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PLANNING IN INDIA
Submitted by:
Akshay Ahuja
IV B
Although India is one of the less urbanized countries of the world with only 27.78 per
serious crisis of urban growth at the present time. Whereas urbanisation has been an
instrument of economic, social and political progress, it has led to serious socio-
economic problems.
The sheer magnitude of the urban population, haphazard and unplanned growth of
urban areas, and a desperate lack of infrastructure are the main causes of such a
situation. The rapid growth of urban population both natural and through migration, has
put heavy pressure on public utilities like housing, sanitation, transport, water, electricity,
thefts, dacoities, burglaries and other social evils are on rampage. Urban sprawl is
rapidly encroaching the precious agricultural land. The urban population of India had
already crossed the 285 million mark by 2001. By 2030, more than 50 per cent of Indias
1. Urban Sprawl:
Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical area, of rapidly
growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic base is
incapable of dealing with the problems created by their excessive size. Massive immigration
from rural areas as well as from small towns into big cities has taken place almost consistently;
The first large flow of migration from rural to urban areas was during the depression of
late 1930s when people migrated in search of jobs. Later, during the decade 1941-51,
During 1991-2001, well over 20 million people migrated to cities. The greatest pressure
of the immigrating population has been felt in the central districts of the city (the old city)
where the immigrants flock to their relatives and friends before they search for housing.
Brush (1968) has referred to this situation in the central parts of the cities as urban
impulsion which results from concentration of people in the centre of the city close to
their work and shopping. Incidentally many of the fastest growing urban centres are
large cities.
This is due to the fact that such large cities act as magnets and attract large number of
immigrants by dint of their employment opportunities and modern way of life. Such
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc. are examples of urban sprawl due to large
In several big cities wealthy people are constantly moving from the crowded centres of
the cities to the more pleasant suburbs where they can build larger houses and enjoy the
space and privacy of a garden around the house. In some cities, the outskirts are also
added to by squatters who build makeshift shacks of unused land although they have no
legal right to the land. The difficulty of restricting town growth in either case is immense
and most towns and cities are surrounded by wide rings of suburbs.
Historically suburbs have grown first along the major roads leading into the town. This
type of growth is known as ribbon settlement. Such sites are first to be developed
because of their location near the road gives them greater accessibility. But soon the
demand for suburban homes causes the land between ribbon settlements to be built and
This type of development is known as infil. Simultaneously small towns and villages
within the commuting distance of major cities are also developed for residential
purposes. In this way towns are continuously growing and in some areas the suburbs of
continuous urban belt which is called conurbation. Urban sprawl is taking place at the
2. Overcrowding:
Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space.
expected that cities having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must
suffer from overcrowding. This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.
For example, Mumbai has one-sixth of an acre open space per thousand populations
though four acre is suggested standard by the Master Plan of Greater Mumbai.
Metropolitan cities of India are overcrowded both in absolute and relative terms.
Absolute in the sense that these cities have a real high density of population; relative in
the sense that even if the densities are not very high the problem of providing services
Delhi has a population density of 9,340 persons per sq km (Census 2001) which is the
highest in India. This is the overall population density for the Union territory of Delhi.
Population density in central part of Delhi could be much higher. This leads to
employment, etc. Efforts to decongest Delhi by developing ring towns have not met with
3. Housing:
problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of
unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter
compared to 34 per cent of rural families) occupied one room or less. In larger cities the
proportion of families occupying one room or less was as high as 67 per cent. (Roy
Turner, 1962).
Moreover, the current rate of housing construction is very slow which makes the problem
further complicated. Indian cities require annually about 2.5 million new devellings but
The Census of India 2001 concluded the first ever and the largest survey of household
amenities and assets which points a never-before profile of problem relating to housing
in India. The outcome is both instructive and amusing. Taking India as whole, there are
179 million residential houses, i.e., about six people to each house.
Thirty-nine per cent of all married couples in India (about 86 million) do not have an
independent room to themselves. As many as 35 per cent (18.9 million) urban families
For about a third of urban Indian families, a house does not include a kitchen, a
bathroom, a toiletand in many cases there is no power and water supply. Only 79 per
cent (42.6 million) urban household live in permanent (pucca) houses. 67 per cent (36
million) of the urban houses are owned by the households while 29 per cent (15 million)
are rented.
Several factors are responsible for the above mentioned sad state of affairs with respect
to housing problems faced by the urban people. The major factors are shortage of
building materials and financial resources, inadequate expansion of public utilities into
sub-urban areas, poverty and unemployment of urban immigrants, strong caste and
family ties and lack of adequate transportation to sub-urban areas where most of the
4. Unemployment:
The problem of unemployment is no less serious than the problem of housing mentioned
It is estimated that about half of all educated urban unemployed are concentrated in four
metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai). Furthermore, although urban
incomes are higher than the rural incomes, they are appallingly low in view of high cost
One of the major causes of urban unemployment is the large scale migration of people
from rural to urban areas. Rural-urban migration has been continuing for a pretty long
time but it has not always been as great a problem as it is today. The general poverty
among the rural people pushes them out to urban areas to migrate in search of
But the growth of economic opportunities fails to keep pace with the quantum of
immigration. The limited capacity of urban areas could not create enough employment
opportunities and absorb the rapid growth of the urban labour force. Efforts made by the
central and the state governments to create employment opportunities in rural areas and
to check the large scale rural-urban migration have not met with much success.
5. Slums and Squatter Settlements:
The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is
the growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking
The rapid urbanisation in conjunction with industrialisation has resulted in the growth of
slums. The proliferation of slums occurs due to many factors, such as, the shortage of
developed land for housing, the high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor, a
In spite of several efforts by the Central and State Governments to contain the number
of slum dwellers, their growth has been increasing sharply exerting tremendous pressure
In India Slums have been defined under section 3 of Slum Areas (Improvement and
(ii) Area by reason of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty arrangement and design of such
sanitation facilities or any combination of these factors, which are detrimental to safety,
(i) All areas notified Slum by state govt. under any Act.
(ii) All areas recognised as slum by state govt. which have not been formally notified as
Socially, slums tend to be isolated from the rest of the urban society and exhibit
pathological social symptoms (drug abuse, alcoholism, crime, vandalism and other
deviant behaviour). The lack of integration of slum inhabitants into urban life reflects
Thus the slums are not just huts and dilapidated buildings but are occupied by people
In India, slums are one or two-room hutments mostly occupying government and public
lands. The houses in slums are built in mud or brick walls, low roofs mostly covered with
corrugated sheets, tins, bamboo mats, polythenes, gunny bags and thatches, devoid of
lavatories made by digging shallow pit in between three or four huts and with sackcloth
as a curtain, hanging in front. When the pit overflows excreta gets spread over the
The children cultivate the habit of defecating anywhere in the slum area. Slums have
practically no drains and are marked by cesspools and puddles. Piped water is not
available to slum dwellers and they mainly depend upon shallow hand-pumps for water
supply.
Such handpumps are generally dug in the middle of a stale dirty pool. People wash their
clothes and utensils under the handpumps. The entire muck around the handpump
percolates into the ground and contaminates the ground water. This contaminated
ground water is taken out through the handpump which adversely affects the health of
Consequently people suffer from water-borne diseases like blood dysentery, diarrhoea,
malaria, typhoid, jaundice, etc. These diseases stalk the people all the year round.
Children with bloated bellies or famished skeletons, many suffering from polio, are a
common sight. Most of the slums are located near drains (Nullahs) which contain filthy
stagnant water.
Billions of flies and mosquitoes swarming over these drains cause infectious diseases.
These drains are used as open lavatories by the inhabitants and are always choked.
Slums are known by different names in different cities. They are called bustees in
Chennai.
Squatter Settlements:
practice except that slums are relatively more stable and are located in older, inner parts
of cities compared to squatter settlements which are relatively temporary and are often
scattered in all parts of the city, especially outer zones where urban areas merge with
permission (i.e., on unauthorised land). Such settlements are constructed by using any
available material such as cardboards, tin, straw mats or sacks. Squatter settlements are
constructed in an uncontrolled manner and badly lack essential public services such as
settlement is a difficult job. Some may occur singly or in small groups of 10-20 dwellings
while others occur in huge agglomerations of thousands of houses. They can occur
Physical Characteristics:
Due to inherent non-legal status, a squatter settlement has services and infrastructure
below the adequate minimum levels. As such water supply, sanitation, electricity, roads,
drainage, schools, health centres, and market places are either absent or arranged
informally.
Social Characteristics:
Most of the squatter households belong to lower income group. They are predominantly
Legal Characteristics:
A distinction has to be drawn between squatter settlements and shanty towns. Illegality
of tenure is the hallmark of the squatter settlement but shanti huts or mean dwellings are
defined by their fabric. Shanty towns result mainly from massive rural-urban migration
and from the inability of city authorities to provide sufficient housing facilities and
employment for the vast influx of people from rural to urban areas.
Indian cities abound with slums which have been termed as eyesores, a rash on city
landscape, a blot on civilization etc. But actually they are much more health hazards for
its unfortunate poverty stricken inhabitants and also for the city as a whole. The most
Census of India, for the first time in 2001, came out with detailed data on slum
population in India. According to data released by Census of India 2001, 607 towns and
No slum population has been reported in the remaining nine states/union territories at
the time of Census 2001. Andhra Pradesh has the largest number of 76 towns reporting
slum population. This is followed by Uttar Pradesh (65), Tamil Nadu (63), Maharashtra
(62), West Bengal (51), Madhya Pradesh (42) and Karnataka (35). Figure 14.6 gives the
The largest slum population of 10.6 million has been reported from Maharashtra;
followed by Andhra Pradesh (5.1 million), Uttar Pradesh (4.1 million), West Bengal (3.8
million), Tamil Nadu (2.5 million), Madhya Pradesh (2.4 million) and Delhi (2.0 million).
Looking at the percentage of slum population to total population of towns reporting slum
population, Meghalaya with 41.33 per cent tops the list (Table 14.8 and Figure 14.6).
Other states with high percentage of slum population are Haryana (33.06%), Andhra
(26.82%). Uttar Pradesh and Orissa are very close to the all India average of 22.58 per
cent.
A list of 26 million plus cities reporting slum population in 2001 (Municipal Corporation) is
given in table 14.9. As expected, the largest concentration of slum population is found in
four major cities of Greater Mumbai, Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), Kolkata and
Mumbai with 48.88 per cent of its population consisting of slum dwellers is the worst
suffer.
Dharavi slum in Central Mumbai is the largest slum of Asia. Here some of the side allays
and lanes are so narrow that not even a bicycle can pass. The whole neighbourhood
consists of tenement buildings, two or three storey high with rusty iron stairways to the
upper part, where a single room is rented by a whole family, sometimes twelve or more
pools of foul water, the only non-human creatures are the shining black crows and long
gray rats.
Dharavi was an arm of the sea that was filled by waste, largely produced by the people
who have come to live there. The other cities with over 40 per cent slum population to
the total population (Municipal Corporation) are Faridabad and Meerut. Kolkata, Nagpur
The most surprising feature of Table 14.9 is that Patna has reported only 0.25 per cent
population of this otherwise dirty city. According to the report of the Census of India
2001, the slum population of Patna Municipal Corporation is partial and is being
subjected to scrutiny.
6. Transport:
With traffic bottleneck and traffic congestion, almost all cities and towns of India are
suffering from acute form of transport problem. Transport problems increase and
become more complex as the town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs
varied and complex functions and more people travel to work or shop.
As the town becomes larger, even people living within the built-up area have to travel by
car or bus to cross the town and outsiders naturally bring their cars or travel by public
transport. Wherever, trade is important, commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks
Since most of the commercial activities of the towns are concentrated in the Central
Business District (C.B.D.), the centres are areas of greatest congestion. However, other
Such areas include the roads leading to factories, offices, schools, etc., which will be
thronged with people in morning and evening; minor shopping centres which grow up in
the suburbs; sporting arenas, entertainment districts which will be busy at night, roads
leading to residential and dormitory towns which will be busy when commuters flock to
the cities in the morning to work and return home in the evenings.
Such congestion becomes greater when the centre is built up in tall skyscraper blocks
whose offices sometimes employ thousands of workers, because at the end of the office
hours everyone leaves the building within a short space of time to make their way home.
This puts tremendous pressure on public transport and causes journeys to take much
longer period than they normally would. In most cities the rush hour or peak traffic hour
lasts for about two hours and during that period buses and trains are crammed to
capacity, roads are overcrowded with vehicles and the movement of traffic becomes very
slow.
In other towns, the narrowness of the streets, which were built long before the motorised
transport and lack of parking facilities are the main cause of congestion. Cars may be
parked along the edges of the roads restricting movement to a narrow lane and the
multiplicity of narrow streets, sharp comers and waits to turn into lanes of traffic may
slow down the movement and thus create even greater congestion.
The traffic scenario in almost all the Indian cities presents a pathetic picture with Mumbai
still having the best city transport system and Chennai, Ahmedabad and Pune being
reasonably well served by local transport system. In all other cities, if one does not own
Apart from that, the level of incomes and affordability of Indian masses is very low and
the citizens are not able to pay an economic fare for use of public transport system.
Therefore, all city bus services sustain such heavy losses that they cannot really expand
movement of stray cattle and domestic animals on the roads adds to traffic problem and
often cause accidents. Heavy traffic and congestion leads to slow movement of traffic,
A study of traffic problem in Delhi will acquaint us to traffic scenario in the rest of urban
India. Already there are 44 lakh vehicles on Delhi roads (in 2004) which will almost
double by 2021 when the next Master Plan will be implemented. The road length,
The road length per vehicle was 3 km in 1971 which reduced to 2 km in 1981, 1.3 km in
1991, 0.68 km in 1998 and 0.23 km in 2004. Figure 14.7 depicts different aspects of
transport infrastructure in Delhi. Urban planners say that by 2021, going in a car will take
The guidelines for Delhi Master Plan 2021, allowing mixed land use, multi-storeyed
structures and regularisation of 24 industrial estates will add to the citys already
congested roads. Disturbing trends have also been indicated in the Status Report for
Planning Department of Delhi Government also States that despite roads occupying 21
per cent of the total area of the city, the increase of traffic on arterial roads is resulting in
lower speeds, congestion, intersection delays and higher pollution level during peak
hours.
Some relief is expected with the completion of metro rail. But experts fear that by the
time the metro rail becomes fully operational, the demand for transport facilities will
Vivekanand Setu were constructed to ease traffic flow. But traffic congestion in several
old localities and near Haora bridge is almost a daily routine. In Ahmedabad, the speed
of vehicles comes down to 5 km/hr on Gandhi Marg and several other roads due to
7. Water:
What is one of the most essential elements of nature to sustain life and right from the
beginning of urban civilisation, sites for settlements have always been chosen keeping in
view the availability of water to the inhabitants of the settlement. However, supply of
water started falling short of demand as the cities grew in size and number.
Today we have reached a stage where practically no city in India/ gets sufficient water to
meet the needs of city dwellers. In many cities people get water from the municipal
sources for less than half an hour every alternate day. In dry summer season, taps
remain dry for days together and people are denied water supply at a time when they
The individual towns require water in larger quantities. Many small towns have no main
water supply at all and depend on such sources as individual tubewells, household open
wells or even rivers. Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was
Keeping in view the increased demands for water by the urban population, Central
litres of water per head per day for cities with a population of more than 50,000, 100-125
litres for population between 10,000 and 50,000 and 70-100 litres for towns with a
The Zakaria Committee recommended the water requirement per head per day 204
litres for cities with population between 5 lakh and 2 million and 272 litres for cities with
population more than 2 million. This amount of water is supposed to be used for
drinking, kitchen, bathing, cloth washing, floor and vehicle washing and gardening.
Sadly majority of the cities and towns do not get the recommended quantity of water.
Gap in demand and supply of water in four metro cities, viz., Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and
Chennai varies from 10 to 20 per cent. The condition is still worse in small cities and
towns. To meet the growing demand for water, many cities are trying to tap external
Mumbai draws water from neighbouring areas and from sources located as far as 125
km in the Western Ghats. Chennai uses water express trains to meets its growing
demand for water. Bangalore is located on the plateau and draws water from Cauvery
river at a distance of 100 km. Water for Bangalore has to be lifted about 700 metres with
Hyderabad depends on Nagarjuna Sagar located 137 km away. Delhi meets large part
of its water requirements from Tajiwala in Haryana. Water is also drawn from Ramganga
as far as 180 km. Under the proposed scheme it will meet its growing requirements of
8. Sewerage Problems:
Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient
sewage facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch faced by
the municipalities and unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this
According to latest estimates, only 35-40 per cent of the urban population has the
privilege of sewage system. Most of the cities have old sewerage lines which are not
looked after properly. Often sewerage lines break down or they are overflowing.
Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and it is
drained into a nearly river (as in Delhi) or in sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai),
In most Indian cities, water pipes run in close proximity to sewer lines. Any leakage leads
to contamination of water which results in the spread of several water borne diseases.
9. Trash Disposal:
As Indian cities grow in number and size the problem of trash disposal is assuming
alarming proportions. Huge quantities of garbage produced by our cities pose a serious
health problem. Most cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and
the existing landfills are full to the brim. These landfills are hotbeds of disease and
Wastes putrefy in the open inviting disease carrying flies and rats and a filthy, poisonous
liquid, called leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates ground water.
People who live near the rotting garbage and raw sewage fall easy victims to several
Modem cities present a meeting point of people from different walks of life having no
affinity with one another. Like other problems, the problem of crimes increases with the
increase in urbanisation. In fact the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to disturb
peace and tranquility of the cities and make them unsafe to live in particularly for the
women.
in the crowd are some of the primary causes responsible for alarming trends in urban
crime.
Not only the poor, deprived and slum dwellers take to crime; youngsters from well-to-do
families also resort to crime in order to make fast buck and for meeting requirements of a
The problem of urban crime is becoming more complicated in the present day world
because criminals often get protection from politicians, bureaucrats and elite class of the
urban society. Some of the criminals reach high political positions by using their money
According to study made by Dutt and Venugopal (1983), violent urban crimes like rape,
murder, kidnapping, dacoity, robbery, etc. are more pronounced in the northern-central
parts of the country. Even the economic crimes (like theft, cheating, breach of trust, etc.)
are concentrated in the north- central region. Poverty related crimes are widespread with
main concentration in the cities of Patna, Darbhanga, Gaya and Munger. This may be
However, the latest surveys show that Mumbai and Delhi figure in 35 cities that have
high crime rate. As much as 31.8 per cent of citizens in Mumbai and 30.5 per cent in
Delhi have been victims of crime. Sexual assault was higher in Mumbai (3.5 per cent) as
compared to Delhi (1.7 per cent). Both cities score poorly in corruption, with 22.9% in
With rapid pace of urbanisation, industries and transport systems grow rather out of
We cannot think of strong India, economically, socially and culturally, when our cities
remain squalor, quality of urban life declines and the urban environment is damaged
beyond repair. As a matter of fact, cities comprise the backbone of economic expansion
and urbanization is being seen in a positive light as an engine of economic growth and
The share of urban areas in the total national economic income had been estimated at
60 per cent and the per capita income was about three times higher than rural per capita
income. But this is not sufficient partly, due to high cost of living and partly, because of
growing economic disparity in urban areas. Rich are becoming richer and poor are
becoming poorer. Several steps have been initiated to meet the challenges posed by
National Commission on Urbanization (NCU) has, in its policy proposal of 1988, stressed
the need for (a) the evolution of a spatial pattern of economic development and
rural and urban settlements, and among towns and cities of various sizes, (c) distribution
economic activities through the establishment of counter-magnets in the region, and (e)
The other major development programmes include (i) Urban Basic Services for the Poor
programme, (iii) the Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT), (iv)
Development Corporation (HUDCO), (v) the Mega Cities Project, and (vi) the Integrated
Almost all the major programmes of urban development suffer from the chronic disease
of resource crunch. Right from the beginning of the planning period, urban development
has been low on the development agenda with only 3-4 per cent of the total plan outlay
recommended in 1988 that at least 8 per cent of the Plan outlay should be dedicated to
urban sector.