Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678

www.elsevier.nl/locate/etfs

Flow visualization of a round jet impinging on cylindrical surfaces

C. Cornaro 1, A.S. Fleischer, R.J. Goldstein *

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, University of Minnesota, Bld. 125, 111, Church Street S.E., Minneapolis,
MN 55455-0111, USA
Received 15 December 1998; received in revised form 28 June 1999; accepted 19 July 1999

Abstract

Smoke wire ow visualization is used to investigate the behavior of a round jet issuing from a straight tube and impinging on
concave and convex surfaces with high relative curvature values. Local velocity and turbulence intensity measurements of the free jet
are correlated to the formation of the visualized ordered-ow structures. Visualization of the impinging jet shows the initiation and
growth of ring vortices in the jet shear layer and their interaction with the cylindrical surfaces. Eects of relative curvature, nozzle
diameter, nozzle-to-surface distance and Reynolds number on the jet ow structure are described. 1999 Elsevier Science Inc. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Jets; Jet impingement; Vortex; Ring vortex; Curved surface; Flow visualization

1. Introduction described in terms of a at surface. For this reason, the

The wide use of jets to enhance heat transfer has led
to many studies of the ow and heat transfer charac-
teristics of jet impingement. Jet impingement is used as a
cooling method in many applications ranging from
textiles to electronic components, and the eects of jet
diameter, orientation, Reynolds number, and jet-surface
spacing on ow and heat transfer on at plates have
been thoroughly investigated. Comprehensive reviews
have been published by Jambunathan et al. [1] and
Viskanta [2]. Popiel and Trass [3] report the results of
ow visualization of a round free jet and of a jet im-
pinging on a at plate. The entrainment process, due to
the ring vortices, was studied using a smoke wire
method. Clear details of the ow pattern and of the
vortex structures are presented.
Although many jet impingement studies have been
reported, most investigate the eect of impingement on
at surfaces. However, a wide variety of components,
including turbine blades, which can benet from im-
pingement cooling have a geometry which cannot be
* Nusselt number are presented. Their results indicate that
Corresponding author. Tel. : +1-612-625-5552; fax: +1-612-625-
3434.
E-mail address: rjg@me.umn.edu (R.J. Goldstein)
1
Currently at Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Rome ``Tor Vergata'', Via di Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy.
eect of surface geometry on impingement cooling
warrants investigation. Yet few works on jet impinge-
ment on curved surfaces have been published.
Some of the earliest works that do focus on jet im-
pingement on curved surfaces are Chupp et al. [4], who
studied heat transfer from an array of small round jets
impinging on a concave surface, and Metzger et al. [5]
who looked at a similar geometry. Tabako and Cle-
venger [6] compared the cooling of a single slot jet to
arrays of round jets on a concave surface.
Hrycak [7] studied the heat transfer from concave
hemispherical plates with Reynolds numbers of 12,000
to 88,000 and small relative curvature values
(d=D 0.0340.1). His results indicated that at the
stagnation point, the heat transfer was higher on the
concave plate than for an equivalent jet impinging on a
at plate.
Yang et al. [8] studied heat transfer on semicylindri-
cal concave surfaces. Gau and Chung [9] investigated
the heat transfer from semicylindrical concave and
convex surfaces with slot jets at Reynolds numbers from
6000 to 35,000 and slot width to surface diameter ratios
of 845. Correlations for stagnation point and average
heat transfer is enhanced with increasing relative cur-
vature (d=D) for both convex and concave surfaces, and
in both cases is higher than for impingement on a at
plate under the same conditions. Flow visualization is

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PII: S 0 8 9 4 - 1 7 7 7 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 3 2 - 1
 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678
presented, but interpretation of the ow pattern is
complicated by the resolution of the presented pictures.
The authors do suggest that counter-rotating vortices
are formed at the stagnation point.
Lee et al. [10] studied the eects of curvature on local
heat transfer from a round jet with Reynolds numbers of
11,00050,000 and relative curvature values from 0.034
to 0.089. The impingement surface was a convex hemi-
sphere. Their results showed that the stagnation point
Nusselt number increases with increasing values of d=D.
Stagnation point and average Nusselt number correla-
tions are presented.
Kornblum and Goldstein [11] examined the ow of
circular jets impinging on concave and convex semicyl-
indrical surfaces for small d=D (0.01970.0394). Their
ow visualization results, while not detailed enough to
show the motion of the ring vortices, indicate a sub-
stantial recirculation of the ow exiting the concave
surface into the main jet ow.
These studies, while providing valuable information
on the eects of relative curvature on jet impingement,
were all conducted at low values of relative curvature.
The present study was undertaken to provide insight
into the jet vortex structure during impingement on
convex and concave surfaces with high relative curva-
ture (d=D 0.180.38). A smoke wire technique similar
to that of Corke et al. [12] is used. For completeness and
contrast, visualizations of a free jet and of a jet im-
pinging on a at surface are also presented.
The jet issues from straight tubes to impinge normal
to at plates and semicylindrical convex and concave
surfaces. The experiment is conducted at four dierent
tube Reynolds numbers (6000, 10,000, 15,000, and
20,000) for jet exit-to-surface spacing from 1 to 4 tube
diameters. Jet centerline velocities varied from 4 to 6 m/
s. The relative curvature is varied by changing the tube
diameter. Tube diameters of 47.2, 72.6 and 98.6 mm
used with an impingement surface diameter of 252 mm
result in a relative curvature range of 0.180.39.
Local radial distribution of the axial velocity and
turbulence intensity distributions at the jet exit and of
axial velocity along the jet axis are measured and cor-
related to the observed ow structures. The eects of
surface curvature, nozzle diameter, nozzle-to-surface
spacing, Reynolds number and turbulence intensity
level on the ow behavior and vortex formation are
analyzed.
2. Experimental apparatus
The air jet is produced by the apparatus shown in
Fig. 1. The air is supplied by the building compressor
and controlled by a pressure regulator. Upstream of the
jet, the air passes through a plenum and a exible tubing
of 25.4 cm diameter that allows movement of the tube in
order to vary the jet exit-to-surface distance. Three tubes
of dierent diameters (47.2, 72.6 and 98.6 mm) are used.
The tube length to diameter ratio (L=d) is 10 for all the
tubes, however honeycomb and mesh screens inserted in
67
Fig. 1. Experimental apparatus.
the pipe entrance to smooth the ow shorten the length
of the tube used to develop the boundary layer. The
actual L=d is 8.38 for d 47.2 mm, 8.95 for d 72.6 mm
and 9.22 for d 98.6 mm. A thermocouple in the tube,
approximately 10 cm from the jet exit, measures the jet
air temperature.
The jet impinges on a curved surface which consists
of a convex or concave semicylinder of 252 mm inner
diameter and 256.76 mm outer diameter.
The average velocity at the jet exit is calculated from
the air ow rate measured upstream of the plenum by an
orice plate and manometer. Local velocity distribu-
tions of the free jet are measured using a hot wire ane-
mometer. The radial distribution of the axial velocity is
measured approximately 5 mm downstream of the jet
exit. The output signal is ltered at 5 kHz and sampled
with a frequency of 10 kHz for the radial distribution.
The axial velocity distribution is determined by data
sampled at 4 kHz with a low pass ltering at 2 kHz. The
data sampling rate was modied for the axial velocity
distribution to correct for an external disturbance at the
sampling frequency.
A smoke wire technique is used to visualize the ow
structures of the jets. A 0.1 mm diameter stainless steel
wire is located approximately 1 mm downstream of the
jet exit. Before each test the wire is coated with mineral
oil. Small evenly spaced droplets form on its surface. A
power supply provides the energy necessary to heat the
wire by the Joule eect. The heated oil droplets pro-
duce thin white smoke laments that trace the air ow
issuing from the tubes. A black background located
behind the jet improves the contrast for the visualiza-
tion. The curved surface is painted black for the same
reason.
A record of the resulting ow eld is captured using a
Nikon FG camera with 1:2.8 105 mm AF Micro Nikkor
Lens. A powerful short duration ash is essential to get
satisfactory pictures. A Nikon SB-15 ash is used for
this experiment. The camera shutter release drives the
ash light while the power supply to the wire and the
shutter release are synchronized manually. All signi-
cant data, such as vortex size and frequency, is scaled o
the photos. Because the photos capture only an instant
in time, a signicant numbers of photos were taken and
the data ranges presented cover the extremes of the
photographic information.
68 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678

3. Flow characterization presence of organized ow structures observed within

The velocity and turbulence intensity distributions at
the jet exit and along the jet axis are necessary to un-
derstand the dynamics of the ow and to explain the
behavior of the jet far downstream. The ow dynamics
also inuence the heat transfer from the impingement
surface. In general, a characterization of the ow is re-
quired to understand the heat transfer mechanisms. As
will be shown later, these velocity and turbulence in-
tensity proles at the jet exit can be related to the
the ow.
The radial distributions of the axial velocity and
relative turbulence intensities for the 47.2 mm jet are
shown in Fig. 2. The turbulence intensity is presented as
the percentage of the ratio of the RMS of the uctuating
component if the local velocity over the centerline ve-
locity at the jet exit. The values of the turbulence in-
tensity at both the jet center and in the shear layer at the
jet edge are presented in Table 1. Figs. 3 and 4 present
the radial distributions of the axial velocity and turbu-
lence intensity levels for the 72.6 mm jet and the 98.6
mm jet. As can be seen from these velocity proles, the
ow is symmetric and free of disturbances at the exit of
the jet.
The axial velocity distribution was obtained by po-
sitioning the probe at the centerline of the jet exit and
measuring the velocity at various distances away from
the jet exit. Due to laboratory space constraints the axial
velocity prole for the 98.6 mm jet was not measured.
Fig. 5 shows the axial velocity prole for the 47.2 mm
jet.
The potential core region of the jet can be determined
from the axial velocity distribution using the intersection
of a straight line t to each distinct slope of the prole.
The potential core length increases as the Reynolds
number is increased. (See Table 2.)
For the 47.2 mm jet, a nonuniformity with x in the
velocity distribution is observed at Re 6000 (see Fig.
5a). No nonuniformity is observed at Re 10,000 (see
Fig. 5b), 15,000 or 20,000. Similar nonuniformities (not
shown) are observed for the 72.6 mm jet at Re 6000
and 10,000, but not at 15,000 or 20,000. These nonuni-
formities are consistently reproduced for several runs at
the same Reynolds number and may be explained by the
presence of large vortex structures that perturb the jet
centerline at low Reynolds numbers. As will be seen
from the ow visualization, as the Reynolds number is
increased, the inuence of the ring vortices on the center
of the jet is reduced.

4. Free jet

A free jet was visualized to verify the imaging pro-

Fig. 2. Radial distribution of: (a) axial velocity; (b) turbulence inten-
sity for 47.2 mm jet (x 5 mm).
cedure and to use as baseline information for later
comparison to the behavior of the impinging jets. The
most signicant aspects of the free jet behavior are a
distinct Reynolds number eect and a radial contrac-
tion/expansion of the potential core region due to vortex
entrainment. Interestingly, dierent ow situations ap-
pear to occur for the same Reynolds number developed

Table 1
Turbulence intensity levels in jet central region/shear layer at jet edge
Jet diameter (mm) Re 6000 Re 10,000 Re 15,000 Re 20,000
47.2 0.5%/9% 0.5%/14% 1%/14% 1%/13%
72.6 0.15%/0.6% 0.2%/0.6% 0.5%/15% 0.6%/14%
98.6 0.2%/0.5% 0.2%/0.6% 0.2%/2% 0.8%/16%
 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678
Fig. 3. Radial distribution of: (a) axial velocity; (b) turbulence inten-
sity for 72.6 mm jet (x 5 mm).
in dierent jet diameters. This situation results from the
higher turbulence levels in the shear layer at the jet edge
for the smaller diameter jets.
Well-organized vortex structures are present for the
47.2 mm jet at Re 6000 (see Fig. 6a). The relatively low
turbulence intensity in the shear layer at the jet edge
(9%) for this case (see Table 1) allows the formation of
these large vortices. Fig. 6b shows the 47.2 mm jet at
Re 10,000. In this case, the turbulence intensity in the
shear layer at the jet edge has increased to 14% and the
large vortex structures are no longer present. We con-
sistently found that large vortex structures were present
when the turbulence intensity level in the shear layer at
the jet edge was less than 10% and were not present
when the turbulence intensity level was greater than
14%. Fig. 6c shows the 72.6 mm jet at Re 6000
69
Fig. 4. Radial distribution of: (a) axial velocity; (b) turbulence inten-
sity for 98.6 mm jet (x 5 mm).
(turbulence level of 0.6% in the shear layer at the jet
edge) and Fig. 6d shows the 98.6 mm jet at Re 6000
(turbulence level of 0.5% in the shear layer at the jet
edge). In both these cases, large vortices are present.
The ring vortices leaving the nozzle form from an
instability in the low turbulence shear layer. This in-
stability creates disturbances in the ow which result in
small vortices which roll up and grow in size as they are
convected downstream. As can be seen in Fig. 6a the
vortices start to break down at the end of the potential
core where the radial oscillation of the jet is high. This
method of vortex formation was also observed by Popiel
and Trass [3]. As can be seen in Table 3, the spacing
between adjacent vortices is a function of both Reynolds
number and jet diameter. The spacing between adjacent
vortices was estimated by scaling o a series of 46
70 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678

c and d in the ring vortex entrainment regions. The

spacing between the smoke streaklines is reduced where
the ring vortex rotates towards the jet centerline and is
expanded where the ring vortex rotates away from the
jet centerline. This contraction and expansion may be
responsible for the axial velocity oscillations observed in
the potential core region and exhibited in the axial ve-
locity distribution at Re 6000 in Fig. 5a. The uid is
accelerated and retarded as the potential core is radially
contracted and expanded by the vortex structures. As
can be seen in Fig. 6b, no ring vortices are present for
the 47.2 mm jet operating at Re 10,000, due to the
high turbulence level in the shear layer at the jet edge for
this case (14%), and in this case the potential core is not
subject to the expansions and contractions of the pre-
vious situations. In addition, the axial velocity distri-
bution in this case (Fig. 5b, Re 10,000) does not show
any variation in the potential core region.

5. Impinging jet at plate

Limited visualization of a jet impinging on a at plate

Fig. 5. Axial velocity distributions for 47.2 mm jet at jet centerline: (a)
Re 6000; (b) Re 10,000.
photos for each situation. The uncertainty due to both
measurement and repeatability is 11% with a con-
dence level of 95%. As the Reynolds number increases,
the vortex spacing decreases and the initial disturbance
in the ow that causes the vortex structures appears
earlier.
Contractions and expansions of the potential core
region in the radial direction can be observed in Fig. 6a,
is performed to contrast with the jet impingement on
curved surfaces. This visualization is performed for the
47.2 mm jet (Re 6000) and for the 72.6 mm jet
(Re 6000 and 10,000). For both jets, jet-to-surface
spacings of H =d 4; 3; 2; 1 were examined. The visual-
ization of the 72.6 mm jet at Re 6000 is shown in Fig.
7ad. All four jet-to-surface spacings are shown. This
situation is typical of all the at plate impingements and
will be the only situation examined in detail.
For the 72.6 mm jet (Re 6000), the potential core
length is 4d (See Table 2), and thus at H =d 4, the
impingement on the surface occurs at the end of the
potential core (See Fig. 7a). The location of the im-
pingement of the vortices on the surface can be seen
from this photo and occurs approximately at a distance
equivalent to the jet radius from the stagnation point.
For the case of Fig. 7a, the vortex structures break down
quickly on the surface due to a strong radial oscillation
of the impingement region of the jet. This oscillation is
due to the location of the impingement point near the
end of the potential core of the jet. This oscillation was
observed during the experimental runs, and on video-
tape of the experiments. However, as the still photos
only capture an instant in time, it is dicult to show the
oscillation within the context of this paper. This oscil-
lation has also been observed by Popiel and Trass [3].
Reducing the nozzle-to-plate distance to 3 diameters,
Fig. 7b, results in a longer duration of the vortices as
they move radially along the plate (see Table 4). Minor

Table 2
Potential core length
Jet diameter (mm) Re 6000 Re 10,000 Re 15,000 Re 20,000
47.2 4:1d 4:4d 5:1d 5:5d
72.6 4:0d 4:0d 4:4d 5:6d
 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678 71

Fig. 6. Free jet at: (a) Re 6000, d 47.2 mm; (b) Re 10,000, d 47.2 mm; (c) Re 6000, d 72.6 mm; (d) Re 6000, d 98.6 mm.

radial oscillation of the stagnation point can still be the surface as they are carried by the main ow. A dis-
observed in the videotape of the experiments, but the tortion of the smoke laments can be observed at the
ow along the plate remains attached and unaected by stagnation point.
the radial oscillation.
At H =d 2, Fig. 7c, the jet does not exhibit any well-
formed vortex structures before hitting the surface be- 6. Impinging jet convex surface
cause the vortex structures have not had the time to
form prior to impingement. However, a disturbance is In this experiment, jet impingement on a cylindrical
visible in the ow upstream of the plate. The vortices convex surface was extensively studied. The eects of
appear to be smaller in diameter than at the larger H =d relative curvature, nozzle-to-surface distance and Rey-
spacings. The stagnation point is not oscillating as in the nolds number on the ow structures were investigated.
previous cases. The visualization was completed for the 47.2 mm jet
At H =d 1, although the stagnation point is not (Re 6000), the 72.6 mm jet (Re 6000 and 10,000) and
oscillating radially, the ow along the plate oscillates the 98.6 mm jet (Re 6000, 10,000 and 15,000). In each
strongly on and o the surface in the axial direction as case, nozzle-to-surface spacings of H =d 4; 3; 2; 1 were
can be seen for one snapshot in time in Fig. 7d. Only used.
tiny vortices are observed, as there was not sucient
distance or time for the larger vortices to develop prior 6.1. Nozzle-to-surface distance eect
to the impingement region, and they oscillate on and o
A strong inuence of jet-to-surface spacing on the
ow dynamics was observed. This eect is similar to that
Table 3
found with the at plate and was the same regardless of
Axial spacing of ring vortices in free jet the jet diameter or Reynolds number, so only one con-
dition will be considered in depth (72.6 mm jet,
Jet diameter (mm) Re 6000 Re 10,000 Re 15,000
Re 6000). In general, the preservation of stable co-
47.2 0:9d NA NA herent vortices on the surface is a strong function of jet-
72.6 0:8d 0:6d NA to-surface spacing (see Table 5) and the presence of
98.6 0:7d 0:5d 0:4d
the convex surface aects the jet ow upstream of the
72 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678
Fig. 7. Impingement on a at plate (d 72.6 mm, Re 6000): (a) H =d 4; (b) H=d 3; (c) H =d 2; (d) H=d 1:
surface in certain low Reynolds number cases, causing
the ring vortices to be spaced more closely together than
for the free jet. However, as jet diameter and Reynolds
number increases, this eect disappears as demonstrated
in Table 6. The spacing between adjacent vortices was
estimated by scaling o a series of 46 photos for each
situation. The uncertainty due to both measurement and
repeatability is 11% with a condence level of 95%. It
would also be interesting to compare the ring vortex
spacing dierences between impingement on a at plate
and on convex surfaces. Unfortunately, for this experi-
ment, not enough at plate data were available to make
an accurate comparison.
A strong radial oscillation of the stagnation point is
the main feature observed when H =d 4. Fig. 8a, at one
instant in time, captures a strong oscillation to the left of
the photo. The videotape of the experiment shows that
the jet moves randomly in this way around the im-
pingement point. This is similar to, but an even stronger
eect, than was found with impingement on the at
plate (see Fig. 7a). For the 72.6 mm jet at Re 6000, the
Table 4
Duration of stable, coherent vortex rings on at plate
Flow situation H=d 4
d 47.2 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown
d 72.6 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown
d 72.6 mm, Re 10,000 Immediate breakdown
potential core length is 4d (See Table 2), and thus at
H =d 4, the impingement on the surface occurs at the
end of the potential core. The vortex structures are
typically already beginning to break down by the end of
the potential core, and the radial oscillation of the jet
at the stagnation point acts to hasten this break down of
the vortices that hit the surface. In addition, the sym-
metry of the jet upstream of the surface is destroyed,
unlike the situation of impingement on a at plate.
The interaction of the jet with the convex cylindrical
surface thus results in dierences in the jet behavior at
H =d 4 when compared with the free jet and at plate
impingement cases. When the convex cylindrical surface
is present, the ring vortices do not exhibit the symmetry
of and are spaced more closely together than for the free
jet and at plate impingement visualization.
At H =d 3 (Fig. 8b), unlike H =d 4, dened vortex
structures can be observed in the jet shear layer. The
vortices roll down the surface until they dissipate in an
unsteady ow situation, and the videotape shows that
the stagnation point oscillates less dramatically radially
H =d 3 H=d 2 H=d 1
1.5d Inconclusive Oscillates on and o surface
1.5d 1.5d Oscillates on and o surface
1d 1d Oscillates on and o surface
 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678 73

Table 5
Duration of stable, coherent vortex rings on cylindrical convex surface
Flow situation H =d 4 H =d 3 H=d 2 H=d 1
47.2 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown 30 Oscillates on and o surface
72.6 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown 40 Remain as long as smoke is visible Oscillates on and o surface
72.6 mm, Re 10,000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown 35 Oscillates on and o surface
98.6 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Remain as long as smoke is visible Oscillates on and o surface
98.6 mm, Re 10,000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Remain as long as smoke is visible Oscillates on and o surface
98.6 mm, Re 15,000 No data avail. Immediate breakdown 35 Oscillates on and o surface

Table 6 layer on the cylindrical surface. These vortices appear to

Spacing of ring vortices (free jet/upstream of convex surface for remain intact as long as the smoke is visible.
H =d 3) At H =d 1 (Fig. 8d) although the stagnation point is
Jet diameter (mm) Re 6000 Re 10,000 Re 15,000 not oscillating radially, a strong oscillation of the sur-
47.2 mm 0:9d=0:7d NA NA face ow on and o the convex surface in the axial di-
72.6 mm 0:8d=0:6d 0:6d=0:6d NA rections is observed. Fig. 8d captures the instant where
98.6 mm 0:7d=0:7d 0:5d=0:5d 0:4d=0:4d the ow along the left side of the surface is beginning to
lift o. This is similar to that observed for the at plate
impingement. Only tiny vortices are generated in the
oscillating shear layer, and similar to the at plate sit-
than at H =d 4. In this case, the jet ow upstream of uation, a distortion of the smoke laments can be ob-
the convex surface preserves its symmetry. served at the stagnation point. It is dicult to determine
At H =d 2 (Fig. 8c) the stagnation point no longer how long these small vortices remain on the surface due
oscillates and well-dened vortices appear in the shear to their axial oscillation.

Fig. 8. Impingement on a convex surface. Eect of jet-to-surface spacing (d 72.6 mm, Re 6000): (a) H=d 4; (b) H =d 3; (c) H =d 2;
(d) H =d 1:
74 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678
6.2. Curvature eect
The eect of curvature was investigated by varying
the nozzle diameter of the impinging jet and maintaining
a xed Reynolds number and surface diameter, thus
eectively changing d=D. This methodology is consistent
with other studies that examined the eect of surface
curvature, including Hrycak [7], Gau and Chung [9],
and Lee et al. [10]. When considering the eect of rela-
tive curvature on the ow structures, nozzle-to-surface
spacing must also be considered due to its strong eect
on the ow structure.
First considering the curvature eects at spacing of
H =d 2, a transition from laminar to unsteady ow
along the surface is observed for the lowest relative
curvature (d=D 0:18). (See Fig. 9a). When the relative
curvature is increased, the ow remains laminar along
the surface as can be seen in Fig. 9b, d=D 0:28, and
Fig. 9c, d=D 0:38. This may due to the stabilizing
eect on the ow of the increasing centrifugal force,
resulting in a longer period of laminar ow for higher
relative curvatures [13].
The situation at H =d 3 (not shown) is similar to
that at H =d 2. The ow along the surface is unsteady
for the lowest relative curvature (d=D 0:18) while for
the larger relative curvature values (d=D 0:28 and
Fig. 9. Impingement on a convex surface. Eect of curvature (H =d 2, Re 6000): (a) d=D 0:18; (b) d=D 0:28; (c) d=D 0:38:
0.38) vortices can be observed on the surface, even
though they break down rapidly.
At H =d 4 and H =d 1 (not shown), the curvature
eects are reduced. The strong radial oscillation at the
jet impingement region for H =d 4 and the strong axial
oscillation of the surface ow for H =d 1 overwhelm
any relative curvature eects.
6.3. 3-D visualization
The visualizations in all the earlier gures show the
behavior of a jet section parallel to the radial axis of the
cylinder. In this case, only a cross-section of the ow is
observed. To address this limitation, the smoke wire was
rotated 45 and 90 with respect to the original position
to investigate the behavior of the ow at other cross-
sections. As an example, the visualizations for the 72.6
mm jet at H =d 2 and Re 6000 are shown in Fig. 10.
At 90 orientation (Fig. 10a) the section parallel to the
axial axis of the cylinder is visualized. The ow structure
in this orientation is similar to that observed for a jet
impinging on a at plate. The visualization made for 45
(Fig. 10b) show ow structures which appear similar to
those with the original wire orientation, although it is
clear that this an intermediary step between the two
orientations.
 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678
Fig. 10. Impingement on a convex surface. 3-D eects (d 72.6 mm,
H =d 2, Re 6000): (a) 90 smoke wire orientation; (b) 45 smoke
wire orientation.
7. Impinging jet concave surface
The jet impinging on a concave surface is dicult to
observe in that the surface shape limits the illumination
of the ow eld. In some cases, the lighting and shadows
on the surface interfere with a clear interpretation of the
ow structures. The visualization was completed for the
47.2 mm jet (Re 6000), the 72.6 mm jet (Re 6000 and
10,000) and the 98.6 mm jet (Re 6000, 10,000 and
15,000). In each case, nozzle-to-surface spacings of
H =d 4, 3, 2 and 1 were used.
In general, the visualization shows that the ow on a
concave surface is more unsteady than ow on a convex
surface. The centrifugal forces act to destabilize the ow
over concave surfaces while they act to stabilize the ow
over convex surfaces [13]. The ow upstream of the
concave surface is strongly aected by the ow exiting
the surface at 90. This exhaust ow becomes entrained
in the primary jet ow, reducing the likelihood of stable
ring vortices upstream of the surface. This is most
clearly shown in Fig. 11c.
7.1. Nozzle-to-surface distance eect
The jet-to-surface spacing strongly inuences the
ow dynamics. This eect is similar to that observed for
75
ow over the convex surface and is qualitatively the
same for all diameters and Reynolds numbers, so only
one situation will be considered (72.6 mm jet,
Re 6000). Stable coherent vortices exist on the surface
only for low Reynolds numbers for H =d 3 and
H =d 2 (see Table 7) While vortex structures do exist
for H =d 1, the ow along the surface oscillates on and
o the surface in the axial direction, as with impinge-
ment on convex and at surfaces.
At H =d 4, similar to the ow over convex surfaces,
the stagnation point oscillates strongly in the radial di-
rection, dissipating the upstream vortex structures and
jet symmetry. Fig. 11a captures this oscillation as the jet
moves to the right edge of the surface. The videotape of
the experiment shows that the jet oscillates randomly
about the impingement point. For the 72.6 mm jet
(Re 6000), potential core length is 4d (See Table 2);
thus at H =d 4, the impingement on the surface occurs
at the end of the potential core. The vortex structures
are already beginning to break down by the end of the
potential core, and the radial oscillation of the jet at
the stagnation point acts to hasten this breakdown of
the vortices that approach the surface. No stable vor-
tices are observed on the surface.
At H =d 3 (Fig 11b), the videotape of the experi-
ment shows that the radial oscillation of the stagnation
point is less intense than at H =d 4, but unlike the
convex surface situation, vortices cannot be seen along
the surface.
At H =d 2, small vortices appear on the wall, and
maintain integrity for quite a distance from the stagna-
tion point before breakdown. The recirculation of the
ow into the main stream can be clearly seen in Fig. 11c.
At H =d 1, small vortices appears in the wall jet
region and maintain integrity until almost 90 (see Fig.
11d). However, although the stagnation point is not
oscillating radially, a strong oscillation of the surface
ow on and o the convex surface in the axial direction
is observed. This is similar to the situation for ow
impinging on the at plate and convex surfaces. Fig. 11d
captures an instant in time where the ow on the right
side of the surface has lifted o the surface while the ow
on the left has touched down to the surface.
7.2. Curvature eect
When considering the eect of curvature on the ow
structures, nozzle-to-surface spacing must also be
considered due to its strong inuence on the ow
structure.
At H =d 3, the lower the relative curvature, the
longer the vortices retain their integrity. This is opposite
to that observed for the convex surface. For the highest
relative curvature, d=D 0:39 (Fig. 12a), no structures
are seen on the surface. As the relative curvature de-
creases, some vortices can be seen in the shear layer
upstream of the surface, but they break down as soon
they reach the surface (Fig. 12b). At the lowest relative
curvature, d=D 0:19 (Fig. 12c), distinct vortices ap-
pear on the surface and break down at approximately
76 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678

Fig. 11. Impingement on a concave surface. Eect of jet-to-surface spacing (d 72.6 mm, Re 6000): (a) H =d 4; (b) H=d 3; (c) H =d 2;
(d) H =d 1:

40 from the stagnation point. The stagnation point
oscillates and the recirculating ow does not aect the
jet stream. At H =d 2 (not shown), the curvature eect
is the similar to that observed for H =d 3.
As with ow over the convex surface, at H =d 4 and
H =d 1 (not shown), the relative curvature eects are
reduced. The strong radial oscillation in the jet im-
pingement region for H =d 4 and the strong axial os-
cillation of the surface ow for H =d 1 mask any
curvature eects.
8. Conclusions
Detailed ow visualizations of a free jet, a jet im-
pinging on a at plate, and a jet impinging on convex
and concave surfaces of a semicylinder were performed.
A low turbulence intensity in the shear layer at the jet
edge at the tube exit is related to the development of
organized vortex structures in the free jet shear layer,
while a high turbulence intensity in the shear layer at the
jet edge inhibits the development of organized vortex
structures. An oscillation in the axial velocity in the
potential core region at Re 6000 is associated with the
vortex evolution along the free jet shear layer in that
region. The ow visualization of a free jet shows that the
spacing between the smoke streaklines is reduced where
the ring vortex rotates towards the jet centerline and is
expanded where the ring vortex rotates away from the
jet centerline. The uid is accelerated and retarded as the
potential core is radially contracted and expanded by
the vortex structures resulting in axial velocity oscilla-
tions.

Table 7
Duration of stable, coherent vortex rings on cylindrical concave surface
Flow situation H=d 4 H=d 3 H=d 2 H=d 1
47.2 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown 40 30 Oscillates on and o surface to ~90
72.6 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown 60 Oscillates on and o surface to ~90
72.6 mm, Re 10,000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Oscillates on and o surface to ~90
98.6 mm, Re 6000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Oscillates on and o surface to ~90
98.6 mm, Re 10,000 Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Immediate breakdown Oscillates on and o surface to ~90
 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678
Fig. 12. Impingement on a concave surface. Eect of curvature (H =d 3, Re 6000): (a) d=D 0:39; (b) d=D 0:29; (c) d=D 0:19:
The ring vortices appear to form from an instability in
the low turbulence shear layer which result in small
vortices which roll up and grow in size as they are con-
vected downstream. The vortices start to break down at
the end of the potential core where the radial oscillation
of the jet is high. The spacing between adjacent vortices is
a function of Reynolds number. As the Reynolds num-
ber increases, the vortex spacing decreases.
A strong inuence of jet-to-surface spacing was also
observed for impingement on a convex surface. The
preservation of stable coherent vortices on the surface is
a strong function of jet-to-surface spacing, with the
likelihood of vortices occurring on the surface decreas-
ing with increases in jet-to-surface spacing. The presence
of the convex surface also aects the jet ow upstream of
the surface causing the ring vortices to be spaced more
closely together than for the free jet. However, as the jet
diameter increases, the spacing between vortex rings
tends to approach and even surpass that of the free jet.
A strong radial oscillation of the stagnation point is
the main feature observed for large jet-to-surface spac-
ing with impingement on a convex surface. The radial
oscillation of the jet acts to hasten the breakdown of the
vortices that reaches the surface and destroys the sym-
metry of the jet upstream of the surface.
As the jet-to-surface spacing is decreased, the radial
oscillation of the impingement point decreases, but an
77
axial oscillation of the ow on and o the surface is
initiated. This axial oscillation carries the vortex struc-
tures periodically on and o the surface.
An increase in relative curvature for jet impingement
on a convex surface delays a transition to turbulence as
the ow along the surface remains stable and shows
well-formed vortex structures. This may due to the sta-
bilizing eect on the ow of the increasing centrifugal
force, resulting in a longer period of laminar ow for
higher relative curvatures.
Flow over a concave surface is more unsteady than
ow on a convex surface as the ow upstream of the
concave surface is strongly aected by the ow exiting
the surface into recirculation. This exhaust ow becomes
entrained in the primary jet ow, reducing the likelihood
of stable ring vortices.
The jet-to-surface spacing also strongly inuences
the ow dynamics for jet impingement on a concave
surface. The eect is similar to that observed for ow
over a convex surface and is qualitatively the same for
the all diameters and Reynolds numbers. Radial oscil-
lation of the impingement point occurs and decreases
with H =d. Vortex structures are found at low H =d
values. However, in contrast to the convex surface, the
ow along the concave surface become less stable and
show fewer vortex structures as the relative curvature
increases.
78 C. Cornaro et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 20 (1999) 6678

Nomenclature [2] R. Viskanta, Heat transfer to impinging isothermal gas and ame
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[3] C.O. Popiel, O. Trass, Visualization of a free and impinging
surface (256.76 mm), curved surface inner
round jet, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 4 (1991) 253264.
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UO average velocity at jet exit, m/s [6] W. Tabako, W. Clevenger, Gas turbine blade heat transfer
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