2 Cutaway view of a typical concrete beam bridge

In addition, the bridge must be designed to be structurally sound. This involves analyzing the
forces that will act on each component of the completed bridge. Three types of loads contribute to
these forces.
Dead load refers to the weight of the bridge itself.
Live load refers to the weight of the traffic the bridge will carry.
Environmental load refers to other external forces such as wind, possible earthquake action, and
potential traffic collisions with bridge supports. The analysis is carried out for the static
(stationary) forces of the dead load and the dynamic (moving) forces of the live and
environmental loads.

Since the late 1960s, the value of redundancy in design has been widely accepted. This means that
a bridge is designed so the failure of any one member will not cause an immediate collapse of the
entire structure. This is accomplished by making other members strong enough to compensate for
a damaged member.
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1.8 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

Because each bridge is uniquely designed for a specific site and function, the
construction process also varies from one bridge to another. The process
described below represents the major steps in constructing a fairly typical
reinforced concrete bridge spanning a shallow river, with intermediate concrete column supports
located in the river.
Example sizes for many of the bridge components are included in the following description as
an aid to visualization. Some have been taken from suppliers brochures or industry
standard specifications. Others are details of a freeway bridge that was built across the
Rio Grande in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in 1993.
The 1,245-ft long, 10-lane wide bridge is supported by 88 columns. It contains
11,456 cubic yards of concrete in the structure and an additional 8,000 cubic
yards in the pavement. It also contains 6.2 million pounds of reinforcing steel.

1.8.1 Substructure

A cofferdam is constructed around each column location in the riverbed, and the water is
pumped from inside the enclosure. One method of setting the foundation is to drill shafts through
the riverbed, down to bedrock. As an auger brings soil up from the shaft, a clay slurry is pumped
into the hole to replace the soil and keep the shaft from collapsing. When the proper depth is
reached (e.g., about 80 ft. or 24.4 m), a cylindrical cage of reinforcing steel (rebar) is lowered
into the slurry-filled shaft (e.g., 72 in or 2 m in diameter). Concrete is pumped to the bottom of
the shaft. As the shaft fills with concrete, the slurry is forced out of the top of the shaft, where it
is collected and cleaned so it can be reused. The aboveground portion of each column can either
be formed and cast in place, or be precast and lifted into place and attached to the foundation.
Bridge abutments are prepared on the riverbank where the bridge end will rest. A concrete
backwall is formed and poured between the top of the bank and the riverbed; this is a retaining
wall for the soil beyond the end of the bridge. A ledge (seat) for the bridge end to rest on is
formed in the top of the backwall. Wing walls may also be needed, extending outward from the
back-wall along the riverbank to retain fill dirt for the bridge approaches.

1.8.2 Superstructure

A crane is used to set steel or prestressed concrete girders between consecutive sets of columns
throughout the length of the bridge. The girders are bolted to the column caps. For the
Albuquerque freeway bridge, each girder is 6 ft. (1.8 m) tall and up to 130 ft. (40 m) long,
weighing as much as 54 tons.
Steel panels or precast concrete slabs are laid across the girders to form a solid platform,
completing the bridge superstructure. One manufacturer offers a 4.5 in (11.43 cm) deep
corrugated panel of heavy (7-or 9-gauge) steel, for example. Another alternative is a stay-in-
place steel form for the concrete deck that will be poured later.
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1.8.3 Deck
A moisture barrier is placed atop the superstructure platform. Hot-applied polymer-modified
asphalt might be used, for example.
A grid of reinforcing steel bars is constructed atop the moisture barrier; this grid will
subsequently be encased in a concrete slab. The grid is three-dimensional, with a layer of rebar
near the bottom of the slab and another near the top.
8 Concrete pavement is poured. A thickness of 8-12 in (20.32-30.5 cm) of concrete pavement is
appropriate for a highway. If stay-in-place forms were used as the superstructure platform,
concrete is poured into them. If forms were not used, the concrete can be applied with a slip
form paving machine that spreads, consolidates, and smooths the concrete in one continuous
operation. In either case, a skid-resistant texture is placed on the fresh concrete slab by manually
or mechanically scoring the surface with a brush or rough material like burlap. Lateral joints are
provided approximately every 15 ft. (5 m) to discourage cracking of the pavement; these are
either added to the forms before pouring concrete or cut after a slip formed slab has hardened.
A flexible sealant is used to seal the joint.

1.9 PROBLEM STATEMENT

A reinforced concrete bridge is to be designed over Chhoti Gandak River. It is require to Design
the bridge and to sketch the layout of plan, elevation and reinforcement details of various
components for the following data:
Width of carriage way = 7.50 m
Effective span = 19.50 m
Loading = IRC class A
Discharge in the river = 375 cumec
HFL = 99.8 m
LWL = 93.8 m
Design the bridge superstructure and substructure and sketch the layout of plan, elevation and
reinforcement details of various components.
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1.10 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Clear roadway =7.50 m
Assume 3 T-beams at 2.50 m intervals
Effective span =19.50 m
Assume 6 cross girders at 3.90 m intervals
Assume clear cover as 40mm.

Figure 3 Cross Section

Figure 4 Longitudinal Section

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2 DESIGN OF DECK SLAB

2.1 STRUCTURAL DETAILS

Thickness of slab, H=215 mm
Thickness of wearing course, D=2.5 m
Effective span in transverse direction =2.5-.03
=2.2 m
Span length in longitudinal directions =3.90 m
Effective span in longitudinal directions =3.90 0.3
=3.60 m

2.2 LOAD FOR DESIGN OF BRIDGE

1. Dead load

Aggregate weight of complete structure elements such as deck, wearing coat, parapets,
stiffeners and utilities.
It does not changes its direction and magnitude with respect to the passage of time.
2. Live Load
Includes vehicle live load that are moving on the bridge.
IRC has categorized standards of vehicle live load as under three following category which
is-
(a) IRC CLASS AA LOADING
Treated as heavy loading and all NH & SH and industrial areas bridge are designed for
only IRC class AA loading.
If a bridge designed for IRC class AA loading then it will automatically satisfied IRC class
A & class B loading.
It has two pattern of loading
(I) tracked type (ii) wheeled type
(b) IRC CLASS A LOADING
Generally treated as standard loading for permanent bridges.
Having eight axles with a total length of 25m.
IRC CLASS B LOADING
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Used for temporary bridges.

It is a light loading as compared to all other loading.

3. Impact load
It is account for the dynamic effects of sudden loading of a vehicle on bridge structure.
It is calculated by multiplying the live load with an impact factor.
The impact factor is calculated as the IRC-6 suggested which are discussed below.

(a) Impact factor for IRC CLASS A loading

IF=A/ (B+L)
Where IF=Impact factor
A=constant (4.5 for RCC bridge & 9.0 for STEEL bridge)
B=constant (6.0 for RCC bridge & 13.5 for STEEL bridge)
L= effective span
(b) Impact factor IRC CLASS AA loading & CLASS 70R loading
For span < 9m
Tracked vehicle- 25% for span up to 5m & reducing to 10% for span up to 9m.
Wheeled vehicle-25% for span up to 9m.

For span > 9m

Tracked vehicle-for RCC bridge 10% up to 40m & as per graph for span >40m. For steel
bridge 10% for all span.
Wheeled vehicle-for RCC bridge 25% up to 12m & as per graph for span >12m. For steel
bridges 25% for span up to 23m & as per graph for span > 23m.
(c) Tracked vehicle-for RCC bridge 10% up to 40m & as per graph for span >40m. For steel
bridge 10% for all span.
(d) Wheeled vehicle-for RCC bridge 25% up to 12m & as per graph for span >12m. For steel
bridges 25% for span up to 23m & as per graph for span > 23m.
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Figure 5 Impact Percentage for Highway Bridges for Class A and Class B Loading (clause 208.2)
4. Centrifugal force
Consider for bridge constructed on horizontal curve.
Considered to act at a height of 1.2m above the level of carriage way.
2
= 127

Where c=centrifugal force in KN

w=live in KN
v=speed of vehicle in KMPH
R= radius of horizontal curve in M.
5. Wind load
Assumed as horizontal forces on an area which are-
For Deck structure- area of floor slab and railing.
For a through or half through structure- area of elevation of the windward tress flows half
the area of elevation above the deck slab.
Considered as acting at 15m above the roadway and have the following values
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highway ordinary bridges 3.0 KN per meter

Highway bridges carrying framework- 4.5 KN per meter.
6. Longitudinal forces
Forces result from vehicle braking or accelerating while travelling on bridge.
As the vehicle brakes the load of the vehicle is transferred from its wheels to bridge deck.
IRC specifies a longitudinal forces of 20% is appropriate of live load and the force is
applied at 1.2m above the level of deck.
7. Seismic forces
Depends upon geographical location of the bridge.
These are the temporary forces act for the short duration. An earthquake forces is the
function of following.
Dead load of structure
Ground motion
Period of vibration
Nature of soil

2.3 DESIGN
It is designed by either effective width method or by Pigeauds curve method as bending
moment calculation.
After calculation of bending moment we provide reinforcement and then do check for shear as
accordance by WSM method of RCC design.
Normal depth of deck slab is very from 350mm to 500mm.

EFFECTIVE WIDTH METHOD

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Figure 6 Widthwise dispersion

It is applicable when the slab is designed by assuming its a one way slab or supported
only on two apposite edge or a very long slab supported on all four edge.
Effective width is the width of wheel imprint on deck perpendicular to the movement of
vehicle that is actually bears the load of wheel tyre it is calculated by following
expressions.
FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED CASE
beff =k (1-x/L) + bW
FOR CANTILEVER CASE
beff=1.2x + bW
Where
beff = effective width of dispersion
k = constant depend upon B/L (width/length) ratio specified in IRC-6.
X=Distance of center of gravity of wheel from the nearest support in case of
simply supported and distance of center of gravity of wheel From the cantilever
phase. In case of
L= effective span of bridge in case of simply supported and clear span in case of
cantilever.
Bw= w+2h (width of wheel + 2 thickness of wearing coat)

EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF DISPERSION

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In the same manner as effective width of dispersion there is also an effective length of dispersion
measured along the direction of movement of vehicle.
Calculated as- for both simply supported case as well as cantilever case
Dispersion length = length of tyre contact + 2(overall thickness of deck including wearing
coat)
Leff. = B + 2(D+2h)
Where
Leff. =effective length of dispersion
d=overall thickness of bridge deck
h=thickness of wearing coat

Pigeauds method
Short span (B) & long span (L) bending moment coefficients are read from curves
developed by M. Pigeaud.

Used for only 2-way slab design or slabs supported along four edges with restrained
corners and subjected to symmetrically placed loads distributed over some well-defined
area.

Curves developed for thin plates using the elastic flexural theory. However their use has
been extended to concrete slab too.

Poisons ratio of 0.15 is considered.

The short span (B) & long span (L) bending moment is calculated by following
expressions.

Short span B.M. =W (m1 +0.15m2) along the width (B) of slab.

Long span B.M. =W (0.15m1 +m2) along the length (L) of slab.

2.4 MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT DUE TO DEAD LOAD

Weight of deck slab = 0.215 24= 5.16 KN/m2
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Weight of wearing course =0.07522= 1.65 KN/m2

Total weight =6.51 KN/m2
2.2
Using Pigeauds curves, K = =0.611
3.6
1/K =1.636

From Pigeauds curves,

(For K) m1 = 0.0485 and m2 (for 1/K) = 0.016
Total dead weight = 6.81 22 3.6
= 53.935
Moment along the shorter span, = (0.0485+0.15 0.016) 53.935
=2.745 KN/ m2
Moment along the longer span = (0.016+0.15 0.0485) 53.935
= 1.255 KN/m2

2.5 LIVE LOAD BENDING MOMENT DUE TO IRC CLASS A WHEELED VEHICLE
Size of one panel of deck slab = 2.5 m 3.9 m
For most severe moments, the rear axle of the vehicle having load of 114 KN is placed
symmetrically on the slab as shown
Tyre contact dimensions are 500 mm 250 mm

U = (0.5 + 2 0.075)2 + 0.2752 = 0.685 m

V= (0.25 + 2 0.075)2 + 0.2752 = 0.454 m

Impact factor (for class A), I = +
4.5
= 6+19.5 = 17.64 %
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Figure 7 LIVE LOAD BENDING MOMENT DUE TO IRC CLASS A WHEELED VEHICLE

Since, the loading is unsymmetrical w.r.t X axis and Y axis, we assume the loading to consist of a
strip with UDL and subtracting the area not covered.
1141.1764
Loading intensity = =431.234 KN/m2
0.6850.454
Consider the loaded area of 2.2 0.46
K=0.21
1/K=4.781
For this area, m1 =0.027, m2 = 0.0025
Moment along shorter span = (0.027+ 0.15 0.0025) 2.2 0.46 431.25
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= 11.95 KN-m
Moment along long span = (0.0025 + 0.15 .0027)2.2 0.46 431.23
= 2.86 KN-m
Consider the area between the loads- i.e. 1.10 0.46 m
K=0.418, 1/K = 0.35
m1 = 0.045 m2 = 0.005
Moment along shorter span = (0.045 +0.15 0.005) 1.1 0.46 461.234
= 3.47 KN-m
Moment along shorter span = (0.005 +.15 0.045) 1.1 0.46 431.234
= 2.564 KN-m
For all wheels 1, 2, 3 & 4;-
1
Net B.M. along the short span = 2 (11.95-3.47)

= 4.24 KN-m
1
Net B.M. along the longer span = 2 (2.86-2.564)

= 0.148 KN-m
Total B.M.
Total B.M. along short span = 4 4.24 =16.96 KN-m
Total B.M. along long span = 4 0.15 =0.6 KN-m
Since, the above calculation has assumed a simply supported slab. The deck slab, however is
continuous .so to allow for continuity, moments are multiplied by 0.8
Design B.M. along short span = 0.8 (46.96 +2.745)
= 15.764 KN-m
Design B.M. along short span = 0.8 (1.255+ 0.6)
= 1.484 KN-m

2.6 REINFORCEMENT
Using M25 grade concrete, cbc = 8.3 MPa
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And for Fe415 st = 200 MPa

We have J= 0.9 and R = 1.10

15.76410001000
Effective depth required = =120 mm
1.101000

Effective depth assuming 12 mm dia main bars = 215-40-6=169

Slab thickness of 0.215 m is safe

15.77410001000
Ast of main reinforcement = = 518.21 mm2
2000.9157

Provide 12mm - bars at 200 mm C/C, Ast actual = 565.49 mm2

1.48410001000
Area of longitudinal reinforcement = = 52.5 mm2
2000.9157

Providing minimum reinforcement, 12mm at 300 mm C/C

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Figure 8 Reinforcement Details for Deck Slab

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3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SLAB

3.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SLAB PORTION

It designed by effective width method only. The cantilever slab portion slab portion
usually carries the KERB, HANDRAILS, FOOTHPATH if provided and a part of
carriageway.

The critical section for bending moment is the vertical section at the junction of the
cantilever portion and the end of longitudinal girder.

The design bending moment for cantilever slab portion is calculated as the sum of 0.2
times of dead load bending moment plus 0.3 times of live load bending moment.

Design moment= 0.2 dead load BM + 0.3 live load BM

3.2 MOMENT DUE TO DEAD LOAD

The total maximum moment due to dead load per metre width of cantilever slab is computed as in
the following table:-

Moment
S.No. Description Loading Lever arm
KN-m
1. Hand rails 1.74 1.40 2.44
2. Kerb (0.4750.27424) 3.13 1.34 4.19
3. Wearing course (1.10.07522) 1.81 0.55 1.00
4. Slab (1.5750.124) 3.78 0.79 2.99
0.50.251.57524 4.72 0.52 2.45

Table 1 Moment Due To Dead Load

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3.3 MOMENT DUE TO LIVE LOAD

Effective width of dispersion, be is given as
Be = 1.2 x + bw

Figure 9 Cantilever Slab with Class A wheel

Where,

x = distance of C.G. of concentrated load from face of cantilever support

bw = breadth of concentrated area of the load
Here, x= 0.7m, bw = 0.25 +20.075 =0.40 m
be = 1.24 m
571.5
Live load/m width = =68.95 KN
1.24

Maximum moment due to live load = 68.95 0.7

= 48.26 KN-m
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3.4 REINFORCEMENT

Total moment (L.L. +D.L.) = 61.33KN-m

61.3310001000
Effective depth required = = 236 mm
1.11000

Depth provided = 350-40-8= 302 mm

61.3310001000
Area of main reinforcement = = 1128 mm2
2000.9302

Use 16 mm- bars at 220 mm C/C

B.M. for distributors =0.213.07+ 0.348.26 =17.09 KN-m
17.0910001000
Area of steel required (for distributors) = =329 mm2
2000.9289

Provide 10 mm dia bars at 220 mm C/C

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4 DESIGN OF INTERMEDIATE LONGITUDINAL

GIRDER-
Effective span = 19.5m
Slab thickness = 215 mm
Width of slab =300mm
Spacing of main beam =2500 mm
Overall depth of beam = 1575 mm

4.1 B.M. DUE TO DEAD LOAD

S.No. Item Details Weight (KN)
1. Wearing course 2.50.07522 4.12
2. Deck slab 250.21524 12.90
3. T-rib 0.31.3524 9.72
4. Fillets 20.50.30.1524 1.08
5. Cross beams (62.21.050.2424)/15.1 5.507
Total 33.327
Table 2 BM due to Dead Load

33.32719.519.5
Maximum B.M. = = 1584 KN-m
8

4.2 B.M. DUE TO LIVE LOAD-

Maximum live load B.M. would occur under class a two lane loading
Impact factor fraction = 0.1764
Loading are arranged in transverse direction as shown-
Allowing minimum clearance near left kerb.
 26

4.3 LIVE LOAD B.M. COURBONS METHOD

Loading for applicability of Courbons method are satisfied using:-

Ri = [ + ]

Here, P =4W, n =3 and e = 0.7m

Assuming value I of all three girders to be equal,
4W 3
Reaction factor for girder A, RA = [1 + 2(2.5)2 2.5 0.7]
3

= 1.89W
4
RB = [1 + 0] = 1.33W
3

Rc = 4W (1.89+1.33) W
=0.78W

Figure 10 LIVE LOAD B.M. COURBONS METHOD

In the longitudinal directions the eight load of IRC Class A train can be accommodated as shown
.The C.G. of the loading system lies at 9558 mm from the first load. Maximum moment occurs
under the 5th load from the left.
From the condition shown in above fig. Maximum B.M. occurring under the fourth load is
1041.26 KN-m.
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4.4 . DESIGN MAXIMUM B.M.

Design B.M. = moment due to D.L. + Moment due to L.L.
= 1584 + 1041.26
=2625.26 KN-m

4.5 DESIGN OF SECTION

Effective flange width = thickness of web + 0.20.7effective span
= 0.3 +0.1419.5
= 3.03 m
Allowing a distance of 120mm from bottom of T-beam to CG of
2625.2610001000
Ast = = 10,163.61mm
180(157520120)

Provide 12 bars of 32 mm dia in three rows of four bars.

4.6 END LONGITUDINAL GIRDERS

B.M. due to dead load = 1584KN-m

Reaction factor by Henry-Jacgar method =1.40
1041.26
B.M. due to live load = 1.4 = 1096.063 KN-m
1.33

Design B.M. due to live load = 1.11096.063

= 1205.67 KN-m
Total design B.M. = 1584 + 1205.67
= 2789.67 KN-m
Provide 14 bars of 32 mm dia for this.
 28

5 DESIGN OF INTERMEDIATE CROSS BEAM

5.1 DESIGN OF CROSS GIRDER

Provided mainly to stiffen the girders and to reduce torsion in the exterior girders.
Another function of the cross beam is to equalize the deflections of the girders carrying
heavy loading with those of the girders with less loading.
This is particularly important when the design loading consist of concentrated wheel loads
such as IRC CLASS AA Loading to be placed in most unfavorable positions.
The thickness of cross beams should not be less than the minimum thickness of the webs
of longitudinal girders.
The depth of the end cross girders should be such as to permit access for inspection of
bearings and to facilitate positioning of jacks for lifting of superstructure for replacement
of bearings.
Normally we use same size as that of longitudinal girders.
Dead load bending moment is computed considering a trapezoidal distribution of weight of
deck slab and wearing course.
The live load bending moment is calculated as the bending moment calculated simply for a
beam.

5.2 B.M. DUE TO DEAD LOAD

Weight of deck slab and wearing course per m2 = 0.21524+0.07522

= 6.8 KN/m2
Total load on cross beam = 20.52.21.16.8
=16.5 KN/m2
Self-weight of cross beam and weight of wearing course over the cross- beam
= 2.2 0.25 1.25 24 + 2.2 0.25 0.075 22
= 17.4 KN
Total dead load on cross beam in a span = 33.9KN
1 2
Coefficient for maximum positive B.M. = 3 0.07 + 0.042
3
= 0.051
1 2
Coefficient for maximum negative B.M. = 3 0.125 + 3 0.083 = 0.097
Positive B.M. = 0.051 33.9 22 1 = 3.8 KN-m
Negative B.M. = 0.097 33.9 22 1 = 7.2 KN-m
 29

5.3 BENDING MOMENT DUE TO LIVE LOAD:

For Class A wheeled vehicle, it is found to be:
Load on the cross-beam = 2(114+68) = 364
Coefficient of maximum positive B.M. due to concentrated load
= (1/3) x0.203 + (2/3) x0.125
= 0.151
Coefficient of maximum negative B.M. due to concentrated load
= (1/3) x0.188 + (2/3) x0.125
=0.146
Positive B.M. including impact = 0.151x364x2.2x1.17 = 141.48
Negative B.M. including impact = 0.146x364x2.2x1.17 = 136.79

5.4 DESIGN OF SECTION:

Design positive B.M. = 3.8+141.48 = 145.28 KN-m

Effective depth = 1275-73 = 1202 mm
Area of steel required = (145.28x106)/ (200x0.9x1202) = 671.47 mm2
Add 0.3% of area of beam to give additional stiffness to the beam
Additional area of steel = (0.3/100) x250x1202 = 901mm2
Total area of the steel required = 671+901 = 1572 mm2
Provide 6 bars of 22 mm diameter giving a total area of 2281 mm2
Design negative B.M. = 7.2+136.79 = 144 KN-m
Area of steel required = (144x106)/200x0.9x1202) = 666 mm2
Provide 3 bars of 22 mm diameter giving an area of 1140 mm2
 30

5.5 PROVISION FOR SHEAR:

As per the arrangement of Class A wheeled vehicle:

Total load on cross beam due to wheels = 364 KN
Shear near the girder = 364x (2.0/2.2) + [364x0.2x0.1/ (2x2.2)] = 332.55KN
Shear including impact of 17% = 389.1
Shear due to dead load = 18.2 KN
Total shear = 407.3 KN
Shear stress = (407.3x1000)/ (250x0.9x1202) = 1.5 MPa
4-legged stirrups of 10 mm dia at spacing of 150 mm will be adequate
Two additional bars of 22 mm dia are provided as cranked bars as additional provision.

5.6 NOMINAL PROVISIONS:

Area of steel required at bottom = (0.5/100) x250x1275 = 1594 mm2

Area of steel required at the top = (0.25/100) x250x1275 = 797 mm2

Use 6-22 mm diameter at bottom and 3-22 mm diameter rods at the top

Nominal shear provision: 4-legegd stirrups 10 mm diameter at 150 mm c/c shall suffice

Figure 11 Bending Moment Due to Live Load

 31

6 BEARING
Bearing are mechanical arrangement provided in the superstructure to transmit the load to the
sub- structure. Thus it is a via media between superstructure and sub-structure which transmit
the load from superstructure in such a manner that bearing stresses induced in the subset are
within permissible limits.

6.1 PURPOSE OF BEARINGS

To absorb movements of girder
To distribute load on a large area
To keep compressive stress within safe limits
To simplify the procedure in design
To take up the vertical movement due to sinking of the the support.

6.2 TYPE OR CATEGORY OF BEARING

Free bearing or expansion bearing
Free to slide or move or roll and thus it allows longitudinal movement of girder.
Fixed bearing
It allows free angular movement and it does not permit any longitudinal movement of
the girder

6.3 FREE BEARING OR EXPANSION BEARING ARE OF FOLLOWING TYPE-

RC rocker expansion bearing
Elastomeric bearing
Steel roller cum rocker bearing
Sliding own rocker bearing
Sliding plate bearing

6.4 FIXED BEARING ARE OF FOLLOWING TYPE-

Rocker bearing
Steel hinge
Steel rocker bearing
RC rocker fixed bearing

6.5 FORCES ON BEARING

Reactive forces
Longitudinal forces
Uplift forces
Transverse forces

 32

6.6 MATERILAS FOR BEARING

(1)Cast steel
(2) Mild steel
(3) Lead
(4) RCC
(5) Rubber
(6) Tar paper
(7) Kraft paper

6.7 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BEARING

a) High vertical load taking capability.
b) Rotational capability.
c) Good seismic resistance
d) Overall cost (initial, maintenance) should be low.
e) Capability to resist external horizontal forces.
f) Aesthetic considerations.
 33

7 SUBSTRUCTURE
A support of concrete or masonry for superstructure of bridge.
The base of a pier may rest directly over firm round or it may be supported on piles.
Center line of pier normally coincide with the center line of the superstructure. The dimensions of
the top of a pier depends on distances between girder (longitudinal girder) and distance required to
provide for the expansion of girder, size of bearing etc.
IRC 40 gives minimum top width of pier and abutment.

7.1 BASIC TYPES OF BRIDGE PIERS

Figure 12 Basic Types of Bridge Piers

7.2 DESIGN LOADS FOR PIERS

dead load of superstructure
Dead load of pier
Live load on superstructure
Lateral forces perpendicular to centerline of superstructure (wind portion on pier above
water level , pressure due to water , wave action of current)
Longitudinal forces parallel to the direction of the bridge (includes braking of vehicles,
tractive force of vehicle (high in case of train)).
Seismic force.
 34

7.3 DESIGN

Figure 13 Pier Section and Plan

7.3.1 Calculation of Dead load for one span

Wearing Course, W1 = 7.5 x 19.5 x 1.65

W1 = 241.3125 KN
Deck Slab W2 = (2.5 x 5.16 x 19.5) x 2
W2 = 503.1 KN
 35

Cantilever Slab
Assumed slope is 3:1
So area of Cantilever Slab
0.675 0.1
W3 x 1.725
2
Weight W3 = 625.6575 KN
Cross Beam = [(1.275 0.675) x 0.250 x 24 x 2.2 ] x6 x 2
W4 = 127 KN (approximately)
T- Beam (longitudinal)
W5 = (0.8 x .3 x 24) x 3 x 19.5
= 336.96 KN

Other loads
Hand Rails = 1.74 KN
Kerb = 3.13 KN
W6 = 4.87 KN
Total dead load of one span
W = 1839.03 KN
Let take load for calculation = 2000KN

7.4 STRESSES DUE TO DEAD LOAD & SELF-WEIGHT

Dead Load from superstructure = 2 x 2000

= 4000KN
1.8+2.7
Self-weight of pier = 8.2 x x 9 x 22
2
= 3653 KN
Total Load = 7653 KN
7653
Stress at base of pier = = 346KPa
8.2 2.7

7.5 EFFECT OF BUOYANCY

Since RBL = 107.90 m

So at HFL (99.8m) width of pier = 1.89 m
1.89+2.7
Submerged volume = 8.2 x ( ) x 8.1 = 152.4 m3
2
So reduction in weight of pier = 152.4 x 9.81
1495.05
Stress at base due to buoyancy = = -67.52 K Pa
8.2 2.7
 36

7.6 STRESSES DUE TO LONGITUDINAL FORCES

7.6.1 Due to tractive effort/ braking forces

Longitudinal force for class A loading

= 0.2 x 7554 KN
=110.8KN
Moment at base = 110.8 x 9.0
= 997.2 KN m
2
Section factor Z = 6
8.22.72
= 6
=9.96 m3
997.2
Stress at base = 9.96 = 100.72 KPa

7.7 STRESS DUE TO WATER CURRENT

Intensity of Pressure P = 0.5KV2

Where K = Constant for pier
K = 0.66 for circular piers

Assumed mean velocity in river = 3.6 m/s

P = 0.5 x 0.66 x 3.62
= 4.3 KN/m2
1.8+2.7
Force due to water current = ( 2 )x9x4.3
=87KN
2
CG of this force = 3 x 8.1 = 5.4 m above base
Moment at base = 87 x 5.4 = 470 kNm
Now Z1 about longitudinal axis
2.78.22
Z= = 30.2 m3
6
470
Stress, = =
30.2
= 15.6 kPa
 37

7.8 ABUTMENTS
An abutment is a structure that support one end of a bridge in other word we can say that it is a
structure located at the end & at the beginning of a bridge.
Functions of abutment
Support the bridge deck at end.
Retain the embankment of approaching road.
Connected the approach road to the bridge deck.

7.9 BASIC TYPES OF BRIDGE ABUTMENTS

7.9.1 Wall and Counterfort

Figure 14 Wall Abutment Counterfort

 38

7.9.2 Open Type

7.9.3 Types of Wall Abutments

 39

7.9.4 Forces acting on abutment

Dead load due to superstructure
Live load on superstructure
Self-weight of abutment
Longitudinal forces (traction and boiling)
Earth pressure due to soil embankment
Design of abutment
Height- Kept equal to height of pier
Abutment- provided with a better of 1 in 3 to 1 in 6 or it may be stepped down
Abutment width- top width according to space needed by the single bearing and
bottom width 0.4 to 0.5 times of height of abutment
Length- minimum equal to width of bridges
Abutment cap- thickness 450 to 600 mm.
Stability of abutment
It should be check and safe against the following-
Overturning
Sliding
Eccentricity of resultant with respect to center of the base
Maximum base pressure or earth pressure.
 40

8 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION
Design of foundations is an important part of overall design of a bridge. In order to design a
foundation for a bridge, we need to determine the following:
Maximum scour depth:
It is calculated using the formula:
D = 0.473(Q/f) 1/3

8.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

The foundations used in bridge structures may be broadly classified as:
Shallow foundations, and
Deep foundations.
A deep foundation is sometimes defined as one whose depth is greater than its width. For the
purpose of discussion in this chapter, a deep foundation would refer to one which cannot be prepared
by open excavation. .
Deep foundations could be further classified as.
(a) Piled foundations, and
(b) Caisson foundations
A pile is defined as a column support type of foundation which may be precast or formed at the site.
On the other hand, a caisson is a member with a hollow portion, which after installing in place by
means is filled with concrete or other material.
Caisson foundations can be classified as:
(a) Open caissons, and
(b) Pneumatic caissons.
An open caisson is one that has no top or bottom cover during its sinking. It is more popularly
known as well foundation. A pneumatic caisson is a caisson with a permanent or temporary roof
near the bottom so arranged that men can work in the compressed air trapped under it.

8.2 WELL FOUNDATIONS

Well foundation is the most commonly adopted bridge foundation in India. The foundation may
consist of a single large diameter well or of a group of smaller wells of circular or other shapes. The
shape of wells may be circular, double-D, square, rectangular, dumb-bell, etc. From considerations
 41

of sinking efforts and erection of shuttering, a single large diameter well is nowadays preferred to a
group of small sized wells.
A well foundation consists of the following components:
(a) Well curb
(b) Steining
(c) Bottom plug
(d) Sand filling
(e) Top plug
(f) Well cap.
The thickness of steining should not be less than 450 mm nor less than that given by equation
T= k (0.01H + 0.1D)
Where t= minimum thickness of concrete steining
H= full depth to which the well is designed to be sunk below the bed
D=external diameter of the well
K=a constant depending on the nature of subsoil, taken as 1.0 for sandy strata,
1.1 For soft clay, 1.25 for hard clay and 1.3 for hard soil with boulders.
The concrete well steining is reinforced with-longitudinal bond rods and hoop rods
on both faces of the well. The minimum reinforcement will be 9 kg/ms for bond
rods and 3.3 kg/m3 for hoops. The minimum cover to bond rods is 75 mm.

Brickwork steining can be used up to a size of about 6 m, the thickness of

steining in this case being about 100 mm more than that for the corresponding
concrete steining.

A bottom plug is essential to transfer the load from the well steining to the base
soil. It is usually provided for a thickness of about half the diameter of the dredge
hole .In practice the bottom plug is provided up to a height of 0. 3 m above the top
of well curb in case of small diameter wells .and 0.6 min case of large-diameter
 42

wells. The concrete used is of M20 grade, the richness of the mix being
necessitated by the possibility of loss of part of the cement due to under-water
placing of the concrete.

8.3 DESIGN
Catchment area of chhoti gandak river = 3565 km2
Since River bed material is fine sand, silt factor K will be in the range of 0.5-0.68
Assuming K = 0.6
Given discharge Q = 375 cumec
According to IS 78:2014 Design discharge = 1.3 x 375
= 487.5 cumec
Theoretical linear waterway = 4.83
= 4.83 375
= 93.54 m
Effective linear waterway = 93.54 (3 x 2.7)
= 85.44 m
3 2
Mean depth of scour below HFL, dsm= 1.34 x
375
q = 85.44 = 4.39 m2/s
3 4.392
dsm =1.34 x 0.6
= 3.2m

As per clause 703.3,

Max depth of scour below HFL, for piers = 2 dsm
= 2 x 3.2 m
= 6.4 m

Let us take 7 m
For abutments = 1.27 dsm
= 1.27 x 3.2 m
= 4.064 m
1
Minimum grip length for well foundation below design scour level = x dmax
3

1
For piers = x 6.4 = 2.2 m 2.5m
3
1
For abutment = x 4.064 = 1.355 1.5m
3
 43

8.4 DIMENSION OF WELL

Adopt a circular well foundation with a single dredge hole

External dia = 10m

Internal dia = 8.2m
 44

Width of pier cap

Assume 200mm projection beyond edge of top pier
Then, width = 1.5 + (2 x 0.2) = 1.9m
Assume Thickness = 0.8m
Thickness of well cap = 0.8m

Well Steining
Thickness t = K x d
L = Depth of wells below LWL
K = Constant
For well in cement concrete K = 0.03
L = (7 + 2.5) (99.8- 93.8)
= 3.5 m
d = 10 m

t = 0.03 x 10 x 3.5
= 0.561m
Provide t = 1 m

8.5 WELL CURB

The well curb is an R.C.C ring beam which satisfies following requirements;
1. It should have a shape offering minimum resistance during sinking and should be strong
enough to be able to transmit superimposed loads from the steining to the bottom plug.
2. The curb should be constructed in reinforced concrete of mix not leaner than M20 with
minimum reinforcement of 72 Kg /m3 excluding bond rods
 45

Figure 15 Well Curb

 46

Figure 16 Forces on Well Curb during Sinking

P = force in kN per m run of curb acting normal to the level surface,

Q = force in kN per m length of curb acting tangentially to the level surface, and
H = horizontal resultant force in kN per m of curb.
 47

8.6 CUTTING EDGE

The cutting edge usually consists of a mild steel equal angle of side 150 mm. The angle will have one side
projecting downward from the curb as shown in the figure.

Figure 17 Side view of cutting edge

The cutting edge should be properly anchored to the well curb and should be strong enough not to
fail in crushing while passing through the hardest strata.

8.7 BOTTOM PLUG

Following points should be considered:-

1. It usually consists of M20 cement concrete laid by means of tremie or skip boxes. Plugging
done by concrete is also satisfactory. 10% extra quantity of cement should be added.
2. Bottom plugging should always be done in one continuous operation when the water level is at
its normal level.
3. The bottom plug may in the shape of bulb, it will reduce hoop tension in curb and give greater
bearing area.
4. Bottom plug should be capable of receiving the load from steining and transmitting it to the
base.
5. While founding the well on the rock, it should be securely anchored to the bed by taking it 200
mm to 300 mm in to the rock bed. Dowel bars when used should have twice the length in plug
to the length embedded in the rock to develop full bond.
6. Before starting the plugging operation, the water in the well must be still and up to its normal
level. Concrete must be of normal consistency as if being used on workout of water.
 48

8.8 TOP PLUG AND FILLING

After laying the concrete of the bottom plug and allowing it to remain undisturbed for at least
14 days, clean granular material (sand, sand and gravel etc.) is filled in the dredge hole up to the
desired height which extends up to the top concrete plug placed immediately below the well cap.
The sand filling in a completely filled well serves the purpose of transmitting the load directly to
the bottom plug and thus may give some relief to well steining. In seismic areas, the well is
preferably filled only partly up to scour level and remaining portion may be filled water. This is
done to reduce the moment due to the seismic force.

8.9 SINKING OF WELLS

The following steps are involved in well sinking:

8.9.1 Placing of curb

The method adopted for correctly placing curb depends on local configuration.
1. If the bed of the river is dry, the bed is excavated up to about 150 mm. Firstly, cutting edge is
laid. The curb is then laid there and, after it has sufficiently hardened (in about 5 days),
steining is built over it.
2. If the location of well is at a place with water which cant be drained, diverted or pumped out,
sand island method which envisages the construction of temporary island by dumping sand on
which curb and steining are built.
3. In case of deep water it may be economical to build the curb on dry ground and float it to site.

Figure 18 Laying of Well Curb

 49

9 CONCLUSIONS

9.1 DECK SLAB

Thickness of slab, H=215 mm

Provide 12 mm Dia @200 mm c/c (565.5 mm2) along main span
Provide 12 mm Dia @300 mm c/c (525.5 mm2) along shorter span

9.2 CANTILEVER SLAB

Depth at support = 350 mm
Depth at cantilever side = 100 mm
Main Steel Provide 16mm Dia bars @220 c/c (Ast = 1128 mm2)
Distribution Steel Provide 10 mm Dia bars @220 c/c (Ast = 329 mm2)

9.3 LONGITUDINAL GIRDERS

Intermediate Longitudinal Girder
Effective flange width = 3.03 m
Provide 12 bars of 32 mm dia in three rows of four bars (Ast = 10,163.61mm2)

END LONGITUDINAL GIRDERS

Provide 14 bars of 32 mm dia for this (Ast = 11259.46mm2)

9.4 CROSS GIRDER

Effective depth = 1202 mm
Provide 6 bars of 22 mm diameter giving a total area of 2281 mm2
Shear reinforcement of 10 mm dia 4 legged stirrups @150 c/c
Two additional bars of 22 mm dia are provided as cranked bars as additional provision

9.5 PIER
Height = 9m
Cross section at bottom = 8.2 m x 2.7 m

9.6 FOUNDATION
External dia = 10 m
Internal dia = 8.2 m
Width of pier cap = 1.9 m
Thickness of well cap = 0.8 m
Thickness of well steining = 1 m
 50

10 REFERENCES

1. IRC: 5 - 1998, "Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section I
General Features of Design", The Indian Road Congress.

2. IRC: 6 - 2000, "Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section II
- Loads and Stresses", The Indian Road Congress.

3. IRC: 78 2014, Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section
VII Foundation and Substructure, The Indian Road Congress.

4. IS: 456 - 2000, "Plain and Reinforcement Concrete - Code of Practice", Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 2000.

5. Victor, D.J., "Essential of Bridge Engineering".

6. Punmia, B.C. and Jain, A.K., "R.C.C. Designs".

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