ACADEMIC PAPERS

The relationship between lottery

ticket and scratch-card buying
behaviour, personality and other
compulsive behaviours
Received (in revised form): 15th July, 2001

George Balabanis
After gaining a BSc (Hons) in Business Studies from the University of Piraeus in
Athens, George Balabanis embarked on a PhD in Marketing at Strathclyde University.
Currently he is a senior lecturer at Cass Business School, City University, London. He
is a member of the Chartered Institute, Greek, European and British Academies of
Management. Publishing outlets include Journal of International Business Studies, British
Journal of Management, Journal of Marketing Management, Journal of Global Marketing,
International Marketing Review and European Journal of Marketing.

Abstract
The study examines how demographics, other forms of compulsive behaviour and
Keywords:
personality are related to the buying frequency and compulsiveness in lottery tickets and
Compulsive
scratch-cards. An integrative framework is developed and tested in a sample of
buying, addictive respondents. Results indicated that the buying compulsivenesses in lottery tickets and
behaviour scratch-cards have the same correlates. The buying compulsivenesses in both lottery tickets
and scratch-cards were found to be positively related to cigarette consumption and the
extraversion dimension of personality and negatively related to the agreeableness and
intellect dimensions of personality.

The first British national lottery was
launched in November, 1994 and
immediately inflicted a profound effect
upon the nation. Lottery ticket and
scratch-card sales for its inaugural year
were 4.4bn. Sixty per cent of the UK
adult population plays lottery (lotto)
Dr George Balabanis
every week; while only 16 per cent
Senior Lecturer in never play and 23 per cent play
Marketing,
occasionally (Camelot, 1996). Since its
City University Busi-
ness School, inception questions have been raised as
Strategy and Market- to whether lottery is addictive. For
ing,
Frobisher Crescent, example, Gamblers Anonymous in the
Barbican Centre, UK has increased its membership by 17
London EC2Y 8HB,
UK per cent since the inauguration of the
Tel: 0207 0400226 National Lottery (Syal and Morse, 1995).
Fax: 0207 0408880
E-mail: g.balabanis@
Shepherd et al. (1998) found an increase
city.ac.uk in the symptoms of compulsive
gambling after its introduction in
Britain. The Liberal Democrats also
passed a resolution at a party
conference to abolish scratch-cards
claiming They are addictive and open
to abuse, especially by young people.
(The Times, 1996: 5).
In order to get a refined
understanding of lottery buying
behaviour, compulsive or not, it is
important, however, to examine some of
the lottery ticket and scratch-card
buyers psychographic characteristics
and related behaviours. Personality is
one of the prominent factors affecting
different types of compulsive
behaviours (for a review see Mendelson
and Mello, 1986; Marlett et al., 1988).

Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817 7

George Balabanis
Thus it is likely that personality will be
related to compulsive buying of lottery
tickets and scratch-cards. Albeit the
plethora of studies in other types of
compulsive behaviour, there is limited
research linking lottery buying
behaviour and personality. Personality
traits, in spite of their extensive use in
the mainstream psychological research
and in domains closely related to
consumer research (eg information
processing, motivation, decision
making, choice etc), have fallen out of
favour among consumer researchers.
Although there is a resurgence of
interest, only a small number of studies
have examined how personality
differences are related to different
aspects of consumer behaviour (Brody
and Cunningham, 1968; Kassarjian,
1971; Villani and Wind, 1975; Horton,
1979; Kassarjian and Sheffet, 1981;
Crosby and Grossbart, 1984; Foxall and
Goldsmith, 1988; Lastovicka and
Joachimsthaler, 1988; Haugtvedt et al.,
1992; Albanese, 1993; Brandstatter,1993).
This may be partly attributable to the
insistence of consumer researchers on
developing their own personality
constructs to explain consumption
styles (Sheth, 1982; Crosby and
Grossbart, 1984) rather than borrowing
them from more developed areas of
mainstream psychology. There seems,
however, to be a reorientation in
thinking and more call for consumer
research on personality (Haugtvedt
et al., 1992; Brandstatter, 1993).
Based on the above, the main
objectives of this study are to examine:
the relationship between personality
differences and the frequency of
lottery ticket and scratch-card
buying
the relationships between frequency
of lottery ticket and scratch-card
buying and other addictive
behaviours such as gambling,
smoking and drinking
the relationship between personality,
other addictive behaviours and
8 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
compulsive buying of lottery tickets
and scratch-cards.
Fulfilment of the above objectives
would provide theoretical insights into
the role of personality and other types
of addictive behaviours in lottery
buying and compulsiveness, an area
little researched in marketing (Burns
et al., 1990; Stearns and Borna, 1995;
Miyazaki et al., 1999; Landman and
Petty, 2000). This would improve
marketers ethical stance towards the
protection of the most vulnerable
category of individuals and assist
organisations dealing with problems
related to lottery ticket and scratch-card
buying to develop strategies that better
control such behaviours. It could also
help lottery operators improve their
market segmentation, targeting,
promotion and distribution.
To achieve the above objective the
paper is structured as follows: first, an
examination of the literature on
compulsive buying behaviour will be
undertaken. Then a review of the work
related to lottery ticket buying and its
relationship to demographics,
personality and other behaviours will be
presented and the hypotheses of the
study will be developed. Finally, the
method used to collect and analyse data
will be presented and the findings of the
study will be highlighted. The study
will conclude with a discussion of the
main implications of the study and
suggestions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
OGuinn and Faber (1989: 147) define
compulsive consumption as a response
to an uncontrollable drive or desire to
obtain, use, or experience a feeling,
substance, or activity that leads an
individual to repetitively engage in a
behaviour that will ultimately cause
harm to the individual and/or others.
They cite compulsive gambling,
alcoholism and compulsive buying as
examples of such behaviours. Similarly,
Mendelson and Mello (1986: 21) define
 The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behaviour
addictive behaviour as the behaviour
that is excessive, compulsive, beyond
the control of the person who engages in
it, and destructive psychologically or
physically. They cite drug abuse,
alcoholism, excessive gambling and
other activities as examples.
Rook (1987) establishes a link between
impulsive consumption and compulsive
behaviour. He described impulse
control disorders . . . [such as] chemical
substance abuse, bingepurge eating
behaviour, spending sprees and sexual
compulsiveness. Nataraajan and Goff
(1991) provided a simpler view, seeing
buying behaviour on a continuum
which is based on motive and control.
According to them, compulsive buyers
are those who are high on motive and
low on control.
Interesting also is the work of
Hirschman (1992) on the aetiology of
compulsive buying behaviours. She
identified the following perspectives
that are used to explain such
behaviours:
disease theory focuses on a biological/
genetic predisposition for
compulsive behaviour and deals
with physical dependence, its
progression and treatment
social theory focuses on the attitudes
or acceptance of particular social
groups towards addictive substances
or behaviours and how this
influences individuals
personality theory focuses on the
characteristics of people who become
addicts.
The present study focuses on the
latter personality theory given the
scarcity of research linking personality
to consumer behaviour and the
prevalence of personality in addiction
studies (see Marlett et al., 1988).
Lottery ticket buying has been seen by
some researchers as another form of
gambling (Rogers, 1998). Thus research
on gambling behaviour may throw
some light on the issues surrounding
lottery ticket buying behaviour.
Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
According to Caltabiano (1989)
gambling is a type of compulsion but
different from other types of
compulsions. Unlike other types of
compulsives, a gambler looks forward
to the venture, plans and organises it
and is generally excited by the prospect
of gambling (Lesieur, 1988).
Gambling games can be located on a
luckskill continuum (Caillois, 1960;
Walker, 1985). Games such as chess are
games of skill, with strategic play
entirely controlled by each player
within the laws of the game. Lottery, on
the other hand, is a game of pure chance
and is located at the luck end of the
luckskill continuum. The most
addictive gambling games are those
which involve an element of skill
(Hunter, 1990). Despite this, the
attraction of lotteries is to wage a small,
insignificant amount of money which
represents the chance of winning a
large, highly worthwhile sum of money
Sullivan (1972) and Walker (1985)
report that people typically buy lottery
tickets to win a lot of money. There is
nothing wrong with that as long as it
does not lead to entrapment and an
escalation of lottery ticket buying.
Walker (1985) demonstrated that many
lottery ticket buyers believe they have a
special knowledge of the lucky
properties of certain numbers (eg a
lucky birth-date or numbers derived by
astrological methods) and that such
thinking does lead to entrapment. By
picking the same numbers week after
week, the lottery player may become
entrapped. Every draw would seem, to
the player, to bring the lucky day closer,
yet each draw increases the
commitment of the player (Walker,
1985) and the entrapment becomes
greater with time. This phenomenon has
also been studied by Brockner and
Rubin (1985: 23) and was described as a
decision-making process whereby
individuals escalate their commitment
to a previously chosen, though failing,
course of action in order to justify or
make good on prior investments.
9
George Balabanis
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
Demographics
Research results on the impact of
demographics on compulsive buying
behaviour are mixed. For example,
Moschis and Churchill (1978), dAstous
and Tremblay (1988), OGuinn and
Faber (1989), Faber and OGuinn (1992)
and Magee (1994) found that
compulsive buyers tend to be younger.
Scherhorn et al. (1990) found, however,
that age is not related to compulsive
buying. OGuinn and Faber (1989; Faber
and OGuinn, 1992), dAstous (1990)
and Scherhorn et al. (1990) also found
that women tend to score higher as
compulsive buyers. Again, Magee
(1994) found that there is no significant
difference between genders for the
compulsive buying behaviour. Shoaf
et al. (1995) tried to explain gender
differences in different types of
compulsive behaviours on difference in
the attributional thinking (with external
or internal locus of causality1 ). Shoaf
et al. (1995) found that females are more
externally focused than males and are
more vulnerable to conform to peer
pressure on various addictions (drug
use, smoking, etc.). In lottery playing
findings in regards to demographics are
totally different. It has been reported
that older people buy more lottery
tickets than younger ones (Edmondson,
1986; Burns et al. 1990; Herring and
Bledsoe, 1994).
With regards to gender, numerous
clinical studies have been performed on
gamblers (Kallick-Kaufmann, 1979;
Kusyszyn, 1983; Orford, 1985; Galski,
1987) that found that males are more
involved in gambling than females. It
has also been reported that a higher
proportion of males than females (eg
about 1 per cent of males and 0.5 per
cent of females) are estimated to become
addicted to gambling (Dielman, 1979). A
Keynote (1996) study on the National
lottery confirms that males buy more
lottery tickets than females.
Based on the above the following
hypotheses are proposed:
10 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
H1a : Males tend to be more
compulsive in the buying of
lottery tickets and scratch-cards
than females.
H1b : Males tend to buy more lottery
tickets and scratch cards than
females.
H2a : Age is positively related to the
buying compulsiveness in lottery
tickets and scratch cards.
H2b : Age is positively related to the
buying of lottery tickets and
scratch-cards.
Other Addictive Behaviours
A considerable body of the literature in
the general fields of compulsive
behaviour and gambling discusses
connections between drug addiction
and compulsive gambling (Lesieur,
1988; Lesieur and Rosenthal, 1990). Reid
et al. (1999) found that those who spent
more on the lottery consume more
alcohol and cigarettes. Burns et al.
(1990), Hraba et al. (1990) and Coups et
al. (1998) found that lottery playing is
positively related to other forms of
gambling (such as horse racing, slot
machine and poker gambling). Hraba et
al. (1990) identified a positive
relationship between lottery playing
and alcohol consumption. Hendriks et
al.s (1997) study of scratch-card buying
behaviour in Netherlands showed
heavy buyers of scratch-cards to be
more involved in other forms of
gambling and to consume more alcohol
than others. Moreover, Coups et al.s
(1998) study in Britain found that lottery
ticket buying is positively related to
scratch-card buying. People who buy
more lottery tickets tend also to buy
more scratch-cards.
Based on the above the following
hypotheses are proposed:
H3a : Scratch-card buying is positively
related to lottery ticket buying.
H3b : Buying compulsiveness in lottery
tickets is positively related to
buying compulsiveness in
scratch-cards.
 The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behaviour
H4a : Alcohol consumption is
positively related to lottery ticket
and scratch-card buying.
H4b : Alcohol consumption is
positively related to buying
compulsiveness in lottery tickets
and scratch-cards.
H5a : Cigarette consumption is
positively related to lottery ticket
and scratch-card buying.
H5b : Cigarette consumption is
positively related to buying
compulsiveness in lottery tickets
and scratch-cards.
H6a : Involvement in other types of
gambling is positively related to
lottery ticket and scratch-card
buying.
H6b : Involvement in other types of
gambling is positively related to
buying compulsiveness in lottery
tickets and scratch-cards.
Personality
Despite its limited use in consumer
research, personality is a construct
extensively used to explain all sorts of
compulsive behaviours (from drug
addicts to compulsive checkers) (see
Marlett et al. (1988); Gershuny et al.,
1998). Moreover, at least two studies
(Hraba et al. 1990; Cook et al., 1998) have
directly linked a number of personality
traits to lottery buying. The popularity
of the personality construct as an
explanatory variable in addiction
studies can be attributed to the ability of
the personality traits to control a
persons behavioural activation and
behavioural inhibition systems (Eysenck
and Eysenck, 1985; Gray, 1987;
Matthews and Gilliland, 1999).
The big-five model of personality was
used in this study for several reasons.
First, because of its robust and
parsimonious description of personality
and secondly, because of its extensive
use in studies of different types of
compulsive behaviours which will
allow a comparison of the results
(Marlett et al. 1988; Costa and McCrae,
Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
1992). The big-five model of personality
include the following dimensions:
extraversion (or surgency)
agreeableness
conscientiousness
emotional stability (vs. neuroticism)
intellect (or openness to experience).
Extraversion characterises people
with traits such as sociability, liveliness,
cheerfulness, assertiveness and the need
for activity, adventure, excitement and
stimulation (Costa and McCrae, 1992).
Hraba et al. (1990) and Cook et al. (1998)
demonstrated that extraversion is
positively related to lottery playing.
Extraversion implies a more
impulsive person with lower self-
control (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1985)
who, as a consequence, will buy lottery
tickets and scratch-cards more readily.
Lower self-control and impulsiveness
are both characteristics of compulsive
buying behaviour (Rook, 1987;
Nataraajan and Goff, 1991). Moreover,
clinical and non-clinical studies report a
positive correlation between
extraversion and compulsiveness (for a
review of these studies see Duijsens and
Diekstra, 1996). Thus,
H7a : Extraversion is positively related
to lottery ticket and scratch-card
buying.
H7b : Extraversion is positively related
to buying compulsiveness in
lottery tickets and scratch-cards.
Agreeableness involves trust,
altruism, kindness and sympathy; and
is contrasted with self-centred
antagonism (Costa and McCrae, 1992).
The trust, compliance and tender-
mindedness aspects of the agreeable
personality emphasise the willingness
to please others and to behave in a
socially acceptable manner (eg not to
buy lottery tickets). Moreover, research
has shown that agreeableness is
negatively correlated to both
impulsiveness and obsessiveness
compulsiveness (for a review see
Duijsens and Diekstra, 1996). Thus,
11
George Balabanis
H8a : Agreeableness is negatively
related to lottery ticket and
scratch-card buying.
H8b : Agreeableness is negatively
related to buying compulsiveness
in lottery tickets and scratch-
cards.
Conscientiousness refers to
responsible, disciplined, organised and
trustworthy individuals who strive after
goals and adhere to principles (Costa
and McCrae, 1992). One characteristic of
this type of individual is deliberation,
cautiousness and careful consideration
of the consequences of their actions.
Thus, these individuals are less likely to
get involved in impulsive buying
behaviour. Current research has also
shown that conscientiousness is
negatively related to impulsiveness (for
a review see Duijsens and Diekstra,
1996). The same body of research shows,
however, that conscientiousness is
positively related to obsessiveness
compulsiveness. Based on the latter
empirical evidence, it is expected that:
H9a : Conscientiousness is positively
related to lottery ticket and
scratch-card buying.
H9b : Conscientiousness is positively
related to buying compulsiveness
in lottery tickets and scratch-
cards.
Emotional instability (or neuroticism)
is the tendency to experience anxiety,
anger, depression, envy, disgust and a
variety of other negative emotions
(Costa and McCrae, 1992). Emotionally
unstable individuals are pessimists, low
in self-esteem and high in fear emotions
(Costa and McCrae, 1992). It would be
expected that such individuals will be
less likely to buy lottery tickets or
scratch-cards (by being pessimists).
Clinical and non-clinical research has
indicated, however, that emotional
instability is positively related to
impulsiveness but negatively related to
obsessivenesscompulsiveness
(Duijsens and Diekstra, 1996). Thus, on
12 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
the basis of the latter empirical evidence
it is expected that:
H10a : Emotional stability2 is positively
related to lottery ticket and
scratch-card buying.
H10b : Emotional stability is positively
related to buying
compulsiveness in lottery tickets
and scratch-cards.
Intellect encompasses traits related to
intellectual curiosity, the need for
variety, non-dogmatic attitudes and
variety of interests. Cook et al. (1998)
suggested that, like all forms of
gambling, the lottery odds are against
the player because only a percentage of
the stakes goes to prizes. Moreover,
Ladouceur et al. (1995) and Rogers
(1998) found a variety of irrational
thinking patterns among lottery players
such as misunderstanding of the odds,
susceptibility to the gamblers fallacy
and cognitive entrapment, a belief in hot
and cold numbers, unrealistic optimism,
a belief in personal luck, superstitious
thinking, the illusion of control, the
erroneous perception of near misses, a
susceptibility to prize size and rollover
effects, etc. Cook et al. (1998) proposed
and empirically supported that people
high in intellect have a better perception
of reality and are less likely to relapse
into such forms of irrational thinking
and biases and as a result to buy fewer
lottery tickets. Thus,
H11a : Intellect is negatively related to
lottery ticket and scratch-card
buying.
H11b : Intellect is negatively related to
buying compulsiveness in lottery
tickets and scratch-cards.
The above hypotheses are graphically
depicted in Figure 1.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study was based on a pre-tested
questionnaire that was completed by a
sample of 196 students, aged 18 and
above, randomly selected in the City
 The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behaviour

H 1+
Gender (male)
Lottery ticket buying
H2 +
Age frequency

H3a+

Scratch-card buying
Alcohol H4+
frequency
consumption

Cigarette H 5+
consumption
H 6+
Other forms of
gambling

Lottery ticket buying

H 7+ compulsiveness
Extraversion
H 8- H3b+
Agreeableness
Scratch-card buying
H9 + compulsiveness
Conscientiousness
H10+
Emotional stability
H11-
Intellect

Figure 1: Hypothesised relationships

University public area and residence MEASUREMENT

halls. The sample size used is
comparable to that used in similar type
of studies (eg Browne and Brown, 1994;
Coups et al., 1998; Shepherd et al., 1998;
Miyazaki et al., 1999). In addition,
student samples are common in lottery
studies (Holtgraves et al., 1992; Browne
and Brown, 1994; Reid et al., 1999;
Sheeran and Orbell, 1999). Browne and
Brown (1993) showed that students can
be safely used as subjects in lottery-
related studies. In particular, they
compared the results they derived from
the two samples one drawn from
students and the other from the general
population and demonstrated that
there were no differences between the
two samples with regards to the
attitudes, preferences and motivation to
play lottery.
Compulsiveness
Seven items selected from Valence et al.
(1988) and Faber and OGuinn (1992)
scales (see Appendix 1) and were
adjusted to the context of lottery ticket
and scratch-card buying. Similar to the
Valence et al. (1988) study a five-point
Likert (strongly disagree/strongly
agree) scale format was used.
Measurement was taken separately for
lottery tickets and scratch-cards. To
evaluate the psychometric qualities of
the two scales confirmatory factor
analysis was performed using the
LISREL 8 software package (Joreskog
and Sorbom, 1993). After removing one
item (ie I felt anxious or nervous on
days I did not buy a scratch-card/or
weeks I missed a lottery draw) from
both scales (lottery ticket and scratch-

Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817 13

George Balabanis
card buying compulsiveness) the
resulting fit of the model was
acceptable. Namely, the resulting
chisquare statistics show low levels of
significance ( 2 (9) 12:041, p 0:211
for lottery tickets and 2 (9) 17:140,
p 0:047 for scratch-cards scale) and
the other indices of fit followed suit and
were within acceptable levels (lottery
ticket buying compulsiveness scale:
RMSEA 0.041; GFI 0.990;
AGFI 0.976; NFI 0.979;
NNFI 0.991; and CFI 0.994; scratch-
card buying compulsiveness scale:
RMSEA 0.068; GFI 0.984;
AGFI 0.963; NFI 0.966;
NNFI 0.973; and CFI 0.984) (Hair
et al., 1995). The construct validity
statistics of the scales were 0.914 (lottery
tickets) and 0.939 (scratch-cards).
Similarly, the extracted variance
statistics were 0.644 (lottery tickets) and
0.723 (scratch-cards). According to Hair
et al. (1995) the acceptable minimum
level for the construct validity statistic is
0.70, and for the extracted variance 0.50.
All the statistics are above the
recommended cut-off points. Likewise,
the reliability coefficient alphas
(Cronbachs alpha) of the two scales (ie
0.829 and 0.847 respectively) were above
the acceptance threshold of 0.70
proposed by Nunnally (1978).
Lottery and Scratch-card Buying
Respondents were requested to indicate
how many lottery ticket lines or scratch-
cards they buy per week or per month
or per year (to choose one of the three).
All reported frequencies were converted
into the number of line or scratch-cards
respectively purchased per week.
Other Addictive Behaviours
Respondents were asked to indicate
how many times they gamble or bet and
how many units of alcohol they usually
drink per week or per month or per year
(to choose one). All responses were
converted into a per week basis. Alcohol
consumption was measured in three
categories of drinks: (1) pints of beer,
14 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
lager or cider (3.54 per cent vol.); (2)
number of small glasses of wine (89
per cent vol.); and (3) number of 25 ml
shots of spirits (40 per cent vol.). To
estimate the overall alcohol
consumption, the above figures were
converted into units of alcohol and were
summed to estimate the total alcohol
consumption per week. One unit of
alcohol is equivalent to (1) half a pint of
beer, lager or cider, (2) one small glass
of wine (89 per cent vol.), and (3) a
single 25 ml shot of spirits (40 per cent
vol.). Cigarette consumption was
estimated in a seven-point rating scale (I
never smoke, I smoke rarely, I smoke
occasionally, I smoke with a moderate
frequency, I smoke regularly, I am a
heavy smoker and I am a very heavy
smoker). Questionnaire pre-testing
showed that respondents found such a
scale easier for completion.
Personality
Personality assessment was based on
the nine-point (very inaccuratevery
accurate) bipolar markers developed by
Goldberg (1992). The assessment
included 35 statements separated into
the five personality factors discussed
above. The psychometric qualities of
each factor were assessed through
confirmatory factor analysis (Joreskog
and Sorbom, 1993). The initial fit of the
extraversion scale model was not
acceptable due to correlated error terms.
A modification procedure was
undertaken (Gerbing and Anderson,
1988; Kaplan, 1990). At the end of the
process, three items had to be removed
(ie unenergetic/energetic, inactive/
active and unassertive/assertive). The
resulting chi-square statistic was
insignificant ( 2 (2) 0:877, p 0:645)
and the other indices of fit were within
acceptable levels (ie RMSEA 0.0002;
GFI 0.998; AGFI 0.992; NFI 0.995;
NNFI 1.020; and CFI 1.000) (Hair
et al., 1995). The agreeableness scale
required only one item to be excluded
from the scale (ie unkind/kind) to
achieve an insignificant chi square
 The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behaviour
( 2 (9) 12:399, p 0:192) and
acceptable levels of model fit (ie
RMSEA 0.044; GFI 0.986;
AGFI 0.966; NFI 0.986;
NNFI 0.978; and CFI 0.987). The fit
for conscientiousness scale was
acceptable without any modifications
( 2 (14) 16:292, p 0:296; and
RMSEA 0.029; GFI 0.986;
AGFI 0.973; NFI 0.969;
NNFI 0.993; and CFI 0.995). The
emotional stability scale required two
items to be deleted (ie tense/relaxed
and emotional/unemotional) to achieve
an acceptable fit ( 2 (5) 14:607,
p 0:0122; and RMSEA 0.087;
GFI 0.979; AGFI 0.938; NFI 0.933;
NNFI 0.908; and CFI 0.954). Finally,
the intellect scale modification process
required two items to be removed (ie
unanalytical/analytical and
unsophisticated/sophisticated) to
achieve an acceptable fit ( 2 (5) 10:754,
p 0:057; and RMSEA 0.077;
GFI 0.985; AGFI 0.956; NFI 0.955;
NNFI 0.950; and CFI 0.975).
The construct validity statistics of the
five personality scales were as follows:
0.816 (extraversion); 0.863
(agreeableness); 0.903
(conscientiousness); 0.845 (emotional
stability) and 0.827 (intellect). Similarly,
the extracted variance statistics were as
follows: 0.529 (extraversion); 0.516
(agreeableness); 0.576
(conscientiousness); 0.527 (emotional
stability) and 0.501 (intellect). The
reliability coefficient alphas of the
resulting scales were as follows: 0.787
(extraversion, four items); 0.834
(agreeableness, six items); 0.856
(conscientiousness, seven items); 0.784
(emotional stability, five items) and
0.798 (intellect, five items). All of the
above statistics are above the acceptable
thresholds.
ANALYSIS
To test the above hypotheses (as they
are integrated in Figure 1), path analysis
was employed using LISREL 8 software
package (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1993).
Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
Results indicated that certain
modifications were necessary to
improve the models fit. After the
modifications (using Kaplans 1990
procedure) and the exclusion of the
non-significant relationships the
trimmed path analysis model that is
depicted in Figure 2 emerged. Fit
statistics reported in Figure 2 indicate a
statistically insignificant chi-square and
fit indices within the recommended
limits (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1993).
The model in Figure 2 has two
important features. First, the variables
of interest are not related directly to the
buying of lottery tickets or scratch-cards
but indirectly through the
compulsiveness path. Unsurprisingly,
both lottery ticket and scratch-card
compulsiveness are positively related to
the buying of lottery tickets and scratch-
cards respectively. The higher the
buying compulsiveness the higher the
buying frequency. The above indicates a
consistency between psychometric
attributes measured and reported
behaviour.
Secondly, all the identified
relationships are symmetrical and
consistent for the lottery tickets and
scratch cards respectively. Despite some
variations in the value of the regression
coefficients, it was found that the same
factors that affect the buying
compulsiveness in lottery tickets affect
the buying compulsiveness in scratch-
cards as well. The discussion will turn
now to each of the hypotheses put
forward.
Demographics
Results indicated that age and gender
are related to neither buying
compulsiveness nor lottery ticket nor
scratch-card buying. As has been
mentioned earlier empirical results on
the influence of demographics on lottery
ticket and scratch-card buying
behaviour are mixed. On the basis of the
above evidence hypotheses H1 and H2
cannot be accepted.
15
George Balabanis

Other Addictive Behaviours positively related to buying

Results in Figure 2 provide support to
hypotheses H3 and H4 . First, the buying
compulsiveness in lottery tickets is
positively related to buying
compulsiveness in scratch-cards.
Similarly, the frequency with which
people buy lottery tickets is positively
related to the frequency with which
they buy scratch-cards. It appears that
lottery ticket buying behaviour and
scratch-card buying behaviour are
closely interrelated and should be
examined jointly. Individuals who are
compulsive buyers of lottery tickets are
also compulsive buyers of scratch-cards
and marketers should treat them
similarly.
Secondly, of the three other addictive
behaviours used in this study, only
cigarette consumption was found to be
compulsiveness in both lottery tickets
and scratch-cards. Heavier smokers
tend to be more compulsive in the
buying of lottery tickets and scratch-
cards. It appears that the reason behind
this is that cigarettes, lottery tickets and
scratch-cards share the same
distribution channels (convenience
stores, CTNs Confectioners,
Tobacconists and Newsagents or the
same counters of supermarket stores).
People who buy cigarettes may
impulsively buy lottery tickets or
scratch cards, usually available on
display at the same counter.
Personality
Three of the five hypotheses put
forward were supported (see Figure 2).

Cigarette
0.29**
consumption
0.49**
0.33** Lottery ticket buying Lottery ticket buying
compulsiveness R 2=0.134** frequency R 2= 0.032*
0.16*

Extraversion 0.26** 0.63**

0.21*
Scratch-card buying 0.37** Scratch-card buying
compulsiveness R 2= 0.176** frequency R 2= 0.024*
-0.12+

Agreeableness
-0.12+

-0.12+
-0.17*
Intellect

+ p 0.1 * p 0.05 ** p 0.01

FIT STATISTICS
Chi-square (10)= 14.571 ( p = 0.148)
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.047
Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.964
Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) = 0.966
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.982
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) = 0.935

Figure 2: The trimmed model

16 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817

 The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behaviour
Namely, extraversion was found to be
positively related to buying
compulsiveness in both lottery tickets
and scratch-cards. As was predicted in
H7 extraverts are more impulsive and
more likely to display symptoms of
compulsive buying of lottery tickets and
scratch cards.
Agreeableness was found to be
negatively (at a significance level
a 0:1) related to buying
compulsiveness in both lottery tickets
and scratch cards. Again findings
confirm the argument put forward in
support of H8 .
Finally, intellect was found to be
negatively related to buying
compulsiveness in both lottery tickets
and scratch-cards. Again, people
scoring high in the intellect dimension
of personality are more likely to have a
more objective perception of the odds
involved in lottery than other
individuals.
The above findings agree with the
results reported in previous clinical and
non-clinical research (see Duijsens and
Diekstra, 1996).
Hypotheses H9 and H10 postulating
a relationship between
conscientiousness, emotional stability
and lottery ticket/scratch-card buying
compulsiveness were not supported by
this study. This may be related to the
fact that both conscientiousness and
emotional stability are negatively
related to impulsiveness and positively
related to obsessiveness
compulsiveness scales (Duijsens and
Diekstra, 1996). As has already been
mentioned, the Valence
et al. (1989) and Faber and OGuinn
(1992) scale (see Appendix 1) used to
measure buying compulsiveness
comprises elements of impulsive
buying (eg When I see a shop selling
lottery tickets/scratch-cards, I have an
irresistible urge to purchase a ticket/
scratch-card. As a result it is possible
that in the conscientiousness and
emotional stability analysis the two
effects cancel each other out.
Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The study has fulfilled the stated
objectives and identified the correlates
of lottery ticket and scratch-card buying
behaviour and compulsiveness. The
findings are useful as they provide
insights into a little researched area of
consumer behaviour (lotteries and
scratch-cards). Marketing research in
the area has examined either the
motivations underlying lottery ticket
buying (Burns et al., 1990; Miyazaki
et al., 1999) or ethical aspects of lottery
advertising (Stearns and Borna, 1995;
Landman and Petty, 2000). The value of
this study is that it has integrated and
tested in a single framework a number
of factors related to lottery and scratch-
card buying but dispersed across a
fragmented literature. Moreover, the
study reintroduces to consumer
behaviour, the construct of personality
that has fallen into disuse despite calls
from a number of academics (Crosby
and Grossbart, 1984; Haugtvedt et al.,
1992; Brandstatter, 1993). The results of
the study were positive with regard to
the potency of personality variables in
explaining consumer-buying behaviour
and therefore encouraging in its future
use in consumer research.
The main finding of the study is that
the factors that influence lottery ticket
buying also influence scratch-card
buying and as a result these two
phenomena can be examined together.
Thus, marketers and policy makers can
and should develop and employ similar
strategies to deal with lottery tickets and
scratch-cards.
Gender and age were not found to be
related with buying compulsiveness in
lottery ticket and scratch-cards. Thus,
segmentation, positioning or promotion
strategies based on gender or age
differences may not be appropriate. One
limitation of the study, however, was
the restricted age range of the sample
used and reliance on the linear
statistical analysis method. It is possible,
although Browne and Browns (1993)
findings disagree that the lottery buying
17
George Balabanis
behaviour changes at higher age ranges.
Moreover, some lottery studies
(Keynote, 1996) indicated that heavy
users are located in the middle age
bracket suggesting an inverse U
relationship between age and lottery
ticket buying. Thus, future research
should examine the possibility of a non-
linear relationship between age and
lottery ticket or scratch-card buying
behaviour using a less restrictive (in
terms of age) sample.
Of the three forms of addictive
behaviours included in this study only
cigarette consumption was positively
related to both lottery ticket and scratch-
card playing. In addition, buying
compulsiveness in lottery tickets was
positively related to buying
compulsiveness in scratch cards. This
finding is interesting for cross-addiction
scholars. From a practical point of view,
it appears that this relationship emerges
because cigarettes, lottery tickets and
scratch-cards are sold through the same
outlets (with the exception of vending
machines) and that may trigger
impulsive cross-buying behaviour.
Marketers or retailers should examine
how they can capitalise on cross-buying
behaviour between lottery tickets and
products located at the same counter
and develop effective merchandising or
display strategies. Policy makers
wishing to discourage such cross-
addiction can use the same information
for different purposes. They can
develop guidelines to separate the
display or distribution of such products
from lottery tickets and scratch-cards.
Finally, three types of personality
were found to be related with buying
compulsiveness in both lottery tickets
and scratch-cards. Extraverts are more
prone to compulsive buying of lottery
tickets or scratch-cards whereas
individuals scoring high in
agreeableness and intellect are less
prone to such compulsion.
Theoretically, these results are
interesting because they establish a link
between personality and consumer
18 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 2, 1, 722 #Henry Stewart Publications 1472-0817
behaviour and may give a boost to the
use of personality in consumer research.
From a managerial point of view,
marketers of lotteries and scratch-cards
may use this information to develop
segmentation schemes, positioning
concepts and promotional strategies
that appeal to these categories of
personalities. Policy makers on the other
hand can use the same information to
increase the appeal of their prevention
or anti-addiction campaigns.
The study has integrated a number of
factors that affect lottery ticket and
scratch-card buying behaviour. There is
still, however, a number of issues
beyond the scope of the present study
that need to be investigated. For
example, the social aspects of the above
phenomena need also to be examined.
How do peers and the social
environment affect peoples proneness
and buying compulsiveness in lottery
tickets and scratch-cards? In this context
syndicate lottery ticket buying is an
issue that needs to be explored. The
personality variables used in this study
affect individuals sensitivity to their
social environment and conformance to
social pressure and can be used as
moderators in such studies.
APPENDIX
Buying Compulsiveness in Lottery
Tickets Scale
1. When I see a shop selling lottery
tickets, I have an irresistible urge to
purchase a ticket (Valence et al.
1988)
2. I have often bought a lottery ticket
while knowing I had very little
money left (Valence et al., 1988)
3. For me, playing the National Lottery
is a way of facing the stress of daily
life and a way of relaxing (Valence
et al., 1988)
4. If I have any money left over after
the end of my weekly budget, I
prefer to spend it on Lottery tickets
(Faber and OGuinn, 1992)
5. I have bought National Lottery
tickets even though this exceeded
 The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch-card buying behaviour
my weekly budget (Faber and
OGuinn, 1992)
6. I bought myself a National Lottery
ticket in order to make myself feel
better (Faber and OGuinn, 1992)
7. I felt anxious or nervous on weeks
that I missed the National Lottery
draw (Faber and OGuinn, 1992)
The above scale was adjusted and
used to measure the buying
compulsiveness in scratch-cards.
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NOTES
(1) Attributional thinking with external
locus of causality takes into account
situational influences and the
opinions of the others.
(2) Emotional stability is the opposite of
emotional instability and as a
consequence the proposed
relationship is reversed.