Contents

1 Akhenaten 1
1.1 Early reign as Amenhotep IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Name change to Akhenaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Religious policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Pharaoh and family depictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Family and relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 International relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Death, burial and succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Implementation of Atenism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Speculative theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8.1 Akhenaten and Judeo-Christian-Islamic monotheism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8.2 Possible illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8.3 First individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8.4 Smenkhkare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 In the arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9.1 Plays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9.2 Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9.3 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.9.4 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9.5 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.10 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.12 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.12.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.12.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.12.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Akhenaten Temple Project 19

2.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Akhenaten Temple Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth 21

3.1 Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Akhenaten: Son of the Sun 23

4.1 Plot introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Characters in Akhenaten: Son of the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Release details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5 Amarna 24
5.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2 City of Akhetaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2.1 Site and plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Life in ancient Amarna/Akhetaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.3.1 Religious life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.4 Amarna art-style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5 Rediscovery and excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6 Ankhesenamun 30
6.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.2 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.3 The Hittite Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.4 Mummy KV21A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.5 KV63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.6 In contemporary media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.7 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

7 Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit 33
7.1 Proposed parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1.1 Ankhesenpaaten and Akhenaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1.2 Kiya and Akhenaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1.3 Meritaten and Smenkhare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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8 Colossal Statues of Akhenaten at East Karnak 34

8.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.2 Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.3 Signicance to Egyptian art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.4 Conicting theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

9 The Egyptian 36
9.1 Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

10 The Egyptian (lm) 38

10.1 Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
10.2 Cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

11 Great Hymn to the Aten 41

11.1 Excerpts of the hymn-poem to Aten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.3 Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

12 The Greatest Pharaohs 44

12.1 In education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12.2 4-part series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12.3 Video release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12.5 Additional sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

13 Kiya 46
13.1 Name and titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
13.2 Evidence for Kiyas Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
13.3 Disgrace or death? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
13.4 The KV35 Younger Lady mummy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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13.5 Gallery of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

13.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
13.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

14 KV55 49
14.1 Discovery and excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
14.1.1 KVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
14.2 The tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
14.2.1 Location and general appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
14.2.2 Entranceway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
14.2.3 Doorway and blocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
14.2.4 Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
14.2.5 Burial chamber and niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
14.3 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
14.3.1 The shrine and Tiyes burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
14.3.2 Con, canopic jars and magical bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
14.3.3 The identication of the mummy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
14.3.4 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
14.4 Later use of KV55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
14.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

15 Meketaten 57
15.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
15.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
15.3 Death and burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
15.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

16 Meritaten 59
16.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
16.2 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
16.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
16.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

17 Neferneferuaten Tasherit 61
17.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
17.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
17.3 Final years and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
17.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

18 Neferneferure 63
18.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
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18.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
18.3 Death and burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
18.4 Other objects mentioning Neferneferure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
18.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

19 Nefertiti 65
19.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
19.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
19.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
19.3.1 Old Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
19.3.2 New Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
19.4 Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
19.4.1 Younger Lady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
19.5 Iconic status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
19.6 In the arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.6.1 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.6.2 Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.6.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.6.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.6.5 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.7 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
19.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

20 Parennefer 71
20.1 Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
20.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

21 La Reine Soleil 72
21.1 Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
21.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
21.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

22 Royal Tomb of Akhenaten 73

22.1 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
22.2 Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
22.3 After burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
22.4 Excavation and preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
22.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
22.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

23 Setepenre (princess) 75
23.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
vi CONTENTS

23.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
23.3 Death and burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
23.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

24 Smenkhkare 76
24.1 Name Confusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
24.2 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
24.3 Co-regent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.3.1 Neferneferuaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.3.2 Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24.4 Temple of Ankhkheperure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
24.5 Nefertiti Year 16 Grato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
24.6 Dakhamunzu Hittite Aair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
24.6.1 Nefertiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
24.6.2 Meritaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
24.6.3 Ankhesenamun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
24.7 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
24.8 Death and Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
24.8.1 Early Examinations of the Mummy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
24.8.2 Genetic Tests from 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
24.8.3 Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
24.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
24.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
24.11Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
24.12Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

25 Stela of Akhenaten and his family 87

25.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
25.2 Allegations of forgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
25.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
25.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
25.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

26 Temple of Amenhotep IV 89
26.1 Location and layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26.1.1 Gempaaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26.1.2 Hwt benben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26.1.3 Teni-menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26.2 References & notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26.2.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26.2.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

27 Thutmose (sculptor) 91
CONTENTS vii

27.1 Recovered works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

27.2 Gallery of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
27.3 Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
27.4 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
27.4.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
27.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

28 TT188 93
28.1 Recent Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
28.2 Other Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
28.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

29 3199 Nefertiti 94
29.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

30 Nefertiti Bust 95
30.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
30.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
30.1.2 Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
30.2 Description and examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
30.2.1 Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
30.2.2 Missing left eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
30.2.3 CT scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.3 Later history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.3.1 Locations in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
30.4 Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
30.4.1 Requests for repatriation to Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
30.4.2 Allegations over authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
30.4.3 The Body of Nefertiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
30.5 Cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
30.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

31 Aten 102
31.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
31.2 Royal Titulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
31.2.1 Variant translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.2.2 Variant vocalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.2.3 Names derived from Aten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
viii CONTENTS

32 Atenism 105
32.1 History of the Aten before Akhenaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
32.2 Atenist revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
32.3 Contrast with traditional Egyptian religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
32.4 Amarna art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
32.5 Decline of Atenism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
32.6 Link to Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
32.7 Atenism in ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
32.8 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
32.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
32.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

33 Great Temple of the Aten 109

33.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
33.2 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
33.3 Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
33.4 Excavation & Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
33.5 Image gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
33.5.1 Sculptural fragments from the temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
33.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

34 Meryre 113
34.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
34.2 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

35 Neferneferuaten 114
35.1 General chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
35.1.1 Manetho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
35.2 Key evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
35.3 Female king . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
35.3.1 Cutting the knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
35.3.2 Sole reign? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
35.4 Identity of Neferneferuaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
35.4.1 Nefertiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
35.4.2 Meritaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
35.4.3 Neferneferuaten-tasherit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
35.5 Smenkhkare and the Amarna succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
35.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
35.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
35.7.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
35.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

36 Small Aten Temple 127

CONTENTS ix

37 Tutankhamun 128
37.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.1.1 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
37.1.2 Health and appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
37.1.3 Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
37.1.4 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
37.1.5 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
37.2 Signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
37.3 Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
37.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
37.5 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
37.5.1 Film and television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
37.5.2 Other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
37.6 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
37.7 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
37.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
37.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
37.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

38 Amarna Period 140

38.1 Religious developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
38.2 Royal women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
38.3 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
38.4 Tutankhamun and the Amarna Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
38.5 Foreign relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
38.5.1 The Great Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
38.5.2 Amarna Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
38.6 Gallery of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
38.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
38.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

39 Abdi-Heba 145
39.1 Correspondence with Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
39.2 List of Abdi-Hebas 6 letters to Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.4.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.4.2 Other works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

40 Ahatmilku 147
40.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
40.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
x CONTENTS

41 Alashiya 148
41.1 The texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
41.2 Identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
41.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
41.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
41.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

42 Amarna art 150

42.1 Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
42.2 Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
42.3 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
42.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
42.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

43 Amarna succession 153

43.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
43.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

44 Amarna Tomb 1 154

44.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

45 Amarna Tomb 3 156

45.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

46 Amarna Tomb 5 157

46.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

47 Amarna Tomb 7 158

47.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

48 Amenhotep III 159

48.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
48.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
48.2.1 Proposed co-regency by Akhenaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
48.2.2 Final years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
48.2.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
48.3 The Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
48.4 Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
48.5 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
48.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
48.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
48.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

49 Amurru kingdom 167

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49.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

49.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

50 Archers (Egyptian ptati) 168

50.1 A letter example--no. 337 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
50.2 Archers and myrrh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
50.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
50.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
50.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

51 Ay 170
51.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
51.2 Amarna Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
51.3 Tutankhamun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
51.4 Rule As The Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
51.5 Royal succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
51.6 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
51.7 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
51.8 In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
51.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
51.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
51.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
51.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

52 Aziru 175
52.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
52.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

53 Bek (sculptor) 177

53.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
53.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

54 Beketaten 178
54.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
54.2 Proposed alternative identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
54.3 In Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
54.3.1 Amarnan Kings series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
54.3.2 The Egyptian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
54.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

55 Biridawa 180
55.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
55.2 Biridawa of EA letters 196, and EA 197 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
55.2.1 Letter no. 197: title: Biryawazas plight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
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55.2.2 Letter no. 196: title: Unheard-of deeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

55.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
55.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

56 Burna-Buriash II 182
56.1 Correspondence with Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
56.2 International Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
56.3 Domestic Aairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
56.4 Kara-arda, Nazi-Buga and the events at end of his reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
56.5 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
56.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

57 Coregency Stela 186

57.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

58 Dakhamunzu 187
58.1 Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
58.2 The Zannanza aair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
58.3 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
58.4 Identication of the Egyptian protagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
58.5 Notes & references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
58.5.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
58.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
58.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

59 Gath (city) 190

59.1 Archaeological site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
59.2 Bronze Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
59.3 Iron Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
59.3.1 Goliath Shard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
59.4 Crusader Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
59.5 Other Gaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
59.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
59.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
59.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

60 Horemheb 194
60.1 Early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
60.2 Internal reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
60.3 Reign length: 26/27 years or 14 years? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
60.3.1 Horemhebs new reign length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
60.4 Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
60.5 Fictional representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
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60.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

60.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
60.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

61 Huya (noble) 201

61.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
61.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

62 Labaya 202
62.1 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
62.2 List of Labayas three letters to Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
62.3 Identications with Biblical gures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
62.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
62.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
62.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

63 Maya (Egyptian) 205

63.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
63.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

64 Meritaten Tasherit 207

64.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

65 Meryre II 208
65.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

66 William L. Moran 209

66.1 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
66.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

67 Mutbaal 210
67.1 List of Mutbaals 2 letters to Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
67.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
67.3 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

68 Mutnedjmet 211
68.1 Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
68.2 Mutnedjmet as Nefertitis Sister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
68.3 Monuments and Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
68.4 Death and Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
68.5 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
68.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

69 Nakhtpaaten 213
69.1 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
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69.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

70 Neferkheperuhesekheper 214
70.1 Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
70.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

71 Panehesy 215
71.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

72 Penthu 216
72.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
72.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

73 Pihuri 217
73.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

74 Ramose 218
74.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
74.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

75 Ramose (TT55) 219

75.1 TT55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
75.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

76 Rib-Hadda 220
76.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
76.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
76.3 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

77 Suteans 222
77.1 Amarna letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
77.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

78 Tadukhipa 223
78.1 Marriage to Amenhotep III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
78.2 Marriage to Akhenaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
78.3 Identied with Kiya or Nefertiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
78.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

79 Tiye 225
79.1 Family and early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
79.2 Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
79.3 Inuence at court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
79.4 Burial and mummy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
79.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
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79.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

80 Tomb of Meryra 229

80.1 Tomb layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
80.2 Meryra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
80.3 Tomb Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
80.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
80.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

81 Tushratta 231
81.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
81.2 A second campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
81.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

82 Zemar 232
82.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

83 Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten 233

83.1 Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
83.2 Work done on the stelae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
83.3 Stelae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
83.3.1 Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
83.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
83.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

84 Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh 235

84.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
84.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

85 Kom el-Nana 236

85.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

86 Maru-Aten 237
86.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

87 Northern Palace (Amarna) 238

87.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

88 Workmens Village, Amarna 239

89 Mahu (noble) 240

89.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
89.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

90 Royal Wadi and tombs 241

90.1 Royal Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
xvi CONTENTS

90.2 Tomb 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

90.3 Tomb 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
90.4 Tomb 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
90.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

91 Southern Tomb 11 242

91.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

92 Southern Tomb 23 243

92.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
92.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

93 Southern Tomb 25 244

94 Southern Tombs Cemetery 245

94.1 Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
94.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

95 Tomb of Meryra II 246

95.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

96 Tombs of the Nobles (Amarna) 247

96.1 Northern tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
96.1.1 Desert altars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
96.2 Southern tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
96.3 Rediscovery and excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
96.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
96.4.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
96.4.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
96.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Chapter 1

Akhenaten

Akhenaten (/kntn/;[1] also spelled Echnaton,[7] 1.1 Early reign as Amenhotep IV

Akhenaton,[8] Ikhnaton,[9] and Khuenaten;[10][11]
meaning Eective for Aten") known before the fth
year of his reign as Amenhotep IV (sometimes given
its Greek form, Amenophis IV, and meaning Amun is
Satised), was a pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of
Egypt who ruled for 17 years and died perhaps in 1336
BC or 1334 BC. He is especially noted for abandoning
traditional Egyptian polytheism and introducing worship
centered on the Aten, which is sometimes described as
monotheistic or henotheistic. An early inscription likens
the Aten to the sun as compared to stars, and later ocial
language avoids calling the Aten a god, giving the solar
deity a status above mere gods.
Akhenaten tried to bring about a departure from
traditional religion, yet in the end it would not be ac-
cepted. After his death, traditional religious practice
was gradually restored, and when some dozen years later Relief representing Amenhotep IV before he changed his name to
rulers without clear rights of succession from the Eigh- Akhenaten, Neues Museum, Berlin
teenth Dynasty founded a new dynasty, they discredited
Akhenaten and his immediate successors, referring to The future Akhenaten was a younger son of Amenhotep
Akhenaten himself as the enemy in archival records.[12] III and Chief Queen Tiye.The eldest son, Crown Prince
He was all but lost from history until the discovery, in Thutmose, was recognized as the heir of Amenhotep III
the 19th century, of Amarna, the site of Akhetaten, but he died relatively young and the next in line for the
the city he built for the Aten. Early excavations at throne was a prince named Amenhotep.[19]
Amarna by Flinders Petrie sparked interest in the enig- There is much controversy around whether Amenhotep
matic pharaoh, whose tomb was unearthed in 1907 in a IV succeeded to the throne on the death of his father,
dig led by Edward R. Ayrton. Interest in Akhenaten in- Amenhotep III, or whether there was a coregency (last-
creased with the discovery in the Valley of the Kings, at ing as long as 12 years according to some Egyptologists).
Luxor, of the tomb of King Tutankhamun, who has been Current literature by Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter
proved to be Akhenatens son according to DNA test- Dorman and other scholars comes out strongly against the
ing in 2010.[13] A mummy found in KV55 in 1907 has establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers
been identied as that of Akhenaten. This man and Tu- and in favour of either no coregency or a brief one last-
tankhamun are related without question,[14] but the iden- ing one to two years, at the most.[20] Other literature by
tication of the KV55 mummy as Akhenaten has been Donald Redford, William Murnane, Alan Gardiner and
questioned.[6][15][16][17][18] more recently by Lawrence Berman in 1998 contests the
Modern interest in Akhenaten and his queen, Nefertiti, view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten
comes partly from his connection with Tutankhamun, and his father.[21]
partly from the unique style and high quality of the pic- In February 2014, Egyptian Ministry for Antiquities an-
torial arts he patronized, and partly from ongoing interest nounced what it called conclusive evidence that Akhen-
in the religion he attempted to establish. aten shared power with his father for at least 8 years. The
evidence came from the inscriptions found in the Luxor
tomb of Vizier Amenhotep-Huy.[22][23] A team of Span-
ish archeologists have been working at this tomb.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN

Memphis Apy (or Ipy) to the Pharaoh. The documents

were found in Gurob and are dated to regnal year 5, third
month of the Growing Season, day 19.[25]

1.2 Name change to Akhenaten

On day 13, Month 8, in the fth year of his reign, the king
arrived at the site of the new city Akhetaten (now known
as Amarna). A month before that Amenhotep IV had
ocially changed his name to Akhenaten.[19] Amenhotep
IV changed most of his 5 fold titulary in year 5 of his
reign. The only name he kept was his prenomen or throne
name.[26]

1.3 Religious policies

Bronze plate with the titulary of Amenhotep IV before he changed

his name to Akhenaten, British Museum.

Amenhotep IV was crowned in Thebes and there he

started a building program. He decorated the southern
entrance to the precincts of the temple of Amun-Re with
scenes of himself worshipping Re-Harakhti. He soon de-
creed the construction of a temple dedicated to the Aten
at the Eastern Karnak. This Temple of Amenhotep IV
was called the Gempaaten (The Aten is found in the es-
tate of the Aten). The Gempaaten consisted of a series
of buildings, including a palace and a structure called the
Hwt Benben (named after the Benben stone) which was
dedicated to Queen Nefertiti. Other Aten temples con-
structed at Karnak during this time include the Rud-menu
and the Teni-menu which may have been constructed near Pharaoh Akhenaten (center) and his family worshiping the Aten,
the Ninth Pylon. During this time he did not repress the with characteristic rays seen emanating from the solar disk.
worship of Amun, and the High Priest of Amun was still
active in the fourth year of his reign.[19] The king appears Some recent debate has focused on the extent to which
as Amenhotep IV in the tombs of some of the nobles in Akhenaten forced his religious reforms on his people.
Thebes: Kheruef (TT192), Ramose (TT55) and the tomb Certainly, as time drew on, he revised the names of the
of Parennefer (TT188).[24] Aten, and other religious language, to increasingly ex-
clude references to other gods; at some point, also, he
In the tomb of Ramose, Amenhotep IV appears on the embarked on the wide-scale erasure of traditional gods
west wall in the traditional style, seated on a throne with names, especially those of Amun. Some of his court
Ramose appearing before the king. On the other side of changed their names to remove them from the patron-
the doorway Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are shown in age of other gods and place them under that of Aten (or
the window of appearance with the Aten depicted as the Ra, with whom Akhenaten equated the Aten). Yet, even
sun disc. In the Theban tomb of Parennefer, Amenhotep at Amarna itself, some courtiers kept such names as Ah-
IV and Nefertiti are seated on a throne with the sun disk mose (child of the moon god, the owner of tomb 3), and
depicted over the king and queen.[24] the sculptors workshop where the famous Nefertiti bust,
One of the last known documents referring to Amen- and other works of royal portraiture, were found, is asso-
hotep IV are two copies of a letter from the Steward Of ciated with an artist known to have been called Thutmose
1.4. PHARAOH AND FAMILY DEPICTIONS
Talatat blocks from Akhenatens Aten temple in Karnak
(child of Thoth). An overwhelmingly large number of
faience amulets at Amarna also show that talismans of the
household-and-childbirth gods Bes and Taweret, the eye
of Horus, and amulets of other traditional deities, were
openly worn by its citizens. Indeed, a cache of royal jew-
elry found buried near the Amarna royal tombs (now in
the National Museum of Scotland) includes a nger ring
referring to Mut, the wife of Amun. Such evidence sug-
gests that though Akhenaten shifted funding away from
traditional temples, his policies were fairly tolerant until
some point, perhaps a particular event as yet unknown,
toward the end of the reign.
Following Akhenatens death, change was gradual at rst.
Within a decade a comprehensive political, religious and
artistic reformation began promoting a return of Egyptian
life to the norms it had followed during his fathers reign.
Much of the art and building infrastructure created dur-
ing Akhenatens reign was defaced or destroyed in the pe-
riod following his death, particularly during the reigns of
Horemheb and the early Nineteenth Dynasty kings. Stone
building blocks from Akhenatens construction projects
were later used as foundation stones for subsequent rulers
temples and tombs.
1.4 Pharaoh and family depictions
Styles of art that ourished during this short period are
markedly dierent from other Egyptian art. In some
cases, representations are more naturalistic, especially in
depictions of animals and plants, of commoners, and in
a sense of action and movementfor both nonroyal and
royal people. However, depictions of members of the
court, especially members of the royal family, are ex-
tremely stylized, with elongated heads, protruding stom-
achs, heavy hips, thin arms and legs, and exaggerated
facial features. Signicantly, and for the only time in
the history of Egyptian royal art, Akhenatens family
are shown taking part in decidedly naturalistic activities,
showing aection for each other, and being caught in
3
mid-action (in traditional art, a pharaohs divine nature
was expressed by repose, even immobility). The depic-
tions of action may correspond to the emphasis on the
active, creative nurturing of the Aten emphasized in the
Great Hymn to the Aten and elsewhere.
Small statue of Akhenaten wearing the Egyptian Blue Crown of
War
Questions also remain whether the beauty of Nefertiti is
portraiture or idealism. Nefertiti also appears, both be-
side the king and alone (or with her daughters), in ac-
tions usually reserved for a Pharaoh, suggesting that she
enjoyed unusual status for a queen. Early artistic repre-
sentations of her tend to be indistinguishable from her
husbands except by her regalia, but soon after the move
to the new capital, Nefertiti begins to be depicted with
features specic to her.
Why Akhenaten had himself represented in the bizarre,
strikingly androgynous way he did, remains a vigorously
debated question. Religious reasons have been suggested,
such as to emulate the creative nature of the Aten, who
is called in Amarna tomb texts, mother and father of
all that is. Or, it has been suggested, Akhenatens (and
his familys) portraiture exaggerates his distinctive physi-
cal traits. Until Akhenatens mummy is positively identi-
ed, such theories remain speculative. Some scholars do
identify Mummy 61074, found in KV55, an unnished
tomb in the Valley of the Kings, as Akhenatens.[27] If
soor if the KV 55 mummy is that of his close rela-
tive, Smenkhkareits measurements tend to support the
theory that Akhenatens depictions exaggerate his actual
appearance. Though the mummy consists only of dis-
articulated bones, the skull is long and has a prominent
4 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
chin, and the limbs are light and long. In 2007, Zahi
Hawass and a team of researchers made CT Scan im-
ages of Mummy 61074. They have concluded that the
elongated skull, cheek bones, cleft palate, and impacted
wisdom tooth suggest that the mummy is the father of
Tutankhamun, and thus is Akhenaten.
The Wilbour Plaque, ca. 1352-1336 B.C.E, Brooklyn Museum
This relief depicts Akhenaten and Nefertiti late in their reign.
1.4.1 Family and relations
See also: Family tree of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt
As Amenhotep IV, Akhenaten was married to Nefertiti
Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their children
at the very beginning of his reign, and six daughters were
identied from inscriptions. Recent DNA analysis has re-
vealed that with one of his biological sisters, the Younger
Lady mummy, Akhenaten fathered Tutankhaten (later
Tutankhamen).[28] The parentage of Smenkhkare, his
successor, is unknown, and Akhenaten and an unknown
wife have been proposed to be his parents.
A secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya is known
from inscriptions. Some have theorized that she
gained her importance as the mother of Tutankhamen,
Smenkhkare, or both.
This is a list of Akhenatens children (known and theo-
retical) with suggested years of birth:
Smenkhkare? year 35 or 36 of Amenhotep IIIs
reign
Meritaten year 1.
Meketaten year 3, possibly earlier.
Ankhesenpaaten, later Queen of Tutankhamun
year 4.
Neferneferuaten Tasherit year 8.
Neferneferure year 9.
Setepenre year 9.
Tutankhaten year 8 or 9 renamed Tutankhamun
later.[29]
His known consorts were:
Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife.
Kiya, a lesser Royal Wife.
A daughter of atiya, ruler of Eniasi[30]
A daughter of Burna-Buriash, King of Babylon[30]
It has been proposed that Akhenaten may have taken
some of his daughters as sexual consorts, to attempt to fa-
ther a male heir by them, but this is very debatable. It does
seem certain that like his father, Amenhotep III, Akhen-
aten named at least one daughter as Great Royal Wife.
But this does not exclusively indicate she was his sexual
consort as the position was also an important ceremonial
position.[31]
Meritaten is recorded as Great Royal Wife to
Smenkhkare in the tomb of Meryre II in Akhet-
Aten. She is also listed alongside King Akhenaten
and King Neferneferuaten as Great Royal Wife on a
box from the tomb of Tutankhamen. Letters written
to Akhenaten from foreign rulers make reference to
Meritaten as 'mistress of the house'.
Meketaten, Akhenatens second daughter. Meke-
tatens death in childbirth is recorded in the royal
tombs of Amarna about the year 13 or 14. Since no
husband is known for her, the assumption has been
that Akhenaten was the father. The inscription giv-
ing the liation of the child are damaged to prevent
resolving the issue.
1.5. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 5

Various monuments originally for Kiya, was

reinscribed for Akhenatens daughters Meri-
taten and Ankhesenpaaten, the revised inscrip-
tions list a Meritaten-tasherit (junior) and an
Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit. Some view this to indi-
cate that Akhenaten fathered his own grandchildren.
Others hold that since these grandchildren are not
attested to elsewhere, that they are ctions invented
to ll the space originally lled by Kiyas child.[32]

Two other lovers have been suggested, but are not widely
accepted:

Smenkhkare, Akhenatens successor and/or co-ruler

for the last years of his reign. Rather than a lover,
however, Smenkhkare is likely to have been a half-
brother or a son to Akhenaten. Some have even
suggested that Smenkhkare was actually an alias of
Nefertiti or Kiya, and therefore one of Akhenatens
wives (see below).
Tiye, his mother. Twelve years after the death of
Amenhotep III, she is still mentioned in inscriptions
as Queen and beloved of the King, but kings moth-
ers often were. The few supporters of this theory
(notably Immanuel Velikovsky) consider Akhen-
aten to be the historical model of legendary King Akhenaten in the typical Amarna period style.
Oedipus of Thebes, Greece and Tiye the model for
his mother/wife Jocasta.
and a second statue, a statue of Tadu-Heba
(Tadukhepa), my daughter, and your father
1.5 International relations said, 'Don't talk of giving statues just of solid
cast gold. I will give you ones made also of
lapis lazuli. I will give you, too, along with the
The Amarna Letters, a cache of diplomatic correspon-
statues, much additional gold and (other) goods
dence discovered in modern times at el-Amarna (the
beyond measure.' Every one of my messengers
modern designation of the site of Akhetaten) have pro-
that were staying in Egypt saw the gold for the
vided important evidence about Akhenatens reign and
statues with their own eyes. Your father him-
foreign policy. This correspondence comprises a price-
self recast the statues [i]n the presence of my
less collection of incoming messages on clay tablets, sent
messengers, and he made them entirely of pure
to Akhetaten from various subject rulers through Egyp-
gold....He showed much additional gold, which
tian military outposts, and from the foreign rulers (rec-
was beyond measure and which he was sending
ognized as Great Kings) of the kingdom of Mitanni,
to me. He said to my messengers, 'See with
of Babylon, of Assyria and of Hatti. The governors and
your own eyes, here the statues, there much
kings of Egypts subject domains also wrote frequently to
gold and goods beyond measure, which I am
plead for gold from Pharaoh, and also complained that he
sending to my brother.' And my messengers
had snubbed and cheated them.
did see with their own eyes! But my brother
Early in his reign, Akhenaten fell out with the king of (i.e.: Akhenaten) has not sent the solid (gold)
Mitanni, Tushratta, who had courted favor with his father statues that your father was going to send. You
against the Hittites. Tushratta complains in numerous have sent plated ones of wood. Nor have you
letters that Akhenaten had sent him gold-plated statues sent me the goods that your father was go-
rather than statues made of solid gold; the statues formed ing to send me, but you have reduced (them)
part of the bride-price which Tushratta received for let- greatly. Yet there is nothing I know of in which
ting his daughter Tadukhepa marry rst Amenhotep III I have failed my brother. Any day that I hear
and then Akhenaten. Amarna letter EA 27 preserves a the greetings of my brother, that day I make
complaint by Tushratta to Akhenaten about the situation: a festive occasion... May my brother send me
much gold. [At] the kim[ru fe]ast...[...with]
I...asked your father, Mimmureya, for many goods [may my] brother honor me. In
statues of solid cast gold, one of myself my brothers country gold is as plentiful as dust.
6 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
May my brother cause me no distress. May he
send me much gold in order that my brother
[with the gold and m]any [good]s, may honor
me. (EA 27)[33]
Plaster portrait study of a pharaoh, Ahkenaten or a co-regent or
successor. Discovered within the workshop of the royal sculp-
tor Thutmose at Amarna, now part of the gyptisches Museum
collection in Berlin.
While Akhenaten was certainly not a close friend of
Tushratta, he was evidently concerned at the expand-
ing power of the Hittite Empire under its powerful ruler
Suppiluliuma I. A successful Hittite attack on Mitanni
and its ruler Tushratta would have disrupted the entire in-
ternational balance of power in the Ancient Middle East
at a time when Egypt had made peace with Mitanni; this
would cause some of Egypts vassals to switch their al-
legiances to the Hittites, as time would prove. A group
of Egypts allies who attempted to rebel against the Hit-
tites were captured, and wrote letters begging Akhenaten
for troops, but he did not respond to most of their pleas.
Evidence suggests that the troubles on the northern fron-
tier led to diculties in Canaan, particularly in a struggle
for power between Labaya of Shechem and Abdi-Heba of
Jerusalem, which required the Pharaoh to intervene in the
area by dispatching Medjay troops northwards. Akhen-
aten pointedly refused to save his vassal Rib-Hadda of
Byblos - whose kingdom was being besieged by the ex-
panding state of Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta and later
Aziru, son of Abdi-Ashirta - despite Rib-Haddas numer-
ous pleas for help from the pharaoh. Rib-Hadda wrote
a total of 60 letters to Akhenaten pleading for aid from
the pharaoh. Akhenaten wearied of Rib-Haddas constant
correspondences and once told Rib-Hadda: "You are the
one that writes to me more than all the (other) mayors" or
Egyptian vassals in EA 124.[34] What Rib-Hadda did not
comprehend was that the Egyptian king would not orga-
nize and dispatch an entire army north just to preserve
the political status quo of several minor city states on the
fringes of Egypts Asiatic Empire.[35] Rib-Hadda would
pay the ultimate price; his exile from Byblos due to a
coup led by his brother Ilirabih is mentioned in one letter.
When Rib-Hadda appealed in vain for aid from Akhen-
aten and then turned to Aziru, his sworn enemy, to place
him back on the throne of his city, Aziru promptly had
him dispatched to the king of Sidon, where Rib-Hadda
was almost certainly executed.[36]
William L. Moran[37] notes that the Amarna corpus of
380+ letters counters the conventional view that Akhen-
aten neglected Egypts foreign territories in favour of his
internal reforms. Several letters from Egyptian vassals
notify the Pharaoh that they have followed his instruc-
tions:
To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun,
the Sun from the sky: Message of Yapahu, the
ruler of Gazru, your servant, the dirt at your
feet. I indeed prostrate myself at the feet of
the king, my lord, my god, my Sun...7 times
and 7 times, on the stomach and on the back. I
am indeed guarding the place of the king, my
lord, the Sun of the sky, where I am, and all
the things the king, my lord, has written me, I
am indeed carrying out--everything! Who am
I, a dog, and what is my house... and what is
anything I have, that the orders of the king,
my lord, the Sun from the sky, should not obey
constantly? (EA 378)[38]
When the loyal but unfortunate Rib-Hadda was killed at
the instigation of Aziru,[36] Akhenaten sent an angry letter
to Aziru containing a barely veiled accusation of outright
treachery on the latters part.[39] Akhenaten wrote:
Say to Aziru, ruler of Amurru: Thus the
king, your lord (ie: Akhenaten), saying: The
ruler of Gubla (i.e.: Byblos), whose brother
had cast him away at the gate, said to you,
Take me and get me into the city. There
is much silver, and I will give it to you. In-
deed there is an abundance of everything, but
not with me [here]. Thus did the ruler (Rib-
Hadda) speak to you. Did you not write to the
king, my lord saying, I am your servant like all
the previous mayors (ie: vassals) in his city"?
Yet you acted delinquently by taking the mayor
whose brother had cast him away at the gate,
from his city.
He (Rib-Hadda) was residing in Sidon and,
following your own judgment, you gave him
1.6. DEATH, BURIAL AND SUCCESSION
Head of Akhenaten
to (some) mayors. Were you ignorant of the
treacherousness of the men? If you really are
the kings servant, why did you not denounce
him before the king, your lord, saying, This
mayor has written to me saying, 'Take me to
yourself and get me into my city'"? And if
you did act loyally, still all the things you wrote
were not true. In fact, the king has reected on
them as follows, Everything you have said is
not friendly.
Now the king has heard as follows, You
are at peace with the ruler of Qidsa. (Kadesh)
The two of you take food and strong drink to-
gether. And it is true. Why do you act so?
Why are you at peace with a ruler whom the
king is ghting? And even if you did act loy-
ally, you considered your own judgment, and
his judgment did not count. You have paid
no attention to the things that you did earlier.
What happened to you among them that you
are not on the side of the king, your lord? Con-
sider the people that are training you for their
own advantage. They want to throw you into
the re....If for any reason whatsoever you pre-
fer to do evil, and if you plot evil, treacherous
things, then you, together with your entire fam-
7
ily, shall die by the axe of the king. So perform
your service for the king, your lord, and you
will live. You yourself know that the king does
not fail when he rages against all of Canaan.
And when you wrote saying, 'May the king, my
Lord, give me leave this year, and then I will go
next year to the king, my Lord. (ie: to Egypt)
If this is impossible, I will send my son in my
place' - the king, your Lord, let you o this
year in accordance with what you said. Come
yourself, or send your son [now], and you will
see the king at whose sight all lands live. (EA
162)[40]
This letter shows that Akhenaten paid close attention to
the aairs of his vassals in Canaan and Syria. Akhenaten
commanded Aziru to come to Egypt and proceeded to de-
tain him there for at least one year. In the end, Akhenaten
was forced to release Aziru back to his homeland when
the Hittites advanced southwards into Amki, thereby
threatening Egypts series of Asiatic vassal states, includ-
ing Amurru.[41] Sometime after his return to Amurru,
Aziru defected to the Hittite side with his kingdom.[42]
While it is known from an Amarna letter by Rib-Hadda
that the Hittites seized all the countries that were vassals
of the king of Mitanni (EA 75)[43] Akhenaten managed
to preserve Egypts control over the core of her Near East-
ern Empire (which consisted of present-day Israel as well
as the Phoenician coast) while avoiding conict with the
increasingly powerful Hittite Empire of Suppiluliuma I.
Only the Egyptian border province of Amurru in Syria
around the Orontes river was permanently lost to the Hit-
tites when its ruler Aziru defected to the Hittites. Fi-
nally, contrary to the conventional view of a ruler who
neglected Egypts international relations, Akhenaten is
known to have initiated at least one campaign into Nubia
in his regnal Year 12, where his campaign is mentioned
in Amada stela CG 41806 and on a separate companion
stela at Buhen.[44]
1.6 Death, burial and succession
Further information: Amarna succession
The last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna
family is in the tomb of Meryra II, and dates from sec-
ond month, year 12 of his reign.[45] After this the his-
torical record is unclear, and only with the succession of
Tutankhamun is somewhat claried.
However, recently, in December 2012, it was announced
that a Year 16 III Akhet day 15 inscription dated ex-
plicitly to Akhenatens reign which mentions, in the same
breath, the presence of a living Queen Nefertiti, has now
been found in a limestone quarry at Deir el-Bersha just
north of Amarna.[46][47] The text refers to a building
project in Amarna. It establishes that Akhenaten and Ne-
fertiti were still a royal couple just a year prior to Akhen-
8 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
Akhenatens sarcophagus reconstituted from pieces discovered
in his original tomb in Amarna, now in the Egyptian Museum,
Cairo.
The desecrated royal con of Akhenaten found in Tomb KV55
atens death.
Akhenaten planned to relocate Egyptian burials on the
East side of the Nile (sunrise) rather than on the West side
(sunset), in the Royal Wadi in Akhetaten. His body was
removed after the court returned to Thebes, and recent
genetic tests have conrmed that the body found buried
in tomb KV55 was the father of Tutankhamun, and is
therefore most probably Akhenaten,[48] although this is
Prole view of the skull of Akhenaten recovered from KV55
disputed.[49] The tomb contained numerous Amarna era
objects including a royal funerary mask which had been
deliberately destroyed. His sarcophagus was destroyed
but has since been reconstructed and now sits outside in
the Cairo Museum.
Fragmentary ushabtis of Akhenaten from his original tomb in
Amarna, now in the Brooklyn Museum.
Similarly, although it is accepted that Akhenaten him-
self died in Year 17 of his reign, the question of whether
Smenkhkare became co-regent perhaps two or three
years earlier or enjoyed a brief independent reign is
unclear.[50] If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and be-
came sole Pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than
a year. The next successor was Neferneferuaten, a fe-
male Pharaoh who reigned in Egypt for two years and one
month.[51] She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tu-
tankhaten (later, Tutankhamun), with the country being
administered by the chief vizier, and future Pharaoh, Ay.
Tutankhamun was believed to be a younger brother of
Smenkhkare and a son of Akhenaten, and possibly Kiya
although one scholar has suggested that Tutankhamun
may have been a son of Smenkhkare instead. DNA
1.7. IMPLEMENTATION OF ATENISM
tests in 2010 indicated Tutankhamun was indeed the son
of Akhenaten.[13] It has been suggested that after the
death of Akhenaten, Nefertiti reigned with the name of
Neferneferuaten[52] but other scholars believe this female
ruler was rather Meritaten. The so-called Coregency
Stela, found in a tomb in Amarna possibly shows his
queen Nefertiti as his coregent, ruling alongside him, but
this is not certain as the names have been removed and re-
carved to show Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten.[53]
With Akhenatens death, the Aten cult he had founded
gradually fell out of favor. Tutankhaten changed his
name to Tutankhamun in Year 2 of his reign (1332 BC)
and abandoned the city of Akhetaten, which eventually
fell into ruin. His successors Ay and Horemheb disas-
sembled temples Akhenaten had built, including the tem-
ple at Thebes, using them as a source of easily available
building materials and decorations for their own temples.
Finally, Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare, Tu-
tankhamun, and Ay were excised from the ocial lists of
Pharaohs, which instead reported that Amenhotep III was
immediately succeeded by Horemheb. This is thought
to be part of an attempt by Horemheb to delete all trace
of Atenism and the pharaohs associated with it from the
historical record. Akhenatens name never appeared on
any of the king lists compiled by later Pharaohs and it
was not until the late 19th century that his identity was
re-discovered and the surviving traces of his reign were
unearthed by archaeologists.
1.7 Implementation of Atenism
Main article: Atenism
In the early years of his reign, Amenhotep IV lived at
Thebes with Nefertiti and his 6 daughters. Initially, he
permitted worship of Egypts traditional deities to con-
tinue but near the Temple of Karnak (Amun-Ras great
cult center), he erected several massive buildings includ-
ing temples to the Aten. Aten was usually depicted as a
sun disc. These buildings at Thebes were later disman-
tled by his successors and used as inll for new construc-
tions in the Temple of Karnak; when they were later dis-
mantled by archaeologists, some 36,000 decorated blocks
from the original Aton building here were revealed which
preserve many elements of the original relief scenes and
inscriptions.[54]
The relationship between Amenhotep IV and the priests
of Amun-Re gradually deteriorated. In Year 5 of his
reign, Amenhotep IV took decisive steps to establish
the Aten as the exclusive, monotheistic god of Egypt:
the pharaoh disbanded the priesthoods of all the other
gods...and diverted the income from these [other] cults
to support the Aten. To emphasize his complete alle-
giance to the Aten, the king ocially changed his name
from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten or 'Living Spirit of
9
Akhenaten depicted as a sphinx at Amarna.
Aten.'[54] Akhenatens fth year also marked the begin-
ning of construction on his new capital, Akhetaten or
'Horizon of Aten', at the site known today as Amarna.
Very soon afterwards, he centralized Egyptian religious
practices in Akhetaten, though construction of the city
seems to have continued for several more years. In honor
of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of
some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient
Egypt. In these new temples, Aten was worshipped in
the open sunlight, rather than in dark temple enclosures,
as had been the previous custom. Akhenaten is also be-
lieved to have composed the Great Hymn to the Aten.
Initially, Akhenaten presented Aten as a variant of the
familiar supreme deity Amun-Re (itself the result of an
earlier rise to prominence of the cult of Amun, result-
ing in Amun becoming merged with the sun god Ra), in
an attempt to put his ideas in a familiar Egyptian reli-
gious context. However, by Year 9 of his reign, Akhen-
aten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god,
but the only god, and that he, Akhenaten, was the only
intermediary between Aten and his people. He ordered
the defacing of Amuns temples throughout Egypt and,
in a number of instances, inscriptions of the plural 'gods
were also removed.
Atens name is also written dierently after Year 9, to
emphasize the radicalism of the new regime, which in-
cluded a ban on images, with the exception of a rayed so-
lar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in
hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who
by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god,
but rather a universal deity. Representations of the Aten
were always accompanied with a sort of hieroglyphic
footnote, stating that the representation of the sun as
All-encompassing Creator was to be taken as just that:
a representation of something that, by its very nature as
something transcending creation, cannot be fully or ade-
quately represented by any one part of that creation.
10 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN

1.8 Speculative theories idea that Akhenaten is the real character for the mythical
Moses,[66] Ahmarna the place as a literary misinterpreta-
tion of God raining an unknown fruit called manna while
the Jews were wandering in the desert[66] and the concept
of a deity directing a group to a promised place which is
the main theme in both stories.[66]
Ahmed Osman has claimed that Akhenatens maternal
grandfather Yuya was the same person as the Biblical
Joseph. Yuya held the title Overseer of the Cattle of
Min at Akhmin during his life.[67]
He likely belonged to the local nobility of Akhmim.
Egyptologists hold this view because Yuya had strong
connections to the city of Akhmim in Upper Egypt. This
makes it unlikely that he was a foreigner since most Asi-
atic settlers tended to cloister around the Nile Delta region
of Lower Egypt.[68][69] Some Egyptologists,[70] however,
Sculptors trial piece of Akhenaten. give him a Mitannian origin. It is widely accepted that
there are strong similarities between Akhenatens Great
Akhenatens status as a religious revolutionary has led to Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104, though
much speculation, ranging from bona de scholarly hy- this form is found widespread in ancient Near Eastern
potheses to the non-academic fringe theories. Although hymnology both before and after the period and whether
many believe that he introduced monotheism, others see this implies a direct inuence or a common literary con-
Akhenaten as a practitioner of an Aten monolatry,[55] as vention remains in dispute.
he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he Others have likened some aspects of Akhenatens rela-
simply refrained from worshipping any but the Aten while tionship with the Aten to the relationship, in Christian
expecting the people to worship not Aten but him. tradition, of Jesus Christ with God - particularly in inter-
pretations that emphasise a more monotheistic interpreta-
tion of Atenism than henotheistic. Donald B. Redford has
1.8.1 Akhenaten and Judeo-Christian- noted that some have viewed Akhenaten as a harbinger
Islamic monotheism of Jesus. After all, Akhenaten did call himself the son
of the sole god: 'Thine only son that came forth from thy
The idea of Akhenaten as the pioneer of a monotheis- body'.[71] James Henry Breasted likened him to Jesus,[72]
tic religion that later became Judaism has been consid- Arthur Weigall saw him as a failed precursor of Christ
ered by various scholars.[56][57][58][59][60][61] One of the and Thomas Mann saw him as right on the way and yet
rst to mention this was Sigmund Freud, the founder of not the right one for the way.[73]
psychoanalysis, in his book Moses and Monotheism.[62]
Redford argued that while Akhenaten called himself the
Freud argued that Moses had been an Atenist priest
son of the Sun-Disc and acted as the chief mediator be-
forced to leave Egypt with his followers after Akhenatens
tween god and creation, kings for thousands of years be-
death. Freud argued that Akhenaten was striving to pro-
fore Akhenatens time had claimed the same relationship
mote monotheism, something that the biblical Moses was
[56] and priestly role. However Akhenatens case may be dif-
able to achieve. Following his book, the concept en-
[63] ferent through the emphasis placed on the heavenly fa-
tered popular consciousness and serious research.
ther and son relationship. Akhenaten described himself
Other scholars and mainstream Egyptologists point out as thy son who came forth from thy limbs, thy child,
that there are direct connections between early Judaism the eternal son that came forth from the Sun-Disc, and
and other Semitic religious traditions.[64] They also state thine only son that came forth from thy body. The close
that two of the three principal Judaic terms for God, relationship between father and son is such that only the
Yahweh, Elohim (morphologically plural, lit. gods), king truly knows the heart of his father, and in return
and Adonai (lit. my lord ) have a connection to Aten. his father listens to his sons prayers. He is his fathers im-
Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, age on earth and as Akhenaten is king on earth his father
the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis is king in heaven. As high priest, prophet, king and di-
as a primeval unity of language between the factions;[56] vine he claimed the central position in the new religious
in this he was following the argument of Egyptologist system. Since only he knew his fathers mind and will,
Arthur Weigall. Jan Assmanns opinion is that 'Aten' Akhenaten alone could interpret that will for all mankind
and 'Adonai' are not linguistically related.[65] Although with true teaching coming only from him.[71]
there are similarities between Akhenaten monotheistic
Redford concluded:
experiment and the biblical story of Moses[66] that have
been explored in mainstream culture they include, the
1.8. SPECULATIVE THEORIES
Before much of the archaeological evi-
dence from Thebes and from Tell el-Amarna
became available, wishful thinking sometimes
turned Akhenaten into a humane teacher of
the true God, a mentor of Moses, a Christ-
like gure, a philosopher before his time. But
these imaginary creatures are now fading away
one by one as the historical reality gradually
emerges. There is little or no evidence to sup-
port the notion that Akhenaten was a progeni-
tor of the full-blown monotheism that we nd
in the Bible. The monotheism of the Hebrew
Bible and the New Testament had its own sep-
arate developmentone that began more than
half a millennium after the pharaohs death.[74]
However, Greenberg argues that Judaism shows signs that
in its early forms it had Henotheistic characteristics and
that it later was rened into a monotheism around the time
of King Josiah, relegating that which previously were con-
sidered gods, into gods that ought not be worshipped, i.e.
angels.[75]
1.8.2 Possible illness
The rather strange and eccentric portrayals of Akhenaten,
with a sagging stomach, thick thighs, larger breasts, and
long, thin face so dierent from the athletic norm
in the portrayal of Pharaohs has led certain Egyp-
tologists to suppose that Akhenaten suered some kind
of genetic abnormality. Various illnesses have been put
forward. On the basis of his longer jaw and his femi-
nine appearance, Cyril Aldred,[76] following up earlier
arguments of Grafton Elliot Smith[77] and James Stra-
chey,[78] suggested he may have suered from Froelichs
Syndrome. However, this is unlikely because this disor-
der results in sterility and Akhenaten is known to have
fathered numerous children these children are repeat-
edly portrayed through years of archaeological and icono-
graphic evidence at least six daughters by Queen Ne-
fertiti, well known as the King and Queens six princesses
of Amarna, as well as his successor Tutankhamun by a
minor wife.
Another suggestion by Burridge[79] is that Akhenaten may
have suered from Marfans Syndrome. Marfans syn-
drome, unlike Froelichs, does not result in any lack of
intelligence or sterility. It is associated with a sunken
chest, long curved spider-like ngers (arachnodactyly),
occasional congenital heart diculties, a high curved or
slightly cleft palate, and a highly curved cornea or dis-
located lens of the eye, with the requirement for bright
light to see well. Marfans suerers tend towards being
taller than average, with a long, thin face, and elongated
skull, overgrown ribs, a funnel or pigeon chest, and larger
pelvis, with enlarged thighs and spindly calves.[80] Mar-
fans syndrome is a dominant characteristic, and suerers
have a 50% chance of passing it on to their children.[81]
11
All of these symptoms arguably sometimes appear in de-
pictions of Akhenaten and of his children. Recent CT
scans of Tutankhamun report a cleft palate and a fairly
long head, as well as an abnormal curvature of the spine
and fusion of the upper vertebrae, a condition associ-
ated with scoliosis, all conditions associated with Mar-
fans syndrome. However, DNA tests on Tutankhamun,
in 2010, proved negative for Marfan Syndrome.[82][83]
More recently, Homocystinuria was suggested as a possi-
ble diagnosis.[84] Patients suering from homocystinuria
have Marfan habitus, however, as an autosomal recessive
disease it seems to t better into Akhenatens family tree -
Akhenatens parents, Amenhotep III and Tiye, were most
probably healthy, and Marfan Syndrome was ruled out
following DNA tests on Tutankhamun in 2010.[82]
However, Dominic Montserrat in Akhenaten: History,
Fantasy and Ancient Egypt states that there is now a
broad consensus among Egyptologists that the exagger-
ated forms of Akhenatens physical portrayal... are not to
be read literally.[60] Montserrat and others[85] argue that
the body-shape relates to some form of religious sym-
bolism. Because the god Aten was referred to as the
mother and father of all humankind it has been sug-
gested that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in
artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the god. This
required a symbolic gathering of all the attributes of
the creator god into the physical body of the king him-
self, which will display on earth the Atens multiple
life-giving functions.[60] Akhenaten did refer to himself
as The Unique One of Re, and he may have used his
control of artistic expression to distance himself from the
common people, though such a radical departure from the
idealised traditional representation of the image of the
Pharaoh would be truly extraordinary.
Another unfounded claim was made by Immanuel Ve-
likovsky, who hypothesized an incestuous relationship
with his mother, Tiye. Velikovsky also posited that
Akhenaten had swollen legs. Based on this, he identi-
ed Akhenaten as the history behind the Oedipus myth,
Oedipus being Greek for swollen feet, and moved the
setting from the Greek Thebes to the Egyptian Thebes.
As part of his argument, Velikovsky uses the fact that
Akhenaten viciously carried out a campaign to erase the
name of his father, which he argues could have devel-
oped into Oedipus killing his father.[86] This point was
disproved, in that Akhenaten mummied and buried his
father in the honorable traditional Egyptian fashion prior
to beginning his monotheistic revolution. Furthermore,
an autopsy and genetic evidence in 2014 proved that his
son Tutankhamun were the product of a brother-sister
marriage, not a parent-child pairing.[87][88]
Recently a surgeon at Imperial College London (Hutan
Ashraan) has analysed the early death of Akhenaten
and the premature deaths of other Eighteenth dynasty
Pharaohs (including Tutankhamun and Thutmose IV).
He identies that their early deaths were likely a re-
sult of a Familial Temporal Epilepsy. This would ac-
12 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN

count for the untimely death of Akhenaten, his abnor- Gabolde[96] has led to a a fair degree of consensus[97]
mal endocrine body shape on sculptures and can also ex- that Neferneferuaten was a female ruler apart from
plain Akhenatens religious conviction due to this type Smenkhkare.
of epilepsys association with intense spiritual visions and
religiosity.[89]
1.9 In the arts
1.8.3 First individual

Historian James Henry Breasted [90] considered Akhen-

aten to be the rst individual in history, as well as the
rst monotheist, romantic, and scientist.
In 1899, Flinders Petrie opined,

If this were a new religion, invented to satisfy

our modern scientic conceptions, we could not
nd a aw in the correctness of this view of the
energy of the solar system. How much Akhen-
aten understood, we cannot say, but he certainly
bounded forward in his views and symbolism
to a position which we cannot logically improve
upon at the present day. Not a rag of supersti-
tion or of falsity can be found clinging to this
new worship evolved out of the old Aton of He-
liopolis, the sole Lord of the universe.[91]

Henry Hall contended that the pharaoh was the rst ex-
ample of the scientic mind.[92]
In Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet, Nicholas Reeves
construes the pharaohs religious reformations as at-
tempts at the centralization of his power and solidication
of his role as divine monarch.[93]

1.8.4 Smenkhkare Drawing of Akhnaton Cairo Cast

Main article: Smenkhkare

Various uninscribed and damaged stelae depict Akhen- 1.9.1 Plays

aten with what appears to be a coregent wearing a kings
crown, in familiar if not intimate settings (even naked). Agatha Christie: play, Akhnaton (written in 1937,
Since Smenkhkare was known to be a male, this led to published by Dodd, Mead and Company [New
the speculation that Akhenaten was homosexual. These York], 1973, ISBN 0-396-06822-7; Collins [Lon-
notions were discarded once the coregent was identied don], 1973, ISBN 0-00-211038-5)
as a female, most likely his wife.
In the 1970s, John Harris identied the gure pictured
1.9.2 Novels
alongside Akhenaten as Nefertiti, arguing that she may
have actually been elevated to co-regent and perhaps even
Michael Asher: The Eye of Ra A mystery novel
succeeded temporarily as an independent ruler, changing
by the noted desert explorer, citing the legendary
her name to Smenkhkare.[60]
lost oasis of Zaerzura as the secret burying place of
Nicholas Reeves and other Egyptologists contend that Akhenaten
Smenkhkare was the same person as Neferneferuaten,
who ruled together with Akhenaten as co-regent for the Thomas Mann, in his ctional biblical tetral-
nal one or two years of Akhenatens reign. On several ogy Joseph and His Brothers (19331943), makes
monuments, the two are shown seated side by side.[94] Akhenaten the dreaming pharaoh of Josephs
More recent research by James Allen[95] and Marc story.
1.9. IN THE ARTS
Tom Holland: The Sleeper in the Sands (Little,
Brown & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-316-64480-3)
Mika Waltari: The Egyptian, rst published in
Finnish (Sinuhe egyptilinen) in 1945, translated by
Naomi Walford (G.P. Putnams Sons, 1949, ISBN
0-399-10234-5; Chicago Review Press, 2002, pa-
perback, ISBN 1-55652-441-2)
1.9.3 Music
David Stacton: On a Balcony, London House &
Maxwell, 1958
Gwendolyn MacEwen: King of Egypt, King of
Dreams (1971, ISBN 1-894663-60-8)
Allen Drury: A God Against the Gods (Doubleday,
1976) and Return to Thebes (Doubleday, 1976)
Philip K. Dick: VALIS (1981) under the name
Ikhnathon.
Naguib Mahfouz: Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth
(( ) 1985)
Andree Chedid: Akhenaten and Nefertitis Dream
Wolfgang Hohlbein: Die Prophezeihung (The
Prophecy), in which Echnaton is killed by Ay and
curses him into eternal life until a prophecy is ful-
lled.
Moyra Caldecott: Akhenaten: Son of the Sun (1989;
eBook, 2000, ISBN 1-899142-86-X; 2003, ISBN
1-899142-25-8)
P.B. Kerr: The Akhenaten Adventure Akhenaten is
said to be the holder of 70 lost Djinn
Pauline Gedge: The Twelfth Transforming (1984),
set in the reign of Akhenaten, details the construc-
tion of Akhetaten and ctionalized accounts of his
sexual relationships with Nefertiti, Tiye and succes-
sor Smenkhkare.
Dorothy Porter: verse novel, Akhenaten (1991)
Judith Tarr: Pillar of Fire (1995)
Lynda Robinson: mystery, Drinker of Blood (2001,
ISBN 0-446-67751-5)
Gilbert Sinoue: Akhenaton, Le Dieu Maudit (Akhen-
aten, the Cursed God) (2005, ISBN 2-07-030033-1)
Spelled 'Akenhaten', he appears as a major character
in the rst of a trilogy of historical novels by P. C.
Doherty, An Evil Spirit out of the West.
Michelle Moran: Nefertiti (2007)
Barbara Wood: Watch of Gods
Kerry Greenwood: Out of the Black Land (2010,
ISBN 1-464-20038-6)
13
Lucile Morrison: The Lost Queen of Egypt (Freder-
ick A. Stokes Company, 1937), although this young
adult novel is about Akhenatens daughter, spelled
'Ankhsenpaaten', later 'Ankhsenamon', he appears
as a character until his death in chapter 16.
Ikhnaton is referenced in the title of a section of the
epic progressive rock song "Suppers Ready" by the
English rock band Genesis on their album Foxtrot
(1972). The section is named Ikhnaton and Itsacon
and their band of Merry Men.
Philip Glass: opera, Akhnaten: An Opera in Three
Acts (1983; CBS Records, 1987)
Akhenaten, track on Julian Cope's 1992 album
Jehovahkill.
Akhnaton, name of one of the members of the
French rap group IAM; also records under this name
and produces other rappers under this name.
Akhenaten is mentioned in the song lyrics to Dream
of Amarna (Written in December 1998) on the
demo album compact disc, The Aten Shines Again
by Leo-Neferuaten Boyle (2002).
Son Of The Sun by Swedish Symphonic Metal
band Therion on the album Sirius B (2004).
Cast Down the Heretic by the death metal band
Nile on the album Annihilation of the Wicked
(2005).
Sadness of Echnaton Losing the World Child by
Tangerine Dream, appearing rst on the album One
Times One (2007).
Cursing Akhenaten by the metalcore band After
The Burial on the album Rareform (2008).
Roy Campbell, Jr., The Akhenaten Suite - A Modern
Jazz Epic[100]
Akhenaten is featured on the album cover of Those
Whom the Gods Detest by the band Nile (2009).
Night Enchanted by the Trans-Siberian Orchestra
on the 2009 album Night Castle.
Akhnaten, Dweller in Truth is a work for Piano,
Cello and Orchestra by Mohammed Fairouz (2011).
Akhenaton Symphony by Otaclio Melgao
(2014).[101]
14
1.9.4 Film
The Egyptian, motion picture (1954, directed by
Michael Curtiz, Twentieth Century-Fox Film Cor-
poration), based on the novel by Mika Waltari.
Nefertiti, Queen of the Nile, motion picture (1961,
directed by Fernando Cherchio, starring Jeanne
Crain and Vincent Price). Akhenaten, played by
Amedeo Nazzari, is called Amonophis in the lm.
La Reine Soleil (2007 animated lm by Philippe
Leclerc), features Akhenaten, Tutankhaten (later
Tutankhamun), Akhesa (Ankhesenepaten, later
Ankhesenamun), Nefertiti, and Horemheb in a
complex struggle pitting the priests of Amun against
Akhenatens intolerant monotheism.
Donald Redfords excavation of one Akhenatens
temples was the subject of a one-hour 1980 National
Film Board of Canada documentary, The Lost
Pharaoh: The Search for Akhenaten.[99]
Ancient Aliens Season 1 Episode 2 The Visitors.
The episode proposes that Akhenaten past may not
be what we know. [99] [100]
1.9.5 Other
Edgar P. Jacobs: comic book, Blake et Mortimer:
Le Mystre de la Grande Pyramide vol. 1+2 (1950),
adventure story in which the mystery of Akhenaten
provides much of the background.
Joshua Norton: Die! Akhnaten Die! series of se-
quential woodcut prints and book recreates the story
of Akhenaten as a Wild West tale.
The Secret World, main antagonist of the Egypt sto-
ryline mission (Black Sun, Red Sand).
1.10 Ancestry
1.11 See also
Pharaoh of the Exodus
Osarseph
1.12 Notes and references
1.12.1 Notes
[1] Akhenaten. dictionary.com. Archived from the original
on 14 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
[2] Akhenaton. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
[3] Beckerath (1997) p.190
[4] Clayton (2006), p.120
[5] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3, p 170
[6] News from the Valley of the Kings: DNA Shows that
KV55 Mummy Probably Not Akhenaten. Kv64.info.
2010-03-02. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
[7] Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and
Ancient Egypt, Psychology Press, 2003, pp 105, 111
[8] Akhenaton (king of Egypt) - Britannica Online Encyclo-
pedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
[9] Robert William Rogers, Cuneiform parallels to the Old
Testament, Eaton & Mains, 1912, p 252
[10] K.A Kitchen, On the reliability of the Old Testament,
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003. p 486 Google Books
[11] Joyce A. Tyldesley, Egypt: how a lost civilization was re-
discovered, University of California Press, 2005
[12] Trigger et al. (2001), pp.186-7
[13] A Frail King Tut Died From Malaria, Broken Leg - ABC
News. Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[14] See the KV 55 Mummy & Tutankhamen. Anu-
bis4_2000.tripod.com. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
[15] Nature 472, 404-406 (2011); Published online 27 April
2011; Original link
[16] NewScientist.com; January, 2011; Royal Rumpus over
King Tutankhamuns Ancestry
[17] JAMA; 2010;303(24):2471-2475. King Tutankhamuns
Family and Demise (subscription)
[18] Bickerstae, D; The Long is dead. How Long Lived the
King? in Kmt vol 22, n 2, Summer 2010
[19] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8 p 259-
268
[20] Reeves (2000) p.77
[21] Berman (1998) p.23
[22] Pharaoh power-sharing unearthed in Egypt Daily News
Egypt. February 6, 2014
[23] Proof found of Amenhotep III-Akhenaten co-regency the-
historyblog.com
[24] Charles F. Nims , The Transition from the Traditional to
the New Style of Wall Relief under Amenhotep IV, Jour-
nal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1/2 (Jan. - Apr.,
1973), pp. 181-187
[25] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0 p 50-51
1.12. NOTES AND REFERENCES
[26] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3 p 8, 170
[27] S. McAvoy, Mummy 61074: a Strange Case of Mistaken
Identity, Antiguo Oriente 5 (2007): 183-194.
[28] Schemm, Paul (2010-02-16). A Frail King Tut Died
From Malaria, Broken Leg. USA Today.
[29] The family of Akhenaton. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
[30] Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic
Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005,
ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3
[31] Robins, G.; Women in Ancient Egypt, Harvard University
Press (1993) p 21-27
[32] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), p.154
[33] Moran (1992), pp.87-89
[34] Moran (1992), p.203
[35] Ross, Barbara (NovemberDecember 1999). Akhenaten
and Rib Hadda from Byblos. Saudi Aramco World 50
(6): 3035.
[36] Bryce (1998), p.186
[37] Moran (1992), p.xxvi
[38] Moran (2003) pp.368-69
[39] Moran (1992), pp.248-250
[40] Moran (1992), pp.248-249
[41] Bryce (1998), p.188
[42] Bryce (1998), p.p.189
[43] Moran (1992), p.145
[44] Schulman (1982), pp.299-316
[45] Allen (2006), p.1
[46] Athena Van der Perre, Nofretetes (vorerst) letzte doku-
mentierte Erwhnung, in: Im Licht von Amarna - 100
Jahre Fund der Nofretete. [Katalog zur Ausstellung
Berlin, 07.12.2012 - 13.04.2013]. (December 7, 2012 -
April 13, 2013) Petersberg, pp.195-197
[47] Dayr al-Barsha Project featured in new exhibit 'Im Licht
von Amarna' at the gyptisches Museum und Papyrus-
sammlung in Berlin 12/06/2012
[48] Hawass, Zahi et al. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tu-
tankhamuns Family The Journal of the American Med-
ical Association p.644
[49] DNA Shows that KV55 Mummy Probably Not Akhen-
aten.
[50] Allen (2006), p.5
15
[51] Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David Warburton (edi-
tors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Hand-
book of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, pp.207 & 493
[52] Pocket Guides: Egypt History, p.37, Dorling Kinders-
ley, London 1996.(the Neferneferuaten part is taken from
Wikipedia Nefertiti entry)
[53] Nicholas Reeves. Book Review: Rolf Krauss, Das Ende
der Amarnazeit (Hildesheimer gyptologische Beitrge,
1978)". Retrieved 2008-10-02.
[54] David (1998), p.125
[55] Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and
Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2000, ISBN 0-415-18549-1,
pp.36.
[56] Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays.
[57] Gunther Siegmund Stent, Paradoxes of Free Will.
American Philosophical Society, DIANE, 2002. 284
pages. Pages 34 - 38. ISBN 0-87169-926-5
[58] Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt
in Western Monotheism. Harvard University Press, 1997.
288 pages. ISBN 0-674-58739-1
[59] N. Shupak, The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism
of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995.
[60] Montserrat, (2000)
[61] William F. Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses II.
Moses out of Egypt. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 36,
No. 2 (May, 1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.2307/3211050
[62] S. Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psycholog-
ical Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXIII (1937-1939),
Moses and monotheism. London: Hogarth Press, 1964.
[63] Edward Chaney,Freudian Egypt, The London Magazine,
April/May 2006, pp. 62-69 and idem,Egypt in Eng-
land and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion,
Royalty and Revolution, in Sites of Exchange: European
Crossroads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado
(Amsterdam, Rodopi, 2006), pp. 39-69.
[64] Curtis, Samuel (2005), Primitive Semitic Religion To-
day (Kessinger Publications)
[65] Assmann, Jan. (1997). Moses the Egyptian. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; pp. 23-24, fn.
2.
[66] Ahmed Osman, Moses and Akhenaten: The Secret History
of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus
[67] Yuyas titles included Overseer of the Cattle of Amun
and Min (Lord of Akhmin)", Bearer of the Ring of the
King of Lower Egypt, Mouth of the King of Upper
Egypt, and The Holy Father of the Lord of the Two
Lands, among others. For more see: Osman, A. (1987).
Stranger in the Valley of the Kings: solving the mystery of
an ancient Egyptian mummy. San Francisco: Harper &
Row. pp.29-30
[68] Montet, Pierre (1964), Eternal Egypt (New American
Press)
16
[69] Redford, Donald B. (1993), Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in
Ancient Times, Princeton University Press
[70] Petri (19th century Egyptologist) Petri Museum in Lon-
don, England named after him
[71] The Monotheism of the Heretic Pharaoh: Precursor of
Mosiac monotheism or Egyptian anomaly?", Donald B.
Redford, Biblical Archaeology Review, MayJune edition
1987
[72] Creation and the persistence of evil, Jon Douglas Lev-
enson, p. 60, Princeton University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-
691-02950-4
[73] Akhenaten and the religion of light, Erik Hornung, David
Lorton, p. 14, Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-
0-8014-8725-5
[74] Aspects of Monotheism, Donald B. Redford, Biblical
Archeology Review, 1996
[75] Greenberg, Gary (2000). 101 Myths of the Bible: How
Ancient Scribes Invented Biblical History. Naperville, Illi-
nois: Sourcebooks, Inc. pp. xi.
[76] Aldred, C. (1988). Akhenaten, King of Egypt. (Thames
and Hudson, Ltd.,)
[77] Elliot Smith, Tutankhamen and the discovery of his tomb
by the late Earl of Canarvon and Mr Howard Carter (Lon-
don: Routledge, 1923), pp. 8388
[78] Strachey, J. (1939). Preliminary Notes Upon the Problem
of Akhenaten. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 20:33-42
[79] Burridge, A., (1995) Did Akhenaten Suer From Mar-
fans Syndrome?" (Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter
No. 3, September 1995)
[80] Megaera Lorenz. Lorenz, Maegara The Mystery of
Akhenaton: Genetics or Aesthetics"". Heptune.com.
Archived from the original on 8 February 2010. Retrieved
2010-03-21.
[81] Marfan Syndrome UK National Health Service Did
Akhenaton Suer from Marfans Syndrome
[82] Schemm, Paul (2020-01-06). Frail boy-king Tut died
from malaria, broken leg. USA Today. Associated Press.
Retrieved 2011-04-10. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[83] BBC.co.uk. Retrieved June 23, 2009.
[84] Cavka M, Kelava T (Mar 2010). Homocystinuria, a pos-
sible solution of the Akhenatens mystery. Coll Antropol.
34: 2558. PMID 20402329.
[85] Reeves, Nicholas (2005) Akhenaten: Egypts False
Prophet (Thames and Hudson)
[86] Immanuel Velikovsky, Oedipus and Akhnaton, Myth and
History, Doubleday, 1960.
[87] Gwennedd (pseudonym) (October 21, 2014). King Tut
Revealed: Scientists do Virtual Autopsy of the Famous
King and Find Shocking Surprises. DailyKos. Retrieved
October 21, 2014.
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
[88] Ledwith, Mario (19 October 2014). The REAL face of
King Tut: Pharaoh had girlish hips, a club foot and buck
teeth according to 'virtual autopsy' that also revealed his
parents were brother and sister. Daily Mail. Retrieved 21
October 2014. A virtual autopsy, composed of more
than 2,000 computer scans, was carried out in tandem
with a genetic analysis of Tutankhamuns family, which
supports evidence that his parents were brother and sis-
ter. The scientists believe that this left him with physical
impairments triggered by hormonal imbalances. And his
family history could also have led to his premature death
in his late teens.
[89] Ashraan, Hutan (September 2012). Familial
epilepsy in the pharaohs of ancient Egypts eigh-
teenth dynasty. Epilepsy & Behavior 25 (1): 2331.
doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2012.06.014. (subscription required
(help)).
[90] James Henry Breasted The Dawn of Conscience (edit
1933), p.301.
[91] Sir Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (edit. 1899), Vol. II,
p. 214.
[92] H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 599.
[93] Nicholas Reeves (25 April 2005). Akhenaten: Egypts
False Prophet. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-
28552-7. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
[94] Nicholas Reeves and Richard H. Wilkinson, The Complete
Valley of the Kings. Thames & Hudson, 1996.
[95] J.P. Allen, Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re, GM 141
(1994), pp.7-17
[96] Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon, 1998;
pp 156-157
[97] Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of
Nibhururiya in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007); p 272
[98] House Altar with Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three Daugh-
ters (Amarna Period)". Smarthistory at Khan Academy.
Retrieved March 15, 2013.
[99] Kendall, Nicholas (1980). The Lost Pharaoh: The Search
for Akhenaten. National Film Board of Canada. Re-
trieved 2012-09-13.
[100] Roy Campbell - Akhnaten Suite (AUM Fidelity, 2008)".
13 March 2008. Retrieved 2012-09-07.
[101] Luks, Joel (15 March 2012). Beyond poems and prayers:
Mohammed Fairouzs Akhenaten celebrates young people
aecting change and paying the price for it. Culture Map
Houstan. Retrieved 2012-09-07.
1.12.2 Bibliography
Jrgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonis-
chen gypten. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, (1997)
1.12. NOTES AND REFERENCES
Berman, Lawrence. 'Overview of Amenhotep III 1.12.3 Further reading
and His Reign,' and Raymond Johnson, 'Monu-
ments and Monumental Art under Amenhotep III' in
'Amenhotep III: Perspectives on his Reign' 1998, ed:
David O'Connor & Eric Cline, University of Michi-
gan Press, ISBN 0-472-10742-9
Rosalie David, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt,
Facts on File Inc., 1998
Edward Chaney, 'Freudian Egypt, The London
Magazine, April/May 2006, pp. 6269.
Edward Chaney,Egypt in England and America:
The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and
Revolution, in Sites of Exchange: European Cross-
roads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado
(Amsterdam, Rodopi, 2006), pp. 3969.
Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames
and Hudson, 2006
Trigger, B.G, Kemp, B.G, O'Conner, D and Lloyd,
A.B (2001). Ancient Egypt, A Social History. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hop-
kins University Press, 1992
Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Claren-
don Press, 1998.
A.R. Schulman, The Nubian War of Akhenaten in
L'Egyptologie en 1979: Axes prioritaires de recher-
chs II (Paris: 1982)
James H. Allen (2006). The Amarna Succession
(PDF). Archived from the original on May 28, 2008.
Retrieved 2008-06-23.
Nicholas Reeves, Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet,
Thames & Hudson, 2000
Montserrat, Dominic (2000). Akhenaten: History,
Fantasy and ancient Egypt. Routledge. OCLC 0-
415-30186-6.
Kozlo, Arielle (2006). Bubonic Plague in the
Reign of Amenhotep III?". KMT 17 (3).
Choi B, Pak A (2001). Lessons for surveillance in
the 21st century: a historical perspective from the
past ve millennia. Soz Praventivmed 46 (6): 361
8. doi:10.1007/BF01321662. PMID 11851070.
Shortridge K (1992). Pandemic inuenza: a
zoonosis?". Semin Respir Infect 7 (1): 1125.
PMID 1609163.
Webby R, Webster R (2001). Emergence
of inuenza A viruses. Philos Trans R
Soc Lond B Biol Sci 356 (1416): 181728.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0997. PMC 1088557.
PMID 11779380.
17
Aldred, Cyril (1991) [1988]. Akhenaten: King of
Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27621-8.
Aldred, Cyril (1973). Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Lon-
don: Thames & Hudson.
Aldred, Cyril (1984). The Egyptians. London:
Thames & Hudson.
Bilolo, Mubabinge (2004) [1988]. Sect. I, vol.
2. Le Crateur et la Cration dans la pense
memphite et amarnienne. Approche synoptique du
Document Philosophique de Memphis et du Grand
Hymne Thologique d'Echnaton (in French) (new
ed.). Munich-Paris: Academy of African Thought.
El Mahdy, Christine (1999). Tutankhamen: The
Life and Death of a Boy King. Headline. ISBN 0-
7472-6000-1.
Rita E. Freed, Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H.
D'Auria (ed.) (1999). Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhen-
aten - Nefertiti - Tutankhamen. Bulnch Press.
ISBN 0-8212-2620-7.
Gestoso Singer, Graciela (2008) El Intercambio de
Bienes entre Egipto y Asia Anterior. Desde el reinado
de Tuthmosis III hasta el de Akhenaton Free Access
(Spanish) Ancient Near East Monographs, Volume
2.Buenos Aires, Society of Biblical Literature - CE-
HAO. ISBN 978-987-20606-4-0
Holland, Tom, The Sleeper in the Sands (novel),
(Abacus, 1998, ISBN 0-349-11223-1), a ction-
alised adventure story based closely on the mysteries
of Akhenatens reign
Hornung, Erik, Akhenaten and the Religion of
Light, translated by David Lorton, Cornell Univer-
sity Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8014-3658-3
Najovits, Simson. Egypt, Trunk of the Tree, Vol-
ume I, The Contexts, Volume II, The Consequences,
Algora Publishing, New York, 2003 and 2004. On
Akhenaten: Vol. II, Chapter 11, pp. 117173 and
Chapter 12, pp. 205213
Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King
(Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-691-
03567-9)
Reeves, Nicholas (2001). Akhenaten: Egypts False
Prophet. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05106-
2.
Stevens, Anna (2012). Akhenatens workers : the
Amarna Stone village survey, 2005-2009. Volume
I, The survey, excavations and architecture. Egypt
Exploration Society. ISBN 978-0-85698208-8.
18 CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN

1.13 External links

Akhenaten on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Akhenaten and the Hymn to the Aten

The City of Akhetaten

The Great Hymn to the Aten

M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection

Grim secrets of Pharaohs city BBC

Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamuns
Family Hawass
Belief Of Akhenaten - The introduction of a New
Note into the Religious Thought of the World
The Long Coregency Revisited: the Tomb of
Kheruef by Peter Dorman, University of Chicago
Royal Relations, Tuts father is very likely Akhen-
aten. National Geographic 09. 2010
Chapter 2
Akhenaten Temple Project
Donald Bruce Redford (born September 2, 1934) is a
Canadian Egyptologist and archaeologist, currently Pro-
fessor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies at
Pennsylvania State University. He is married to Susan
Redford, who is also an Egyptologist currently teaching
classes at the university. Professor Redford has directed
a number of important excavations in Egypt, notably at
Karnak and Mendes.
2.1 Biography
Redford received his B.A., M.A. and Ph.D from McGill
University and the University of Toronto, and was an As-
sistant/Associate Professor (19621969) and full Profes-
sor (19691998) at the latter. He moved to Pennsylvania
State University in 1998.
Redford was the winner of the 1993 "Best Scholarly Book
in Archaeology" awarded by the Biblical Archaeology So-
ciety for his work Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times.[1] In the book he argues that the experiences of the
Hyksos in Egypt became a central foundation of myths
in Canaanite culture, leading to the story of Moses. He
further argues that almost all the toponymic details in
the Exodus story reect conditions in Egypt not earlier
than the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, the Saite period, namely
the 7th century BC. Whoever, Redford argues, provided
the author of Exodus with these details had no access to
Egyptian material earlier than that date.[2] This view was
expounded upon in The Bible Unearthed by Israel Finkel-
stein and Neil Silberman.
Redfords work in editing The Oxford Encyclopedia of
Ancient Egypt, published in 2001, earned the American
Library Associations Dartmouth Medal for a reference
work of outstanding quality and signicance. Since 2006
he is also in the editorial board of RIHAO.
His work in uncovering the foundation of one Akhen-
atens temples was the subject of a one-hour 1980
National Film Board of Canada documentary, The Lost
Pharaoh: The Search for Akhenaten.[3]
19
2.2 Akhenaten Temple Project
The Akhenaten Temple Project is a project encompassing
four archaeological expeditions to Egypt and north-east
Africa. It has been in operation since 1972. The project
is directed by Donald and Susan Redford and is part of
Pennsylvania State University.
It has excavated at Mendes (in the Nile Delta), Karnak,
Tel Kedwa (in North Sinai) and in the Theban necropolis
(mainly investigating the tomb of Parennefer).
Along with his wife Susan Redford, he is the director of
the Akhenaten Temple Project.
2.3 Publications
History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty
of Egypt: Seven Studies. Toronto University Press,
1967.
Akhenaten: the Heretic King. Princeton University
Press, 1984. ISBN 0-691-03567-9
Pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books: a
Contribution to the Study of the Egyptian Sense of
History. (SSEA Publication IV) Mississauga, On-
tario: Benben Publications, 1986. ISBN 0-920168-
08-6
Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Prince-
ton University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-691-00086-7
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford
University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-19-510234-7
The Wars in Syria and Palestine of Thutmose III.
(Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 16)
Leiden: Brill, 2003. ISBN 90-04-12989-8
Slave to Pharaoh: the Black Experience of Ancient
Egypt. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. ISBN
0-8018-7814-4
City of the Ram-Man: the Story of Ancient Mendes.
Princeton University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-691-
14226-5
20 CHAPTER 2. AKHENATEN TEMPLE PROJECT

2.4 References
[1] Princeton University Press Press Reviews, retrieved 6th
June 2009

[2] Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in An-

cient Times, Princeton University Press 1992 pp.408-429,
pp.409-410.

[3] Nicholas Kendall (director). The Lost Pharaoh: The

Search for Akhenaten (requires Adobe Flash). Docu-
mentary lm. National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved
13 September 2012.

2.5 External links

Professor Donald B. Redford - Penn State University
department page

Home page of the Akhenaten Temple Project

Chapter 3

Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth

Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth is a novel written and pub-
lished by Nobel Prize-winning Egyptian author Naguib
Mahfouz in 1985. It was translated from Arabic into En-
glish in 1998 by Tagreid Abu-Hassabo. The form and
subject of the book is the basis for a cello concerto of the
same title by Mohammed Fairouz.
3.1 Plot summary
that the "heretic pharaoh" Akhenaten built for his One
and Only God. Seeking a balanced perspective on the
events of that time, which split Egypt politically and reli-
giously, Meriamun gets a letter of introduction from his
father to many members of Akhenatens court, among
them the High Priest of Amun, his chief of security
Haremhab, and his queen Nefertiti. Each tale adds a
new dimension to the enigma that is Akhenaten and the
thoughts of those that were close to him allow Meri-
amun and the reader to judge for themselves whether
Akhenaten was a power politician or a true believer.

3.2 Characters
Akhenaten

Nefertiti

Ay

Tey

High Priest of Amun

Bento

Haremhab

Bek

Tadukhipa

Toto

Tey

Mutnedjmet

Meri-Ra

Mae
Pharaoh Akhenaten
Maho
On the way from Thebes with his father, the scribe
Amunhoben points out the ruins of Akhetaten, the city Nakht

21
22 CHAPTER 3. AKHENATEN, DWELLER IN TRUTH

3.3 External links

Dannyreviews

LibraryThing
Chapter 4

Akhenaten: Son of the Sun

Akhenaten: Son of the Sun is a novel written by Moyra Nefertiti his queen
Caldecott in 1986. It was rst published in 1986 as The
Son of the Sun in hardback by Alison & Busby, UK. Djehuti-kheper-Ra the narrator

4.1 Plot introduction 4.4 Release details

Based on the remarkable reign of Akhenaten in
Eighteenth Dynasty Egypt, this story is told as if by a con-
temporary of his, Djehuti-kheper-Ra. It follows history
as closely as possible on the evidence we have, and de-
scribes the political machinations of the time. But it also
traces the spiritual journey of the protagonists, the jour-
ney on which we are all engaged whether we know it or
not.
Akhenaten: Son Of The Sun is part of Moyra Calde-
cotts Egyptian sequence, which also includes Hatshepsut:
Daughter of Amun and Tutankhamun and the Daughter
of Ra. Chronologically, Akhenaten: Son of the Sun takes
place between the other two books, but it was written rst.
1986, UK, Alison & Busby ISBN 0-85031-647-2,
Pub date 12 June 1986, Hardback (as The Son of
the Sun)
1987, USA, Knopf Publishing Group ?, Pub date ?
? 1987, Hardback (as The Son of the Sun)
1990, UK, Arrow Books Limited ISBN 0-09-
959860-4, Pub date 18 January 1990, 1st paperback
edition (with revisions)
1998, UK, Bladud Books ISBN 1-899142-25-8,
Pub date 1 June 1998, paperback as a print on de-
mand
2001, UK, Mushroom Ebooks ISBN 1-899142-15-
0, Pub date ? May 2001, ebook

4.2 Plot summary 2003, UK, Mushroom Ebooks ISBN 1-899142-86-

X, Pub date ? ? 2003, ebook
The story begins with the suering of a boy oracle, or
medium, about to be sealed alive into a pyramid chamber
for three days so that he may astral-travel to the realms
of the gods and plead for the waters of the Nile to rise,
bringing life-giving silt to the farmlands. The story fol-
lows him through his lonely despair until he becomes the
honoured companion of a king and an important gure in
an extraordinary revolution.
At this time the high priests of the god Amun, brought
to prominence by the female pharaoh Hatshepsut about a
century before, are rich and powerful enough to challenge
a king...

4.3 Characters in Akhenaten:

Son of the Sun
Akhenaten the main protagonist

23
Chapter 5

Amarna

Not to be confused with Tell Amarna (Syria). 5.2 City of Akhetaten

Amarna (commonly known as el-Amarna or as Tell

el-Amarna) (Arabic: al-amrnah) is an exten-
sive Egyptian archaeological site that represents the re-
mains of the capital city newly established and built by
the Pharaoh Akhenaten of the late Eighteenth Dynasty
(c. 1353 BC), and abandoned shortly afterwards.[1] The
name for the city employed by the ancient Egyptians is
written as Akhetaten (or Akhetatontransliterations
vary) in English transliteration. Akhetaten means
"Horizon of the Aten".[2]
The area is located on the east bank of the Nile River
in the modern Egyptian province of Minya, some 58 km
(36 mi) south of the city of al-Minya, 312 km (194 mi)
south of the Egyptian capital Cairo and 402 km (250 mi)
north of Luxor.[3] The city of Deir Mawas lies directly
west across from the site of Amarna. Amarna, on the east
side, includes several modern villages, chief of which are
el-Till in the north and el-Hagg Qandil in the south.
The area was also occupied during later Roman and early
Christian times; excavations to the south of the city have
found several structures from this period.[4]

Royal Wadi
Workmens village
Tomb of Akhenaten
Northern tombs
Southern tombs
Stelae U
Desert altars
5.1 Name Maru-Aten
Northern Palace
North City
Kom el-Nana
The name Amarna comes from the Beni Amran tribe that Stelae H
lived in the region and founded a few settlements. The Great Aten Temple
ancient Egyptian name was Akhetaten.
(This site should be distinguished from Tell Amarna in The area of the city was eectively a virgin site, and it was
Syria, a Halaf period archaeological tell.[5] ) in this city that the Akhetaten described as the Atens

24
5.2. CITY OF AKHETATEN 25

seat of the First Occasion, which he had

made for himself that he might rest in it.

It may be that the Royal Wadis resemblance to the

hieroglyph for horizon showed that this was the place to
found the city.
The city was built as the new capital of the Pharaoh
Akhenaten, dedicated to his new religion of worship to
the Aten. Construction started in or around Year 5 of his
reign (1346 BC) and was probably completed by Year 9
(1341 BC), although it became the capital city two years
earlier. To speed up construction of the city most of the
buildings were constructed out of mud-brick, and white
washed. The most important buildings were faced with
local stone.[6]
It is the only ancient Egyptian city which preserves great
details of its internal plan, in large part because the
city was abandoned after the death of Akhenaten, when
Akhenatens son, King Tutankhamen, decided to leave
the city and return to his birthplace in Thebes (modern
Luxor). The city seems to have remained active for a
decade or so after his death, and a shrine to Horemheb
indicates that it was at least partially occupied at the be-
ginning of his reign,[7] if only as a source for building
material elsewhere. Once it was abandoned it remained
uninhabited until Roman settlement[4] began along the
edge of the Nile. However, due to the unique circum-
stances of its creation and abandonment, it is question-
able how representative of ancient Egyptian cities it actu-
ally is. Akhetaten was hastily constructed and covered an
area of approximately 8 miles (13 km) of territory on the
east bank of the Nile River; on the west bank, land was set Akhenaten seal ring in blue faience. Walters Art Museum
aside to provide crops for the citys population.[2] The en-
tire city was encircled with a total of 14 boundary stelae
His son Wa'enr [i.e. Akhenaten] who founded
detailing Akhenatens conditions for the establishment of
it for Him as His monument when His Father
this new capital city of Egypt.[2]
commanded him to make it. Heaven was joy-
The earliest dated stelae from Akhenatens new city is ful, the earth was glad every heart was lled
known to be Boundary stele K which is dated to Year 5, with delight when they beheld him.[10]
[8]
IV Peret (or month 8), day 13 of Akhenatens reign.
(Most of the original 14 boundary stelae have been badly This text then goes on to state that Akhenaten made a
eroded.) It preserves an account of Akhenatens foun- great oblation to the god Aten and this is the theme [of
dation of this city. The document records the pharaohs the occasion] which is illustrated in the lunettes of the
wish to have several temples of the Aten to be erected stelae where he stands with his queen and eldest daugh-
here, for several royal tombs to be created in the eastern ter before an altar heaped with oerings under the Aten,
hills of Akhetaten for himself, his chief wife Nefertiti and while it shines upon him rejuvenating his body with its
his eldest daughter Meritaten as well as his explicit com- rays.[10]
mand that when he was dead, he would be brought back
to Akhetaten for burial.[9] Boundary stela K introduces
a description of the events that were being celebrated at 5.2.1 Site and plan
Akhetaten:
Located on the east bank of the Nile, the ruins of the city
His Majesty mounted a great chariot of are laid out roughly north to south along a Royal Road,
electrum, like the Aten when He rises on the now referred to as Sikhet es-Sultan.[11][12] The Royal
horizon and lls the land with His love, and residences are generally to the north, in what is known as
took a goodly road to Akhetaten, the place of the North City, with a central administration and religious
origin, which [the Aten] had created for Him- area and the south of the city is made up of residential
self that he might be happy therein. It was suburbs..
26 CHAPTER 5. AMARNA

of Meritaten, his daughter.[17]

City outskirts

Surrounding the city and marking its extent, the

Statues to the left of Boundary stela U in el-Amarna
North City
Main article: North City, Amarna
Located within the North City area is the Northern
Palace, the main residence of the Royal Family. Between
this and the central city, the Northern Suburb was initially
a prosperous area with large houses, but the house size de-
creased and became poorer the further from the road they
were.[12]
Boundary Stelae (each a rectangle of carved rock on the
clis on both sides of the Nile) describing the founding of
the city are a primary source of information about it.[18]
Away from the city Akhenatens Royal necropolis was
started in a narrow valley to the east of the city, hidden in
the clis. Only one tomb was completed, and was used
by an unnamed Royal Wife, and Akhenatens tomb was
hastily used to hold him and likely Meketaten, his second
daughter.[19]
In the clis to the north and south of the Royal Wadi, the
nobles of the city constructed their Tombs.
See also Workmens Village, Amarna
5.3 Life in ancient
Amarna/Akhetaten

Central City

Most of the important ceremonial and administrative

buildings were located in the central city. Here the Great
Temple of the Aten and the Small Aten Temple were used
for religious functions and between these the Great Royal
Palace and Royal Residence were the ceremonial resi-
dence of the King and Royal Family, and were linked by a
bridge or ramp.[13] Located behind the Royal Residence
was the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh, where the
Amarna Letters were found.[14]
This area was probably the rst area to be completed, and
had at least two phases of construction.[11]

Southern suburbs

To the south of the city was the area now referred to as

the Southern Suburbs. It contained the estates of many of
the citys powerful nobles, including Nakhtpaaten (Chief
Minister), Ranefer (General), Panehesy (High Priest of
the Aten) and Ramose (Master of Horses). This area also
held the studio of the sculptor Thutmose, where the fa- Tutankamun Amarna portrait. Altes Museum, Berlin
mous bust of Nefertiti was found in 1912.[15]
Further to the south of the city was Kom el-Nana, an Much of what is known about Amarnas founding is due
enclosure, usually referred to as a sun-shade, and was to the preservation of a series of ocial boundary stelae
probably built as a sun-temple.,[16] and then the Maru- (13 are known) ringing the perimeter of the city. These
Aten, which was palace or sun-temple originally thought are cut into the clis on both sides of the Nile (10 on the
to have been constructed for Akhenaten's queen Kiya, but east, 3 on the west) and record the events of Akhetaten
on her death her name and images were altered to those (Amarna) from founding to just before its fall.[20]
5.5. REDISCOVERY AND EXCAVATION 27

To make the move from Thebes to Amarna, Akhenaten

needed the support of the military. Ay, one of Akhen-
atens principal advisors, exercised great inuence in this
area because his father Yuya had been an important mil-
itary leader. Additionally, everyone in the military had
grown up together, they had been a part of the richest and
most successful period in Egypts history under Akhen-
atens father, so loyalty among the ranks was strong and
unwavering. Perhaps most importantly, it was a mili-
tary whose massed ranks the king took every opportunity
to celebrate in temple reliefs, rst at Thebes and later at
Amarna. [21]

Children with pens and papyrus scrolls. Relief from Amarna

5.3.1 Religious life

While the reforms of Akhenaten are generally believed

to have been oriented towards a sort of monotheism, this
may be rather oversimplied. Archaeological evidence
shows other deities were also worshipped, even at the cen-
tre of the Aten cult if not ocially, then at least by the
people who lived and worked there.

..at Akhetaten itself, recent excavation by

Kemp (2008: 41-46) has shown the presence
of objects that depict gods, goddesses and sym-
bols that belong to the traditional eld of per-
sonal belief. So many examples of Bes, the
grotesque dwarf gure who warded o evil
spirits, have been found, as well as of the
goddess-monster, Taweret, part crocodile, part
hippopotamus, who was associated with child-
birth. Also in the royal workmens village at
Akhetaten, stelae dedicated to Isis and Shed
have been discovered (Watterson 1984: 158
and 208).[22]

5.4 Amarna art-style

One of the Amarna letters
Main article: Amarna art
The Amarna art-style broke with long-established Egyp-
tian conventions. Unlike the strict idealistic formalism of 5.5 Rediscovery and excavation
previous Egyptian art, it depicted its subjects more realis-
tically. These included informal scenes, such as intimate The rst western mention of the city was made in 1714 by
portrayals of aection within the royal family or playing Claude Sicard, a French Jesuit priest who was travelling
with their children, and no longer portrayed women as through the Nile Valley, and described the boundary stela
lighter coloured than men. The art also had a realism thatfrom Amarna. As with much of Egypt, it was visited by
sometimes borders on caricature. Napoleons corps de savants in 17981799, who prepared
While the worship of Aten was later referred to as the the rst detailed map of Amarna, which was subsequently
Amarna heresy and suppressed, this art had a more lasting published in Description de l'gypte between 1821 and
legacy. 1830.[23]
28 CHAPTER 5. AMARNA

After this European exploration continued in 1824 when and South suburbs of the city. The famous bust of
Sir John Gardiner Wilkinson explored and mapped the Nefertiti, now in Berlins gyptisches Museum, was dis-
city remains. The copyist Robert Hay and his surveyor covered amongst other sculptural artefacts in the work-
G. Laver visited the locality and uncovered several of the shop of the sculptor Thutmose. The outbreak of the First
Southern Tombs from sand drifts, recording the reliefs World War in August 1914 terminated the German exca-
in 1833. The copies made by Hay and Laver languish vations.
largely unpublished in the British Library, where an on- From 1921 to 1936 an Egypt Exploration Society expe-
going project to identify their locations is underway.[24] dition returned to excavation at Amarna under the direc-
The Prussian expedition led by Richard Lepsius visited tion of T.E. Peet, Sir Leonard Woolley, Henri Frankfort,
the site in 1843 and 1845, and recorded the visible mon- Stephen Glanville[28] and John Pendlebury. The renewed
uments and topography of Amarna in two separate vis- investigations were focused on religious and royal struc-
its over a total of twelve days, using drawings and pa- tures.
per squeezes. The results were ultimately published in During the 1960s the Egyptian Antiquities Organization
Denkmler aus gypten und thiopien between 1849 to (now the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities) un-
1913, including an improved map of the city.[23] De- dertook a number of excavations at Amarna.
spite being somewhat limited in accuracy, the engraved
Denkmler plates formed the basis for scholastic knowl- Exploration of the city continues to the present, currently
edge and interpretation of many of the scenes and inscrip-under the direction of Barry Kemp (Reader in Egyptol-
tions in the private tombs and some of the Boundary Ste- ogy, University of Cambridge, England) under the aus-
lae for the rest of the century. The records made by thesepices of the Egypt Exploration Society.[7][29] In 1980 a
early explorers teams are of immense importance since separate expedition led by Georey Martin described and
many of these remains were later destroyed or otherwise copied the reliefs from the Royal Tomb, later publishing
lost. its ndings together with objects thought to have come
from the tomb. This work was published in 2 volumes by
In 1887 a local woman digging for sebakh uncovered
the EES.
a cache of over 300 cuneiform tablets (now commonly
known as the Amarna Letters).[25] These tablets recorded In 2007, the continuing EES exploration discovered a
select diplomatic correspondence of the Pharaoh and cemetery of private individuals, close to the southern
[30]
were predominantly written in Akkadian, the lingua tombs of the Nobles.
franca commonly used during the Late Bronze Age of the
Ancient Near East for such communication. This discov-
ery led to the recognition of the importance of the site, 5.6 See also
and lead to a further increase in exploration.[26]
Between 1891 and 1892 Alessandro Barsanti 'discov- Amarna Letters
ered' and cleared the kings tomb (although it was prob-
ably known to the local population from about 1880).[27]
Around the same time Sir Flinders Petrie worked for 5.7 Notes
one season at Amarna, working independently of the
Egypt Exploration Fund. He excavated primarily in
[1] The Ocial Website of the Amarna Project. Archived
the Central City, investigating the Great Temple of the from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-
Aten, the Great Ocial Palace, the Kings House, the 01.
Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh and several pri-
vate houses. Although frequently amounting to little [2] David (1998), p. 125
more than a sondage, Petries excavations revealed ad-
[3] Google Maps Satellite image. Google. Retrieved 2008-
ditional cuneiform tablets, the remains of several glass
10-01.
factories, and a great quantity of discarded faience, glass
and ceramic in sifting the palace rubbish heaps (including [4] Middle Egypt Survey Project 2006. Amarna Project.
Mycenaean sherds).[26] By publishing his results and re- 2006. Archived from the original on 22 June 2007. Re-
constructions rapidly, Petrie was able to stimulate further trieved 2007-06-06.
interest in the sites potential.
[5] http://www.academia.edu/1032531/Tell_Amarna_in_
The copyist and artist Norman de Garis Davies published the_General_Framework_of_the_Halaf_Period
drawn and photographic descriptions of private tombs
and boundary stelae from Amarna from 1903 to 1908. [6] Grundon (2007), p.89
These books were republished by the EES in 2006. [7] Excavating Amarna. Archaeology.org. 2006-09-27.
In the early years of the 20th century (1907 to 1914) the Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved
Deutsche Orientgesellschaft expedition, led by Ludwig 2007-06-06.
Borchardt, excavated extensively throughout the North
[8] Aldred (1988), p.47
5.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 29

[9] Aldred (1988), pp. 4750 de Garis Davies, Norman (19031908). The Rock
Tombs of El Amarna. Part 16. London: EES.
[10] Aldred (1988), p.48
Eyma, Aayko (ed.) (2003). A Delta-Man in Yebu.
[11] Waterson (1999), p.81
Universal-Publishers.
[12] Grundon (2007), p.92
Grundon, Imogen (2007). The Rash Adventurer, A
[13] Waterson (1999), p.82 Life of John Pendlebury. London: Libri.
[14] Moran (1992), p.xiv Hess, Richard S. (1996). Amarna Personal Names.
[15] Waterson (1999), p.138
Winona Lake, IN: Dissertations of the American
Schools of Oriental Research - DASOR, 9.
[16] Kom El-Nana. Archived from the original on 8 October
2008. Retrieved 2008-10-04. Kemp, Barry (2012). The City of Akhenaten and
Nefertiti. Amarna and its People. Thames and Hud-
[17] Eyma (2003), p.53 son, London.
[18] Boundary Stelae. Archived from the original on 29 May Martin, G. T. (1974, 1989). The Royal Tomb at el-
2007. Retrieved 2007-06-09.
'Amarna. 2 vols. London: EES. Check date values
[19] Royal Tomb. Archived from the original on 27 Septem- in: |date= (help)
ber 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-04.
Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters.
[20] Akhenaten and Tutankhamun, Revolution and Restora- Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
tion, Silverman, David P; Wegner, Josef W; Wegner, Jen- 0-8018-4251-4.
nifer Houser; Copyright 2006 by the University of Penn-
sylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Redford, Donald (1984). Akhenaten: The Heretic
King. Princeton.
[21] Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet, Reeves, Nicholas,
Thames & Hudson Ltd, London, copyright 2001 Waterson, Barbara (1999). Amarna: Ancient
[22] Philip Turner, Seth - a misrepresented god in the Ancient
Egypts Age of Revolution.
Egyptian pantheon? PhD Thesis, University of Manch-
ester; 2012

[23] Mapping Amarna. Archived from the original on 8 Oc-

5.9 External links
tober 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
The University of Cambridges Amarna Project
[24] The Robert Hay Drawings in the British Library. Re-
trieved 2008-10-01. Amarna Art Gallery Shows just a few, but stunning,
examples of the art of the Amarna period.
[25] Wallis Budge describes the discovery of the Amarna
tablets. Retrieved 2008-10-01. M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection
[26] Grundon (2007), pp. 9091

[27] Royal Tomb. The Amarna Project. Archived from the

original on 27 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-01.

[28] Grundon(2007), p.71

[29] Fieldwork- Tell El-Armana. Archived from the original

on 2008-04-24. Retrieved 2008-10-01.

[30] John Hayes-Fisher (2008-01-25). Grim secrets of

Pharaohs city. BBC Timewatch. news.bbc.co.uk. Re-
trieved 2008-10-01.

5.8 References
Aldred, Cyril (1988). Akhenaten: King of
Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN
9780500050484. OCLC 17997212.
David, Rosalie (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient
Egypt. Facts on File.
Chapter 6

Ankhesenamun

See also: Family tree of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt sun-god, characterised as the suns disc.
She is believed to have been born in Waset (present-day
Ankhesenamun (n-s-n-imn, Her Life Is of Amun"; Thebes), but probably grew up in her fathers new cap-
c. 1348 after 1322 BC) was a queen of the Eighteenth ital city of Akhetaten (present-day Amarna). The three
Dynasty of Egypt. Born as Ankhesenpaaten, she eldest daughters Meritaten, Meketaten, and Ankhesen-
was the third of six known daughters of the Egyptian paaten became the Senior Princesses and participated
Pharaoh Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti, in many functions of the government and religion. Her
and became the Great Royal Wife of her half-brother birthdate is not known.
Tutankhamun.[1] The change in her name reects the
changes in Ancient Egyptian religion during her lifetime
after her fathers death. Her youth is well documented in 6.2 Later life
the ancient reliefs and paintings of the reign of her par-
ents. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun shared the same
father but Tuts mother has recently been established by
genetic evidence as one of Akhenatens sisters, a daughter
(so far unidentied) of Amenhotep III.
She was probably born in year 4 of Akhenatens reign and
by year 12 of her fathers reign she was joined by her three
younger sisters. He possibly made his wife his co-regent
and had his family portrayed in a realistic style in all of-
cial artwork.
Ankhesenamun was denitely married to one king; she
was the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.
It is also possible that she was briey married to Tu-
tankhamuns successor, Ay, believed by some to be
her maternal grandfather.[2] It has also been posited
that she may have been the Great Royal Wife of
her father, Akhenaten, after the possible death of her
mother, and co-regent of Akhenatens immediate succes-
sor, Smenkhkare.
Recent DNA tests released in February 2010 have also
speculated that one of two late 18th dynasty queens
buried in KV21 could be her mummy. Both mummies
are thought, because of DNA, to be members of the rul-
ing house.
Tutankhamun receives owers from Ankhesenpaaten as a sign
of love.

6.1 Early life
Ankhesenpaaten was born in a time when Egypt was in
the midst of an unprecedented religious revolution (c.
1348 BC). Her father had abandoned the old deities of
Egypt in favor of the Aten, hitherto a minor aspect of the
She is believed to have been married rst to her own
father,[3] which was not unusual for Egyptian royal fam-
ilies and is thought to have been the mother of the
princess Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit (possibly by her father
or by Smenkhkare) when she was twelve, although the
parentage is unclear.[1]

30
6.4. MUMMY KV21A 31

After her fathers death and the short reigns of subjects (translated by some as 'servants) is most likely
Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten, she became the wife a reference to the Grand Vizier Ay[10] who was pressuring
of Tutankhamun.[4] Following their marriage, the couple the young widow to marry him and legitimise his claim to
honored the deities of the restored religion by changing the throne of Egypt (which she eventually did). This also
their names to Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun.[5] The might explain why she describes herself as 'afraid', espe-
couple appear to have had two stillborn daughters.[5] As cially considering the popular (but not widely accepted)
Tutankhamuns only known wife was Ankhesenamun, it theory that Ay had a hand in her husbands death.[11] A
is highly likely the fetuses found in Tutankhamuns tomb CT scan taken in 2005 shows that he had badly broken his
are her daughters. Some time in the ninth year of his leg shortly before his death, and that the leg had become
reign, at about the age of eighteen, Tutankhamun died infected. DNA analysis conducted in 2010 showed the
suddenly, leaving Ankhesenamun alone without an heir presence of malaria in his system. It is believed that these
at about age twenty-one.[5] two conditions, malaria and leiomyomata, combined, led
to his death.[12]
A ring discovered is thought to show that Ankhesenamun
married Ay shortly before she disappeared from history,
although no monuments show her as a royal consort.[6]
On the walls of Ays tomb it is Tey (Ays senior wife),
not Ankhesenamun, who appears as queen. She probably
6.4 Mummy KV21A
died during or shortly after his reign and no burial has
been found for her yet. DNA testing announced in February 2010 has spec-
ulated that her mummy is one of two 18th Dynasty
queens recovered from KV21 in the Valley of the Kings.
The two fetuses found buried with Tutankhamun have
6.3 The Hittite Letters been proven to be his children, and the current theory
is Ankhesenamun is their mother. Not enough DNA
A document was found in the ancient Hittite capital was able to be retrieved from the mummies in KV21 to
of Hattusa which dates to the Amarna period; the so- make positive identities of the queens. Enough DNA
called Deeds of Suppiluliuma I. The king receives a was pulled to show that the mummy known as KV21a
letter from the Egyptian queen, while being in siege on ts as the mother of the two fetuses in Tutankhamuns
Karkemish. The letter reads: tomb. The assumption that she is Ankhesenamun ts
with her being the only known wife of Tutankhamun in
My husband has died and I have no son. the historical record. There is however one problem with
They say about you that you have many sons. this identication: if KV21a is Ankhesenamun, then the
You might give me one of your sons to become KV55 mummy cannot be Akhenaten, known to be her
my husband. I would not wish to take one of my father from historical records. The DNA retrieved of
subjects as a husband... I am afraid. [4] the KV21a mummy ts with her being the mother of
the fetuses, but not the daughter of KV55. Therefore:
This document is considered extraordinary, as Egyptians A) this mummy is not Ankhesenamun, but another, un-
traditionally considered foreigners to be inferior. Sup- known wife of Tutankhamun, or B) the KV55 mummy
piluliuma I was surprised and exclaimed to his courtiers: is not Akhenaten, but another brother of his, possibly
the ephemeral Smenkhare. The KV21a mummy though,
does have DNA consistent with the 18th dynasty royal
Nothing like this has happened to me in my
line, therefore ts as a member of the Thutmosid ruling
entire life!"[7]
house.

Understandably, he was wary, and had an envoy inves-

tigate, but by so doing, he missed his chance to bring
Egypt into his empire. He eventually did send one of his 6.5 KV63
sons, Zannanza, but the prince died, perhaps murdered,
en route.[8] After excavating the tomb KV63 it is speculated that it
The identity of the queen who wrote the letter is uncer- was designed for Ankhesenamen due to its proximity to
tain. She is called Dakhamunzu in the Hittite annuals, the tomb of Tutankhamun's KV62. Also found in the
a possible translation of the Egyptian title Tahemetnesu tomb were cons (one with an imprint of a woman on
(The Kings Wife).[9] Possible candidates are Nefertiti, it), womens clothing, jewelry and natron. Fragments of
Meritaten,[2] and Ankhesenamun. Ankhesenamun seems pottery bearing the partial name Paaten were also in the
more likely since there were no candidates for the throne tomb. The only royal person known to bear this name
on the death of her husband, Tutankhamun, whereas was Ankhesenamen, whose name was originally Ankhe-
Akhenaten had at least two legitimate successors.[4] Fur- senpaaten. However there were no mummies found in
thermore, the phrase regarding marriage to 'one of my KV63, so it remains just speculation.
32 CHAPTER 6. ANKHESENAMUN

6.6 In contemporary media [2] Grajetzki, Wolfram (2000). Ancient Egyptian Queens; a
hieroglyphic dictionary. London: Golden House. p. 64.
Ankhesenpaaten/Ankhesenamum appears as a ctional- [3] Reeves, Nicholas (2001). Akhenaten: Egypts False
ized character in these works: Prophet. Thames and Hudson.

as the narrator in The Last Heiress: A Novel of Tu- [4] Manley, Suzie. Ankhesenamun - Queen of Tu-
tankhamun and Daughter of Akhenaten. Egypt * Pyra-
tankhamuns Queen by Stephanie Liaci.
mids * History.
in the Belgian series, Het Huis Anubis, as The Venge-
[5] Queen Ankhesenamun. Saint Louis University.
ful Wife of Tutankhamun.
[6] Dodson, Aidan; Dyan Hilton (2004). The Complete Royal
as the main character in Christian Jacq's novel La Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 153.
reine soleil, and in the animated lm adaptation of
the same name. [7] The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as Told by His Son, Mursili
II. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 10 (2). 1956. Retrieved
as the main character in The Lost Queen of Egypt by 2012-09-08.
Lucile Morrison.
[8] Amelie Kuhrt (1997). The Ancient Middle East c. 3000
as a main character in The Twelfth Transforming by 330 BC 1. London: Routledge. p. 254.
Pauline Gedge.
[9] William McMurray. Towards an Absolute Chronology
in the manga series Red River by Chie Shinohara. for Ancient Egypt (pdf). p. 5.
This appearance is in relation to the Hittite Letters
[10] Christine El Mahdy (2001), Tutankhamun (St Grins
event.
Press)
a character in Nefertiti by Michelle Moran, as the
[11] Brier, Bob (1999) The Murder of Tutankhamen (Berke-
third of her six daughters. ley Trade)
the main character in the novel Tutankhamun and [12] Roberts, Michelle (2010-02-16). "'Malaria' killed King
the Daughter of Ra by Moyra Caldecott. Tutankhamun. BBC News. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Her name is used as the love of Imhotep, the titu-
lar mummy in the original 1932 lm The Mummy,
which was made after the publicity surrounding the 6.9 Further reading
discovery of Tutankhamuns tomb. She is portrayed
by Zita Johann. In the 1999 remake The Mummy Akhenaten, King of Egypt by Cyril Aldred (1988),
and its sequel The Mummy Returns she is played by Thames & Hudson.
Patricia Velasquez. In the 1932 lm, her name is
spelled Ankh-es-en-amon. In the 1999 lm, it is
spelled Anck-su-namun.
The novel Pillar of Fire by Judith Tarr deals in large
part with the life of Ankhesenamun.
in P.C. Doherty's Akhenaten trilogy where she is im-
plicated in Tutankhamuns death and is to marry a
Hittite Prince.
as a major character in The Murder of King Tut, a
murder mystery based on speculation about her hus-
bands death by James Patterson and Martin Dugard.
as a major character in Tutankhamun: the Book of
Shadows, by Nick Drake.

6.7 Ancestry

6.8 References
[1] Dodson, Aidan; Dyan Hilton (2004). The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 148.
Chapter 7

Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit

Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit (or Ankhesenpaaten-ta- Kiyas daughter, who might have been Beketaten, more
sherit, Ankhesenpaaten the Younger) was an ancient commonly thought to be Tiye's child.[4] [5] [6]
Egyptian princess of the 18th dynasty.
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit and another princess, 7.1.3 Meritaten and Smenkhare
Meritaten Tasherit are two small princesses who
appear in scenes dating to the later part of the reign of Dodoson proposed Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit was a
Akhenaten. The titles of at least one of the princess daughter of the young royal couple Meritaten and
is of the form "[...-ta]sherit, born of [...], born of the Smenkhare. The young princess would have been named
Kings Great Wife [...]. The inscription is damaged after Meritatens sister.[1]
and the name of the mother and grandmother of the
princesses has not been preserved.[1] [2] Ankhesenpaaten
Tasherit has been known to archaeologists since 1938,
when a talatat with her picture and name was found in 7.2 References
Hermopolis.
[1] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
7.1 Proposed parents 978-977-416-304-3

[2] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.

Several dierent sets of parents have been proposed for 1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8, pp 168, 173
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit (as well as Meritaten Tasherit).
[3] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8 p 234
7.1.1 Ankhesenpaaten and Akhenaten [4] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN
She is most commonly held to have been the daughter 0-500-05128-3, p.148
of Ankhesenpaaten (a daughter of Pharaoh Akhenaten)
and Akhenaten himself.[3] [1] The title of the princess [5] Dr. Marc Gabolde: The End of the Amarna Period
is thought to have been Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit, born [6] Kramer, Enigmatic Kiya in A. K. Eyma ed., A Delta-
of Ankehenpaaten, born of the Kings Great Wife man in Yebu, uPublish.com 2003, ISBN 1-58112-564-X,
Nefertiti".[2] If we assume that Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit p.54
was the daughter of Ankhesenpaaten and Akhenaten, she
must have been born towards the very end of Akhenatens
reign. Since Ankhesenpaaten was born around the 5th
year of her fathers reign, the earliest year she could have
had a child was around Year 16 of his reign.[2]

7.1.2 Kiya and Akhenaten

Since both Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit and another

princess, Meritaten Tasherit appear only in texts that
once mentioned Akhenatens second wife Kiya, it is
also possible that they were children of Akhenaten and
Kiya, or that they were ctional, replacing the name of

33
Chapter 8

Colossal Statues of Akhenaten at East

Karnak

The Colossal Statues of Akhenaten at East Karnak covering more.[2] Unfortunately, the only things discov-
depict the 18th dynasty pharaoh, Akhenaten (also known ered there by Chevrier were the foundations of a wall an-
as Amenophis IV or Amenhotep IV), in a distorted rep- gled southwest and twenty-eight stone bases, which he as-
resentation of the human form. The statues are believed sumed were the pedestals of the fallen statues.[2]
to be from early in his reign, which lasted arguably from
either 1353 to 1336 BCE or 1351 to 1334 BCE. The ex-
cavation, begun by Henri Chevrier in 1925, uncovered
twenty-ve fragments of the broken colossi in Eastern
8.3 Signicance to Egyptian art
Karnak in Thebes, which are now located in the Cairo
Museum in Egypt. Traditionally, pharaohs are depicted idealistically in
Egyptian art heroic and robust. The departure from
cultural norms that occur with the colossi of Akhenaten,
therefore, has sparked numerous debates among schol-
8.1 Description ars. What is certain is that no artist would have voluntar-
ily produced such an unattering image of the king with-
The statues were divided into three categories based on out it being commissioned by the pharaoh himself. Some
size, the largest of which were 12.75 metres (over 41 feet) scholars characterize the style of art during the reign of
tall and the smallest, 8.55 metres (about 28 feet).[1] The Akhenaten as expressionistic and nd relation between
pharaoh is depicted with a distorted physique not present distorted representations such as the colossi and the re-
elsewhere in the artwork of Ancient Egypt. He is por- ligious revolution of the time, which were supported by
trayed with a protruding stomach, thin arms, and exag- Akhenaten.[2] However, it is important to note that al-
gerated facial features, such as a long nose, hanging chin though the pharaoh, and in some instances other mem-
and thick lips.[2] One statue in particular has been the sub- bers of the Royal Family, are depicted in such unortho-
ject of much debate as it represents the king apparently dox ways, such distortions were not seen throughout the
nude and lacking genitals.[3] There are various theories period. In other words, Akhenaten did not altar standard
about the destruction of the statues, one of which sug- practices of Egyptian art outside of depictions of the hu-
gest that his elder coregent, Amenophis III, had the stat- man body, and only to the Royal Family.
ues dismantled and covered up.[4] A second theory sug-
gests that Akhenaten himself had the statues torn down
with a change of planning in the construction of the Aten
temple.[4] 8.4 Conicting theories
The mystery behind the colossal statues of Akhenaten at
8.2 Discovery East Karnak has led to numerous interpretations of the
material. One theory regarding the purpose of the statues
The colossi of Akhenaten were discovered accidentally in suggests that the pharaoh wished to separate himself from
1925 while a drainage ditch was being dug east of the en- ordinary people and
[4]
associate him solely with divinity and
[2]
closure wall of the Great Temple of Amun. The sand- the Royal Family.
stone statues were inscribed with the name Amenophis Another theory suggests that Akhenaten was depicted
IV, and were found fallen prostrate on the ground. Henri in his true form, claiming that he suered from a dis-
Chevrier, the chief inspector of antiquities at Karnak, ease that caused the disgurations. Several pathologists
became interested in the site and spent the next twenty- have studied the abnormalities of the statues physical at-
ve years periodically excavating the site in hopes of un- tributes. One resulting diagnosis is that Akhenaten suf-

34
8.6. REFERENCES 35

fered from a disorder of the endocrine system called

Froehlichs syndrome.[2] However, this theory has been
debunked due to the facts that most who suer from this
disease are mentally retarded and unable to sire children,
both of which are side eects Akhenaten did not ap-
pear to have.[2] Another related theory is that Akhenaten
may have suered from a rare genetic disorder known
as Marfans Syndrome.[2] This hypothesis will rely on the
results of DNA testing of the KV 55 tomb, in which it is
theorized lies Akhenatens mummy. Until then, however,
it remains inconclusive.
Numerous theories exist about one particular statue in
the collection, which represents the king naked without
genitalia. One such theory concludes that these physi-
cal oddities symbolize the manifestations of the bisexual
nature of the sun-god who impregnated himself to create
the universe.[2] In contrast, historian K.R. Harris explains
that at least some of the colossi, this one in particular,
represents not Akhenaten, but Nefertiti wearing a close-
clinging garment, which is undetectable because the feet
of the statue are missing.[2] Other queens in Egyptian his-
tory have been depicted with masculine features, such as
Hatshepsut, therefore this argument may not be far o.[2]
Harris alternatively suggests that the colossi statues may
be the personications of deities, such as Aten, Shu, or
Atum.[2]
Lastly, a related debate surrounds the actual site where
the statues were discovered. Some scholars maintain that
the statues and colonnades discovered were the remains
of a temple built by the pharaoh. References exist that
support this theory (i.e. in the tomb of the vizier Ramose
at Western Thebes).[2] Others argue that the site consists
of the ruins of a palace Akhenaten built. The Akhenaten
Temple Project in 1975, however, concluded that the re-
mains were indeed that of the Atem Temple.[1]

8.5 See also

Temple of Amenhotep IV

8.6 References
[1] Wineld Smith, Ray and Donald B. Redford. The Akhen-
aten Temple Project, Vol. 1: Initial Discoveries. Warmin-
ster Aris & Phillipps, 1976

[2] Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten: King of Egypt. London:

Thames and Hudson, 1988

[3] Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten Pharaoh of Egypt: A New Study.

London: Thames and Hudson, 1968

[4] Reeves, C.N. Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet. New

York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2001
Chapter 9

The Egyptian

This article is about a historical novel. For the lm based three historical gures: herself, rst wife of Horemheb
on the novel, see The Egyptian (lm). For other uses, and, by him, mother of Ramesses I. Historical Horemheb
see Egyptian (disambiguation). died childless.
Although Waltari employed some poetic license in com-
The Egyptian (Sinuhe egyptilinen, Sinuhe the Egyptian) bining the biographies of Sinuhe and Akhenaten, he was
is a historical novel by Mika Waltari. It was rst published otherwise much concerned about the historical accuracy
in Finnish in 1945, and in an abridged English transla- of his detailed description of ancient Egyptian life and
tion by Naomi Walford in 1949, apparently from Swedish carried out considerable research into the subject. The
rather than Finnish.[1] So far, it is the only Finnish novel to result has been praised not only by readers but also by
be adapted into a Hollywood lm, which it was, in 1954. Egyptologists.
The Egyptian is the rst and the most successful, of Wal- Waltari had long been interested in Akhenaten and wrote
taris great historical novels. It is set in Ancient Egypt, a play about him which was staged in Helsinki in 1938.
mostly during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten of the World War II provided the nal impulse for exploring the
18th Dynasty, whom some have claimed to be the rst subject in a novel which, although depicting events that
monotheistic ruler in the world.[2] took place over 3,300 years ago, in fact reects the con-
The protagonist of the novel is the ctional character Sin- temporary feelings of disillusionment and war-weariness
uhe, the royal physician, who tells the story in exile af- and carries a pessimistic message of the essential same-
ness of human nature throughout the ages. The threat-
ter Akhenatens fall and death. Apart from incidents in
Egypt, the novel charts Sinuhes travels in then Egyptian- ening King Suppiluliuma has many of the overtones of
Hitler.[3]
dominated Syria (Levant), in Mitanni, Babylon, Minoan
Crete, and among the Hittites. Such a message evoked a wide response in readers in the
The main character of the novel is named after a character aftermath of the World War, and the book became an
in an ancient Egyptian text commonly known as The Story international bestseller, topping the bestseller lists in the
of Sinuhe. The original story dates to a time long before USA in 1949. It remained the most sold foreign novel in
that of Akhenaten: texts are known from as early as the the US before its place was taken over by The Name of the
12th dynasty. Rose, by Umberto Eco. The Egyptian has been translated
into 40 languages.
Supporting historical characters include the old Pharaoh
Amenhotep III and his conniving favorite wife, Tiy;
the wife of Akhenaten, Nefertiti; the listless young 9.1 Editions
Tutankhamun (King Tut), who succeeded as Pharaoh
after Akhenatens downfall; and the two common-born
ISBN 1-55652-441-2, English translation by Naomi
successors who were, according to this author, integral
Walford, Independent Pub Group 2002
parts of the rise and fall of the Amarna heresy of Akhen-
aten: the priest and later Pharaoh Ay and the warrior- ISBN 80-85637-00-6, Czech translation by Marta
general and then nally Pharaoh, Horemheb. Though Hellmuthov, imon & imon 1993 (7th ed.)
never appearing onstage, throughout the book the Hittite
King Suppiluliuma I appears as a brooding threatening ISBN 87-00-19188-4, Danish translation by Inger
gure of a completely ruthless conqueror and tyranni- Husted Kvan, Gyldendal 2007
cal ruler. Other historical gures, the protagonist has
ISBN 964-407-174-3, Persian translation by Zabi-
direct dealings with, are: Aziru (ruler of Amurru king-
hollah Mansuri, Zarrin 1985[=1364 H.sh]
dom), Thutmose (sculptor), Burna-Buriash II (Babylo-
nian king), and, under a dierent name, Zannanza, son of ISBN 83-07-01108-6, Polish translation by Zyg-
Suppiluliuma I. Zannanzas bride is a collage of at least munt anowski, Czytelnik 1962 (ISBN is for the

36
9.2. REFERENCES 37

1987 edition)

ISBN 85-319-0057-3, Portuguese translation by

Jos Geraldo Vieira, Belo Horizonte 2002

ISBN 91-46-16279-8, Swedish translation by Ole

Torvalds, Wahlstrm & Widstrand 1993

OCLC 492858623, Estonian translation by

Johannes Aavik, Orto Publishing House 1954

ISBN 5-450-01801-0 Estonian translation by

Johannes Aavik, Eesti Raamat 1991 (2nd ed.)

ISBN 978-9985-3-1983-3, Estonian translation by

Piret Saluri, Varrak 2009

ISBN 963-07-1301-2, Hungarian translation by En-

dre Gombr, Eurpa Knyvkiad, Budapest 1978
ISBN 978-86-6157-008-7, Serbian translation by
Veljko Nikitovi and Kosta Lozani, NNK Interna-
cional, Belgrade, 2011

ISBN 978-84-9759-665-7, Spanish translation by

Manuel Bosch Barret. Plaza & Jans y Mondadori-
Grijalbo.

9.2 References
[1] Swedish Book Review

[2] Wilson, Colin (2000). The Mammoth Encyclopedia

of the Unsolved. Carroll & Graf. p. 98. ISBN
0786707933.

[3] Abe Brown,"Hitlers ctional avatars, p. 53

Chapter 10

The Egyptian (lm)

The Egyptian is an American 1954 DeLuxe Color epic tesan named Nefer (Bella Darvi). He squanders all of his
lm made in CinemaScope by 20th Century Fox, directed and his parents property in order to buy her gifts, only
by Michael Curtiz and produced by Darryl F. Zanuck. It to have her reject him nonetheless. Returning dejectedly
is based on Mika Waltari's novel of the same name and home, Sinuhe learns that his parents have committed sui-
the screenplay was adapted by Philip Dunne and Casey cide over his shameful behavior. He has their bodies em-
Robinson. Leading roles were played by Edmund Pur- balmed so that they can pass on to the afterlife, and, hav-
dom, Jean Simmons, Peter Ustinov and Michael Wild- ing no way to pay for the service, works o his debts in
ing. Cinematographer Leon Shamroy was nominated for the embalming house.
an Academy Award in 1955.
Lacking a tomb in which to put his parents mummies,
Sinuhe buries them in the sand amid the lavish funer-
ary complexes of the Valley of the Kings. Merit nds
him there and warns him that Akhnaton has condemned
10.1 Plot him to death; one of the pharaohs daughters fell ill and
died while Sinuhe was working as an embalmer, and the
The Egyptian tells the story of Sinuhe (Edmund Purdom), tragedy is being blamed on his desertion of the court.
a struggling physician in 18th dynasty Egypt (14th Cen- Merit urges Sinuhe to ee Egypt and rebuild his career
tury BC.) who is thrown by chance into contact with the elsewhere, and the two of them share one night of pas-
pharaoh Akhnaton (Michael Wilding). He rises to and sion before he takes ship out of the country.
falls from great prosperity, wanders the world, and be- For the next ten years Sinuhe and Kaptah wander the
comes increasingly drawn towards a new religion spread- known world, where Sinuhes superior Egyptian medi-
ing throughout Egypt. His companions throughout are his cal training gives him an excellent reputation as healer.
lover, a shy tavern maid named Merit (Jean Simmons), Sinuhe nally saves enough money from his fees to re-
and his corrupt but likable servant, Kaptah (Peter Usti- turn home; he buys his way back into the favor of the
nov). court with a precious piece of military intelligence he
While out lion hunting with his sturdy friend Horemheb learned abroad, informing Horemheb (now commander
(Victor Mature), Sinuhe discovers Egypts newly ascen- of the Egyptian army) that the barbarian Hittites plan to
dant pharaoh Akhnaton, who has sought the solitude of attack the country with superior iron weapons.
the desert in the midst of a religious epiphany. While Akhnaton is in any case ready to forgive Sinuhe, ac-
praying, the ruler is stricken with an epileptic seizure, cording to his religions doctrine of mercy and pacism.
with which Sinuhe is able to help him. The grateful These qualities have made Aten-worship extremely popu-
Akhnaton makes his savior court physician and gives lar amid the common people, including Merit, with whom
Horemheb a post in the Royal Guard, a career previously Sinuhe is reunited. He nds that she bore him a son
denied to him by low birth. His new eminence gives Sin- named Thoth (Tommy Rettig) (a result of their night to-
uhe an inside look at Akhnatons reign, which is made gether many years ago), who shares his fathers interest in
extraordinary by the rulers devotion to a new religion medicine.
that he feels has been divinely revealed to him. This faith
rejects Egypts traditional gods in favor of monotheistic Meanwhile the priests of the old gods have been foment-
worship of the sun, referred to as Aten. Akhnaton intends ing hate crimes against the Atens devotees, and now urge
to promote Atenism throughout Egypt, which earns him Sinuhe to help them kill Akhnaton and put Horemheb on
the hatred of the countrys corrupt and politically active the throne instead. The physician is privately given ex-
traditional priesthood. tra inducement by the princess Baketamun (Gene Tier-
ney); she reveals that he is actually the son of the previ-
Life in court does not prove to be good for Sinuhe; it drags ous pharaoh by a concubine, discarded at birth because of
him away from his previous ambition of helping the poor the jealousy of the old queen and raised by foster parents.
while falling obsessively in love with a Babylonian cour-

38
10.3. PRODUCTION 39

The princess now suggests that Sinuhe could poison both 10.3 Production
Akhnaton and Horemheb and rule Egypt himself (with
her at his side). The script was based on the Waltari novel of the same
Sinuhe is still reluctant to perform this evil deed until the name. It is elaborated in the book, but not the lm,
Egyptian army mounts a full attack on worshipers of the that Sinuhe was named by his mother from The Story
Aten. Kaptah manages to smuggle Thoth out the country, of Sinuhe, which does include references to Aten but
but Merit is killed while seeking refuge at the new gods was written many centuries before the 18th dynasty. The
altar. In his grief Sinuhe blames Akhnaton for the whole use of the Cross of Life ankh to represent Akhnatons
mess and administers poison to him at their next meeting. new religion reects a popular and esoteric belief in
The pharaoh realizes what has been done, but accepts his the 1950s that monotheistic Atenism was a sort of proto-
fate. He still believes his faith was true, but that he has Christianity. While the ankh has no known connection
understood it imperfectly; future generations will be able to the modern cross,[4] the principal symbol of Aten was
to spread the same faith better than he. not an ankh but a solar disk emitting rays, though the
rays usually ended with a hand holding out an ankh to
Enlightened by Akhnatons dying words, Sinuhe allows
the worshipers. The sun-disk is seen only twice; when we
Horemheb to become pharaoh as he is still indignant that
rst meet Akhnaton in the desert, he has painted it on a
his old friend had considered murdering him and has be-
rock, and Sinuhe says Look! He worships the face of the
gun to preaching the same ideals Akhnaton believed in his
sun. It appears again as part of the wall painting above
nal moments. Banished to the shores of Red Sea, Sinuhe
Akhnatons throne. With that said, the ankh was used in
spends his remaining days inspired by the glimpse of an-
the original novel. Likewise, Akhnatons dying revelation
other world he has been aorded through Akhnaton and
that God is much more than the face of the sun is actually
died of old age after writing down his life story in hopes
found among Waltaris best-known writings.[5]
that it may be found by Thoth or his descendants. The
lm concludes with a caption reading, These things hap- Some of the sets, costumes, and props from this lm were
pened thirteen centuries before the birth of Jesus Christ. bought and re-used by Cecil B. DeMille for The Ten Com-
mandments. As the events in that story take place sev-
enty years after those in The Egyptian, this re-use cre-
ates an unintended sense of continuity. The commentary
10.2 Cast track on the Ten Commandments DVD points out many of
these re-uses. Only three actors, Mimi Gibson, Michael
Edmund Purdom as Sinuhe Ansara and John Carradine, and a handful of extras, ap-
peared in both pictures. The Prince Aly Khan was a con-
sultant during lming, he was engaged to Gene Tierney.
Victor Mature as Horemheb
Marlon Brando was to star as Sinuhe, but did not like the
script and dropped out at the last minute. Farley Granger
Jean Simmons as Merit
was the next choice and considered the role, but then de-
cided he was not interested after having just moved to
Bella Darvi as Nefer New York. Dirk Bogarde was then oered the role but
also turned it down. Finally it was handed to young up-
Gene Tierney as Baketamon and-coming contract actor Edmund Purdom.
Marilyn Monroe coveted the role of Nefer, only to dis-
Michael Wilding as Akhenaten
cover that it was earmarked for the protegee (mistress) of
producer Darryl F. Zanuck, Bella Darvi. This would be
Peter Ustinov as Kaptah
the second of only three American lms featuring Darvi,
who returned to Europe and later committed suicide.
Judith Evelyn as Taia

Henry Daniell as Mekere

John Carradine as Grave robber
Carl Benton Reid as Senmut
Tommy Rettig as Thoth
Anitra Stevens as Queen Nefertiti
Peter Reynolds as Sinuhe, age 10
10.4 Music
Owing to the short time available in post-production,
the composing duties on the lm score were divided be-
tween two of 20th Century-Foxs best-known composers:
Alfred Newman and Bernard Herrmann.
Newman would later conduct the score in a re-recording
for release on Decca Records. Musician John Morgan
undertook a restoration and reconstruction of the score
for a recording conducted by William T. Stromberg in
40 CHAPTER 10. THE EGYPTIAN (FILM)

The Egyptian at the American Film Institute Catalog

Complete listing of recordings of the lm score

The Egyptian soundtrack cover.

1998, on Marco Polo Records. The performance of the

score recorded for the lm was released by Film Score
Monthly in 2001.

10.5 See also

List of historical drama lms

List of American lms of 1954

List of epic lms

10.6 References
[1] Aubrey Solomon, Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate
and Financial History, Scarecrow Press, 1989 p248

[2] Aubrey Solomon, Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate

and Financial History, Scarecrow Press, 1989 p225

[3] 'The Top Box-Oce Hits of 1954', Variety Weekly, Jan-

uary 5, 1955

[4] Taylor Ellison, The Ancient Ankh, part of the Tour Egypt
background material, website found 2009-01-03.

[5] The Worship of Aten, part of the Tour Egypt background

material, webpage found 2009-01-03.

10.7 External links

The Egyptian at the Internet Movie Database

The Egyptian at AllMovie

The Egyptian at the TCM Movie Database

Chapter 11

Great Hymn to the Aten

Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family adoring the Aten.

The Great Hymn to the Aten is the longest form of

one of a number of hymn-poems written to the creator
god Aten and attributed to King Akhenaten who radi-
cally changed traditional forms of Egyptian religion re-
placing them with Atenism. The hymn-poem provides
a glimpse of the religious artistry of the Amarna period
expressed in multiple forms encompassing literature, new
temples, and in the building of a whole new city at the site
of present day Amarna as the capital of Egypt. Egyptol-
ogist Toby Wilkinson said that It has been called 'one of Drawing of the inscription of the hymn text (1908 publication).
the most signicant and splendid pieces of poetry to sur-
vive from the pre-Homeric world.'" [1] Egyptologist John
Darnell asserts that the hymn was sung.[2] departure from the centuries of Egyptian religious prac-
tice. Finally, Akhenaten issued a royal decree that the
Various courtiers rock tombs at Amarna (ancient Akhet- name Aten was no longer to be depicted by the hiero-
Aten, the city Akhenaten founded) have similar prayers or glyph of a solar disc emanating rays but instead had to be
hymns to the Aten or to the Aten and Akhenaten jointly. spelled out phonetically. Thus Akhenaten extended even
One of these, found in almost identical form in ve tombs, further the heretical belief that Aten was not the disc or
is known as The Short Hymn to the Aten. The long ver- orb of the sun (the Egyptian sun god Ra) but a universal
sion discussed in this article was found in the tomb of the spiritual presence (see Akhenaten and Atenism). Akhen-
courtier (and later Pharaoh) Ay.[3] atons religious reforms (later regarded heretical and re-
Akhenaten forbade the worship of other gods, a radical verted under his successor Tutankhamun) have been de-

41
42
scribed by some scholars as the earliest known example
of monotheistic thought while others consider it to have
been an example of henotheism.[4]
11.1 Excerpts of the hymn-poem to
Aten
From the middle of the text:
How manifold it is, pakker!
They are hidden from the face (of man).
O sole god, like whom there is no other!
Thou didst create the world according to thy de-
sire,
Whilst thou wert alone: All men, cattle, and
wild beasts,
Whatever is on earth, going upon (its) feet,
And what is on high, ying with its wings.
The countries of Syria and Nubia, the land of
Egypt,
Thou settest every man in his place,
Thou suppliest their necessities:
Everyone has his food, and his time of life is
reckoned.
Their tongues are separate in speech,
And their natures as well;
Their skins are distinguished,
As thou distinguishest the foreign peoples.
Thou makest a Nile in the underworld,
Thou bringest forth as thou desirest
To maintain the people (of Egypt)
According as thou madest them for thyself,
The lord of all of them, wearying (himself) with
them,
The lord of every land, rising for them,
The Aton of the day, great of majesty.[5]
From the last part of the text, translated by Miriam
Lichtheim: Miriam Lichtheim describes the hymn as a beautiful
statement of the doctrine of the One God..[8]
You are in my heart,
There is no other who knows you,
Only your son, Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re,
Whom you have taught your ways and your
might.
<Those on> earth come from your hand as you
made them.
CHAPTER 11. GREAT HYMN TO THE ATEN
When you have dawned they live.
When you set they die;
You yourself are lifetime, one lives by you.
All eyes are on <your> beauty until you set.
All labor ceases when you rest in the west;
When you rise you stir [everyone] for the King,
Every leg is on the move since you founded the
earth.
You rouse them for your son who came from
your body.
The King who lives by Maat, the Lord of the
Two Lands,
Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re,
The Son of Re who lives by Maat. the Lord of
crowns,
Akhenatrn, great in his lifetime;
(And) the great Queen whom he loves, the Lady
of the Two Lands,
Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti, living forever.[6]
11.2 Analysis
Analyses of the poem are divided between those consid-
ering it as a work of literature, and those considering its
political and socio-religious intentions.
James Henry Breasted considered Akhenaten to be the
rst monotheist and scientist in history. In 1899, Flinders
Petrie wrote:
If this were a new religion, invented to satisfy
our modern scientic conceptions, we could not
nd a aw in the correctness of this view of the
energy of the solar system. How much Akhen-
aten understood, we cannot say, but he certainly
bounded forward in his views and symbolism
to a position which we cannot logically improve
upon at the present day. Not a rag of supersti-
tion or of falsity can be found clinging to this
new worship evolved out of the old Aton of He-
liopolis, the sole Lord of the universe.[7]
In 1913 Henry Hall contended that the pharaoh was the
rst example of the scientic mind.[9]
Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat discusses the terminol-
ogy used to describe these texts, describing them as for-
mal poems or royal eulogies. He views the word 'hymn'
as suggesting outpourings of emotion while he sees
them as eulogies, formal and rhetorical statements of
praise honoring Aten and the royal couple. He credits
11.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
James Henry Breasted with the popularisation of them as
hymns saying that Breasted (erroneously) saw them as a
gospel of the beauty and benecence of the natural or-
der, a recognition of the message of nature to the soul of
man"(quote from Breasted).[10]
Monsterrat argues that all the versions of the hymns fo-
cus on the king and suggests that the real innovation is
to redene the relationship of god and king in a way that
beneted Akhenaten, quoting the statement of Egyptolo-
gist John Baines that Amarna religion was a religion of
god and king, or even of king rst and then god.[11][12]
In his book Reections on the Psalms, C.S. Lewis com-
pared the Hymn to the Psalms of the Judaeo-Christian
canon, as did Breasted (who broke them up into stanzas
to resemble Western poems).[13] Miriam Lichtheim com- [9] H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East (1913), p.
mented about an alleged resemblance with Psalm 104
saying that The resemblances are, however, more likely [10] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fan-
to be the result of the generic similarity between Egyp-
tian hymns and biblical psalms. A specic literary inter-
dependence is not probable.[14]
11.3 Adaptations
The Hymn to the Aten was set to music by Philip Glass
in his opera Akhnaten.
11.4 See also
Citation for comparison to Psalm 104, see Pritchard,
James B. The Ancient Near East, An anthology of Texts
and Pictures, Princeton University Press, 1958, page
227.
Moses and Monotheism
11.5 References
[1] Wilkinson, Toby (2011). The Rise and Fall of Ancient
Egypt. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 289290. ISBN 978-
1408810026.
[2] Darnell>, John. Tutankhamuns Armies: Battle and Con-
quest During Ancient Egypts Late Eighteenth Dynasty. p.
41. ISBN 978-0471743583.
[3] Lichtheim, Miriam (2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature:
Volume II: The New Kingdom. University of California
Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0520248434.
[4] Brewer, Douglas j.; Emily Teeter (2 edition (22 Feb
2007)). Egypt and the Egyptians. Cambridge University
Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-521-85150-3. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
43
[5] Pritchard, James B., ed., The Ancient Near East - Volume
1: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1958, pp. 227-230.
[6] Lichtheim, Miriam (2nd Ref. Ed. 2006). Ancient Egyp-
tian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom. Univer-
sity of California Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0520248434.
Check date values in: |date= (help)
[7] Sir Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (edit. 1899), Vol. II,
p. 214.
[8] Lichtheim, Miriam (2nd Ref. Ed. 2006). Ancient Egyp-
tian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom. University
of California Press. ISBN 978-0520248434. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
599.
tasy and Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 978-
0415301862.
[11] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fan-
tasy and Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 978-
0415301862.
[12] John Baines (1998). The Dawn of the Amarna Age. In
David O'Connor, Eric Cline. Amenhotep III: Perspectives
on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. p. 281.
[13] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fan-
tasy and Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-
0415301862.
[14] Lichtheim, Miriam (2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature:
Volume II: The New Kingdom. University of California
Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0520248434.
11.6 External links
Great Hymn to the Aten, transcribed and scanned
by Georey Graham
Comparison between the Egyptian Hymn of Aten
and modern scientic conceptions
Chapter 12
The Greatest Pharaohs
The Greatest Pharaohs is a 1997 American educational
documentary lm about Ancient Egypt distributed by
A&E and narrated by Frank Langella with commentary
by experts in the eld.[1][2] It is 200 minutes long and split
into four parts, with each part explaining the lives of four
Egyptian pharaohs.[2]
12.1 In education
The lm uses interviews of historians, re-creations
through computer CGI, location footage, and
archaeological and scientic evidence to tell the story of
these Egyptian monarchs.[2] It has been made available
for instructional use by A&E,[3] and is now being used
in anthropology and archaeology courses at colleges
and universities, such as the University of Vermont,[2]
San Francisco State University,[4] Oriental Institute of
Chicago,[5] University of Pennsylvania,[6] and University
of California, Berkeley,[7] as well as smaller colleges
such as Blue Ridge Community College.[8] It is available
in public libraries across the United States,[1][9][10][11]
and in archives such as La Bibliographie nationale
franaise.[12]
12.2 4-part series
The documentary series The Greatest Pharaohs chron-
icles the lives of the men and women who built and
maintained the Egyptian dynasties and the resources and
power of ancient Egypt. Footage is included of the re-
cently opened pyramid complex of the Pharaoh Sneferu
and the rarely seen ancient burial ground of Abydos.[13]
Part 1
Follows the birth of Egyptian civilization and the origins
of the pharaohs and their legacy of the pyramids. It be- It was released by A&E Home Video [2] and distributed in
gins with the story of how the rst pharaoh, the warrior
Narmer, united Upper and Lower Egypt and began the
rst dynasty. Covers Narmer, Hor-Aha, Sneferu, and
Khafra.[14]
Part 2
By 2180 BCE, almost 1,000 years after the rst pharaoh,
the Egyptians had made advances in science, art, and
technology and had built what was arguably the most ad-
vanced culture at that time in civilized history. However,
the Old Kingdom started to decay when a child became
Pharaoh. There were centuries of chaos before Egypt was
reborn under a series of militarily inclined pharaohs who
established the New Kingdom. Covers Menkaura, Pepi
II, Mentuhotep I, and Ahmose I.[15]
Part 3
By 1353 BCE, Egypt was again stable, with much of
the prosperity of the Old Kingdom. However, the as-
cension of Akhenaten brought a new crisis. Akhenaten
was branded a heretic by history because of his attempts
to transform Egypts religion, but he was also considered
remarkable by the way he shared power with Nefertiti.
Covers Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), Tutankhamun, Ay,
and Seti I.[16]
Part 4
Considered by historians to be the greatest era of the
New Kingdom began in 1279 BCE, when Ramses II as-
sumed the throne. Ramses II is remembered by history
as Ramses the Great. The Great Pharaohs of Egypt se-
ries concludes with an in-depth look at his 67-year reign .
He led foreign conquests and embarked on what is consid-
ered the most ambitious building program since the Great
Pyramids, restoring old monuments and erecting count-
less new ones. The program concludes with the life and
death of Cleopatra as the last pharaoh. Covers Ramses
II, Ramses III, and Cleopatra VII.[17]
12.3 Video release
the U.S. by New Video Group (1997).
12.4 See also
Ancient Egypt
44
12.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 45

12.5 Additional sources

The Advocate (July 6, 1997), Tidbits in A&Es
Pharaohs worth the eort[18]

12.6 References
[1] Marmot Library Network, video listings, accessed 01-18-
2009

[2] University of Vermont, CAMPUS USE INSTRUC-

TIONAL: The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-18-2009

[3] A&E Classroom, accessed 01-18-2009

[4] San Francisco State University video library catalog, ac-

cessed 01-18-2009

[5] Oriental Institute of Chicago, discussion of syllabus for

January 4 class, accessed 01-18-2009

[6] University of Pennsylvania, videos for Anthropology and

Archaeology, accessed 01-18-2009

[7] University of California, Berkeley, Area Studies

Videos in the Media Resources Center, UC Berkeley Li-
brary, accessed 01-18-2009

[8] BRCC Video Listing course video listings. Retrieved

2009-01-19.

[9] Corvalis-Benton County Public Library, video listings,

accesses 01-18-2009

[10] Wright Public Library, accessed 01-18-2009

[11] Nid-Hudson Library System, accessed 01-19-2009

[12] La Bibliographie nationale franaise (France) (Google

translation, accessed 01-19-2009

[13] aetv.com, overview of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed

01-18-2009

[14] aetv.com, Part 1 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[15] aetv.com, Part 2 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[16] aetv.com, Part 3 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[17] aetv.com, Part 4 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[18] The Advocate (July 6, 1997), Tidbits in A&Es

Pharaohs worth the eort

12.7 External links

The Greatest Pharohs at Internet Movie Database
Chapter 13
Kiya
Kiya was one of the wives of the Egyptian Pharaoh
Akhenaten. Little is known about her, and her actions
and roles are poorly documented in the historical record,
in contrast to those of Akhenatens rst (and chief) royal
wife, Nefertiti. Her unusual name suggests that she
may originally have been a Mitanni princess.[1] Surviv-
ing evidence demonstrates that Kiya was an important
gure at Akhenatens court during the middle years of
his reign, when she bore him a daughter.[2][3] She disap-
pears from history a few years before her royal husbands
death. In previous years, she was thought to be mother of
Tutankhamun, but recent DNA evidence suggests this is
unlikely.
13.1 Name and titles
The name Kiya itself is cause for debate. It has been sug-
gested that it is a pet form, rather than a full name, and
as such could be a contraction of a foreign name, such as
the Mitanni name "Tadukhipa, referring to the daugh-
ter of King Tushratta. Tadukhipa married Amenhotep
III at the very end of his reign, and the Amarna Let-
ters indicate that she was a nubile young woman at that
time.[4] In particular, Amarna Letters 27 through 29 con-
rm that Tadukhipa became one of Akhenatens wives.
Thus some Egyptologists have proposed that Tadukhipa
and Kiya might be the same person.[2]
However there is no conrming evidence that Kiya was
anything but a native Egyptian. In fact, Cyril Aldred city at Amarna in Year 5. Kiya is not attested during this
[5]
proposed that her unusual name is actually a variant of early period. Only after the move to Amarna does she
the Ancient Egyptian word for monkey, making it un- emerge through inscriptional evidence as one of Akhen-
necessary to assume a foreign origin for her.[6]
In inscriptions, Kiya is given the titles of The Favorite
and The Greatly Beloved, but never of Heiress or
"Great Royal Wife", which suggests that she was not of
royal Egyptian blood. Her full titles read, The wife and
greatly beloved of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Living in Truth, Lord of the Two Lands, Neferkheperure
Waenre, the Goodly Child of the Living Aten, who shall
be living for ever and ever, Kiya. All artifacts relating to
Kiya derive from Amarna, Akhenatens short-lived capi-
tal city, or from Tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings.
She is not attested during the reign of any other pharaoh.
13.2 Evidence for Kiyas Life
Kiyas existence was unknown until 1959, when her name
and titles were noted on a small cosmetic container in
the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It
had been bought almost thirty years previously, without
provenance, from Egyptologist Howard Carter.[7]
The British Egyptologists Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton
wrote:
Kiya is named and depicted on various blocks
originating at Amarna, on vases in London
and New York, four fragmentary kohl-tubes
in Berlin and London, and a wine-jar docket.
She may also be depicted by three uninscribed
sculptors studies. Her con and canopic jars
were taken over for the burial of a king (proba-
bly Smenkhkare), which was ultimately discov-
ered in tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings.
Almost all of Kiyas monuments were usurped
for daughters of Akhenaten, making it fairly
certain that she was disgraced some time after
Year 11 [of Akhenaten]. [8]
Akhenaten and his family were based in Thebes for the
rst four years of his reign, establishing the new capital
atens wives.
Kiyas name appeared prominently in the temple installa-
tion known as the Maru-Aten, at the southern edge of the
city, according to epigraphic studies.[2] The inscriptions
in the Maru-Aten were eventually recarved to replace the
name and titles of Kiya with those of Akhenatens eldest
daughter, Meritaten.[2]
One or more sunshades or side-chapels in the citys
largest temple to the Aten, the Per-Aten, also originally
bore the name of Kiya. These sunshades were later
reinscribed for Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten, the third
46
13.4. THE KV35 YOUNGER LADY MUMMY 47

daughter of Akhenaten.[2] Some of the recarved inscrip- equipment that was prepared against her death. If her
tions indicate that Kiya had a daughter, whose name is disappearance resulted from disgrace or exile, the answer
not preserved.[2][3] Marc Gabolde proposes that Kiyas would be no. On the other hand, if she died in good
daughter was Beketaten, who is more often identied as standing with Akhenaten, she probably would have re-
a daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye.[9] ceived a lavish burial appropriate to her station. In the
The most spectacular of Kiyas monuments is a gilded latter case, a likely site for her interment would be the
wooden con of costly and intricate workmanship that Amarna Royal Tomb, which includes a suite of three
was discovered in Tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings. chambers evidently used to house female members of
Akhenatens family.[16] At least two and possibly as many
The cons footboard contains an Atenist prayer that was
originally intended for a woman, but was later revised to a as three dierent individuals were interred in this suite,
including Akhenatens daughter Meketaten, the only one
refer to a man with enough grammatical errors to betray
the gender of the original speaker.[10] The style of the cof- whose name survives.[16] Two of the chambers originally
included painted plaster reliefs depicting Akhenaten, Ne-
n and the language of its surviving inscriptions place its
manufacture in the reign of Akhenaten. Scholarly opin- fertiti, certain of their daughters, and other mourners
lamenting the deceased.[16] Some Egyptologists have sug-
ion now makes Kiya its original owner.[11] The richness
of this con, which is comparable in style to the middle gested that one of these scenes of mourning refers to Kiya,
con of Tutankhamun,[12] provides further evidence of although no specic evidence supports this claim.[17]
Kiyas exalted status at Amarna. Further, the conventional interpretation of the mourn-
Many Egyptologists have tried to produce an explana- ing scenes is that they [18]
represent the death in child-
tion for her prominence. Numerous scholarly discus- birth of the deceased (although this view has re-
[16][19]
sions of Tutankhamuns parentage during the late twenti- cently been challenged). The conventional inter-
eth century, and the early years of the twenty-rst, have pretation has encouraged speculation that Kiya died bear-
mentioned the hypothesis that Kiya was Tutankhamuns ing Akhenaten a child, but again, no clear-cut evidence is
[17][19]
mother. If she had indeed borne a male heir to Akhen- available.
aten, this distinction might well merit unique honors.
However, genetic studies of the Egyptian royal mum-
mies, led by Zahi Hawass and Carsten Pusch, have now 13.4 The KV35 Younger Lady
established that Tutankhamuns biological mother was
KV35YL, the "Younger Lady" discovered in the mummy mummy
cache in the tomb of Amenhotep II.[13]
Some have speculated that the mummy known as The
Younger Lady, discovered in KV35, might be that of
13.3 Disgrace or death? Kiya. According to Joann Fletcher (who controversially
identied the mummy as Nefertiti) a Nubian-style wig
was found near the mummy. This style was also asso-
Kiya disappears from history during the last third of ciated with Kiya.[20]
Akhenatens reign. Her name and images were erased
from monuments and replaced by those of Akhenatens DNA test results published in February 2010 have shown
daughters. The exact year of her disappearance is un- conclusively that the Younger Lady mummy was the
known, with recent authorities suggesting dates that range mother of [13] Tutankhamun, and by extension a wife of
from Year 11 or 12 [5][8][14] [9]
to Year 16 of Akhenaten. Akhenaten. The results also show that she was a full
One of the last datable instances of her name is a wine sister to her husband, and that they were both the chil-
docket from Amarna that mentions Akhenatens Year dren of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye.[13] This fam-
11,[5] indicating that Kiyas estate produced a vintage in ily relationship rules out the possibility that the Younger
that year. Whether she died, was exiled, or suered some Lady was Kiya, because no known artifact accords Kiya
other misfortune, Egyptologists have often interpreted the title or attribute gods[21]daughter. For similar reasons
the erasure of her name as a sign of disgrace.[5][8][14] Nefertiti is also ruled out. The report concludes that ei-
ther Nebetah or Beketaten, younger daughters of Amen-
Various scenarios have been advanced to explain Kiyas hotep III who are not known to have married their fa-
disappearance. Having suggested that Kiya was the ther, are the most likely candidates for the identity of the
mother of Tutankhamun, Nicholas Reeves writes that it Younger Lady mummy.[21]
is not beyond the realm of possibility that she fell from
grace in a coup engineered by the jealous Nefertiti her-
self. [15] Having argued that Kiya was Tadukhipa, daugh-
ter of the King of Mitanni, Marc Gabolde suggests that 13.5 Gallery of images
she paid the price for a deterioration in the alliance be-
tween Egypt and Mitanni and was sent back home.[9] Unguent jar depicting the name of Kiya - on display
It is uncertain whether Kiya ever used the rich funerary at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
48
Talatat with the picture of Kiya and a child, a ray of [13] Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D,
Aten extends toward them
Close-up of an Egyptian alabaster canopic jar
thought to depict a likeness of Kiya, from tomb
KV55 - on display at the Metropolitan Museum of
Art
An Amarna relief depicting a woman undergoing
a purication ritual, while the gure has been par-
tially re-carved, the large earrings and style of wig
are thought to be representative of Queen Kiya - on
display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
13.6 References
[1] Reeves, C. Nicholas. New Light on Kiya from Texts in the
British Museum, p.100 The Journal of Egyptian Archae-
ology, Vol. 74 (1988)
[2] William J. Murnane. Texts from the Amarna Period in
Egypt. Edited by E.S. Meltzer. Atlanta: Society of Bib-
lical Literature, 1995. (ISBN 1-55540-966-0) Page 9, pp
9093, pp 210211.
[3] Aidan Dodson. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press, 2009. (ISBN
978-977-416-304-3) Page 17.
[4] The Amarna Letters. Edited and translated by William L.
Moran. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1992. (ISBN 0-8018-4251-4) Two Mitanni princesses,
Gilukhipa and Tadukhipa, are referenced in a series of
letters, EA 19-29.
[5] Jacobus Van Dijk, The Noble Lady of Mitanni and Other
Royal Favourites of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Essays on
Ancient Egypt in Honour of Herman te Velde, Groningen,
1997, pp. 3537.
[6] Cyril Aldred. Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Thames &
Hudson, 1991. (ISBN 0-500-27621-8) Page 286.
[7] Dennis Forbes, The Lady Wearing Large Earings: Royal
Wife Kiya, Nefertitis Rival, KMT. volume 17, number 3
(Fall 2006), p. 28.
[8] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 155.
[9] Marc Gabolde. The End of the Amarna Period. Last
updated 2009-11-05. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/
ancient/egyptians/amarna_01.shtml)
[10] William J. Murnane. Texts from the Amarna Period in
Egypt. Edited by E.S. Meltzer. Atlanta: Society of Bibli-
cal Literature, 1995. (ISBN 1-55540-966-0) Page 243.
[11] Cyril Aldred. Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Thames &
Hudson, 1991. (ISBN 0-500-27621-8) Page 205.
[12] Bell, M.R. An Armchair Excavation of KV 55. JARCE
27 (1990) Pages 9899.
CHAPTER 13. KIYA
Hasan N, Ahmed A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F,
Wasef S, Fateen M, Amer H, Gostner P, Selim A, Zink
A, Pusch CM (February 2010). Ancestry and Pathol-
ogy in King Tutankhamuns Family. JAMA : the jour-
nal of the American Medical Association 303 (7): 63847.
doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. PMID 20159872.
[14] Nicholas Reeves. Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet.
Thames & Hudson, 2001. (ISBN) Pages 159160.
[15] Nicholas Reeves. The Royal Family. In Pharaohs of the
Sun, ed. RE Freed, YJ Markowitz, SH D'Auria. Museum
of Fine Arts Boston, 1999. (ISBN 0-8212-2620-7) Pages
9192.
[16] Aidan Dodson. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press, 2009. (ISBN
978-977-416-304-3) Pages 1824.
[17] Nicholas Reeves. The Complete Tutankhamun. Thames
& Hudson, 2000. (ISBN 0-500-27810-5) Page 24.
[18] Cyril Aldred. Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Thames &
Hudson, 1991. (ISBN 0-500-27621-8) Page 30-32
[19] Jacobus van Dijk. The Death of Meketaten, in Caus-
ing His Name To Live. Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy
and History in Memory of William J. Murnane. Edited
by Peter J. Brand and Louise Cooper. - Culture & His-
tory of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 37 (Leiden/Boston,
Brill, 2009), 8388. Electronic version cached at http:
//www.jacobusvandijk.nl/docs/Meketaten.pdf
[20] Rob Goldberg, Nefertiti and the Lost Dynasty, National
Geographic Channel, 2007.
[21] Hawass Z, et al. Ancestry and pathology in King Tu-
tankhamuns family. JAMA. 2010;303(7):eAppendix
p.3.
Aldred, Cyril Akhenaten, King of Egypt (1991)
ISBN 0-500-27621-8
13.7 External links
Egypt, 20001000 B.C. - Canopic Jar Lid, New
Kingdom, Dynasty 18, late reign of Akhenaten,
ca. 13401336 B.C. Egyptian; From KV55, Val-
ley of the Kings, western Thebes. Egyptian al-
abaster with glass and stone inlays; H. 20 in. (52.1
cm); Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of
Theodore M. Davis, 1915 (30.8.54) | Object P.
Kiya The Favorite - Includes a few photos of reliefs
which may depict her.
Chapter 14

KV55

Coordinates: 2544N 3236E / 25.733N 32.600E began clearance of the tomb. On 25 January 1907, the
KV55 is a tomb in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. It con and mummy were investigated in situ.[3]
was discovered by Edward R. Ayrton in 1907 while he According to a letter from Davis to Gaston Maspero,
was working in the Valley for Theodore M. Davis. It has some of the objects found in KV55 were still in place
long been speculated, as well as much-disputed, that the in January 1908, and their study and attempts at conser-
body found in this tomb was that of the famous Pharaoh vation were still ongoing at this later date.[3][4]
Akhenaten, who moved the capital to Akhetaten (modern In 1921, while excavating south of the tomb, Howard
day Amarna). The results of genetic and other scientic Carter discovered several items that seem to have orig-
tests published in February 2010 have conrmed that the inated in KV55. These include a jasper burnisher and
person buried there was both the son of Amenhotep III some fragments of copper rosettes from a funerary pall.[5]
as well as the father of Tutankhamun. Furthermore, the
study established that the age of this person at the time of After its excavation, the tombs entrance was tted with
his death was consistent with that of Akhenatens; thereby a steel door, which however was later removed and re-
making it almost certain that it is Akhenatens body.[1] placed by stone blocking. By 1944, this blocking had
collapsed and lled the tombs entrance with debris. In
Both the tombs history and the identication of its sin- 1993, the tomb was cleared again by Lyla Pinch Brock
gle occupant have been problematic. It is assumed to
for the Theban Mapping Project. In 1996, she undertook
be a royal cache and reburial dating from the late 18th conservational work on the stairs and the plastering inside
Dynasty, prepared after the abandonment of Amarna
the burial chamber.[6]
and the dismantling of the royal necropolis there. The
mummy found in the tomb has been identied by DNA
testing as the biological father of Tutankhamun. On the 14.1.1 KVC
basis of the recovered artifacts, it is also suggested that
the burial once contained more than a single occupant, Three days before the discovery of KV55, Ayrton uncov-
either interred on one occasion or over a period of time. ered a recess in the rock (now designated as KVC) located
Queen Tiye is most often named in this context. immediately above the entrance to KV55 and containing
[7]
It is also clear that the tomb was re-entered at a later time, jars of 20th dynasty type. This recess may have been
almost certainly during the 20th Dynasty. At this time, an unnished tomb commencement, and its content may
any additional, hypothetical occupants of the tomb would be analogous to the embalming cache found in KV54, but
have been removed and (possibly) relocated to KV35, because the nd was never properly published, the precise
while the remaining mummy and some of the other arte- nature of its contents, the date of the jars, and its relation
facts were desecrated and abandoned. (if any) to KV55 are now unclear.[7][8][9]
The tomb is often referred to as the Amarna cache, given
the mixed nature of its contents.
14.2 The tomb

14.2.1 Location and general appearance

14.1 Discovery and excavations
The entrance to KV55 was uncovered by Ayrton on 6 Jan-
uary 1907. Its discovery was brought to Daviss attention
on the following day. The tomb was rst entered on 9 Jan-
uary by Ayrton, Davis, Joseph Lindon Smith, and (as the
representative of the antiquities service) Arthur Weigall.
On the 11th, the nds were photographed.[2] Ayrton then
KV55 is a relatively small, undecorated, single-chamber
tomb, its total length measuring only 27.61 meters.[6] It
is located in the central area of the Valley, immediately
adjacent to and below KV 6 (Ramesses IX) and across
the valley oor from KV7 (Ramesses II) and the near-
contemporary tomb KV62 (Tutankhamun). Orientated
almost due east, its entranceway consists of a set of stairs

49
50 CHAPTER 14. KV55

N
and the tomb was closed again by a second wall made of
loose limestone fragments, erected in front of the remains
A B J of the rst wall. Because Weigall described these consec-
utive blockings in ambiguous terms, it is unclear whether
the secondary wall was found intact or had already been
Ja
partially dismantled, like the primary wall.[2][16]

Tomb layout of KV55

A - Entrance 14.2.4 Corridor
B - Corridor
J - Burial chamber The sloping corridor beyond the entrance was partially
Ja - (unnished) Ante-chamber lled with rubble. Since the secondary wall was built on
top of material originating from this rubble, the ll seems
to date from the time of the original interment. By 1907
cut into the Valleys bedrock which lead to a gently slop- this rubble had spread down into the burial chamber.[12]
ing corridor and then to the tombs single chamber. Stains on the ceiling and walls of the corridor indicate that
The tomb appears to be unnished: in the south wall of water had inltrated the tomb in the past.[6]
the burial chamber is a small niche, the commencement On top of the rubble ll were found a panel and door of a
of an unnished antechamber, while red masonry marks large gilded shrine, although the exact position of these
within the burial chamber indicate plans for yet another items is unclear.[17][18] Additional pieces of the same
room. When nished these would have made the tombs shrine were recovered from the burial chamber.
layout roughly similar to that of Tutankhamuns. Such a
plan seems to indicate that KV55, like KV62, was initially
intended as a private burial site and only later taken over
for a royal interment.[10]
14.2.5 Burial chamber and niche

The walls of the burial chamber were plastered but oth-

14.2.2 Entranceway
The tomb is accessed by a ight of 20 steps, cut into
the bedrock and covered by an overhanging rock. An
ostracon found by Pinch Brock in 1993 has been inter-
preted as a plan of the tomb, and possibly indicates a
widening of the entrance after its initial cutting. This pos-fallen from the walls and stones fallen from the ceiling.[19]
sibility is also suggested by masons marks found on the Items found in the burial chamber can be grouped into
walls by the tombs entrance. It appears that the stairwell several categories:[20][21]
has been enlarged, its ceiling raised, and the number of
steps increased.[6]
When the tomb was discovered in 1907, the stairwell was
covered with debris, probably originating from the cut-
ting of KV 6 directly above.[6] The upper layer of this
lling consisted of chips cemented together by water; un-
derneath, the chips were dry and clean.[11]
14.2.3 Doorway and blocking
When it was discovered, the tombs outer door was
blocked by two consecutive walls. The primary blocking
consisted of a wall of cemented limestone blocks, plas-
tered and stamped with the seal of the Royal Necropo-
lis (with the jackal and nine captives motif).[12] Weigall
later stated that a fragment of Tutankhamuns seal had
been recovered from this original blocking.[13] However,
his statement is not corroborated by any of the other re-
ports dating from the initial discovery, leaving Weigalls
claim open to question.[14][15]
The rst wall had been partially pulled down in antiquity,
erwise undecorated. This plastering seems to have been
done some years after the cutting of the tomb, and repairs
are evident.[6] Rubble ll from the corridor had spread
down into the chamber, partially covering its oor with
debris. Elsewhere in the burial chamber, the oor and
numerous objects were covered with fragments of plaster
Parts of a dismantled, gilded shrine: Related to the
panel and door found in the corridor. A door was
found lying on the rubble inow near the entrance
to the chamber; large panels were lying on the oor
or stacked against the eastern wall; and smaller el-
ements (such as doorjambs, a lintel, and possibly
parts of the cornice) were lying on the oor.
Con, mummy, and related items: Lying against
the southern wall and resting on the decayed remains
of a lion-headed bier was a badly damaged con.
Its lid was ajar, and the con box had rotted. The
mummy contained in this con was badly preserved
but its linen wrappings appear to have been intact.
The damaged skull had been separated from the
body and was found with a vulture pectoral wrapped
around it. The left arm of the body was crossed
over the chest, the right arm extended. In the niche
above this con was found a set of four canopic jars.
Also related to this group of items were four magical
bricks.
14.3. INTERPRETATION 51

of furniture, a silver head of a goose, pall-discs of

gilded copper, and a statue plinth.

Some wooden objects in the burial chamber seem to have

suered water damage, most notably the con, bier, and
boxes; however, the elements of the gilded shrine ap-
pear to have been reasonably solid.[22] Moisture is also
the likely cause of the discoloration visible on some of
the faience objects, although other, similar objects ap-
pear unaected.[22]

Isometric, plan and elevation images of KV55 taken from a 3d

model

14.3 Interpretation
One of the four Egyptian alabaster canopic jars found in KV55,
depicting what is thought to be the likeness of Queen Kiya.
The problems surrounding the interpretation of KV55 are
due in large part to the shortcomings of Daviss original
Remains of boxes and their contents: At least two publication of the excavation. Its mix of fact, assumption,
badly preserved boxes were found in the south- error, and omission has obscured a full understanding of
eastern corner of the room, their contents spread on the deposit ever since.[23] The blame for these shortcom-
the oor. These included faience objects and appear ings usually falls on Davis (as editor of the publication)
to have been related to the Opening of the Mouth and Ayrton (as supervising archaeologist).[23][24] Recent
ceremony. careful re-examinations[25][26] of the original publication,
of eyewitness reports, and of the photographs taken be-
Seal impressions: Several small seal impressions fore the tomb was cleared have brought some clarity to
were found underneath the panels of the gilded the situation.
shrine. These carry Tutankhamuns prenomen and
are identical to seal type N found in Tutankhamuns Although the tomb was clearly disturbed in antiquity (see
own tomb. below), and although its contents have been described as
disorded and chaotic,[27] Martha Bell argued that this dis-
Other items: Their exact location in the chamber is array was more apparent than real. Her reconstruction of
not always clear. Included are a vase stand, fragment the layout of the tomb indicates an orderly and deliberate
52 CHAPTER 14. KV55

arrangement of artefacts, and she suggests that the im- together with the queens mummy at some later point.[33]
pression of chaos might be due to the collapse of wooden
objects caused by falling plaster and stone.[19] The ce-
mented chips and stains in the corridor indicate that wa- 14.3.2 Con, canopic jars and magical
ter entered the tomb along the corridor ceiling, but the bricks
amount of water might not have been great, and most
damage could have been caused by increased humidity
rather than direct contact with water. Bell also suggested
that the moisture under the mummy might have resulted
from rainfall shortly after the tombs opening in 1907.
Other damage to wooden objects might result from an
insect attack.[22]

14.3.1 The shrine and Tiyes burial

A recent reconstruction of the shrine,[28] based on pho-

tographic evidence, drawings, eyewitness descriptions,
and two surviving planks on display in Cairo, indicate
that it resembled Tutankhamuns second and third shrines
in general appearance and size. The presence of cop-
per rosettes indicate that a funeral pall was draped on
a frame associated with the shrine, also comparable to
Tutankhamuns shrines.[29] However, the decoration and
inscriptions on the shrine are markedly dierent from
those of Tutankhamun: the decoration was dominated by
large oering scenes rather than a multitude of smaller
mythological scenes; the text was far more brief, and
seems primarily concerned with titles, names, and the
shrines dedication, rather than with excerpts from funer-
ary books; and the interior of the shrine was uninscribed
and undecorated.[30]
The text on the shrine states that it was made by Akhen-
aten for his mother Tiye. With one exception, the names
of Akhenaten were erased and in some places were re-
placed by those of Amenhotep III in ink.[29] The text also
refers to the House of the Aten in Akhetaten, perhaps
indicating that the shrine was made and originally used in
Amarna.[22] The decoration, which appears to have been
The desecrated royal con found in Tomb KV55
very similar on all sides of the shrine, features Akhen-
aten and Tiye making oerings to the Aten, with a focus
on the king rather than his mother. As with his names, When KV55 was initially opened, Theodore Davis be-
Akhenatens gure was erased from the scenes, with one lieved that he had found the tomb of Queen Tiye. How-
exception.[31] ever, it was quickly recognized that the human remains
interred there were male. Georges Daressy further de-
The orderly arrangement of the shrine parts inside the duced that the gilded con found in the tomb was orig-
tomb seems to indicate that it once stood up, fully as- inally made for a woman and only later adapted to ac-
sembled, with its doors facing south, and that it was later commodate a king, through alterations to its inscriptions
dismantled inside the tomb.[32] It appears that only a sin- and the addition of a false beard, a uraeus, and the royal
gle shrine was used in KV55, rather than a suite of four scepters (crook and ail).[34] The identity of the cons
nested shrines as in the tomb of Tutankhamun.[29] original owner has been a matter of much discussion over
The presence of a shrine dedicated to Tiye is usually the years, with Tiye, Nefertiti, Meketaten, and Meritaten
seen as evidence that Tiyes mummy once reposed in- all proposed as candidates.[35] It is now widely accepted
side the shrine in KV55. Other objects inscribed with that the con was originally intended for Akhenaten's
her name (such as the piece of furniture) and with those secondary wife Kiya.[36] It is also recognized that the four
of Amenhotep III are also seen as belonging to her fu- canopic jars discovered near the con belonged to Kiya,
nerary equipment. The seal impressions found near the and that the female heads on the jars stoppers portray
east wall might indicate further items that were removed her. Like the con, the canopic jars were altered for the
14.3. INTERPRETATION 53

burial of a king through the erasure of Kiyas titulary and male, with wide hips, a pendent chin and distorted cra-
the addition of a royal uraeus to each portrait head.[36] nium brought on by chronic hydrocephalus.[3] The age
[3]
All personal names inscribed on the con and the of death he estimated as being around 25 years al-
canopic jars were excised in antiquity, rendering the iden- though he later suggested the possibility that the body had
tity of the human remains inside the con a matter of suered from Frlichs [5]
syndrome which delayed normal
long debate. Over the past century, the chief candidates skeletal maturation. These results were seen to support
for this individual have been either Akhenaten himself or the initial claims by Weigall, Maspero and Smith, based
Smenkhkare, another male member of the Amarna royal on other evidence found in the tomb (see above) that the
[37][38][39] body was that of Akhenaten.[5]
family.
Evidence that the occupant of the con was Akhenaten Later re-examinations of the remains conrmed Smiths
is provided by the four magical bricks found inside the original identication of the mummy as belonging [44]
to
tomb. Two were inscribed in hieratic, but they are poorly a young male (although with feminine trends) but
preserved and the name of their owner is lost. The other pushed[45]the estimated age of death back to around 20
two, however, are of better quality, with hieroglyphic in- years. These re-examinations also indicated that the
scriptions naming the Osiris Neferkheprure Waenre, a ref- body showed no signs of delayed maturation[46] and
erence to Akhenatens nomen.[40] The fact that all four that, while the skull was [44]
of unusual shape, it cer-
bricks were orientated correctly and that three of them tainly wasn't abnormal, and showed no indication
[5]
were positioned in close association with the con sug- of hydrocephalus. Reconstruction of the facial fea-
gests that they were intended as a set and were made for tures of the skull also indicated that there was no
the cons nal occupant, [41]
who would therefore be resemblance with Akhenatens representation on his
[44][46]
Akhenaten. monuments. It must be remembered though, that
Akhenatens representations are highly stylised. After
the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun a close re-
14.3.3 The identication of the mummy semblance was noted between his mummy and the body
found in KV55 and later tests showed both shared the
same blood-group (A2) and serum antigen (MN), all of
which suggests Tutankhamun and the individual found
in KV55 were closely related to each other,[45] either as
father and son, or brothers. Based on these results it
was concluded that the KV55 body was too young to be
Akhenaten and they were seen to support the claim that
the mummy was that of Smenkhkare, an idea rst pro-
posed by Rex Engelbach in 1931.[5]
Before February 2010, it was pointed out that the relia-
bility of methods to assess the age of death for mummies
in general was uncertain.[47] For these reasons the cor-
rectness of the age estimates was repeatedly called into
question.[48][49][33][50] This opinion found support in the
analysis of the skeletal remains which had indicated an
age of death around 35 years (based on dentition) or even
later (based on anthropological standards and new X-rays
of the long bones).[51][52] Some examinations placed the
mummy at 2025 years at death, while others assessed
the mummy as 35 years. The archaeological, inscrip-
Prole view of the skull recovered from KV55 tional and now genetic evidence indicate that the ancient
Egyptians who buried (and later desecrated) the body in
The mummy found in the tomb was however at rst iden- KV55 believed this to be Akhenatens.[33][53][1]
tied as belonging to a woman by two visiting physi-
cians who examined the remains in situ. This led Davis
to conclude he had found the mummy of queen Tiye 14.3.4 Reconstruction
and he therefore published his account of the discov-
ery as The Tomb of Queen Tiyi.[3] As possible reasons The deposit as it was found in KV55 presents a mixture
for this initial identication the (typical female) posi- of chronological and religious anomalies.[41] Objects in-
tion of the mummys arms,[42] post-mortem damage to scribed with Amenhotep IIIs nomen and prenomen might
the pelvic bones[43] and the absence of male genitalia[16] be contemporary with that kings reign and could be in-
have been suggested. But when anatomist Grafton El- terpreted as possessions of Queen Tiye. Other items in-
liot Smith examined the skull and bones in Cairo a few scribed with Tiyes name (such as the shrine and furni-
months later he concluded that they were those of a young ture elements) also clearly belonged to her. Akhenatens
54 CHAPTER 14. KV55

ing presence, except for its surrounding gilded wooden

shrine which would have had to be dismantled for re-
moval. Akhenatens likeness was chiseled o of the
shrines carved relief. Moreover, the gold face mask was
ripped from Akhenatens sarcophagus and his identifying
cartouche was removed from its hieroglyphic inscription,
thus consigning its occupant to oblivion. As a nal in-
sult, a large rock was thrown at the con.[55] However, a
nely made vulture pectorala symbol of royalty in An-
cient Egyptwas still found placed around this mummys
head.[56]

14.4 Later use of KV55

In 1923, Harry Burton used KV55 as a darkroom to de-
velop his photographs documenting Howard Carter's ex-
cavation of Tutankhamuns tomb.
The Ancient Egyptian vulture pectoral found on the head of the
mysterious Pharaoh in tomb KV55
14.5 See also
presence is indicated by items originally inscribed for him Royal Tomb of Akhenaten
(such as the magical bricks) and items that were adapted
for his use (such as the con and canopic jars). It is
nevertheless highly unlikely that either of these two buri- 14.6 References
als within KV55 was original. In the case of Tiye, evi-
dence found in tomb WV22 suggests that Amenhotep III [1] Hawass, Zahi et al. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tu-
prepared her burial in his own tomb. However, the fact tankhamuns Family The Journal of the American Med-
that Tiye outlived her husband by possibly as much as ical Association p.644
twelve years seems to have disrupted such plans.[27] From
inscriptional evidence on the KV55 shrine on the other [2] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations. 1990), p.v
hand, it seems likely that Tiye was buried at Amarna by
her son Akhenaten. In the case of Akhenaten it seems [3] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
almost certain that he was originally buried in the tomb cations. 1990), p.vii.
he prepared for himself in the Amarna royal wadi.[27] Al-
though it is unclear whether or not the original blocking [4] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings, (Keegan Paul, 1990), p
. 335-336
of the tomb was stamped with Tutankhamuns seal, the
several small seal impressions carrying his prenomen are [5] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
most likely related to the reburial(s) in KV55 since he cations. 1990), p.ix.
was probably not involved in the original burial prepara-
tions of either Tiye (who died several years before Tu- [6] KV 55 Tiye(?) or Akhenaten(?)". The Theban Mapping
Project. Retrieved 2011-06-11.
tankhamun came to the throne) or Akhenaten (who pre-
sumably was buried by his co-regent and probable imme- [7] Davis (1990), p.v.
diate successor Smenkhkare).[54]
[8] Reeves (1990), p.172
One scenario, suggested by Nicholas Reeves, is as fol-
lows: Akhenaten and his mother, Queen Tiye, were orig- [9] Bell (1990) p. 137
inally entombed at Akhenatens new capital Akhetaten
[10] Reeves, N., Wilkinson, R.H., The Complete Valley of the
(modern Amarna) but their mummies were moved to
Kings, (Thames & Hudson. 1997), p.121
KV55 following the total abandonment of Akhetaten dur-
ing the reign of Tutankhamun, who was Akhenatens son. [11] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
The door to KV55 was sealed with Tutankhamuns name. cations, 1990) p.7.
There the mummies remained for about 200 years, until
[12] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990) p.
the tomb was rediscovered by workmen excavating the
42
tomb of Ramesses IX nearby. By this time, Akhenaten
was reviled as the heretic king"; consequently, Queen [13] Weigall, A.E.P.B., The Treasury of Ancient Egypt (Rand
Tiyes sarcophagus was hastily removed from his del- McNally and Company, 1912) p.208
14.7. FURTHER READING
[14] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations, 1990) p.vi.
[15] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 136
[16] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 133
[17] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings, (Keegan Paul, 1990),
p. 45, g 17
[18] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 110, p. 116 and g. 5
[19] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 116
[20] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p.46-47
[21] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 110-119
[22] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p.132
[23] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi (KMT Communi-
cations. 1990), p. iv
[24] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 97
[25] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p. 42-49
[26] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990)
[27] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p. 43
[28] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 127 and following
[29] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 129
[30] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 120, 129
[31] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 120-129
[32] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 120
[33] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 135
[34] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations, 1990) p. viii
[35] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations, 1990) p. viii-x
[36] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations, 1990) p. xii
[37] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations, 1990) p. viii, p. xiv
55
[38] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 205
[39] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky, Causing
His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and His-
tory in Memory of William J. Murnane gs. 2-6
[40] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990),
p. 58
[41] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990), p. 134
[42] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p.44-49
[43] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 199
[44] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 201
[45] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 201-202
[46] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communi-
cations, 1990) p. xi
[47] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky p. 14 and
following
[48] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 202
[49] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p. 49
[50] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky p.16
[51] Reeves, C.N, Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 84
[52] Fletcher, Joann, The Search for Nefertiti (William Mor-
row, 2004) p.180
[53] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky
[54] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990) p.
44
[55] Reeves, Nicholas. Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet.
p.83. Thames & Hudson. 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7
[56] KV55. Touregypt.net. 1907-01-06. Retrieved 2011-
06-11.
14.7 Further reading
Aldred, C. (1988). Akhenaten, King of Egypt.
Thames and Hudson.
Bell, M.R. (1990). An Armchair Excavation of KV
55. JARCE 27.
Davis, T.M. (1990). The Tomb of Queen Tiyi. KMT
Communications.
56 CHAPTER 14. KV55

Filer, Joyce M. (2002). Anatomy of a Mummy.

Archaeology (March/April): 2629.
Gabolde, M. Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky.
Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J.
Murnane.
Reeves, C.N. (1990). Valley of the Kings. Keegan
Paul.
Reeves, C.N. (2005). Akhenaten: Egypts False
Prophet. Thames & Hudson.
Reeves, C.N.; Wilkinson, R.H. (1997). The Com-
plete Valley of the Kings. Thames & Hudson.

Romer, J. (1981). Valley of the Kings. Henry Holt.

Rose, Mark (2002). Whos Buried in Tomb 55.
Archaeology (March/April): 2226.
Weigall, A.E.P.B. (1912). The Treasury of Ancient
Egypt. Rand McNally and Company.
Chapter 15
Meketaten
Fragmentary quartzite statue of the Amarna princess Meketaten,
from the reign of Akhenaten, circa 1352-1336 B.C. On display
at the Brooklyn Museum. The broken hand over the gures right
breast was common to images depicting young girls, and likely
once held a ower or rattle.
Meketaten (Behold the Aten or Protected by Aten)
was the second daughter of six born to the Egyptian
Pharaoh Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti.
She was probably born in year 4 of Akhenatens reign.
Although little is known about her, she is frequently de-
picted with her sisters accompanying her royal parents in
the rst two thirds of Akhenatens seventeen-year reign.
15.1 Family
Meketaten was the second daughter born to Akhenaten
and Nefertiti. She had an older sister named Meritaten
and four younger sisters named Ankhesenpaaten,
Neferneferuaten Tasherit, Neferneferure and Setepenre.
Tutankhaten was a half-brother.[1]
15.2 Life
Meketatens approximate year of birth is in or before year
4 of Akhenaten.[2] Meketaten is rst depicted on the walls
of the Hut-benben temple dedicated to her mother Nefer-
titi in Thebes. Meketaten appears behind her older sis-
ter Meritaten in some of the later inscriptions, thought
to date to year 4 or later.[3] Further arguments to suggest
Meketaten was born in or before year 4 come from the
fact that her gure was added to one of the boundary stela
recording events in year 4 and carved in year 5.[4]
Meketaten moved to the new capital city Akhetaten with
her family when she was still a small child. She is de-
picted in several of the tombs of the nobles in Amarna.
Meketaten is depicted in the tomb of Ay holding a tray
of gifts while wrapping one arm around her mothers
neck.[2] Other monuments mentioning Meketaten include
a stela from Heliopolis, a statue base from the Fayoum,
and the tombs of Panehesy and Parennefer.[5] Meketaten
was depicted with her parents and sisters at the recep-
tion of foreign tributes a ceremony dating to year 12 -
that can be seen on several scenes in the private tombs in
Amarna of high-ranking ocials named Huya and High
Priest Meryre II.[2][3]
57
58 CHAPTER 15. MEKETATEN

15.3 Death and burial 15.4 References

Meketaten died in approximately year 14 of
Akhenaten.[3] It is very likely that a plague swept
across Egypt between Akhenatens 12th and 15th regnal
years, for many members of the royal family cease
to be mentioned again; among them Queen Mother
Tiye, Queen Nefertiti, Akhenatens secondary wife
Kiya, Meketaten and the two youngest princesses,
Neferneferure and Setepenre.[2] Meketatens death could
have resulted either from a plague, or from childbirth.
The presence of a royal baby causes many to believe
the young princess died in childbirth (in this case the
father is most likely to had been Akhenaten himself,
marrying his daughter), but it cannot be proven.[2] An
alternative interpretation suggested by van Dijk is that
the child depicted in the scenes is the soul (the ka) of
Meketaten.[4]
[1] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3
[2] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
[3] Redford, Donald B. Akhenaten: The Heretic King.
Princeton University Press. 1987. ISBN 978-0-691-
00217-0
[4] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3
[5] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0

Meketaten under the canopy, on the wall paintings of the Cham-

ber . In front of her: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Meritaten, Ankhe-
senpaaten and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.

Three chambers, denoted as Chambers , and of

the Royal Tomb are believed to be used for the burials.
Chambers and depict very similar scenes: Akhenaten
and Nefertiti bend over the inert body of a woman, weep-
ing and gripping each others arms for support. Nearby
a nurse stands with a baby in her arms, accompanied by
a fan-bearer, which indicates the babys royal status. The
names in the scene in chamber have been hacked out.
In the chamber however the hieroglyphs identify the
dead young woman as Meketaten. In the same chamber
another scene shows Meketaten standing under a canopy
which is usually associated with childbirth but can also
interpreted as representing the rebirth of the princess. In
front of her, amongst courtiers, stand Akhenaten, Ne-
fertiti and their three remaining daughters, Meritaten,
Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.[4]
It is possible that chamber was the burial place of some-
one other than Meketaten. There may even have been
two burials which may have been those of Neferneferure
and Setepenre, but this is not certain.[4] Another theory
is that one of the scenes depicts Kiya and that the baby is
Tutankhamun.[2]
Fragments of Meketatens sarcophagus were found in the
royal tomb. Inscriptions mention her parents Akhenaten
and Nefertiti, her sister Ankhesenpaaten as well as her
grandparents Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye.[5]
Chapter 16

Meritaten

Meritaten also spelled Merytaten or Meryetaten (14th

century BC) was an ancient Egyptian queen of the
eighteenth dynasty, who held the position of Great Royal
Wife to Pharaoh Smenkhkare, who may have been a
brother or son of Akhenaten. Her name means She
who is beloved of Aten"; Aten being the sun-god her
father worshipped; Meritaten also may have served as
pharaoh in her own right under the name, Ankhkhepe-
rure Neferneferuaten.[1]

16.1 Family

Pharaoh Akhenaten (center) and his family adoring the Aten so-
lar disk. The next gure leftmost is Meritaten, the daughter of
Akhenaten, adorned in a double-feather crown.

Akhetaten. She was shown beside her mother in reliefs

carved into the Hut-Benben, a temple devoted exclusively
to Nefertiti. She also appearsalong with her parents
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their children and younger sister Meketaten;on the boundary stelae des-
ignating the boundaries of the new capital.[1]
Meritaten was the rst of six daughters born to Pharaoh
Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife, Nefertiti. Her During Akhenatens reign she was the most frequently de-
sisters are Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten, Neferneferuaten picted and mentioned of the six daughters. Her gure ap-
Tasherit, Neferneferure, and Setepenre.[2] She is known pears on paintings in temples, tombs, and private chapels.
to have later married Pharaoh Smenkhare. There are no She is shown not only on the pictures showing the fam-
known children, but the young girls named Meritaten- ily life of the pharaoh, which were typical of the Amarna
tasherit and Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit are sometimes Period, but on ocial ceremonies too. She also is men-
conjectured to be the daughters of Meritaten and tioned in diplomatic letters, by the name Mayati.[1]
Smenkhare.[1] Meritatens titles include Great Royal Wife, which can
indicate either marriage to her father or to Akhenatens
co-ruler Smenkhkare, whom some believe was her (half-
16.2 Biography )uncle or half-brother, although a simpler explanation
for the title may be that Meritaten simply assumed her
She was born early in her fathers reign, before the royal mothers duties and oce of Great Royal Wife.
family moved to the new capital established by her father, Meritatens name seems to replace that of another royal

59
60 CHAPTER 16. MERITATEN

lady in several places, among them in the Northern Palace

and in the Maru-Aten. This had been misinterpreted
as evidence of Nefertitis disgrace and banishment from
the royal court, but more recently the erased inscriptions
turned out to be the name of Kiya, one of Akhenatens
secondary wives, disproving that interpretation.[1]
According to some scholars such as J.P. Allen,
Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare ruled together with
Meritaten, but in the year following Akhenatens death
Smenkhkare himself died. These Egyptologists suggest
that Meritaten was the 'kings daughter' Akenkeres who
is recorded in Manethos Epitome to have assumed the
throne for herself as the female king Neferneferuaten.
Neferneferuaten is assigned a reign of 2 years and
1 month and is placed in Manethos account as the
immediate predecessor of Rathothis, who is believed to
be Tutankhamun.

16.3 References
[1] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,
Thames & Hudson, pg 136-137

[2] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.142-157

Joyce Tyldesley: Nefertiti Egypts Sun Queen

16.4 External links

Head Case, King Tut Photo Gallery, National Ge-
ographic Magazine online
Chapter 17

Neferneferuaten Tasherit

For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see

Neferneferuaten (disambiguation).

Neferneferuaten Tasherit or Neferneferuaten junior

(14th century BCE) was an Ancient Egyptian princess
of the 18th dynasty and the fourth daughter of Pharaoh
Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti.

17.1 Family
Neferneferuaten was born between ca. year 8[1] and
9[2] of her fathers reign. She was the fourth of six
known daughters of the royal couple. It is likely that she
was born in Akhetaten, the capital founded by her fa-
ther. Her name Neferneferuaten (Beauty of the Beau-
ties of Aten or Most Beautiful One of Aten) is the
exact copy of the name Nefertiti took in the 5th regnal
year. (Ta-sherit simply means the younger one).[1]
From left to right: Setepenre, Neferneferure, and Neferneferuaten
She had three older sisters named Meritaten, Meketaten,
Tasherit at the Durbar in year 12.
and Ankhesenpaaten and two younger sisters named
Neferneferure and Setepenre.[3]

are shown.[4][5] In the reward scene in the tomb of Meryre

II, Neferneferuaten Tasherit is shown with four of her sis-
17.2 Life ters (only Setepenre in absent).[5]
She is depicted at the Durbar in year 12 in the tomb of
One of the earliest depictions of Neferneferuaten Tasherit
the Overseer of the royal quarters Meryre II in Amarna.
is in a fresco from the Kings House in Amarna. She is Akhenaten and Nefertiti are shown seated in a kiosk, re-
depicted sitting on a pillow with her sister Neferneferure.
ceiving tribute from foreign lands. The daughters of the
The fresco is dated to ca. year 9 of Akhenaten, and the royal couple are shown standing behind their parents. Ne-
entire family is depicted, including the baby Setepenre.[1] ferneferuaten is the rst daughter in the lower register.
Neferneferuaten Tasherit is depicted in several tombs in She is holding an object which is too damaged to iden-
Amarna and appears on monuments. A statue base orig- tify. Her sisters Neferneferure and Setepenre are standing
inally from Amarna, but later moved to Heliopolis, men- behind her. Neferneferure is shown holding a pet gazelle
tions the Aten and Akhenaten, while in texts in a lower and Setepenre is shown reaching over to pet the animal.[4]
register the royal daughters Ankhesenpaaten and Nefer- Neferneferuaten also appears in the award scene of Pane-
neferuaten Tasherit are mentioned.[4] hesy. She is shown standing in the building near the
In the tomb of Huya, the chief Steward of Neferne- window of appearance as her parents, Akhenaten and
feruatens grandmother Queen Tiye, Neferneferuaten is Nefertiti, bestow honors upon the rst servant of the Aten
shown in a family scene on a lintel on the north wall. The named Panehesy. In another scene in this tomb Neferne-
extended scene shows Akhenaten and Nefertiti on the left feruaten and her three older sisters all accompany their
with their four eldest daughters, while on the right hand parents who are shown oering owers to the Aten. The
side Amenhotep III, Queen Tiye and princess Baketaten four royal daughters are all shown holding bouquets of

61
62 CHAPTER 17. NEFERNEFERUATEN TASHERIT

owers.[4]
Neferneferuaten Tasherit is shown with her sisters
Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten mourning the death of
Meketaten in ca. year 14 in the Royal Tomb in Amarna.
Her younger sisters Neferneferure and Setepenre are not
present in this scene.[1][5]

Meketaten under the canopy, on the wall paintings of the Cham-

ber . In front of her: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Meritaten, Ankhe-
senpaaten and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.

17.3 Final years and death

It is unknown what became of Neferneferuaten Tasherit,
but it has been suggested she died before Tutankhamun
and Ankhesenpaaten came to the throne.[1] It is possible
she was one of the persons buried in chamber in the
Royal Tomb in Amarna.[3]
It has been suggested that she might be identied as
Akhenatens co-regent,[5][6] whose exact identity is still
disputed, but who could have been a woman. Other
women who have been suggested as candidates for the
identity of this female ruler are Queen Nefertiti (her
mother) and her older sister Meritaten.[5]

17.4 References
[1] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8

[2] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and

Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8

[3] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal

Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3

[4] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period

in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0

[5] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,

Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3

[6] J.P. Allen, The Amarna Succession, p. 14.

Chapter 18
Neferneferure
Neferneferure (14th century BCE) was an Ancient
Egyptian princess of the 18th dynasty. She was the fth
of six known daughters of Pharaoh Akhenaten and Great
Royal Wife Nefertiti.
18.1 Family
Neferneferure (her name means Beauty of the Beau-
ties of Re or Most Beautiful One of Re) was born in
or before the 8th regnal year of her father Akhenaten
in the city of Akhetaten.[1] She had four older sis-
ters named Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten and
Neferneferuaten Tasherit, as well as a younger sister
named Setepenre.[2]
18.2 Life
From left to right: Setepenre, Neferneferure, and Neferneferuaten
Tasherit at the Durbar in year 12.
One of the earliest depictions of Neferneferure is in a in tomb 29, then this may mean the Royal Tomb was al-
fresco from the Kings House in Amarna. She is de- ready sealed at the time of her burial and that she may
picted sitting on a pillow with her sister Neferneferuaten have died after the death her father Akhenaten.[5]
Tasherit. The fresco is dated to ca. year 9 of Akhenaten,
and the entire family is depicted, including the baby
Setepenre.[1]
Neferneferure is depicted at the Durbar in year 12 in the
tomb of the Overseer of the royal quarters Meryre II in
Amarna. Akhenaten and Nefertiti are shown seated in a
kiosk, receiving tribute from foreign lands. The daugh-
ters of the royal couple are shown standing behind their
parents. Neferure is the middle daughter in the lower reg-
ister. She is holding a gazelle in her right arm and a lo-
tus ower in her left. She is standing right behind her
sister Neferneferuaten Tasherit. Her sister Setepenre is
standing behind her and is shown reaching over to pet the
gazelle.[3]
18.3 Death and burial
Neferneferure probably died in the 13th or 14th regnal
year, possibly in the plague that swept across Egypt dur-
ing this time. She is absent from one scene and her
name was plastered over in another scene in the Royal
Tomb in Amarna. To be specic, on Wall C of the
chamber of the Royal Tomb her name was mentioned
among the ve princesses (the list excluded the youngest,
Setepenre, who was possibly dead by this time), but was
later covered by plaster. On Wall B of the chamber
she is missing from the scene which shows her parents
and three elder sisters Meritaten, Ankhesenpaaten and
Neferneferuaten Tasherit mourning the dead second
princess, Meketaten. This suggests that she is likely to
have died shortly before the decoration of these cham-
bers was nished.[1] It is possible that Neferneferure was
actually buried in chamber of the royal tomb.[2]
Alternatively she may have been buried in Tomb 29 in
Amarna.[4] This theory is based on an amphora han-
dle bearing an inscription mentioning the inner (burial)
chamber of Neferneferure.[3] If Neferneferure was buried
63
64 CHAPTER 18. NEFERNEFERURE

18.4 Other objects mentioning Ne-

ferneferure
A small box (JdE 61498) bearing her picture on its lid was
found among the treasures of Tutankhamun. It shows the
princess crouching, with a nger pressed to her mouth,
as children were often depicted.[6] Interestingly, on this
box lid Res name in her name was written phonetically
instead of the usual circled dot.

18.5 References
[1] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8

[2] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal

Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3

[3] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period

in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0

[4] Reeves, Nicholas. Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet.

Thames & Hudson. 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7

[5] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and

Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8

[6] T.G.H. James, Tutankhamun, White Star, 2000 (Barnes

and Noble Books 2002), ISBN 1-58663-742-8

Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt: Tutankhamen

Life and Death of a Pharaoh
Chapter 19

Nefertiti

This article is about the Ancient Egyptian Queen Nefer-

titi. For other uses, see Nefertiti (disambiguation).
For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see
Neferneferuaten (disambiguation).

Neferneferuaten Nefertiti (/nftit/[1] ) (ca. 1370 BC

ca. 1330 BC) was the Great Royal Wife (chief con-
sort) of Akhenaten, an Egyptian Pharaoh. Nefertiti and
her husband were known for a religious revolution, in
which they worshiped one god only, Aten, or the sun disc.
Akhenaten and Nefertiti were responsible for the creation
of a whole new religion which changed the ways of re-
ligion within Egypt. With her husband, she reigned at
what was arguably the wealthiest period of Ancient Egyp-
tian history.[2] Some scholars believe that Nefertiti ruled A house altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and three of their
Daughters; limestone; New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dy-
briey as Neferneferuaten after her husbands death and
nasty; c. 1350 BC - Collection: gyptisches Museum Berlin, Inv.
before the accession of Tutankhamun, although this iden- 14145
tication is a matter of ongoing debate.[3]
Nefertiti had many titles including Hereditary Princess
(iryt-p`t); Great of Praises (wrt-hzwt); Lady of Grace be pharaoh. Scenes in the tombs of the nobles in Amarna
(nbt-im3t), Sweet of Love (bnrt-mrwt); Lady of The Two mention the queens sister who is named Mutbenret (pre-
Lands (nbt-t3wy); Main Kings Wife, his beloved (hmt- viously read as Mutnodjemet).[5][6]
niswt-3t meryt.f); Great Kings Wife, his beloved (hmt- Another theory that gained some support identied Ne-
niswt-wrt meryt.f), Lady of all Women (hnwt-hmwt- fertiti with the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa.[7]
nbwt); and Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt (hnwt-
The exact dates of when Nefertiti was married to Akhen-
Shmw-mhw).[4]
aten and later promoted to queenship are uncertain.
She was made famous by her bust, now in Berlins Neues Their six known daughters (and estimated years of birth)
Museum, shown to the right. The bust is one of the most were:[6][7]
copied works of ancient Egypt. It was attributed to the
sculptor Thutmose, and it was found in his workshop.
The bust is notable for exemplifying the understanding Meritaten: No later than year 1, possibly later be-
Ancient Egyptians had regarding realistic facial propor- came Pharaoh Nefernferuaten.
tions.
Meketaten: Year 4.

19.1 Family Ankhesenpaaten, also known as Ankhesenamen,

later queen of Tutankhamun
See also : Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family
Tree Neferneferuaten Tasherit: Year, possibly later be-
came Pharaoh Nefernferuaten.
Nefertiti, Egyptian Nfr.t-jy.tj, original pronunciation ap-
proximately Nafteta, for (the beauty has come). Nefer- Neferneferure: Year 9.
titis parentage is not known with certainty, but one often
cited theory is that she was the daughter of Ay, later to Setepenre: Year 11.

65
66
A standing/striding gure of Nefertiti made of limestone. Origi- of the ever-increasing importance of the cult of the Aten.
nally from Amarna, part of the gyptisches Museum Berlin col- It changed Egypts religion from a polytheistic religion
lection.
19.2 Life
Nefertiti rst appears in scenes in Thebes. In the dam-
aged tomb (TT188) of the royal butler Parennefer, the
new king Amenhotep IV is accompanied by a royal
woman, and this lady is thought to be an early depiction
CHAPTER 19. NEFERTITI
of Nefertiti. The king and queen are shown worshiping
the Aten. In the tomb of the vizier Ramose, Nefertiti is
shown standing behind Amenhotep IV in the Window of
Appearance during the reward ceremony for the vizier.[7]
Close-up of a limestone relief depicting Nefertiti smiting a female
captive on a royal barge. On display at the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston.
During the early years in Thebes, Akhenaten (still known
as Amenhotep IV) had several temples erected at Karnak.
One of the structures, the Mansion of the Benben (hwt-
ben-ben), was dedicated to Nefertiti. She is depicted with
her daughter Meritaten and in some scenes the princess
Meketaten participates in the scenes as well. In scenes
found on the talatat, Nefertiti appears almost twice as of-
ten as her husband. She is shown appearing behind her
husband the Pharaoh in oering scenes in the role of the
queen supporting her husband, but she is also depicted in
scenes that would have normally been the prerogative of
the king. She is shown smiting the enemy, and captive
enemies decorate her throne.[8]
In the fourth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV decided
to move the capital to Akhetaten (modern Amarna). In
his fth year, Amenhotep IV ocially changed his name
to Akhenaten, and Nefertiti was henceforth known as
Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti. The name change was a sign
to a religion which may have been better described as
a monolatry (the depiction of a single god as an object
for worship) or henotheism (one god, who is not the only
god).[9]
The boundary stelae of years 4 and 5 mark the boundaries
of the new city and suggest that the move to the new city
of Akhetaten occurred around that time. The new city
contained several large open-air temples dedicated to the
Aten. Nefertiti and her family would have resided in the
19.3. DEATH 67

Great Royal Palace in the center of the city and possibly Further information: Amarna succession
at the Northern Palace as well. Nefertiti and the rest of
the royal family feature prominently in the scenes at the
palaces and in the tombs of the nobles. Nefertitis stew-
ard during this time was an ocial named Meryre II. He
would have been in charge of running her household.[3][7] 19.3.1 Old Theories
Inscriptions in the tombs of Huya and Meryre II dated to
Pre-2012 Egyptological theories thought that Nefertiti
Year 12, 2nd month of Peret, Day 8 show a large foreign
vanished from the historical record around Year 14 of
tribute. The people of Kharu (the north) and Kush (the
Akhenatens reign, with no word of her thereafter. Ex-
south) are shown bringing gifts of gold and precious items
planations included a sudden death, by a plague that was
to Akhenaten and Nefertiti. In the tomb of Meryre II,
sweeping through the city, or some other natural death.
Nefertitis steward, the royal couple is shown seated in a
This theory was based on the discovery of several shabti
kiosk with their six daughters in attendance.[3][7] This is
fragments inscribed for Nefertiti (now located in the Lou-
one of the last times princess Meketaten is shown alive.
vre and Brooklyn Museums).
Two representations of Nefertiti that were excavated by
A previous theory, that she fell into disgrace, was dis-
Flinders Petrie appear to show Nefertiti in the middle to
credited when deliberate erasures of monuments belong-
later part of Akhenatens reign 'after the exaggerated style
ing to a queen of Akhenaten were shown to refer to Kiya
of the early years had relaxed somewhat'.[10] One is a
instead.[6]
small piece on limestone and is a preliminary sketch of
Nefertiti wearing her distinctive tall crown with carving During Akhenatens reign (and perhaps after), Nefertiti
began around the mouth, chin, ear and tab of the crown. enjoyed unprecedented power. By the twelfth year of his
Another is a small inlay head (Petrie Museum Number reign, there is evidence she may have been elevated to the
UC103) modeled from reddish-brown quartzite that was status of co-regent:[12] equal in status to the pharaoh
clearly intended to t into a larger composition. as may be depicted on the Coregency Stela.
Meketaten may have died in year 13 or 14. Nefertiti, It is possible Nefertiti is the ruler named Neferneferuaten.
Akhenaten, and three princesses are shown mourning Some theories believe that Nefertiti was still alive and
her.[11] Nefertiti disappears from the scene soon after held inuence on the younger royals. If this is the
that.[7] case, that inuence and presumably Nefertitis own life
would have ended by year 3 of Tutankhatens reign (1331
BC). In that year, Tutankhaten changed his name to Tu-
tankhamun. This is evidence of his return to the ocial
19.3 Death worship of Amun, and abandonment of Amarna to return
the capital to Thebes.[3]

19.3.2 New Theories

Discovered in 2012, a Regnal Year 16, month 3 of

Akhet, day 15 inscription, dated explicitly to Akhen-
atens reign, mentions the presence of the Great Royal
Wife, His Beloved, Mistress of the Two Lands, Neferne-
feruaten Nefertiti.[13][14] The badly legible ve line text
mentions a building project in Amarna (Egypts politi-
cal capital under Akhenaten).[15][16] (The inscription was
found in a limestone quarry at Dayr Ab innis, just
north of Dayr al-Barsh, north of Amarna.[17] )
This means that Nefertiti was alive in the second to last
year of Akhenatens reign, and demonstrates that Akhen-
aten still ruled alone, with his wife by his side. There-
fore, the rule of the female Amarna pharaoh known as
Neferneferuaten must be placed between the death of
Akhenaten and the accession of Tutankhamun. This fe-
male pharaoh used the epithet 'Eective for her husband'
in one of her cartouches,[18] which means she was either
Nefertiti worshipping the Aten. She is given the title of Lordess of Nefertiti or her daughter Meritaten (who was married to
the Two Lands. On display at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. king Smenkhkare).
68
19.4 Burial
There are many theories regarding her death and burial
but, to date, the mummy of this famous queen, her par-
ents or her children has not been found or formally identi-
ed. In 1898, archeologist Victor Loret found two female
mummies inside the tomb of Amenhotep II in KV35 in
the Valley of the Kings. These two mummies, named
'The Elder Lady' and 'The Younger Lady', were likely
candidates of her remains.
The KMT suggested in 2001 that the Elder Lady may be
Nefertitis body.[19] It was argued that the evidence sug-
gests that the mummy is around her mid-thirties or early
forties, Nefertitis guessed age of death. More evidence
to support this identication was that the mummys teeth
look like that of a 29-38 year old, Nefertitis most likely
age of death. Also, unnished busts of Nefertiti appear
to resemble the mummys face, though other suggestions
included Ankhesenamun.
Due to recent age tests on the mummys teeth, it even-
tually became apparent that the 'Elder Lady' is in fact
Queen Tiye, mother of Akhenaten and that the DNA of
the mummy is a close, if not direct, match to the lock of
hair found in Tutankhamuns tomb. The lock of hair was
found in a conette bearing an inscription naming Queen
Tiye.[20] Results have discovered that she was the daugh-
ter of Yuya and Thuya, who were the parents of Queen
Tiye, thus ruling her out as Nefertiti.[20]
19.4.1 Younger Lady
Main article: The Younger Lady (mummy)
On June 9, 2003, archaeologist Joann Fletcher, a special-
ist in ancient hair from the University of York in Eng-
land, announced that Nefertitis mummy may have been
the Younger Lady. Fletcher suggested that Nefertiti was
the Pharaoh Smenkhkare. Some Egyptologists hold to
this view though the majority believe Smenkhkare to have
been a separate person. Fletcher led an expedition funded
by the Discovery Channel to examine what they believed
to have been Nefertitis mummy.
The team claimed that the mummy they examined was
damaged in a way suggesting the body had been deliber-
ately desecrated in antiquity. Mummication techniques,
such as the use of embalming uid and the presence
of an intact brain, suggested an eighteenth-dynasty royal
mummy. Other elements which the team used to sup-
port their theory were the age of the body, the presence
of embedded nefer beads, and a wig of a rare style worn
by Nefertiti. They further claimed that the mummys arm
was originally bent in the position reserved for pharaohs,
Nefertitis place as an icon in popular culture is secure as
but was later snapped o and replaced with another arm
she has become something of a celebrity. After Cleopatra
in a normal position. she is the second most famous Queen of Ancient Egypt
Most Egyptologists, among them Kent Weeks and Peter in the Western imagination.
CHAPTER 19. NEFERTITI
Locavara, generally dismiss Fletchers claims as unsub-
stantiated. They say that ancient mummies are almost im-
possible to identify as a particular person without DNA.
As bodies of Nefertitis parents or children have never
been identied, her conclusive identication is impossi-
ble. Any circumstantial evidence, such as hairstyle and
arm position, is not reliable enough to pinpoint a single,
specic historical person. The cause of damage to the
mummy can only be speculated upon, and the alleged re-
venge is an unsubstantiated theory. Bent arms, contrary
to Fletchers claims, were not reserved to pharaohs; this
was also used for other members of the royal family. The
wig found near the mummy is of unknown origin, and
cannot be conclusively linked to that specic body. Fi-
nally, the 18th dynasty was one of the largest and most
prosperous dynasties of ancient Egypt. A female royal
mummy could be any of a hundred royal wives or daugh-
ters from the 18th dynastys more than 200 years on the
throne.
In addition, there was controversy about both the age and
sex of the mummy. On June 12, 2003, Egyptian ar-
chaeologist Dr. Zahi Hawass, head of Egypts Supreme
Council for Antiquities, also dismissed the claim, citing
insucient evidence. On August 30, 2003, Reuters fur-
ther quoted Hawass: I'm sure that this mummy is not
a female, and Dr Fletcher has broken the rules and
therefore, at least until we have reviewed the situation
with her university, she must be banned from working in
Egypt.[21] On dierent occasions, Hawass has claimed
that the mummy is female and male.[22]
In a more recent research eort led by Hawass, the
mummy was put through CT scan analysis. Researchers
concluded that she may be Tutankhamuns biological
mother, an unnamed daughter of Amenhotep III and
Queen Tiye, not Nefertiti. Fragments of shattered bone
were found in the sinus, and blood clots were found. The
theory that the damage was inicted post-mummication
was rejected, and a murder scenario was deemed more
likely. The broken-o bent forearm found near the
mummy, which had been proposed to have belonged to
mummy, was conclusively shown not to actually belong
to it. Scholars think that, after Tutankhamun returned
Egypt to the traditional religion, he moved his closest rel-
atives: father, grandmother, and biological mother, to the
Valley of the Kings to be buried with him (according to
the list of gurines and drawings in his tomb).
19.5 Iconic status
Further information: Nefertiti bust
19.7. GALLERY
19.6.4 Music
Portrait study of Nefertiti
19.6 In the arts
19.6.1 Film
In The Egyptian (1954), Nefertiti is played by Anitra 19.6.5 Television
Stevens
In Nefertiti, Queen of the Nile (1961), Nefertiti is
played by Jeanne Crain
In Nefertiti, glia del sole (1994), Nefertiti is played In The Loretta Young Show, "Queen Nefertiti" (6
by Michela Rocco di Torrepadula
19.6.2 Games
In the Halo video game series, Nefertiti is cited as
inspiration for the character Cortana
19.7 Gallery
19.6.3 Literature
(Alphabetical by authors last name)
God Against the Gods (1978) is the story of Akhen-
aten and Nefertiti by Allen Drury
In Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth (1985) by Naguib
Mahfouz, Nefertiti is one of the characters who re-
ects on Akhenaten and the Amarna period
Nefertiti: A Novel (2007), by Michelle Moran
The fourth section of James Rollins' sixth Sigma
Force novel, The Doomsday Key (2009), is titled The
Dark Madonna, and throughout the book the char-
acters piece together Egyptian, pagan, and Christian
69
myths, theology, and facts to nd the Doomsday Key
and Saint Malachy's original and complete book of
Doomsday Prophecies. They ultimately nd the key
in a canopic jar, held by a preserved body in a glass
casket bearing the inscription: Here lies Meritaten,
daughter of King Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti.
She who crossed the seas and brought the sun god
Ra to these cold lands.[23]
The Egyptian (1945) is an historical novel by Mika
Waltari
Nefertiti (1967) is a studio album by American jazz
musician Miles Davis
Nefertiti (2014), a classical ballet by American com-
poser John Craton
Nefertiti, Sun Goddess (1998), with lyrics by
Leo-Neferuaten Boyle and music by Sovra Wilson-
Dickson, appears on the demo album compact disc,
The Aten Shines Again (2002) by Leo-Neferuaten
Boyle. A subsequent YouTube video was created
for the track in November 2012.
In Doctor Who, "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship" (2012),
Nefertiti is played by Riann Steele
Jan. 1957, alternate title "Letter to Loretta"), Ne-
fertiti is played by Loretta Young
In Highlander: The Series, Nefertiti appears in
season 2 episode 20 (Pharaohs Daughter, 1994),
played by Nia Peeples
Granite head statue of Nefertiti. The securing post
at head apex, allows for dierent hairstyles to adorn
the head, Altes Museum, Berlin.
Head statue of Nefertiti, Altes Museum, Berlin.
Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their daughters before the
Aten, Stela of Akhenaten and his family, Egyptian
Museum, Cairo.
Nefertiti oering oil to the Aten, Brooklyn Museum.
Talatat showing Nefertiti worshipping the Aten,
Altes Museum.
Relief fragment with Nefertiti, Brooklyn Museum .
70 CHAPTER 19. NEFERTITI

Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Louvre Museum, Paris.
Nefertiti presenting an image of the goddess Maat
to the Aten, Brooklyn Museum.
Talatat representing Nefertiti worshipping the Aten,
Royal Ontario Museum.
Boundary stele of Amarna with Nefertiti and her
daughter, princess Meketaten, Nelson-Atkins Mu-
seum of Art. [16] A. Van der Perre, 'Nefertitis last documented reference
Limestone relief of Nefertiti kissing one of her
daughters, Brooklyn Museum.
[14] Van de Perre, Athena. 2014. The Year 16 grato of
Akhenaten in Dayr Ab innis: A contribution to the
study of the later years of Nefertiti. Journal of Egyptian
History 7:67-108.
[15] Dayr al-Barsha Project featured in new exhibit 'Im Licht
von Amarna' at the gyptisches Museum und Papyrus-
sammlung in Berlin 12/06/2012 (deciphered and inter-
preted by Athena Van der Perre)
for now' F. Seyfried (ed.), In the Light of Amarna. 100
Years of the Nefertiti Discovery, (Berlin, 2012), pp.195-
197 (academia.edu)

Talatat with an aged Nefertiti, Brooklyn Museum.
19.8 References
[1] Nefertit or Nofretete. Collins Dictionary. n.d. Re-
trieved 24 September 2014.
[17] Christian Bayer, Ein Gott fr Aegypten - Nofretete, Ech-
naton und der Sonnenkult von Amarna Epoc, 04-2012. -
pp.12-19
[18] Marc Gabolde, Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky, in P.
Brand (ed.), Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyp-
tian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Mur-
nane, pp. 17-21

[2] RE Freed, S D'Auria, YJ Markowitz, (1999) Pharaohs of
the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamen (Museum
of Fine Arts, Leiden)
[3] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3
[19] Susan E. James, Who is the mummy The Elder Lady?"
KMT, v.12 no.2 (Summer, 2001)
[20] Hawass, Zahi et al. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tu-
tankhamuns Family The Journal of the American Med-
ical Association p.640-641
[21] Hawass comments - No Discrimination

[4] Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic
Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005,
ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3
[5] Egypt State Information Service - Famous women
[22] Times Online - King Tut tut tut
[23] Rollins, James (2009). The Doomsday Prophecy. p.
Chapter 31.

[6] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal

Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. 19.9 External links
ISBN 0-500-05128-3

[7] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin: Egyptian Museum and
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8 Papyrus Collection

[8] Redford, Donald B. Akhenaten: The Heretic King.

Princeton University Press. 1987. ISBN 978-0-691-
00217-0

[9] Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and

Ancient Egypt, Psychology Press, 2003

[10] Trope, B., Quirke, S., Lacovara, P., Excavating Egypt.

Great Discoveries from the Petrie Museum of Egyptian
Archaeology, 2005 ISBN 1-928917-06-2

[11] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period

in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0

[12] Reeves, Nicholas. Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet.

p.172 Thames & Hudson. 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7

[13] Athena Van der Perre, Nefertitis last documented ref-

erence (for now), in: In the light of Amarna: One hun-
dred years of the Nefertiti discovery, edited by Frederike
Seyfried. Berlin: gyptisches Museum und Papyrus-
sammlung, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, pp.195-197
Chapter 20

Parennefer

The Ancient Egyptian noble Parennefer was

Akhenaten's close advisor before he came to the
throne, and in later times served as his Royal Butler,
an oce which brought him into intimate contact with
the king. His titles include The Kings Cup Bearer,
Washer of the Kings Hands, Chief Craftsman, and
Overseer of All the Works in the Mansion of Aten.
He was instrumental in imposing the "Amarna style in
architecture.[1]

20.1 Tombs
Parennefer had two tombs constructed for him, an un-
nished one in Thebes, (TT188), which was a precursor
of the Amarna rock tombs[2] An inscription in this tomb
stresses that one had to pay ones due to all the gods, al-
though the Aten was to be treated preferentially.[3] The
tomb also witnesses some of the changes in the world
view occurring under Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, e.g.
the royal ka, which had been anthropomorphic became
more abstract, a development culminating in the com-
plete abandonment of anthropomorphic depictions of the
ka at Akhetaten.[4]
He built a second tomb at Akhetaten, in the Southern
group of tombs, where he is shown being rewarded by
Akhenaten with many gold collars.[5]

20.2 References
[1] Michael Rice, Whos Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge
2001, ISBN 0-415-15448-0, p.146

[2] Dieter Arnold, The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Ar-

chitecture, I.B.Tauris 2003, ISBN 1-86064-465-1, p.171

[3] Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Cor-

nell University Press 1999, ISBN 0-8014-8725-0, p.48

[4] David P. Silverman, David O'Connor, Ancient Egyptian

Kingship, Brill 1995, ISBN 90-04-05402-2, p.72

[5] Brian Molyneaux, The Cultural Life of Images: Visual

Representation in Archaeology, Routledge 1997, ISBN 0-
415-10675-3, p.118

71
Chapter 21

La Reine Soleil

La Reine Soleil (The Sun Queen) is a French animated

feature lm (French/Hungarian/Belgian co-production)
made by Philippe Leclerc. It was released in France on
4 April 2007. The animation was created by the Hungar-
ian company Cinemon studios and special eects were
created by Greykid Pictures, which was also responsible
for compositing and some of the animation. The story is
based on the novel La Reine Soleil by Christian Jacq.[1]

21.1 Plot
In Ancient Egypt, during the monotheistic regime of
Akhenaten, Akhesa is a beautiful princess, 14 years of
age. An impetuous young girl, Akhesa rebels against her
fathers dictats. She refuses to live conned in the royal
palace and wants to discover why her mother, Queen
Nefertiti, has been exiled on the island of Elephantine.
Assisted by her half-brother prince Tutankhaten, or
Tut, Akhesa ees the court in hopes of nding her
mother. In deance of danger the two teenagers travel
down the Nile to the burning-hot desert dunes, coura-
geously facing the mercenary Zannanza and priests of
Amun Ra, who are conspiring to overthrow the pharaoh
because of his rejection of their god. With innocence
their only weapon, Akhesa and Tut overcome many hard-
ships, and encounter an extraordinary destiny.

21.2 References
[1] La Reine soleil, uniFrance

21.3 External links

La Reine Soleil at the Internet Movie Database

72
Chapter 22

Royal Tomb of Akhenaten

The Royal Tomb of Akhenaten is the burial place of the Meketaten. In the same chamber another scene shows
Pharaoh Akhenaten, in the Royal Wadi in Amarna.[1] Meketaten standing under a canopy which is usually as-
sociated with childbirth but can also interpreted as rep-
resenting the rebirth of the princess. In front of her,
22.1 Layout amongst courtiers, stand Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their
three remaining daughters, Meritaten, Ankhesenpaaten
and Neferneferuaten Tasherit. The presence of a royal
A ight of twenty steps, with a central inclined plane
baby causes many to believe the young princess died in
leads to the door and a long straight descending corridor.
childbirth (in this case the father is most likely to had
Halfway down this corridor a suite of unnished rooms
been Akhenaten himself, marrying his daughter), but it
(perhaps intended for Nefertiti). The main corridor con-
cannot be proven.
tinues to descend, and to the right again a second suite of
rooms branches o. Large amounts of the decoration have been destroyed by
ooding.
The corridor then descends via steps into an ante-room,
and then to the pilared burial chamber where his granite
sarcophagus sat in a slight dip in the oor. It was deco-
rated by carvings of Nefertiti acting as a protective god- 22.3 After burial
dess, and by the ever present sun-disks of the Aten.

22.2 Decoration

Scene from the tomb Reconstructed sarcophagus

The second suite of three chambers (referred to as Alpha,
Beta and Gamma) are believed to be used for the burial
of Meketaten, Akhenaten's second daughter. Two of the
chambers (Alpha and Gamma) are decorated and depict
very similar scenes: in the Alpha chamber Akhenaten
and Nefertiti bend over the inert body of a woman, weep-
ing and gripping each others arms for support. Nearby
a nurse stands with a baby in her arms, accompanied
by a fan-bearer, which indicates the babys royal sta-
tus. The names in the scene have been hacked out.
In the Gamma chamber a very similar scene is shown;
here the hieroglyphs identify the dead young woman as
His body was probably removed after the court returned
to Thebes, and reburied somewhere in the Valley of the
Kings. His sarcophagus was destroyed, but has since
been reconstructed and now sits in the garden of the
Egyptian Museum.
22.4 Excavation and preservation
The tomb was excavated by Alessandro Barsanti, in
1893/1894.

73
74 CHAPTER 22. ROYAL TOMB OF AKHENATEN

22.5 See also

KV55

22.6 References
[1] Amarna Royal Tomb. UCL. Retrieved 2006-12-19.
Chapter 23

Setepenre (princess)

Setepenre (Sotepenre) was an ancient Egyptian princess her sixth birthday. Since she is not shown on Wall B in
of the 18th dynasty; sixth and last daughter of Pharaoh Room , where the royal family mourns the death of
Akhenaten and his chief queen Nefertiti.[1] the second princess Meketaten, it is likely that she prede-
ceased Meketaten as well, perhaps before he construction
of the royal tomb was advanced enough to allow burial.
23.1 Family She was possibly the rst of the princesses to die.[2] It is
possible that her body was later moved to Room of the
Royal Tomb.[4]
Setepenre (her name means (Chosen of Re)) was born
around the 9th[2] to 11th year of her father Akhenaten in
the city of Akhetaten.[3] She had ve older sisters named
Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten, Neferneferuaten 23.4 References
Tasherit, and Neferneferure.[4]
[1] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.156
23.2 Life
[2] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
One of the earliest depictions of Setepenre is in a fresco
from the Kings House in Amarna. She is depicted sit- [3] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
ting on her mother Nefertiti's lap. The fresco is much Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8
damaged and only a small hand of Setepenre remains The
[4] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
fresco is dated to ca. year 9 of Akhenaten, and the entire
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
family is depicted.[2][3] ISBN 0-500-05128-3
The next time the six princesses appeared together was in
[5] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
Year 12, on the eighth day of the second month of win-
in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
ter, during the so-called reception of foreign tributes. 55540-966-0
This event was depicted in the Amarna tombs of Meryre
II and Huya. In the tomb of Meryre II, Akhenaten and
Nefertiti are shown seated in a kiosk, receiving tribute
from foreign lands. The daughters of the royal couple are
shown standing behind their parents. Setepenre is the last
daughter in the lower register. She is standing right be-
hind her sister Neferneferure, who is holding a gazelle.
Setepenre is shown reaching over to pet the gazelle.[5]

23.3 Death and burial

On Wall C in Room of the Royal Tomb of Akhen-
aten the names of ve princesses are listed, that of
Neferneferure is plastered over and only four of the
princesses are depicted. This probably means that Sete-
penre predeceased Neferneferure, and it is likely that
Setepenre died around Year 13 or 14, before she reached

75
Chapter 24
Smenkhkare
Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu (some-
times spelled Smenkhare, Smenkare or Smenkhkara) was
a short lived Pharaoh in the late Eighteenth Dynasty. His
names translate as 'Living are the Forms of Re' and 'Vig-
orous is the Soul of Re - Holy of Forms.[1] His reign
was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten
sought to impose new religious views. He is to be distin-
guished from the king who was female and used the name
Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten but included epithets in
both cartouche.
Very little is known of Smenkhkare for certain because he
left very little evidence and because later kings sought to
erase the entire Amarna Period. First Horemheb sought
to suppress the age by erasing the kings from Akhenaten
to Ay and incorporating their regnal years into his own.
Later in the 19th Dynasty, even more vigorous eorts to By the 1970s, feminine traces in some versions of the
expunge the Amarna Period were undertaken resulting in name and more often in the epithets led to various the-
the dismantling of Akhenatens city.
24.1 Name Confusion
For the complete historiogra-
phy regarding the names, see
Neferneferuaten
Line drawing from Meryre II. The lost names had been recorded
previously (inset) as Smenkhkare and Meritaten.
Smenkhkare was known as far back as 1845 from the
tomb of Meryre II. There he and Meritaten, bearing the
title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tombs
owner. The names of the king have since been cut out but
had been recorded by Lepsius ca 1850.[2]
Later, a dierent set of names emerged using the same
prenomen or throne name: "Ankhkheperure mery Nefer-
kheperure [Akhenaten] Neferneferuaten mery Wa en Re
[Akhenaten]". This led to a great deal of confusion since
throne names tended to be unique.[3] For the better part
of a century, the repetition of throne names was taken to
mean that Smenkhare changed his name to Nefernefer-
uaten at some point, probably upon the start of his sole
reign. Indeed, Petrie makes exactly that distinction in his
excavation notes of 1894.
ories. Among them, that Nefertiti was masquerading as
Smenkhkare before changing her name again to Neferne-
feruaten. When considered with various stela depicting
Akhenaten with another king in familiar, if not intimate
poses, the theory that Akhenaten and Smenkhkare were
homosexual arose.
In 1978 it was proposed that there were 2 individuals
using the same name: a male king Smenkhkare and a
female Neferneferuaten.[4] Ten years later, James Allen
pointed out the name 'Ankhkheperure' nearly always in-
cluded an epithet referring to Akhenaten such as 'de-
sired of Wa en Re' when coupled with 'Neferneferu-
aten'. There were no occasions where the long ver-
sions of the prenomen occurred alongside the nomen
'Smenkhkare', nor was the short version ever found asso-
ciated with the nomen 'Neferneferuaten'.[5] The issue of a
female Neferneferuaten was nally settled for the remain-
ing holdouts when James Allen conrmed Marc Gob-
oldes ndings that objects from Tutankhamuns tomb
originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten which had been
read using the epithet "...desired of Akhenaten were
originally inscribed as Akhet-en-hyes or eective for her
husband.[6][7] Smenkhkare, as son in law, might be 'de-
sired of Akhenaten', but only a female could t the new
reading.
76
24.2. EVIDENCE
By the start of the 21st Century, a a fair degree of
consensus[8] emerged that Neferneferuaten was a female
king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly
among specialists of the period[9] (the public and the in-
ternet still often commingle the two unwittingly and oth-
erwise). Almost as important, when presented with just
the name Ankhkheperure, it is now widely accepted that
the use of epithets indicates Neferneferuaten while no ep-
ithets indicates Smenkhkare.[10]
24.2 Evidence
Aside from the Meryre tomb depiction already men-
tioned there are several pieces of evidence which establish
Smenkhkare as king.
A calcite globular vase from the tomb of
Tutankhamun bears the full double cartouche of
Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of
Smenkhkare. This is the only object to carry both
names side by side.[11]
A single wine docket, 'Year 1, wine of the house
of Smenkhkare', indicates he probably had a short
reign.[12] Another dated to Year 1 from 'The House
of Smenkhkare (deceased)'[13] was originally taken
to indicate that he died during the harvest of his rst
year; more recently it has been proposed to mean his
estate was still producing wine in the rst year of his
successor.
This image is commonly taken to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten,
though it may be Tutankhaten and Ankhesenpaaten.
77
Line drawings of a block depicting the nearly com-
plete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as
Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block
was lost.
Flinders Petrie documented 5 rings bearing
the name 'Ankhkheperure' and 3 more bearing
'Smenkhkare' in excavations of the palace.[14]
One example is Item UC23800 in the Petrie
Museum which clearly shows the djeser and
kherperu elements of and a portion of the 'ka'
glyph. Pendlebury found more when the town was
cleared.[15]
A ring bearing his name is found at Malqata in
Thebes.
Perhaps the most magnicent was a vast hall more
than 125 metres square and including over 500 pil-
lars. This late addition to the central palace has
been known as the Hall of Rejoicing, Coronation
Hall or simply Smenkhkare Hall because a number
of bricks stamped Ankhkheperure in the House of
Rejoicing in the Aten were found at the site.[16]
Indisputable images for Smenkhkare are rare. Aside
from the tomb of Meryre II, the image to the right
showing an Amarna king and queen in a garden
is often attributed to him. It is completely with-
out inscription, but since they do not look like Tu-
tankhaten or his queen, they are often assumed to
be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but Akhenaten and
Nefertiti are sometimes put forth as well.
An inscription in the tomb of Pairi, TT139, by the
other Ankhkheperure (Neferneferuaten), mentions
a functioning Amen 'temple of Ankhkheperure'.[17]
Several items from the tomb of Tutankhamun bear the
name of Smenkhkare:
A linen garment decorated with 39 gold daisies
along with 47 other sequins bearing the prenomen
of Smenkhkare alongside Meritatens name.
Carter number 101s is a linen shawl with the name
Ankhkheperure
A compound bow (Carter 48h) and the mummy
bands (Carter 256b) were both reworked for Tut.[18]
Less certain, but much more impressive is the
second anthropoid con containing the mummy of
Tutankhamun. The face depicted is much more
square than that of the other cons and quite
unlike the gold mask or other depictions of Tu-
tankhamun. The con is Rishi style and inlaid
with coloured glass, a feature only found on this
78 CHAPTER 24. SMENKHKARE

con and one from KV55, the speculated resting There are also a series of stelae clearly showing what is
place for the mummy of Smenkhkare. Since both accepted as Akhenaten along with a female gure wearing
cartouche show signs of being reworked, Dodson a crown. Most of these are uninscribed and damaged so
and Harrison conclude this was most likely orig- while they pictorially attest to an association of Akhen-
inally made for Smenkhkare and reinscribed for aten with a female coregent, they fail to identify her by
Tutankhamun.[18][19] name.
One such stele (Berlin #17813 or a higher resolution im-
As the evidence came to light in bits and pieces at a age) depicts 2 royal gures in a familiar, if not intimate,
time when Smenkhkare was assumed to have also used pose. One gure wears the double crown, while the other,
the name Neferneferuaten perhaps at the start of his sole slightly more feminine one, wears the Khepresh or blue
reign, it sometimes deed logic. For instance, when crown. However, the set of 3 empty cartouche can only
the mortuary wine docket surfaced from the 'House of account for the names of a king and queen. This has been
Smenkhkare (deceased)', it seemed to appear that he interpreted to mean that Nefertiti may have at one point
changed his name back before he died. been something like a coregent as indicated by the crown,
Since his reign was brief, and that he may never have but not entitled to full pharoanic honors such as the dou-
been more than co-regent, the evidence for Smenkhkare ble cartouche.[24]
is not plentiful. But nor is it quite as insubstantial as it is Another stella, Berlin 25574 clearly depicts Akhenaten
sometimes made out to be. It certainly amounts to more and Nefertiti in her familiar at top crown. Above them
than just 'a few rings and a wine docket' or that he 'ap- are 4 empty cartouches - enough for 2 kings - one of
pears only at the very end of Ahkenatons reign in a few which seems to have been squeezed in. Nicholas Reeves
monuments[20] as is too often portrayed. sees this as an important item in the case for Nefertiti
as female coregent. When the stele was started, she was
queen and portrayed with the at top headpiece. She was
24.3 Co-regent elevated to coregent shortly afterwards and a fourth car-
touche was squeezed in to accommodate 2 kings.[25]
The Meryre depiction of Smenkhkare both as king and Perhaps the most important stela has the opposite con-
as son in law to Akhenaten along with the jar inscrip- dition and could tell us much more if it was not so badly
tion seems to indicate that Akhenaten and Smenkhkare damaged. In 1891, a private stela was found which is now
were coregents, and it was initially taken to mean just in the Petrie Museum, U.C.410, sometimes called the
that. However, the scene in the tomb of Meryre is not Coregency Stela. On this stela, most of the scene is miss-
dated and Akhenaten is neither depicted nor mentioned ing but the inscriptions can be read. It depicts the double
in it. The jar may simply be a case of one king associat-
cartouche of Akhenaten alongside that of Ankhkheperure
ing himself with a predecessor. The simple association of
mery-Waenre Neferneferuaten Akhet-en-hyes ('eective
names, particularly on everyday objects, is not conclusive
for her husband'). The inscription originally bore the sin-
of a coregency.[21][22] gle cartouche of Nefertiti, which was erased along with a
To make matters more confusing, he has competition as reference to Meritaten to make room for the double car-
[26]
the prime candidate as Akhenatens coregent and succes- touche of King Neferneferuaten.
sor, the female Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. The identity of King Neferneferuaten is a matter of de-
bate. Initially, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were as-
sumed to be the same person, primarily on the basis of the
24.3.1 Neferneferuaten
repeated throne name. Today the leading candidates are
Nefertiti or Meritaten.
The evidence for Neferneferuatens association with
Akhenaten is more substantial.[22] As detailed above, all
but a very few of her cartouche associate her with Akhen-
aten in the form if "...desired of Neferkheperure [Akhen- 24.3.2 Interpretations
atens throne name]" and "...desired of Wa en Re [epithet
of Akhenatens throne name]".[23] There is an impression that there is substantial evidence
Many things from Tutankhamuns tomb either bear her for Smenkhkare as coregent and successor. This began
name, or were originally made for her and reinscribed over 100 years ago when Smenkhkare and [27] Neferneferu-
with his name. These include a stunning gold pectoral de- aten were assumed to be the same person. If all the
picting the goddess Nut, his stone sarcophagus, mummy evidence for both Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten are
wrappings, royal gurines various bracelets and canopic seen to represent a single person, it would be a natural,
items. Of particular interest is a box (Carter 001k) in- logical and obvious conclusion that he/she was coregent
scribed with the names of Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten and successor.
and Meritaten as Great Royal Wife. A hieratic inscrip- As son-in-law to Akhenaten and wearing the blue crown
tion on lid repeats the inscription from the rail. in Meryres tomb, Smenkhkare as coregent is a con-
24.4. TEMPLE OF ANKHKHEPERURE 79

clusion embraced by some Egyptologists. However, have succeeded Neferneferuaten means that aside from a
the name Smenkhkare appears only during the reign of lone wine docket, he left not a single trace over the course
Akhenaten[28] with nothing to attest to a sole reign with of 56 years (years 14-17 of Akhenaten, 2-3 year reign
any certainty. for Neferneferuaten).
The name Neferneferuaten is a much more recent addi- Gaboldes Meritaten theory has the problem of the var-
tion to the picture. Much of the evidence for her has had ious private stelae depicting the female coregent with
to be resurrected from erased inscriptions and she has Akhenaten who would be dead by the time of her rule.
become accepted as an individual by most Egyptologists He suggests these are retrospective, but since they are pri-
only within the last 20 years. As a newcomer, many syn- vate cult stela, this would require a number of people to
optic references such as encyclopedia, museum chronolo- get the same idea to commission a retrospective, com-
gies, atlases and king lists don't even mention her. In her memorative stela at the same time. Allen notes that the
case, the Pairi inscription oers a clear indication of a everyday interaction portrayed in them more likely indi-
sole reign with a coregency being more a matter of inter- cates two living people.[22]
pretation.
As a result Egyptologists divide on the identity of Akhen-
atens coregent and his successor. 24.4 Temple of Ankhkheperure
Aidan Dodson uses the Meryre depiction to conclude
Smenkhkare served only as coregent starting about Year One intriguing piece of evidence seems to involve both
13 of Akhenaten with the wine docket simply indicating kings named Ankhkheperure. In Theban Tomb 139
that his estate was still in operation several years later. (TT139) a hieratic inscription begins:
Nefertiti becomes his next coregent as King Nefernefer-
Regnal year 3, third month of Inundation,
uaten (perhaps with abbreviated honors) and succeeds
day 10.
him.[29] The main argument against this until very re-
cently (see below) has been the assumption that Nefertiti
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord
died once she disappeared from the record after Year 13.
of the Two Lands Ankhkheperure Beloved of
James Allen on the other hand, sees Neferneferuaten as Aten, the Son of Re Neferneferuaten Beloved
the coregent who succeeds Akhenaten largely on the ba- of Waenre.
sis of the epithets and stela. He assumes that Nefertiti Giving worship to Amun, kissing the ground
has died, and has oered her daughter, Neferneferuaten- to Wenennefer by the lay priest, scribe of the
tasherit (the lesser, or junior) as King Neferneferu- divine oerings of Amun in the Mansion [tem-
aten on the basis of her name.[30] She is followed by ple] of Ankhkheperure in Thebes, Pawah, born
Smenkhkare after her 2-3 year reign.[30] He has also spec- to Yotefseneb. He says:...[35]
ulated that 'both' succeeded Akhenaten: Neferneferuaten
as Akhenatens chosen successor and Smenkhkare as a The inscription does not indicate the presence of
rival king using the same prenomen, perhaps to eclipse Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten, only that an oering is
Akhenatens unacceptable choice.[31] being made to Amen in her third regnal year in the temple
Others have advocated for Meritaten as Neferneferuaten of Ankhkheperure. It seems clear that by her third regnal
in dierent forms, perhaps succeeding Akhenaten dur- year, 35 years after Akhenatens death, the proscription
ing an interregnum. Marc Gabolde has long advocated if Amen was lifted and some sort of accommodation was
that she continued to rule as Neferneferuaten after the under way between Amarna and the Amen cult.
death of Smenkhkare. The main argument against this But whose temple was it? By the Allen Rule since
is the box from Tutankhamuns tomb listing Akhenaten, the name bears no epithets, it should be assumed to
Neferneferuaten and Meritaten as 3 individuals.[32] be Smenkhkares. Dodson takes this approach linking
It should be noted that few succession theories account Akhenatens rst coregent [36]
[Smenkhkare] very much with
for all the evidence and only rarely do they oer an expla- the cult of Amun. If this is indeed the case, then
nation for the consecutive use of the same throne name. Smenkhkare must have preceded Neferneferuaten on the
Dodson, for instance places Smenkhkares brief core- throne since the temple is already established and bears
gency in Year 13/14, whereas Smenkhkare Hall is be- his throne name in her third regnal year.
lieved to be built about Year 15. The hall, grand as it must Allen, on the other hand, seems to ignore his own rule
have been, was surely built for some signicant event re- when he refers to this temple as perhaps her mortuary
lated to Ankhkheperure. temple"(emphasis added).[37] This may be a unique case
Allens placement of Smenkhkare fares no better. Work where her epithets were omitted. Including a reference
is believed to have halted on the Amarna tombs shortly to Akhenaten in an Amen temple would surely be oen-
after year 13,[33][34] so the depiction of Smenkhkare as sive and impolitic if amends are being sought. This is
king in Meryre II must date to about Year 13. For him to probably the simplest answer, since opening or commis-
sioning an Amen temple or mortuary in your own name
80 CHAPTER 24. SMENKHKARE

would be one of the best ways to make amends with the Ankhesenamun since she had no sons and did eventu-
cult of Amen. If seen as her temple it is no help xing the ally marry a servant, Ay. The dead king, Nibhururiya,
succession order, but also eliminates the sole reference to then refers to Tuts throne name, Nebkheperure. Some
Smenkhkare after the reign of Akhenaten. have argued that Nibhururiya might be a reference to Ne-
ferkheperure (Akhenaten), certainly the X-kheper-u-Re
variations in 18th Dynasty throne names makes it possi-
24.5 Nefertiti Year 16 Grato ble. Of the male kings in the period, Smenkhkare can be
ruled out as his throne name would be transliterated as
something like Anahuriya.[39]
In December, 2012 the Leuven Archaeological Mission
announced the nd of a hieratic inscription in a limestone Writing on the Dakhamunzu episode, Jared Miller points
quarry which mentions a building project in Amarna. The out that "servant is likely used in a disparaging manner,
text is said to be badly damaged, but doctoral student rather than literally, and probably with reference to real
Athena Van der Perre has read the text to indicate a date person(s) who indeed were being put forth as candidates."
from regnal year sixteen of Akhenaten and mentions Ne- If the reference to a 'servant' no longer exclusively indi-
fertiti as Akhenatens chief wife. The inscription has not cates Ay, then Meritaten and Nefertiti become candidates
been ocially published or studied and the only informa- as well.[40] For the plot to succeed, the queen would have
tion available is from a press release.[38] to either wield an extraordinary amount of power in order
to prevent or delay the marriage to the servant or enjoy
The inscription, if veried, seems to make clear Nefer-
the backing of some powerful supporter(s) while the cor-
titi was very much alive in Year 16, but also still queen
respondence and travels take place.[41] Miller also oers
consort. At a minimum, it invalidates the view that she
the prominence of sun deities with the Hittite king as a
died about year 13/14. Year 17 would be Akhenatens -
motivating factor in the queen preferring a Hittite prince
nal year and as the changes to the Coregency Stela (UC
over a Babylonian.[42]
410) seem to indicate, by the time the female coregent
was added to it she was also already acting on behalf of
Akhenaten.
24.6.1 Nefertiti
What Egyptologists will make of it remains to be seen.
Since the King and Queen are mentioned but not a core-
Reeves identies Dakhamunzu as Nefertiti. After 17
gent, whatever coregency was yet to come, would be lim-
years on the throne alongside her husband, she can cer-
ited to a year or less.
tainly be seen having sucient power and backing.[43]
Though she may also be King Neferneferuaten, she is
writing as queen, perhaps to secure a male gurehead or
24.6 Dakhamunzu Hittite Aair maybe she envisions a coregency like the one she had with
Akhenaten.
See also Dakhamunzu article
The argument against Nefertiti is that she would have had
to conceal the presence of at least one male of royal lin-
The Deeds of Suppiluliuma written by his son Mursili II
eage from the spies and envoy of Suppiluliuma. Alterna-
are sometimes used to provide a resolution for the succes-
tively, if he knew of Tutankhaten or Smenkhkare, rather
sion order of Egypt. Several succession theories incorpo-
than merely shrewd, it must be assumed that Suppiluli-
rate the episode.
uma was ruthless in the extreme and willing to risk the
The story tells of an Egyptian queen named Dakhamunzu, life of his son on a precarious endeavor where he sus-
who writes to Suppiluliuma. She tells him her husband pected trickery.[44] On the other hand, it portrays Nefer-
the king, Nibhururiya, has died and asks him to send a son titi as fully informed of Hittite minutiae such as Suppiluli-
for her to marry 'for she has no sons and he has many', in umas aliation with the Hittite sun god.[42]
marrying her, his son 'will become King of Egypt'. The
Hittite king is wary and sends an envoy to verify the lack
of a male heir. The queen writes back rebuking Suppiluli- 24.6.2 Meritaten
uma for suggesting she lied about a son and indicates she
is loathe to marry a servant. Suppiluliuma sends one As shown on the box from Tutankhamuns tomb, Mer-
of his sons, Zannanza o to Egypt, but he dies sometime itaten came to take Nefertitis place as royal wife late
after departing. It has been supposed that he was mur- in Akhenatens reign. Marc Gabolde has proposed that
dered at the border of Egypt (Brier) to thwart the plot, Meritaten is Dakhamunzu and the dead king is Akhen-
but there is no evidence as to when or where he died nor aten, in a number of articles. He supposes that Zan-
that he was murdered as opposed to death from a lethal nanza completed the trip and died only after ascend-
injury, accident or illness en route. ing the throne as Smenkhkare. It is after the death of
Dahkamunzu (probably the Hittite transliteration of ta Smenkhkare/Zannanza that Meritaten assumes power as
hemet nesu or kings wife) has traditionally been seen as Neferneferuaten.
24.8. DEATH AND BURIAL 81

Meritaten seems the least likely on the basis that at the

time of Akhenatens death she would only been about 20
years old. By contrast, Ankhesenamun would have been
about 25 and been queen consort for some 10 years. It
seems unlikely that the young Meritaten would have the
wiles to deceive Suppiluliuma, maintain her interregnum
in the face of pressure to marry a 'servant' and conceal the
presence of a male heir in the personage of Tutankhaten.

24.6.3 Ankhesenamun

In support of Ankhesenamun, is the idea that Tu-

tankhamun 'lie in state' for some time. The Hittite sources
indicate he died in the fall, but a cornower pectoral in-
dicates he was not buried until April or May.[45] As such,
there may have been time for the letter writing and travel.
Ankhesenamun is made more plausible if she had the
backing of Ay or Horemheb, or both. Against her, is the
simpler explanation that the delay in burial was the result
of his unexpected death and unnished tomb.
Details for the Dakhamunzu/Zannanza aair are entirely
from Hittite sources written many years after the events.
There is the possibility that Mursili is revising history to
some extent, placing full responsibility for the asco on
the Egyptians[46] leaving the details unreliable.

24.7 Reign
The sole regnal date (year 1) attested for Smenkhkare
comes from a wine docket from the house of The desecrated royal con found in Tomb KV55
Smenkhkare. This date might however refer either to the
reign of Smenkhkare or his successor, but it is doubtful
he ruled for more than year.[47] As already noted, Dod-
son views Smenkhkare as Akhenatens coregent for about Tiye by Akhenaten, and a mummy. This caused Davis to
a year beginning about Year 13 who did not have a sole refer to it as The Tomb of Queen Tiye, its more common
reign,[48] while Allen depicts Smenkhkare as successor to designation is KV55. The tomb is sometimes called a
Neferneferuaten.[30] cache because items from several people are found there.
For example, there is the shrine for Tiye, 'magic bricks
There are those who see the possibility of a 2 or 3 bearing Akhenatens name and alabaster canopic jars de-
year reign for Smenkhkare. A number of wine dock- picting what is thought to be the likeness of Kiya.
ets from Amarna bear dates for regnal years 2 and 3,
but lack a kings name. A few Egyptologists[49] have ar- Of particular interest is the mummy found there. The
gued these should be attributed to Smenkhkare. How- con had been desecrated and the name of the owner
ever, these are open to interpretation and cannot be con- removed, but was in the Rishi style of the 18th Dynasty.
sidered decisive.[50] It is generally accepted that the con was originally in-
tended for a female, possibly Akhenatens wife Kiya, and
Clear evidence for a sole reign for Smenkhkare has not later reworked to accommodate a male.[51] Over the past
yet been found. century, the chief candidates for this individual have been
either Akhenaten or Smenkhkare.[52][53][54]
The case for Akhenaten rests largely on the 'magic bricks
24.8 Death and Burial and the reworking of some of the inscriptions on the cof-
n. The case for Smenkhkare comes mostly from the pre-
In 1907, a tomb was discovered by Edward R. Ayrton sumed age of the mummy (see below) which, at 18-26
while working in the Valley of the Kings for Theodore M. would not t Akhenaten who reigned for 17 years and
Davis. Within it was found a number of funerary objects had fathered a child near by his rst regnal year. There
for various people, in particular a shrine built for Queen is nothing in the tomb positively identied as belonging
82 CHAPTER 24. SMENKHKARE

to Smenkhkare, nor is his name found there. The tomb the same rare blood type.[58] Taken together, the KV55
is certainly not betting any king, but even less so for mummy was assumed to be the father or brother of Tu-
Akhenaten. tankhamun. Brother seemed more likely since the age
would only be old enough to plausibly father a child at
the upper extremes.
24.8.1 Early Examinations of the Mummy

24.8.2 Genetic Tests from 2010

In 2010, genetic tests and CT scans were performed with

some of the results published in JAMA and reported in
National Geographic including a TV special.[59] Chief
among the genetic results, "The statistical analysis re-
vealed that the mummy KV55 is most probably the fa-
ther of Tutankhamun (probability of 99.99999981%),
and KV35 Younger Lady could be identied as his mother
(99.99999997%)."[60] The report goes on to show that
both KV55 and KV35 Younger Lady were siblings and
children of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye.[61]
CT scans were also performed on the mummy and the
results concluded the mummy was much older than all
previous estimates.

New CT scans of the KV55 mummy also

revealed an age-related degeneration in the
The skull of the KV55 mummy, believed to be Smenkhkare. spine and osteoarthritis in the knees and legs.
It appeared that he had died closer to the age of
The skeletonized mummy has been examined on a 40 than 25, as originally thought. With the age
number of occasions over the years including by discrepancy thus resolved, we could conclude
Smith (1912), Derry (1931), Harrison (1966), Strouhal that the KV55 mummy, the son of Amenhotep
(1998/2010) and Filer (2001). Wente used cranofacial III and Tiye and the father of Tutankhamun, is
analysis in 1995 (as well as examining past X-Rays) to almost certainly Akhenaten. (Since we know
examine a cache of mummies, mostly from the 18th so little about Smenkhkare, he cannot be com-
Dynasty, in order to sort out the relationships and true pletely ruled out.)[62]
identities of each. Seriological tests on the KV55 and
Tut mummies were performed and published in Nature
(1974). The KV55 mummy was also examined by Harris Evidence to support the much older claim was not pro-
in 1988 but only an abstract of the results published, and vided beyond the single point of spinal degeneration. A
most recently by Hawass, Gad et al. in 2010. growing body of work soon began to appear to dispute
the assessment of the age of the mummy and the identi-
Filers conclusions were largely representative of the pre- cation of KV55 as Akhenaten.[56][63][64][65][66][67][68][69]
2010 examinations, noting "...this man was not quite a Where Filer and Strouhal (below) relied on multiple indi-
fully mature adult, between 18 and 21 years when he cators to determine the younger age, the new study cited
died. She concluded: one point to indicate a much older age. One letter to the
JAMA editors came from Arizona State University bioar-
The human remains from Tomb 55, as pre- chaeologist Brenda J. Baker. The content was retold on
sented to me, are those of a young man who the Archaeology News Network website and is represen-
had no apparent abnormalities and was no older tative of a portion of the dissent:
than his early twenties at death and probably a
few years younger.[55] A specialist in human osteology and pale-
opathology, Baker takes issue with the identi-
These were largely in keeping with the previous results cation of the skeletonized mummy KV55 as
(1826 years) allowing for the technologies available. Tutankhamuns father, Akhenaten. The au-
For instance, Derry concluded an age of about 23 and thors [Hawass et al in JAMA] place this in-
Strouhal gave an age range of 19 to 22.[56] Wentes study dividuals age at the time of death at 35-45,
found a close cranial similarities between the mummies despite producing no evidence that repudiates
of Tutankhamun, KV55 and Thutmose IV.[57] The seri- well-known prior examinations citing the age
ological tests indicated KV55 and Tutankhamun shared in the 18-26 range.
24.9. SUMMARY 83

These earlier analyses documented with greeting gift of copper, explaining that a plague had killed
written descriptions, photographs and radio- o many of his copper miners.[72] Something similar may
graphs show a pattern of fused and un- well have struck Amarna, if not Egypt.
fused epiphyses (caps on ends of growing After the capital moved from Amarna, Akhenatens suc-
bones) throughout the skeleton, indicating a cessor could have been faced with a severe shortage of
man much younger than Akhenaten is believed tombs for royal reburials.[73] Smenkhkare would be in
to have been at the time of his death. Baker a particularly bad situation. Since he died young and
also uses a photograph of the pubic symphysis reigned so briey he would not have had time to make
of the pelvis to narrow the age of KV55 to 18-
and accumulate the grave goods betting a king. In the
23 based on recent techniques used in osteol- end, the tomb seems to have been simply sealed up with
ogy and forensic anthropology.[70]
the mummy and whatever was available.[73]
The tomb had been re-entered once and sealed twice.[74]
An examination of the KV55 mummy was conducted in
The seals date to the late 18th Dynasty indicating the
1998 by Czech anthropologist Eugene Strouhal. He pub-
tomb was entered and resealed probably under the reign
lished his conclusions in 2010 where he 'utterly excluded
of Tutankhamen. The nature of the debris, rubble ll and
the possibility of Akhenaten':
cement retaining wall suggest the desecration and attempt
to remove the shrine of Tiye did not happen until later.[75]
[T]he unambiguous male skeleton from
Tomb 55 proved decisively by a long list of bio- The tomb was once again entered some time later, in the
logical developmental features his age at death 19th, 20th or 21st Dynasty (opinions vary). Bell sug-
to be in the range of 19-22 years which fully gests that this entry may be related to the reburial of royal
agrees with the results of the previous determi- mummies and resulted in Tiye being moved to KV35. It
nation by Harrison (1966)...He did not possess was during this entry that Akhenatens name and likeness
the slightest dental pathology and not even the were attacked where it could be found.[75] The mummy it-
onset of degenerative changes in the spine and self was relatively unmolested: the wrappings were undis-
joints[71] turbed but royal insignia were removed and various gold
items were left behind including the gold vulture collar
on the head of the mummy. Bell suggests feelings toward
Other criticisms surround what the project didn't do. Akhenaten had softened by this time resulting in a name-
Wente had noted that the mummies of both Tut and less king but still a consecrated pharaoh.[76] Others sug-
KV55 bore a very strong cranofacial similarity to the gest that after desecrating Akhenatens burial, including
mummy of Thutmose IV, yet this mummy was not tested. perhaps the destruction of his mummy, Smenkhkare was
Dylan Bickerstae calls it almost perverse that the mys- placed in Akhenatens con.[77]
terious boy on a boat found in KV35 was not tested
while the Elder Lady and Younger Lady found there
were. The boy could very well be Akhenatens older
brother Prince Thutmose or even Smenkhkare given that 24.9 Summary
KV35 ladies are now known to be related to Tut.[67]
While it now seems likely that the KV55 mummy is the Perhaps no one from the Amarna Interlude has been the
[78]
father of Tutankhamen, for many his identication as subject of so much speculation as Smenkhkare. There
Akhenaten seems as doubtful as before. is just enough evidence to say with some certainty that he
is an individual apart from Neferneferuaten. But there is
not enough evidence to be convincive of a coregency or
24.8.3 Burial a sole reign. As a result, Egyptologists move him about
like a pawn as their larger hypothesis requires. He can be
Left alone in a tomb without few of the trappings of the proposed as Zannanza (Gabolde) or Nefertiti in disguise
typical Ancient Egyptian burial, the KV55 mummy, ap- (Reeves, Samson). He can reign for weeks or years. He is
pears to be not so much buried as disposed of. Since the a short lived coregent with no independent reign (Dodson)
KV55 mummy is conclusively a close relative of Tut, if or he is Akhenatens successor (Allen).
not his father, why such a shoddy burial? It may simply
be that they ran out of tombs or time.
The royal family had been preparing tombs in Amarna 24.10 References
rather than Thebes. As evidenced by the tomb of Meryre,
work appears to have abruptly halted on the Amarna [1] Clayton,P., Chronicle of the Pharaohs (Thames and Hud-
tombs after year 13. About that time, a signicant num- son, 2006) p.120
ber of people depart the scene including 3 of Akhenatens
daughters, his mother and Kiya. In Amarna Letter 35, [2] de Garies Davies, N. 1905. The Rock Tombs of El
the king of Alashia apologizes to Akhenaten for his small Amarna, Part II: The Tombs of Panehesy and Meryra II.
84 CHAPTER 24. SMENKHKARE

Archaeological Survey of Egypt. F. L. Grith. London: [29] Dodson, A. (2006) p 27-29

Egypt Exploration Fund.
[30] Allen, J; 2006, p 15-17
[3] Dodson, A; (2009) p 34
[31] Allen, James P. (1994). Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Gt-
[4] Krauss, R; (1978) p 43-47 tinger Miszellen 141. pp. 7-17

[5] Allen, J; (1988) [32] Allen, J; 2006, p 14, also n 61

[6] Gabolde, M; (1998) pp 14762, 213219 [33] Giles, F; 2001; also Aldred 1988

[7] Dodson A. and Hilton D.; (2004) p.285 [34] Dodson, A; 2006, p 29

[8] Miller, J.; (2007) p 272
[9] Miller, J.; (2007) p 272; To wit: Allen (1994);
Gabolde (1998); Eaton-Krauss and Krauss(2001); Hor-
nung (2006); von Beckerath (1997); Allen (2006); Krauss
(2007); Murnane (2001)
They otherwise hold very dierent views on the succes-
sion, chronology and identity of Neferneferuaten.
[10] e.g. Murnane, J.; The End of the Amarna Period Once
Again (2001); Allen, J,; 1998, 2006; Gabolde, M.;
Das Ende der Amarnazeit, (2001); Hornung, E.; (2006);
Miller, J.; (2007) p 274 n 96, 97, 98; Dodson A.; (2009)
p 36.
[35] Murnane, W; (1995); Note: Gardiner (1928), Reeves
(2001) and Murnane (1995) all give the date as 10th Day,
Month 3, Akhet. Dodson (2009) p 45 reports the date as
unequivocally 3rd day, Month 4, Akhet. Dodson also
claims the epithets are not clearly readable.
[36] Dodson, A.; (2009) p 44-46
[37] Allen, J; (2006) p 5
[38] Dayr al-Barsha Project Press Release, Dec 2012
[39] Miller, J.; (2007)
[40] Miller, J.; (2007) p 261

[11] Allen, J; 2006 p 2 [41] Miller, J.;(2007) p 275

[12] Pendlebury, J. D. S. ; The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part [42] Miller, J; (2007) p 273 n92
III, vol II, pl 86
[43] Reeves, C.N.; (2001) pp. 176-177
[13] Pendlebury, J. D. S. ; The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part
III, pl lxxxvi and xcvii [44] Miller, J.; (2007) p 260-261; Miller believes Suppiluliuma
was indeed that brutal [and] unscrupulous
[14] Petrie; 1894 pl xv
[45] Miller, J.; (2007) p 271
[15] Pendlebury; 1951
[46] Miller, J.; (2007) p 262
[16] Dodson A; (2006) p 31-32; also Pendlebury, 1951 PIs.
XIII C; XLIV. 1, 2 [47] Allen, J.; 2006 p 5

[48] Dodson, A.; (2009) p 39

[17] A.H. Gardiner, The Grato from the Tomb of Pere; JEA
14 (1928), pp. 1011 and pls. 56. [49] Miller, J; (2007) p 275, to wit: Krauss, R; 1997:247; 2007
and Hornung, E; 2006:207
[18] Reeves, C; 1990b
[50] Miller, J; (2007) p 275
[19] Dodson, A.; 1992 and 2009 p 41
[51] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Commu-
[20] Britannica entry for Smenkhkare; retrieved Dec 2012
nications, 1990) p. xii
[21] Murnane, W; (1977) pp. 21315
[52] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Commu-
[22] Allen, J; (2006) p 3 nications, 1990) p. viii, p. xiv

[23] Allen, A; (2006) p 1-2 [53] Aldred, C.; (1988) p. 205

[24] Dodson, A; (2009); p 42 [54] Giles, F. J.; (2001)

[25] Reeves, C; (2001) p 167-168 [55] Filer, J; 2001 p 4

[26] Dodson, A; (2009); p 43
[27] Petrie, W; (1894) pp 42-44
[28] Duhig, Corinne; The remains of Pharaoh Akhenaten are
not yet identied: comments on Biological age of the skele-
tonized mummy from Tomb KV55 at Thebes (Egypt)" by
Eugen Strouhal in Anthropologie: International Journal of
the Science of Man; (2010) Vol 48 Issue 2, pp 113-115.
[56] Strouhal, E.; Biological age of skeletonized mummy from
Tomb KV 55 at Thebes in Anthropologie: International
Journal of the Science of Man; 2010; Vol 48 Issue 2, pp
97-112. Dr. Strouhal examined KV55 in 1998, but the
results were apparently delayed and perhaps eclipsed by
Filers examination in 2000. Strouhals ndings were pub-
lished in 2010 to dispute the Hawass et al conclusions.
[57] Wente, E; 1995
24.11. GALLERY
[58] Nature 224 (1974), 325f.
[59] Hawass, Z., Y. Z. Gad, et al.; Ancestry and Pathology in
King Tutankhamuns Family; 2010. Journal of the Ameri-
can Medical Association Ancestry and Pathology in King
Tutankhamuns Family
[60] Hawass, Gad, 2010; eAppendix; Details of Methods, Re-
sults, and Comment
[61] Hawass, Z., Y. Z. Gad, et al. in JAMA, g 2
[62] Zahi Hawass. King Tuts Family Secrets. National Ge-
ographic. p. 6. Archived from the original on December
2012.
[63] News from the Valley of the Kings: DNA Shows that
KV55 Mummy Probably Not Akhenaten. Kv64.info.
2010-03-02. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
[64] Nature 472, 404-406 (2011); Published online 27 April
2011; Original link
[65] NewScientist.com; January, 2011; Royal Rumpus over
King Tutankhamuns Ancestry
[66] JAMA; 2010;303(24):2471-2475. King Tutankhamuns
Family and Demise (subscription)
[67] Bickerstae, D; The King is dead. How Long Lived the
King? in Kmt vol 22, n 2, Summer 2010
[68] Duhig, Corinne; The remains of Pharaoh Akhenaten are
not yet identied: comments on Biological age of the
skeletonised mummy from Tomb KV55 at Thebes (Egypt)"
by Eugen Strouhal in Anthropologie: International Jour-
nal of the Science of Man; (2010) Vol 48 Issue 2, pp
113-115. (subscription) It is essential that, whether the
KV55 skeleton is that of Smenkhkare or some previously-
unknown prince...the assumption that the KV55 bones are
those of Akhenaten be rejected before it becomes re-
ceived wisdom.
[69] Whos the Real Tut? retrieved Nov, 2012
[70] Brenda J. Baker (June 24, 2010). KV55 mummy not
Akhenaten. Archeology News Network. Retrieved De-
cember 2012.
[71] Strouhal KV55 1998/2010 p111 Conclusions
[72] Moran, (1992) 107-119
[73] Giles, F. J.; (1970) p 101-105
[74] Bell, M.R.; An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990) p. 133
[75] Bell, M. R.; (1990) p 133-135
[76] Bell, M.R., (1990) p. 137
[77] Perepelkin, Y; The Secret of the Gold Con; (1978) p163-
164
[78] Dodson, A; (2009); p 30
85
24.11 Gallery
A royal vulture pectoral which was found placed on
the head of the KV55 mummy.
A feminine gure assumed to be Nefertiti, wearing
the Kheperesh or Blue Crown of a king pours a
libation for Akhenaten.
24.12 Bibliography
Aldred, Cyril; Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames &
Hudson, 1988)
Aldred, Cyril; Akhenaten, Pharoah of Light
(Thames & Hudson, 1968)
Allen, James P; Two Altered Inscriptions of the Late
Amarna Period, Journal of the American Research
Center in Egypt 25 (1988)
Allen, James (2006). The Amarna Succession
(PDF). Archived from the original on May 28, 2008.
Retrieved 2008-06-23.
Allen, James P.; Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Gt-
tinger Miszellen 141; (1994)
Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tu-
tankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian
Counter-Reformation. The American University in
Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3
Dodson, A., Hilton, D. The Complete Royal Families
of Ancient Egypt: A Genealogical Sourcebook of the
Pharaohs (Thames & Hudson, 2004)
Filer, J; Anatomy of a Mummy, (2001) Archaeology;
Mar/Apr2002, Vol. 55 Issue 2
Giles, Frederick. J.; Ikhnaton Legend and History
(1970, Associated University Press, 1972 US)
Giles, Frederick. J.; The Amarna Age: Egypt (Aus-
tralian Centre for Egyptology, 2001)
Habicht, Michael E.: Semenchkare - Phantom-
Knig(in) von Achet-Aton (epubli, Berlin 2014).
ISBN 978-3844281699
O'Connor, D and Cline, E, (eds); Amenhotep III:
perspectives on his reign (1998) University of Michi-
gan Press
Dayr al-Barsha Project; Press Release, Dec 2012;
Online English Press Release
Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon
(1998) Paris
Hawass, Z., Y. Gad, et al. Ancestry and Pathology
in King Tutankhamuns Family (2010) in Journal of
the American medical Association 303/7.
86 CHAPTER 24. SMENKHKARE

Hornung, E., 1999, Akhenaten and the Religion of

Light, Cornell University
Hornung, E. 2006: The New Kingdom, in E. Hor-
nung, R. Krauss and D.A. Warburton, eds., Ancient
Egyptian Chronology (HdO I/83), Leiden Boston.

Krauss, Rolf; Das Ende der Amarnazeit (The End

of the Amarna Period); 1978, Hildesheim

Petrie, W M Flinders; Tell el Amarna (1894)

Pendlebury J., Samson, J. et al.; City of Akhenaten,
Part III (1951)
Murnane, W.; Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, (1977)

Murnane, W.; Texts from the Amarna Period,

(1995)
Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity
of Nibhururiya in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007)
Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts false Prophet
(Thames and Hudson; 2001)
Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul,
1990)
Reeves, C.N., The Complete Tutankhamun: The
King - The Tomb - The Royal Treasure. London:
Thames and Hudson; 1990.

Wente, E; Who Was Who Among the Royal Mum-

mies?; (1995), Oriental Institute, Chicago
Chapter 25
Stela of Akhenaten and his family
The Stela of Akhenaten and his family is the name for
an altar image in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo which
depicts the Pharaoh Akhenaten, his queen Nefertiti, and
their three children. The limestone stela with the in-
ventory number JE 44865 is 43.5 39 cm in size and
was discovered by Ludwig Borchardt in Haoue Q 47
at Tell-el Amarna in 1912.[1] When the archaeological
nds from Tell-el Amarna were divided on 20 January
1913, Gustave Lefebvre chose this object on behalf of
the Egyptian Superintendency for Antiquities (the mod-
ern Supreme Council of Antiquities) instead of the Bust
of Nefertiti.
25.1 Description
On the left side Akhenaten sits on a stool, handing a jewel
to his eldest daughter, Meritaten, who stands in front of
him. Nefertiti sits opposite him, on the right hand side,
playing with two of their daughters on her lap. These
are Meketaten and Ankhesenpaaten. In the upper part,
in the middle of the stela is the disk of the Aten, whose
rays end in hands holding the symbol of life (Ankh) and
are thereby depicted as life-bringing. In the background
there are various inscriptions with the names and titles of
the people depicted. The stela is bordered on three sides
by a band of further hieroglyphs, marked with blue paint,
which still partially survives. At the base of the stela are
small holes on both sides which indicate that the stela was
tted with wings on each side.
The so-called Doctrinal name of the Aten used here is
still in its rst form. The stelas dating to the end of the
rst half of Akhenatens reign follows from this, as well as
the depiction of the daughters and stylistic features typical
of the Amarna period.[1]
Such stelae are typical of the Amarna period in Ancient
Egypt and are found particularly in the graves at Amarna,
which was the capital of Egypt under Akhenaten, with the
name Akhetaten. These stelae were altars, which were
placed in private chapels or houses for the worship of the
royal family and the sun-god Aten.
87
25.2 Allegations of forgery
In an interview for Der Spiegel in 2009 in connection with
his claim that the Bust of Nefertiti is a forgery, the Egyp-
tologist Rolf Krauss maintained that the Stela of Akhen-
aten is also a forgery. As a basis for his view, Krauss
claimed, among other things, that the word Maat (truth,
justice) is written incorrectly in four places. He fur-
ther criticised the depiction of Akhenaten as left handed,
which in his view is contrary to ancient Egyptian iconog-
raphy. The yellow weathering on the stone was claimed
to be fake, not a patina, with the support of colour analy-
sis. Another Egyptologist, Christian Loeben commented
favourably, The relief is a pastiche, a fraudulently man-
ufactured stylistic mishmash[2]
25.3 Bibliography
Das gyptische Museum von Kairo. von Zabern,
Mainz 1986, ISBN 3-8053-0640-7, No. 167.
Wilfried Seipel in Exhibition catalogue Nofretete -
Echnaton. von Zabern, Mainz 1976, Nr. 47.
Cyril Aldred. Akhenaten and Nefertiti - Exhibition
catalogue for the 150th anniversary of the Brooklyn
Institute of Arts and Sciences, Brooklyn Museum/
Viking Press, New York 1973, ISBN 0670111392,
p. 11, Fig. 2 (Illustration is reversed).
25.4 External links
Description of the altar with picture on globalegyp-
tianmuseum
Krimi um die Knigin, Der Spiegel
25.5 References
[1] Wilfried Seipel im Ausstellungskatalog Nofretete - Echna-
ton, Nr. 47
88 CHAPTER 25. STELA OF AKHENATEN AND HIS FAMILY

[2] Krimi um die Knigin"; Matthias Schulz, in Der Spiegel,

Issue No.22 of 25 May 2009, pages 134-135
Chapter 26
Temple of Amenhotep IV
The structures within the Temple of Amenhotep IV at
Karnak in Luxor, Egypt, were used during the rst four
years of the reign of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten,
when he still referred to himself as Amenhotep IV, al-
though they may have been constructed at the end of the
reign of Amenhotep III, and completed by his son, the
future Akhenaten. [1]
26.1 Location and layout
Constructed outside the boundaries of the Precinct of
Amon-Re, to the east, the main temple in the com-
plex was named Gmp3itn (Gempaaten), which means
The Sun Disc is Found in the Estate of the God Aten".
The others were named Hwtbnbn (Hwt benben / The
Mansion of the Benben stone"), Rwdmnwnitnrn
(Rud-menu / Sturdy are the Monuments of the Sun
Disc Forever), and Tnimnwnitnrn (Tenimenu
/ Exalted are the Monuments of the Sun Disc Forever).
Very little of these buildings remains, they were built
quickly, using Talatat blocks, and could therefore easily The Tenimenu seemed to contain domestic and storage
be demolished and reused as core for later structures.
26.1.1 Gempaaten
Reconstructed Talatats from the Gempaaten
The Gempaaten appears to have no roof and its oering
89
tables were exposed to direct sunlight. In this building (or
associated with it) were red granite and sandstone statues
of Akhenaten, red granite oering tables and other stat-
ues, including a sphinx inscribed with the name of the
Aten. It was of a considerable size (130m x 216m), but
it was so completely destroyed that its foundations have
been nearly obliterated.[2] It stood within a mud-brick en-
closure, and was orientated to the east, with possibly an
entrance to west, leading to an open court surrounded
by square pillars and colossal statues of Akhenaten and
Nefertiti.[3]
26.1.2 Hwt benben
Erected in east Karnak, the Hwt benben or Mansion of
the Benben was devoted to a solar cult, and was closely
associated with the Gempaaten.[4]
26.1.3 Teni-menu
rooms, and may have been a royal residence, although not
enough of the structure remains to clarify the use.[1]
The walls of the Teni-menu were reused in the Ninth Py-
lon of the main Karnak temple. They have since been
identied and reassembled like a giant puzzle and are
partly exhibited in the Luxor museum. The scenes show
residential, administrative and royal temples and solar Ju-
bilee scenes of the rst Sed-festival, Akhenaten was prob-
ably celebrating at the same time as his father, and when
the Queen Tiye attended.
26.2 References & notes
26.2.1 References
[1] Thomas, Susanna. Akhenaten and Tutankhamen: the reli-
gious revolution. pp. p.41.
[2] Blyth, 2006, p.121
[3] Blyth, 2006, pp.121-122
90 CHAPTER 26. TEMPLE OF AMENHOTEP IV

[4] Blyth, 2006, p.123

26.2.2 Further reading

Blyth, Elizabeth (2006). Karnak: Evolution of a
Temple. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-40487-
8.
Donald Redford, Akhenaten : The Heretic King,
Princeton, 1984

Coordinates: 254306N 323930E / 25.7182N

32.6582E
Chapter 27
Thutmose (sculptor)
The Kings Favourite and Master of Works, the Sculptor
Thutmose" (also spelled Djhutmose and Thutmosis),
ourished 1350 BC, is thought to have been the ocial
court sculptor of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten in the
latter part of his reign. A German archaeological expedi-
tion digging in Akhenatens deserted city of Akhetaton,
at Amarna, found a ruined house and studio complex (la-
beled P47.1-3)[1] in early December 1912;[2] the building
was identied as that of Thutmose based on an ivory horse
blinker found in a rubbish pit in the courtyard inscribed
with his name and job title.[3] Since it gave his occupa-
tion as sculptor and the building was clearly a sculpture
workshop, it seemed a logical connection.
27.1 Recovered works
Among many other sculptural items recovered at the
same time was the polychrome bust of Nefertiti, appar-
ently a master study for others to copy, which was found
on the oor of a storeroom. In addition to this now-
famous bust twenty-two plaster casts of facessome of
which are full heads, others just the facewere found
in Rooms 18/19 of the studio, with an additional one
found in Room 14.[2] Eight of these have been identied
as various members of the royal family including Akhen-
aten, his other wife Kiya, his late father Amenhotep III,
and his eventual successor Ay. The rest represent un-
known individuals, presumably contemporary residents
of Amarna.[2]
A couple of the pieces found in the workshop depict im-
ages of older noblewomen which is rare in Ancient Egyp-
tian art, which more often portrayed women in an ide-
alized manner as always young, slender and beautiful.[4]
One of the plaster faces depicts an older woman, with
wrinkles at the corner of her eyes and bags under them,
and a deeply lined forehead. This piece has been de-
scribed as showing a greater variety of wrinkles than any
other depiction of an elite woman from ancient Egypt[5]
It is thought to represent the image of a wise, older
woman.[5] A small statue of an aging Nefertiti was also
found in the workshop, depicting her with a rounded,
drooping belly and thick thighs and a curved line at the
base of her abdomen showing that she had borne several
91
children, perhaps to project an image of fertility.[6]
Examples of his work recovered from his abandoned stu-
dio can be viewed at the gyptisches Museum Berlin, the
Cairo Museum, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York City.
27.2 Gallery of images
Plaster face of an older Amarna-era woman, from
late in Akhenatens reign, years 14-17, from the
workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. On display at
the gyptisches Museum.
Plaster face of a young Amarna-era woman,
(thought by many to represent Kiya, one of Akhen-
atens wives), from late in Akhenatens reign, years
14-17, from the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose.
On display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York City.
Portrait study thought to represent Kiya, a secondary
wife to the pharaoh Akhenaten. Originally discov-
ered within the workshop of the royal sculptor Thut-
mose at Amarna, now part of the gyptisches Mu-
seum collection in Berlin.
Portrait study thought to represent Amenhotep III,
the father of the pharaoh Akhenaten. Originally dis-
covered within the workshop of the royal sculptor
Thutmose at Amarna, now part of the gyptisches
Museum collection in Berlin.
Plaster portrait study thought to represent the later
successor pharaoh Ay, part of the gyptisches Mu-
seum collection in Berlin.
Statuette of Queen Nefertiti rendered in limestone
from the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. On
display at the gyptisches Museum in Berlin .
Plaster portrait study thought to represent Queen
Nefertiti, primary wife of the pharaoh Akhenaten.
Originally discovered within the workshop of the
royal sculptor Thutmose at Amarna, now part of the
gyptisches Museum collection in Berlin.
92 CHAPTER 27. THUTMOSE (SCULPTOR)

Granite statue of the head of Queen Nefertiti, from 27.5 External links
the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. On display
at the gyptisches Museum. Sculptor Thutmoses Complex image compar-
isons, Rifkinds World

27.3 Tomb
In 1996 the French Egyptologist Alain Zivie discovered at
Saqqara the decorated rock cut tomb of the head of the
painters in the place of truth, Thutmose. The tomb dates
to the time shortly after the Amarna Period. Although
the title of the Thutmose in Saqqara is slightly dierent
from the title of the Thutmose known from Amarna, it
seems likely that they refer to the same person and that the
dierent titles represent dierent stages in his career.[7]

27.4 Footnotes
[1] Located at 273811N 305347E / 27.63639N
30.89639E

[2] Krauss. (2008) p. 47.

[3] Reeves. (2005) p. 157.

[4] Sweeney. (2004) p. 67.

[5] Sweeney. (2004) p. 79.

[6] Tyldesley (2006). p. 126-127.

[7] Alain Zivie: La tombe de Thoutmes, directeur des peintres

dans la Place de Mat, 2013

27.4.1 Bibliography
Dodson, Aidan (2009). Amarna Sunset: Nefer-
titi, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian
Counter-Reformation. The American University in
Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-416-304-3.

Krauss, Rolf (2008). Why Nefertiti Went to

Berlin. KMT 19 (3): 4453.

Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of

Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05145-3.

Sweeney, Deborah (2004). Forever Young? The

Representation of Older and Ageing Women in An-
cient Egyptian Art. Journal of the American Re-
search Center in Egypt (American Research Center
in Egypt) 41: 6784. doi:10.2307/20297188.

Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (Thames

and Hudson, 1988), pp. 59.

Rita E. Freed, Yvonne J. Markowitz, Sue H.

D'Auria, Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten - Nefer-
titi - Tutankhamen (Museum of Fine Arts, 1999),
pp. 123126.
Chapter 28

TT188

Tomb TT188, located in the necropolis of El-Khokha in 28.2 Other Tomb

Thebes in Egypt, is the tomb of the Steward and Kings
Cupbearer Parennefer.[1][2] It has been excavated by the Parennefer also had a tomb (no 7) constructed at
Akhenaten Temple Project. Amarna.[7]
It is one of the few tombs in the Theban necropolis that
was carved and decorated solely during the early years
of the rule of Akhenaten.[3] The tomb is decorated with 28.3 References
sculpted scenes, some of which were painted. The scenes
were all badly damaged and the name of Parennefer [1] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
was carefully removed. The decoration includes harvest Hudson, 1991 (paperback), pp 91-92, ISBN 0-500-
scenes, the presentation of temple-staves at the inaugura- 27621-8
tion of Akhenaten, and an award scene showing Paren-
nefer before the royal couple. In the tomb Akhenaten [2] Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind, Topographical Bibli-
ography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Statues,
goes by his initial name Amenhotep (IV).[1][4]
Reliefs and Paintings Volume I: The Theban Necropolis,
The scenes in the tomb may be the rst to show Part I. Private Tombs, Grith Institute. 1970, pp 293-
Queen Nefertiti. An unnamed royal woman accompa- 295 ASIN: B002WL4ON4
nies Akhenaten as he worships the Aten and sits besides
[3] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period in
the king in a scene showiwing Parennefer before his king Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 pp 64-66,
and queen. The queen is thought to be Nefertiti.[5] ISBN 1-55540-966-0
The scenes in the tomb of Parennefer show some of the
[4] N. de G. Davies, Akhenaten at Thebes, The Journal of
earliest examples of Amarna style depictions. The g- Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 9, No. 3/4 (Oct., 1923), pp.
ures show the rounded form that will become typical in 132-152, Egypt Exploration Society, JSTOR
Amarna art, and courtiers are shown bending from the
waist with their arms hanging down.[6] [5] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. p 50 ISBN 0-670-86998-8
Mummies, cons and other remains show that the tomb
was later reused during the 21st and 22nd dynasties, and [6] Charles F. Nims, The Transition from the Traditional to
robber tunnels have led the way to new and unrecorded the New Style of Wall Relief under Amenhotep IV, Jour-
tombs, whose entrances cannot be located from outside. nal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1/2 (Jan. - Apr.,
1973), pp. 181-187, The University of Chicago Press,
JSTOR

[7] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts V

and VI, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-161-3
28.1 Recent Discoveries

By tracing the multiple robber tunnels that enter the

tomb, other previously unknown tombs have been lo-
cated close by. These include a small painted tomb from
the Ramesside period, one from the 18th Dynasty, and a
tomb of the 25th Dynasty. This last tomb entrance way
is constructed of mud-brick, has a large open court, and
a long corridor with a series of chambers and deep shafts
excavated in the bedrock.

93
Chapter 29

3199 Nefertiti

3199 Nefertiti (1982 RA) is a near-Earth Amor asteroid

discovered on September 13, 1982 by husband and wife
team Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at Palomar. It was
named after the Egyptian queen Nefertiti, mother-in-law
of Tutankhamun.

29.1 External links

JPL Small-Body Database Browser on 3199 Nefer-
titi

94
Chapter 30

Nefertiti Bust

The Nefertiti Bust is a 3,300-year-old painted limestone

bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian
Pharaoh Akhenaten, and one of the most copied works of
ancient Egypt. Owing to the work, Nefertiti has become
one of the most famous women of the ancient world, and
an icon of feminine beauty. The work is believed to have
been crafted in 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose.
A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt
discovered the Nefertiti bust in 1912 in Thutmoses work-
shop in Amarna, Egypt. It has been kept at several lo-
cations in Germany since its discovery, including a salt
mine in Merkers-Kieselbach, the Dahlem museum (then
in West Berlin), the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg
and the Altes Museum. It is currently on display at the re-
stored and recently re-opened Neues Museum in Berlin, A house altar (c. 1350 BC) depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and
three of their daughters. Note Nefertiti wears a crown similar to
where it was displayed before World War II.
that depicted on the bust.
The Nefertiti bust has become a cultural symbol of Berlin,
Germany, as well as of ancient Egypt. Nefertiti herself
has become quite an Icon. Nefertiti is widely known for fertitis stepson. Nefertiti disappears from history in the
her beauty and versatility. It has also been the subject of twelfth year of Akhenatens reign, though whether this is
an intense argument between Egypt and Germany over due to her death or because she took a new name is not
Egyptian demands for its repatriation. It was dragged into known. She may also have later become a pharaoh in her
controversies over the Body of Nefertiti art exhibition and own right, ruling alone for a short time after her husbands
also by allegations regarding its authenticity.[2] death.[3][4]
The bust of Nefertiti is believed to have been crafted
about 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose.[3][5] The bust
30.1 History does not have any inscriptions, but can be certainly iden-
tied as Nefertiti by the characteristic crown, which she
wears in other surviving (and clearly labelled) depictions
30.1.1 Background
(see for instance the 'house altar', right).[6]
Nefertiti (literally the beautiful one has come) was the
14th-century BC Great Royal Wife (chief consort) of
the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten of the Eighteenth dy- 30.1.2 Discovery
nasty of Egypt. Akhenaten initiated a new monothe-
istic form of worship called Atenism dedicated to the The Nefertiti bust was found on 6 December 1912 at
Sun disc Aten.[3] Little is known about Nefertiti. The- Amarna by the German Oriental Company (Deutsche
ories suggest she could have been an Egyptian royal by Orient-Gesellschaft DOG), led by German archaeolo-
birth, a foreign princess or the daughter of a high gov- gist Ludwig Borchardt. It was found in what had been
ernment ocial named Ay, who became pharaoh after the sculptor Thutmoses workshop, along with other un-
Tutankhamun. She may have been the co-regent of Egypt nished busts of Nefertiti.[7][8] Borchardts diary provides
with Akhenaten, who ruled from 1352 BC to 1336 BC.[3] the main written account of the nd; he remarks, Sud-
Nefertiti bore six daughters to Akhenaten, one of whom, denly we had in our hands the most alive Egyptian art-
Ankhesenpaaten (renamed Ankhesenamun after the sup- work. You cannot describe it with words. You must see
pression of the Aten cult), married Tutankhamun, Ne- it.[9]

95
96 CHAPTER 30. NEFERTITI BUST

left eye lacks the inlay present in the right.[16][17] The

pupil of the right eye is of inserted quartz with black paint
and is xed with beeswax. The background of the eye-
socket is unadorned limestone. Nefertiti wears her char-
acteristic blue crown known as Nefertiti cap crown with
a golden diadem band, that is looped around like horizon-
tal ribbons and joining at the back, and an Uraeus (cobra)
over her brow which is now broken. She also wears a
broad collar with a oral pattern on it.[18] The ears also
have suered some damage.[17] Gardners Art Through
the Ages suggests that With this elegant bust, Thutmose
may have been alluding to a heavy ower on its slender
sleek stalk by exaggerating the weight of the crowned
head and the length of the almost serpentine neck.[19]
According to David Silverman, the Nefertiti bust reects
the classical Egyptian art style, deviating from the eccen-
tricities of the Amarna art style, which was developed
in Akhenatens reign. The exact function of the bust is
unknown, though it is theorized that the bust may be a
sculptors modello to be used as a basis for other ocial
portraits, kept in the artists workshop.[20] Surviving royal
portraits are normally wholly in stone, though originally
painted on a thin plaster layer, but not largely made up of
stucco plaster as this piece is.
Nefertiti bust

30.2.1 Colors
A 1924 document found in the archives of the German
Oriental Company recalls the 20 January 1913 meeting Ludwig Borchardt commissioned a chemical analysis of
between Ludwig Borchardt and a senior Egyptian ocial the colored pigments of the head. The result of the ex-
to discuss the division of the archeological nds of 1912 amination was published in the book Portrait of Queen
between Germany and Egypt. According to the secretary Nofretete in 1923:[21]
of the German Oriental Company (who was the author of
the document and who was present at the meeting), Bor- Blue: powdered frit, colored with copper oxide
chardt wanted to save the bust for us.[1][10] Borchardt
is suspected of having concealed the busts real value,[11] Skin color (light red): ne powdered lime spar col-
although he denied doing so.[12] ored with red chalk (iron oxide)
While Philipp Vandenberg describes the coup as adven- Yellow: orpiment (arsenic sulde)
turous and beyond comparison,[13] Time magazine lists
it among the Top 10 Plundered Artifacts.[14] Borchardt Green: powdered frit, colored with copper and iron
showed the Egyptian ocial a photograph of the bust oxide
that didn't show Nefertiti in her best light. The bust
Black: coal with wax as a binding medium
was wrapped up in a box when Egypts chief antiques in-
spector Gustave Lefebvre came for inspection. The doc- White: chalk (calcium carbonate)
ument reveals that Borchardt claimed the bust was made
of gypsum to mislead the inspector. The German Orien-
tal Company blames the negligence of the inspector and 30.2.2 Missing left eye
points out that the bust was at the top of the exchange list
and says the deal was done fairly.[10][15] When the bust was rst discovered, no inserted piece of
quartz to represent the iris of the left eyeball was present,
as in the other eye, and none was found despite an inten-
sive search and a reward of 5 being put up.[22] Borchardt
30.2 Description and examinations assumed that the quartz iris of the left eye had fallen out
when the sculptor Thutmoses workshop fell into ruin.[23]
The bust of Nefertiti is 47 centimetres (19 in) tall and The missing eye led to speculation that Nefertiti may have
weighs about 20 kilograms (44 lb). It is made of a suered from an ophthalmic infection, and actually lost
limestone core covered with painted stucco layers. The her left eye, though the presence of an iris in other statues
face is completely symmetrical and almost intact, but the contradicted this possibility.[24]
30.3. LATER HISTORY
Dietrich Wildung proposed that the bust in Berlin was 30.3.1
a model for ocial portraits and was used by the mas-
ter sculptor for teaching his pupils how to carve the in-
ternal structure of the eye, and thus the left iris was not
added.[25] Gardners Art Through the Ages and Silverman
presents a similar view that the bust was deliberately kept
unnished.[17][19] Hawass suggested that Thutmose had
created the left eye, but it was later destroyed.[26]
30.2.3 CT scans
The bust was rst CT scanned in 1992, with the scan
producing cross sections of the bust every 5 millimetres
(0.20 in).[27][28] In 2006, Dietrich Wildung, the direc-
tor of Berlins Egyptian Museum, while trying a dier-
ent lighting at Altes Museum where the bust was then
displayed observed wrinkles on Nefertitis neck and
bags under her eyes, suggesting the sculptor had tried to
depict signs of aging. A CT scan conrmed Wildungs
ndings; Thutmose had added gypsum under the cheeks
and eyes in an attempt to perfect his sculpture, Wildung
explained.[25]
The CT scan in 2006 led by Alexander Huppertz, the di-
rector of the Imaging Science Institute in Berlin, revealed
a wrinkled face of Nefertiti carved in the inner core of
the bust.[28] The results were published in the April 2009
Radiology journal.[29] The scan revealed that Thutmose
has placed layers of varying thickness on top of the lime-
stone core. The inner face has creases around her mouth
and cheeks and a swelling on the nose. The creases and
the bump on the nose are leveled by the outermost stucco
layer. According to Huppertz, this may reect aesthetic
ideals of the era.[5][30] The 2006 scan provided greater
detail than the 1992 one revealing subtle details just 12
mm under the stucco.[27]
30.3 Later history
The bust of Nefertiti has become one of the most ad-
mired, and most copied, images from ancient Egypt,
and the star exhibit used to market Berlins museums.[31]
It is seen as an icon of international beauty.[11][25][32]
Showing a woman with a long neck, elegantly arched
brows, high cheekbones, a slender nose and an enigmatic
smile played about red lips, the bust has established Ne-
fertiti as one of the most beautiful faces of antiquity.[25]
It is described as the most famous bust of ancient art,
comparable only to the mask of Tutankhamun.[18]
Nefertiti has become an icon of Berlins culture.[7] Some
500,000 visitors see Nefertiti every year.[10] The bust
is described as the best-known work of art from an-
cient Egypt, arguably from all antiquity.[33] Her face
is on postcards of Berlin and 1989 German postage
stamps.[32][34]
97
Locations in Germany
Neues Museum, Berlin is the present location of the Nefertiti bust
The Nefertiti bust has been in Germany since 1913,[1]
when it was shipped to Berlin and presented to James
Simon, a wholesale merchant and the sponsor of the
Amarna excavation.[8] It was displayed at Simons resi-
dence until 1913, when Simon loaned the bust and other
artifacts from the Amarna dig to the Berlin Museum.[35]
Although the rest of the Amarna collection was displayed
in 191314, Nefertiti was kept secret at Borchardts
request.[13] In 1918, the Museum discussed the public
display of the bust, but again kept it secret on the re-
quest of Borchardt.[35] It was permanently donated to the
Berlin Museum in 1920. Finally, in 1923, the bust was
rst unveiled to the public in Borchardts writing and later
in 1924, displayed to the public as part of the Egyptian
Museum of Berlin.[13][35] The bust created a sensation,
swiftly becoming a world-renowned icon of feminine
beauty, and one of the most universally-recognised arte-
facts to survive from Ancient Egypt. The Nefertiti bust
was displayed in Berlins Neues Museum on Museum Is-
land until the museum was closed in 1939; with the onset
of World War II, the Berlin museums were emptied and
the artifacts moved to secure shelters for safekeeping.[8]
Nefertiti was initially stored in the cellar of the Prussian
Governmental Bank and then, in the autumn of 1941,
moved to the tower of a ak bunker in Berlin.[35] The
Neues Museum suered bombings in 1943 by the Royal
Air Force.[36] On 6 March 1945, the bust was moved to a
German salt mine at Merkers-Kieselbach in Thuringia.[8]
In March 1945, the bust was found by the American
Army and given over to its Monuments, Fine Arts and
Archives branch. It was moved to the Reichsbank in
Frankfurt and then, in August, shipped to the U.S. Cen-
tral Collecting Point in Wiesbaden where it was displayed
to the public in 1946.[8][35] In 1956, the bust was re-
turned to West Berlin.[8] There it was displayed at the
Dahlem Museum. As early as 1946, East Germany (Ger-
man Democratic Republic) insisted on the return of Ne-
fertiti to Museum Island in East Berlin, where the bust
had been displayed before the war.[8][35] In 1967, Nefer-
titi was moved in the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg
and remained there until 2005, when it was moved to the
Altes Museum.[35] The bust returned to the Neues Mu-
seum as its centerpiece when the museum reopened in
98
October 2009.[11][36][37]
30.4 Controversies
30.4.1 Requests for repatriation to Egypt
Ever since the ocial unveiling of the bust in Berlin in
1924, the Egyptian authorities have been demanding its
return to Egypt.[7][35][39] In 1925, Egypt threatened to
ban German excavations in Egypt unless Nefertiti was
returned. In 1929, Egypt oered to exchange other ar-
tifacts for Nefertiti, but Germany declined. In the 1950s,
Egypt again tried to initiate negotiations but there was
no response from Germany.[35][39] Although Germany
had previously strongly opposed the repatriation, in 1933
Hermann Gring considered returning the bust to King
Farouk Fouad of Egypt as a political gesture. Hitler op-
posed the idea, and told the Egyptian government that
he would build a new Egyptian museum for Nefertiti:
In the middle, this wonder, Nefertiti, will be enthroned,
... I will never relinquish the head of the Queen.[11][39]
While the bust was under American control, Egypt re-
quested the United States to hand it over; the USA refused
and advised Egypt to take up the matter with the new
German authorities.[35] In 1989, the Egyptian President
Hosni Mubarak viewed the bust and announced that Ne-
fertiti was the best ambassador for Egypt in Berlin.[35]
Dr. Zahi Hawass, the former Secretary General of the
Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, believes that
Nefertiti belongs to Egypt and that the bust was taken
out of Egypt illegally and should therefore be returned.
Dr. Hawass has maintained the stance that Egyptian au-
thorities were misled over the acquisition of Nefertiti in
1913. He has demanded that Germany prove that it was
exported legally.[1][40] According to Kurt G. Siehr, an-
other argument in support of repatriation is that Arche-
ological nds have their 'home' in the country of origin
and should be preserved in that country.[41] The Nefertiti
repatriation issue sprang up again in 2003 over the Body
of Nefertiti sculpture (See Controversy). In 2005, Hawass
requested UNESCO to intervene to return the bust.[42]
In 2007, Hawass threatened to ban exhibitions of Egyp-
tian artifacts in Germany if Nefertiti was not lent to
Egypt, but to no avail. Hawass also requested a world-
wide boycott of loans to German museums to initiate
what he calls a scientic war. Hawass wanted Germany
to at least loan the bust to Egypt in 2012 for the open-
ing of the new Grand Egyptian Museum near the Great
Pyramids of Giza.[31] Simultaneously, a campaign called
Nefertiti Travels was launched by cultural association
CulturCooperation, based in Hamburg, Germany. They
distributed postcards depicting the bust of Nefertiti with
the words Return to Sender and wrote an open letter
to the German Culture Minister, Bernd Neumann, sup-
porting the view that Egypt should be given the bust on
loan.[32][43] In 2009, when Nefertiti moved back to the
CHAPTER 30. NEFERTITI BUST
Neues Museum her old home, the appropriateness of
Berlin as the busts location was questioned.
Several German art experts have attempted to refute
all the claims made by Hawass, pointing to the 1924
document discussing the pact between Borchardt and
the Egyptian authorities,[1][10] though, as discussed ear-
lier, Borchardt has been accused of foul play in the
deal. The German authorities have also argued the bust
is too fragile to transport and that the legal arguments
for the repatriation were insubstantial. According to
The Times, Germany may be concerned that lending the
bust to Egypt would mean its permanent departure from
Germany.[11][31]
In December 2009 Friederike Seyfried, the director of
Berlins Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection, pre-
sented to the Egyptians documents held by the museum
regarding the discovery of the bust which include a pro-
tocol signed by the German excavator of the bust and
the Egyptian Antiquities Service. In the documents, the
object was listed as a painted plaster bust of a princess.
But in the diary of Ludwig Borchardt he clearly referred
to it as the head of Nefertiti. This proves that Bor-
chardt wrote this description so that his country can get
the statue, Hawass commented These materials conrm
Egypts contention that (he) did act unethically with intent
to deceive. However, Hawass said Egypt didn't consider
the Nefertiti bust to be a looted antiquity. Still, it is one
of a handful of truly singular Egyptian antiquities still in
foreign hands. I really want it back, he said.[31] Hawass
statement quoted the director of the museum as saying
the authority to approve the return of the bust to Egypt
lies with the Prussian Cultural Heritage and the German
culture minister.[44]
30.4.2 Allegations over authenticity
The French book, Le Buste de Nefertiti une Imposture de
l'Egyptologie? (The Bust of Nefertiti a Fraud in Egyptol-
ogy?) by Swiss art historian Henri Stierlin and the book
Missing Link in Archaeology by Berlin author and histo-
rian Edrogan Ercivan both claimed that the Nefertiti bust
was a modern fake. Stierlin claims that Borchardt may
have created the bust to test ancient pigments and that
when the bust was admired by the Prussian prince, Johann
Georg, Borchardt pretended it was genuine to avoid of-
fending the prince. Stierlin argues that the missing left
eye of the bust would have been a sign of disrespect in
ancient Egypt, that no scientic records of the bust ap-
pear until 11 years after its supposed discovery, and while
the paint pigments are ancient, the inner limestone core
has never been dated. Ercivan suggests Borchardts wife
was the model for the bust, and both authors argue that it
was not revealed to the public until 1924 because it was a
fake.[9] Another theory suggested that the existing Nefer-
titi bust was crafted in the 1930s on Hitlers orders, and
that the original was lost in World War II.[15]
30.5. CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 99

ploration in Egypt.[31][45][46] The Egyptian Minister for

Culture, Farouk Hosny, declared that Nefertiti was not
in safe hands, and although Egypt had not renewed their
claims for restitution due to the good relations with Ger-
many, this recent behaviour was unacceptable.[35]

30.5 Cultural signicance

In 1930, the German press described the Nefertiti bust as
their new monarch, personifying it as a queen. As the
"'most precious ... stone in the setting of the diadem'
from the art treasures of 'Prussia Germany'", Nefertiti
would re-establish the imperial German national identity
after 1918.[47] Hitler described the bust as a unique mas-
terpiece, an ornament, a true treasure, and pledged to
build a museum to house it.[9] By the 1970s, the bust
had become an issue of national identity to both the Ger-
man states East Germany and West Germany which
were created after World War II.[47] In 1999, Nefertiti ap-
peared on an election poster for the green political party
In 1989, a 70 pfennig stamp which featured the bust of Nefertiti Bndis 90/Die Grnen as a promise for cosmopolitan
was on issue in Germany.
and multi-cultural environment with the slogan Strong
Women for Berlin!"[34] According to Claudia Breger, an-
Dietrich Wildung dismissed the claims as a publicity other reason that the Nefertiti bust became associated
stunt, as radiological tests, detailed computer tomogra- with a German national identity was its place as a rival
phy, and material analysis have proved its authenticity.[9] to the [34] Tutankhamun nd by the British, who then ruled
The pigments used on the bust have been matched to Egypt.
those used by ancient Egyptian artisans. The 2006 CT The bust became an inuence on popular culture with
scan that discovered the hidden face of Nefertiti proved Jack Pierce's make-up work on Elsa Lanchester's iconic
without doubt according to Science News that the bust hair style in the lm Bride of Frankenstein being inspired
was genuine.[15] by it.[48] In the Italian lm Nefertiti, Queen of the Nile
Egyptian authorities also dismissed Stierlins theory. Dr (1961) Nefertiti is in love with the young sculptor Tu-
Zahi Hawass said Stierlin is not a historian. He is mos (Thutmose), played by Edmund Purdom, who is a
delirious. Although Stierlin had argued Egyptians cut friend of prince Amenophis (Akhenaten). Tumos loses
shoulders horizontally and Nefertiti had vertical shoul- Nefeterti to Akhenaten, but preserves his love for her in
ders, Hawass said that the new style seen in the Nefer- the famous sculpture.
titi bust is part of the changes introduced by Akhenaten,
the husband of Nefertiti. Hawass also claimed that the
sculptor Thutmose had created the eye, but it was later 30.6 References
destroyed.[26]
Notes

30.4.3 The Body of Nefertiti

In 2003, the Egyptian Museum in Berlin allowed the
Hungarian artist duo Little Warsaw, Andras Galik and
Balint Havas, to place the bust atop a nearly nude female
bronze for a video installation to be shown at the Venice
Biennale modern art festival. The project called the Body
of Nefertiti was an attempt according to the artists to
pay homage to the bust. According to Wildung, it showed
the continued relevance of the ancient world to todays
art.[45] However, Egyptian cultural ocials took oense
and proclaimed it to be a disgrace to one of the great
symbols of their countrys history. As a consequence,
they also banned Wildung and his wife from further ex-
[1] Dempsy, Judy (18 October 2009). A 3,500-Year-Old
Queen Causes a Rift Between Germany and Egypt. The
New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
[2] Nefertiti Bust May Be 100 Years Old, Not 3,000: Martin
Gayford. Bloomberg.
[3] Maryalice Yakutchik. Who Was Nefertiti?". Discovery
Channel. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
[4] Silverman, Wegner, Wegner pp.130-33
[5] Christine Dell'Amore (30 March 2009). Nefertitis Real,
Wrinkled Face Found in Famous Bust?". National Geo-
graphic Society. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
100
[6] Charlotte Booth (2007-07-30). The Ancient Egyptians for
Dummies. for Dummies. ISBN 978-0-470-06544-0.
[7] Breger p. 285
[8] Siehr p.115
[9] Connolly, Kate (7 May 2009). Is this Nefertiti or a
100-year-old fake?". The Guardian (London). Retrieved
21 November 2009.
[10] Archaeological Controversy: Did Germany Cheat to Get
Bust of Nefertiti?". Der Spiegel. 10 February 2009. Re-
trieved 17 November 2009.
[11] Roger Boyes (20 October 2009). Neues Museum re-
fuses to return the bust of Queen Nefertiti to Egyptian
museum. The Times (London). Retrieved 15 November
2009.
[12] Berger p. 288
[13] Breger p. 286
[14] Top 10 Plundered Artifacts. TIME. 5 March 2009. Re-
trieved 24 November 2009.
[15] Nefertitis 'hidden face' proves Berlin bust is not Hitlers
fake. Science News. 27 April 2009. Retrieved 23
November 2009. For pictures, Nefertitis 'Hidden Face'
Proves Famous Berlin Bust is not Hitlers Fake. 3 April
2009. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
[16] Horst Woldemar Janson, Anthony F. Janson (2003).
History of art: the Western tradition. Prentice Hall PTR.
ISBN 978-0-13-182895-7.
[17] Silverman, Wegner, Wegner pp. 21, 113
[18] Schultz. Egypt the World of Pharaohs: The World of the
Pharaohs. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 203. ISBN
978-977-424-661-6.
[19] Helen Gardner (2006). Art of Ancient Egypt.
Gardners Art Through the Ages: the western perspective.
Cengage Learning. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-495-00478-3.
[20] Silverman, David P. (1997). Ancient Egypt. USA: Oxford
University Press. p. 221. ISBN 0-19-521952-X.
[21] Rudolf Anthes (1961). Nofretete The Head of Queen
Nofretete. Mann, Berlin: Verlag Gebr. p. 6.
[22] Matthias Schulz (2012). Die entfhrte Knigin (Ger-
man)". Der Spiegel 49 (3.12.2012): 128.
[23] Joyce A. Tyldesley, Nefertiti: Egypts sun queen, Viking,
1999, p.196.
[24] Fred Gladstone Bratton, A history of Egyptian archaeol-
ogy, Hale, 1968, p.223
[25] Lorenzi, R (5 September 2006). Scholar: Nefertiti Was
an Aging Beauty. Discovery News (Discovery Channel).
pp. 12. Retrieved 18 December 2009.
[26] Szabo, Christopher (12 May 2009). Egypts Rubbishes
Claims that Nefertiti Bust is 'Fake'". DigitalJournal.com.
CHAPTER 30. NEFERTITI BUST
[27] Patrick McGroarty (31 March 2009). Nefertiti Bust Has
Two Faces. Discovery News (Discovery Channel). pp.
12. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
[28] For comparative analysis between 1992 and 2006 CT
scans: Bernhard Illerhaus, Andreas Staude, Dietmar
Meinel (2009). Nondestructive Insights into Composi-
tion of the Sculpture of Egyptian Queen Nefertiti with
CT and the dependence of object surface from image pro-
cessing. NDT Database & e-Journal of Nondestructive
Testing.
[29] Alexander Huppertz ,, A; Dietrich Wildung, Barry
J. Kemp, Tanja Nentwig, Patrick Asbach; Franz
Maximilian Rosche, Bernd Hamm (April 2009).
Nondestructive Insights into Composition of the Sculp-
ture of Egyptian Queen Nefertiti with CT. Radiology
(Radiological Society of North America) 251 (1):
233240. doi:10.1148/radiol.2511081175. OCLC
10.1148/radiol.2511081175. PMID 19332855.
[30] Hidden Face In Nefertiti Bust Examined With CT Scan.
Science Daily. 8 April 2009. Retrieved 23 November
2009.
[31] Dan Morrison (18 April 2007). Egypt Vows Scientic
War If Germany Doesn't Loan Nefertiti. National Ge-
ographic News (National Geographic Society). Retrieved
15 November 2009.
[32] Moore, Tristana (7 May 2007). Row over Nefertiti bust
continues. BBC News. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
[33] Siehr p.114
[34] Breger p. 292
[35] The Bust of Nefertiti: A Chronology. Nefertiti travels
campaign website. CulturCooperation. 2007. Retrieved
22 November 2009.
[36] Tony Paterson (17 October 2009). Queen Nefertiti rules
again in Berlins reborn museum. The Independent (Lon-
don). Retrieved 15 November 2009.
[37] Isabelle de Pommereau (2 November 2009). Germany:
Time for Egypts Nefertiti bust to go home?". The Chris-
tian Science Monitor. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
[38] Thutmoses Bust of Nefertiti (Amarna Period)".
Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved 15 March
2013.
[39] Sieher p. 116
[40] Kimmelman, Michael (23 October 2009). When An-
cient Artifacts Become Political Pawns. New York Times.
Retrieved 15 November 2009.
[41] Siehr pp. 1334
[42] El-Aref, Nevine (1420 July 2005). Antiquities wish
list. Al-Ahram Weekly (751).
[43] ""Nefertiti travels campaign website.
CulturCooperation. 2007. Retrieved 22 November
2009.
30.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 101

[44] The Associated Press:Egypt antiquities chief to demand

Nefertiti bust

[45] HUGH EAKIN (21 June 2003). Nefertitis Bust Gets a

Body, Oending Egyptians. The New York Times. Re-
trieved 21 November 2009.

[46] For a picture of The Body of Nefertiti see Nefertitis

Bust Gets a Body, Oending Egyptians: A Problematic
Juxtaposition. The New York Times. 21 June 2003. Re-
trieved 23 November 2009.

[47] Breger p. 291

[48] Elizabeth Young, Here Comes the Bride: Wedding Gen-

der and Race in Bride of Frankenstein"; Feminist Studies,
Vol. 17, 1991. 35 pgs.

Books

Anthes, Rudolph (1961). Nofretete The Head of

Queen Nofretete. Gebr. Mann.

Breger, Claudia (2006). The 'Berlin' Nefertiti

Bust. In Regina Schulte. The body of the queen:
gender and rule in the courtly world, 15002000.
Berghahn Book. ISBN 1-84545-159-7.

Siehr, Kurt G (August 2006). The Beautiful One

has come to Return. In John Henry Merryman.
Imperialism, art and restitution. CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS. ISBN 0-521-85929-8.

Silverman, David P.; Wegner, Josef William; Weg-

ner, Jennifer Houser (2006). Akhenaten and Tu-
tankhamun: revolution and restoration. University
of Pennsylvania, Museum of Archaeology. ISBN
978-1-931707-90-9.

30.7 External links

Media related to Nefertiti bust (Berlin) at Wikime-
dia Commons

Neues Museum Berlin

Chapter 31
Aten
For other uses, see Aten (disambiguation).
Aten (also Aton, Egyptian jtn) is the disk of the sun in god of Akhenaten raised to supremacy is considered a
Aten
ancient Egyptian mythology, and originally an aspect of
Ra. The deied Aten is the focus of the monolatristic,
henotheistic, or monotheistic religion of Atenism es-
tablished by Amenhotep IV, who later took the name
Akhenaten in worship and recognition of Aten. In his
poem "Great Hymn to the Aten", Akhenaten praises Aten
as the creator, and giver of life. The worship of Aten was
eradicated by Horemheb.
31.1 Overview
The Aten, the sun-disk, is rst referred to as a deity in The
Story of Sinuhe from the 12th dynasty,[1] in which the
deceased king is described as rising as god to the heav-
ens and uniting with the sun-disk, the divine body merg-
ing with its maker.[2] By analogy, the term silver aten
was sometimes used to refer to the moon.[3] The solar
Aten was extensively worshipped as a god in the reign of
Amenhotep III, when it was depicted as a falcon-headed
man much like Ra. In the reign of Amenhotep IIIs suc-
cessor, Amenhotep IV, the Aten became the central god
of Egyptian state religion, and Amenhotep IV changed
his name to Akhenaten to reect his close link with the
new supreme deity.[1]
The full title of Akhenatens god was "Ra-Horakhty who
rejoices in the horizon, in his Name as the Light which
is in the sun disc. (This is the title of the god as it ap-
pears on the numerous stelae which were placed to mark
the boundaries of Akhenatens new capital at Akhetaten,
modern Amarna.) This lengthy name was often short-
ened to Ra-Horus-Aten or just Aten in many texts, but the
synthesis of very ancient gods viewed in a new and dier-
ent way. The god is also considered to be both masculine
and feminine simultaneously. All creation was thought to
emanate from the god and to exist within the god. In par-
ticular, the god was not depicted in anthropomorphic (hu-
man) form, but as rays of light extending from the suns
disk.
Furthermore, the gods name came to be written within
a cartouche, along with the titles normally given to a
Pharaoh, another break with ancient tradition. Ra-Horus,
more usually referred to as Ra-Horakhty (Ra, who is Ho-
rus of the two horizons), is a synthesis of two other gods,
both of which are attested from very early on. During the
Amarna period, this synthesis was seen as the invisible
source of energy of the sun god, of which the visible man-
ifestation was the Aten, the solar disk. Thus Ra-Horus-
Aten was a development of old ideas which came grad-
ually. The real change, as some see it, was the apparent
abandonment of all other gods, especially Amun, and the
debatable introduction of monotheism by Akhenaten.[4]
The syncretism is readily apparent in the Great Hymn to
the Aten in which Re-Herakhty, Shu and Aten are merged
into the creator god.[5] Others see Akhenaten as a practi-
tioner of an Aten monolatry,[6] as he did not actively deny
the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from wor-
shipping any but the Aten.
31.2 Royal Titulary
During the Amarna Period, the Aten was given a Royal
Titulary (as he was considered to be king of all), with his
names drawn in a cartouche. There were two forms of
this title, the rst had the names of other gods, and the
second later one which was more 'singular' and referred
only to the Aten himself. The early form has Re-Horakhti
who rejoices in the Horizon, in his name Shu which is the
Aten. The later form has Re, ruler of the two horizons
who rejoices in the Horizon, in his name of light which is
the Aten.
102
31.3. SEE ALSO
Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family adoring the Aten, second
from the left is Meritaten who was the daughter of Akhenaten.
Small Temple of the Aten at Akhetaten
31.2.1 Variant translations
High relief and low relief illustrations of the Aten
show it with a curved surface (see for example the
photograph illustrating this article), therefore, the
late scholar Hugh Nibley insisted that a more cor-
rect translation would be globe, orb or sphere, rather
than disk. The three-dimensional spherical shape of
the Aten is even more evident when such reliefs are
viewed in person, rather than merely in photographs.
There is a possibility that Atens three-dimensional
spherical shape depicts an eye of Horus/Ra. In the
other early monotheistic religion Zoroastrianism the
sun is called Ahura Mazda's eye.
These two theories are compatible with each other,
since an eye is an orb.
103
31.2.2 Variant vocalizations
Egyptologists have vocalized the word variously as Aten,
Aton, Atonu, and Itn.
31.2.3 Names derived from Aten
Akhenaten: Eective spirit of the Aten.
Akhetaten: Horizon of the Aten, Akhenatens
capital. The archaeological site is known as
Amarna.
Ankhesenpaaten: Her life is of the Aten.
Beketaten: Handmaid of the Aten.
Meritaten: She who is beloved of the Aten.
Meketaten: Behold the Aten or Protected by
Aten.
Neferneferuaten: The most beautiful one of Aten.
Paatenemheb: The Aten on jubilee.
Tutankhaten: Living image of the Aten. Original
name of Tutankhamun.
31.3 See also
Amun
Atenism
The Egyptian
Great Hymn to the Aten
Inti
Moses
Pharaoh of the Exodus
The spatial symbolism of the Voortrekker Monu-
ment
31.4 References
[1] Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. pp. 236
240
[2] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.1, 1980,
p.223
[3] Fleming, Fergus, and Alan Lothian (1997). The Way to
Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Duncan Baird Publishers. p. 52
[4] Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies,
Stanford University Press 2005, p.59
104 CHAPTER 31. ATEN

[5] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol. 2, 1980,

p. 96

[6] Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and

Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2000, ISBN 0-415-18549-1, pp.
36.

[7] see Collier, Mark and Manley, Bill. How to Read Egyp-
tian Hieroglyphs: 2nd Edition. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1998, p. 29

31.5 External links

Works related to Great Hymn to Aten at Wikisource

Media related to Aten at Wikimedia Commons

Chapter 32

Atenism

Aten

Atenism, or the Amarna heresy, refers to the reli-

gious changes associated with the eighteenth dynasty
Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, better known under his adopted
name, Akhenaten. In the 14th century BC Atenism
was Egypt's state religion for around 20 years, before
subsequent rulers returned to the traditional gods and
the Pharaohs associated with Atenism were erased from
Egyptian records.

32.1 History of the Aten before Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family adoring the Aten

Akhenaten
other gods or attempted to promote the Aten as an exclu-
The Atenthe god of Atenismrst appears in texts sive deity.
dating to the 12th dynasty, in the Story of Sinuhe.
Here during the Middle Kingdom, the Aten as the sun
disk...was merely one aspect of the sun god Re.[1] The 32.2 Atenist revolution
Aten, hence, was a relatively obscure sun god; with-
out the Atenist period, it would barely have gured in
Egyptian history. Although there are indications that the Amenhotep IV initially introduced Atenism in Year 5 of
Aten was becoming slightly more important in the eigh- his reign (1348/1346 BC), raising the Aten to the status of
teenth dynasty periodnotably Amenhotep III's naming supreme god, after initially permitting
[3]
the continued wor-
of his royal barge as Spirit of the Atenit was Amenhotep ship of the traditional gods. To emphasise the change,
IV who introduced the Atenist revolution, in a series of Atens name was written in the cartouche form normally
steps culminating in the ocial installment of the Aten as reserved for Pharaohs, an innovation of Atenism. This
Egypts sole god. Although each line of kings prior to the religious reformation appears to coincide with the procla-
reign of Akhenaten[2] had previously adopted one deity as mation of a Sed festival, a sort of royal jubilee intended to
the royal patron and supreme state god, there had never reinforce the Pharaohs divine powers of kingship. Tra-
been an attempt to exclude other deities, and the mul- ditionally held in the thirtieth year of the Pharaohs reign,
titude of gods had been tolerated and worshipped at all this possibly was a festival in honour of Amenhotep III,
times. During the reign of Thutmosis IV it was identied whom some Egyptologists think had a coregency with his
as a distinct solar god, and his son Amenhotep III estab- son Amenhotep IV of two to twelve years.
lished and promoted a separate cult for the Aten. There Year 5 is believed to mark the beginning of Amenhotep
is no evidence however that Amenhotep III neglected the IVs construction of a new capital, Akhetaten (Horizon of

105
106 CHAPTER 32. ATENISM

the Aten), at the site known today as Amarna. Evidence tian state religion, and deposed its religious hierarchy,
of this appears on three of the boundary stelae used to headed by the powerful priesthood of Amun at Thebes.
mark the boundaries of this new capital. At this time, For fteen centuries the Egyptians had worshiped an ex-
Amenhotep IV ocially changed his name to Akhenaten tended family of gods and goddesses, each of which had
(Spirit of the Aten) as evidence of his new worship. The its own elaborate system of priests, temples, shrines and
date given for the event has been estimated to fall around rituals. A key feature of these cults was the veneration of
January 2 of that year. In Year 7 of his reign (1346/1344 images and statues of the gods, which were worshipped
BC ) the capital was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten in the dark connes of the temples.
(near modern Amarna), though construction of the city
The pinnacle of this religious hierarchy was the Pharaoh,
seems to have continued for two more years. In shifting who was both king and living god, and the administration
his court from the traditional ceremonial centres Akhen-
of the Egyptian kingdom was thus inextricably bound up
aten was signalling a dramatic transformation in the focus with, and largely controlled by, the power and inuence
of religious and political power.
of the priests and scribes. Akhenatens reforms cut away
The move separated the Pharaoh and his court from the both the philosophical and economic bases of priestly
inuence of the priesthood and from the traditional cen- power, abolishing the cults of all other deities, and with
tres of worship, but his decree had deeper religious signif- them the large and lucrative industry of sacrices and
icance tootaken in conjunction with his name change, tributes that the priests controlled.
it is possible that the move to Amarna was also meant as At the same time, this strengthened the role of the
a signal of Akhenatens symbolic death and rebirth. It Pharaoh. Dominic Montserrat, analysing the various ver-
may also have coincided with the death of his father and sions of the hymns to the Aten, argues that all the versions
the end of the coregency. In addition to constructing a of the hymns focus on the king and suggests that the real
new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the innovation is to redene the relationship of god and king
construction of some of the most massive temple com- in a way that beneted Akhenaten, quoting the statement
plexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one of Egyptologist John Baines that Amarna religion was a
at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun. religion of god and king, or even of king rst and then
In Year 9 ( 1344/1342 BC ), Akhenaten strengthened the god.[5][6]
Atenist regime, declaring the Aten to be not merely the Initially, Akhenaten presented Aten to the Egyptian peo-
supreme god, but the only god, a universal deity, and for-
ple as a variant of the familiar supreme deity Amun-Ra
bidding worship of all others, including the veneration (itself the result of an earlier rise to prominence of the
of idols, even privately in peoples homesan arena the cult of Amun, resulting in Amun becoming merged with
Egyptian state had previously not touched in religious the sun god Ra), in an attempt to put his ideas in a familiar
terms. Aten was addressed by Akhenaten in prayers, religious context. Aten is the name given to the solar disc,
such as the Great Hymn to the Aten: O Sole God beside whereas the full title of Akhenatens god was Ra-Horus,
whom there is none. Dominic Montserrat wrote that the who rejoices in the horizon in his name of the light which
Egyptian people were to worship Akhenaten while only is in the sun disc. (This is the title of the god as it appears
Akhenaten and Nefertiti could worship Aten.[4] on the numerous stelae which were placed to mark the
Akhenaten staged the ritual regicide of the old supreme boundaries of Akhenatens new capital at Akhetaten.)
god Amun, and ordered the defacing of Amuns temples However in the ninth year of his reign Akhenaten de-
throughout Egypt, and of all the old gods. The word clared a more radical version of his new religion by
for `gods (plural) was proscribed, and inscriptions have declaring Aten not merely the supreme god, but the only
been found in which even the hieroglyph of the word for god, and that he, Akhenaten, was the only intermedi-
mother has been excised and re-written in alphabetic ary between the Aten and his people. He even staged
signs, because it had the same sound in ancient Egyptian the ritual regicide of Amun, and ordered the defacing
as the sound of name of the Theban goddess Mut. Atens of Amuns temples throughout Egypt. Key features of
name is also written dierently after Year 9, to empha-
Atenism included a ban on idols and other images of the
sise the radicalism of the new regime. No longer is the Aten, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which
Aten written using the symbol of a rayed solar disc, but
the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to
instead it is spelled phonetically. represent the unseen spirit of Aten. New temples were
constructed, in which the Aten was worshipped in the
open sunlight, rather than in dark temple enclosures, as
32.3 Contrast with traditional the old gods had been.
Egyptian religion Although idols were bannedeven in peoples homes
these were typically replaced by functionally equivalent
representations of Akhenaten and his family venerating
Akhenaten carried out a radical program of religious re-
the Aten, and receiving the ankh (breath of life) from him.
form which, for a period of about twenty years, largely
The radicalisation of Year 9 (including spelling Aten pho-
supplanted the age-old beliefs and practices of the Egyp-
32.5. DECLINE OF ATENISM 107

netically instead of using the rayed solar disc) may be due 32.5 Decline of Atenism
to a determination on the part of Akhenaten to dispel a
probable misconception among the common people that
Aten was really a type of sun god like Ra. Instead, the Crucial evidence about the latter stages of Akhenatens
idea was reinforced that such representations were rep- reign was furnished by discovery of the so-called Amarna
resentations above all of conceptsof Atens universal Letters. Believed to have been thrown away by scribes
presencenot of physical beings or things. after being transferred to papyrus, the letters comprise
a priceless cache of incoming clay message tablets sent
The early stage of Atenism appears a kind of henotheism from imperial outposts and foreign allies. The letters sug-
familiar in Egyptian religion, but the later form suggests gest that Akhenaten was obsessed with his new religion,
a proto-monotheism. and that his neglect of matters of state was causing disor-
der across the massive Egyptian empire. The governors
and kings of subject domains wrote to beg for gold, and
also complained of being snubbed and cheated. Also dis-
covered were reports that a major plague pandemic was
spreading across the ancient Near East. This pandemic
appears to have claimed the life of Akhenatens main
32.4 Amarna art wife (Nefertiti) and several of his six daughters, which
may have contributed to a declining interest on the part
of Akhenaten in governing eectively.
Main article: Amarna art
With Akhenatens death, the Aten cult he had founded al-
most immediately fell out of favor due to pressures from
Styles of art that ourished during this short period are the Priesthood of Amun. Tutankhaten, who succeeded
markedly dierent from other Egyptian art, bearing a va- him at age 8 (with Akhenatens old vizier, Ay, as regent)
riety of aectations, from elongated heads to protruding changed his name to Tutankhamun in year 3 of his reign
stomachs, exaggerated ugliness and the beauty of Nefer- (1348 BC or 1331 BC) and abandoned Akhetaten, the
titi. Signicantly, and for the only time in the history of city falling into ruin. Temples Akhenaten had built, in-
Egyptian royal art, Akhenatens family was depicted in a cluding the temple at Thebes, were disassembled, reused
decidedly naturalistic manner, and they are clearly shown as a source of building materials and decorations for their
displaying aection for each other. Greek inuence may own temples, and inscriptions to Aten defaced. Finally,
have resulted in some of the Amarna artistic characteris- Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun, and Ay were re-
tics. moved from the ocial lists of Pharaohs, which instead
Images of Akhenaten and Nefertiti usually depict the reported that Amenhotep III was immediately succeeded
Aten prominently above that pair, with the hands of the by Horemheb.
Aten closest to each oering Ankhs. Unusually for new-
kingdom art the Pharaoh and his Great Royal Wife are
depicted as approximately equal in size, which together
with Nefertitis image used to decorate the lesser Aten
temple at Amarna may suggest she also had a prominent 32.6 Link to Judaism
ocial role in Aten worship.
Artistic representations of Akhenaten usually give him a Because of the possible monotheistic character of
strikingly feminine appearance, with slender limbs, a pro- Atenism, a link to Judaism (and subsequently the
truding belly and wide hips. Other leading gures of the monotheistic religions springing from it) has been sug-
Amarna period, both royal and otherwise, are also shown gested by various writers. For example, psychoanalyst
with some of these features, suggesting a possible reli- Sigmund Freud assumed Akhenaten to be the pioneer of
gious connotation, especially as some sources suggest that monotheistic religion and Moses as Akhenatens follower
private representations of Akhenaten, as opposed to of- in his book Moses and Monotheism (see also Osarseph).
cial art, show him as quite normal. However, according
to some controversial theories, the strikingly unusual rep-
resentations may have been due to non-religious factors -
Akhenaten may actually been a woman masquerading as
a man, which had been known to happen in Egyptian poli- 32.7 Atenism in ction
tics at least once before, or he may have had some intersex
condition. It is also suggested by Bob Brier, in his book
The Murder of Tutankhamen, that the family suered Finnish author Mika Waltari used the idea of Aten and
from Marfans syndrome, which is known to cause elon- Atenism in his famous historical novel The Egyptian, as
gated features, and that this may explain Akhenatens ap- did New Zealand-Canadian author Pauline Gedge's 1984
pearance. historical novel The Twelfth Transforming.
108 CHAPTER 32. ATENISM

32.8 Literature
Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten, King of Egypt ISBN 0-
500-05048-1
Mahfouz, Naguib, Akhenaten: Dweller in Truth
ISBN 0-385-49909-4

Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King

ISBN 0-691-00217-7

Reeves, Nicholas, Akhenaton: Egypts False Prophet

ISBN 0-500-28552-7

32.9 See also

Judaism and ancient Egyptian religion

32.10 References
[1] Rosalie David, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt, Facts
on File Inc., 1998. p.124

[2] Rosalie David, op. cit., p.124

[3] Rosalie David, op. cit., p.125

[4] Hart, George (2005). The Routledge dictionary of Egyp-

tian gods and goddesses (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 39.
ISBN 978-0-415-34495-1.

[5] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fan-

tasy and Ancient Egyp. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 978-
0415301862.

[6] John Baines (1998). The Dawn of the Amarna Age. In

David O'Connor, Eric Cline. Amenhotep III: Perspectives
on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. p. 281.
Chapter 33

Great Temple of the Aten

The Great Temple of the Aten (or the pr-Jtn, House of

the Aten[1] ) was located in the city of el-Amarna, Egypt,
and was the main temple for the worship of the god Aten
during the reign of Akhenaten (c. 1353-1336 BCE[2] ).[3]
Akhenaten ushered in a unique period of ancient Egyp-
tian history by establishing the new religious cult dedi-
cated to the sun-disk Aten. Akhenaten shut down tradi-
tional worship of other deities like Amun-Ra and brought
in a new era, though short-lived, of seeming monothe-
ism where the Aten was worshipped as a sun god and
Akhenaten and his wife, Nefertiti, represented the di-
vinely royal couple that connected the people with the
god.[3] Although he began construction at Karnak dur-
ing his rule, the association the city had with other gods
drove Akhenaten to establish a new city and capital at
Amarna (then called Akhetaten) for the Aten. Akhen-
aten built the city along the east bank of the Nile River,
setting up workshops, palaces, suburbs and temples. The
Great Temple of the Aten was located just north of the
Central City and, as the largest temple dedicated to the
Aten, was where Akhenaten fully established the proper
cult and worship of the sun-disk.[3]

33.1 Construction Surviving stela from the Great Temple of Aten at Akhetaten.

The city of Akhetaten was built rather hastily and was

constructed mostly of mud-brick. Mud-bricks were made
by drying in the sun and they measured 33-37 cm x 15-
16 cm x 9-10 cm, although bricks for temple enclosure
walls were slightly larger, at 38 cm x 16 cm x 16 cm.[4]
During construction, bricks were laid down with a small
amount of mortar between the rows and no mortar be-
tween adjacent bricks. There was no rain to deteriorate
the bricks but they would wear down from wind-swept
sand, so for protection walls were plastered with a layer
of mud that could be reapplied. As the bricks dried, they
often shrank leading to warping and structural problems,
so a technique was developed of arranging the rows of
bricks so that every other row was nearly hollow, allow-
ing for air to circulate. While this helped walls keep their
form, it also acted to weaken the walls so particularly
high constructions meant to hold a lot of weight had to
be made dierently.[4] For pylon towers and large sur-
rounding walls like those at the Great Temple of the Aten,
timber was used for structural support and the public
buildings within the Temple had stone columns and were
built of other stones for more support. Stone columns
conformed to the usual style found elsewhere in Egypt,
representing either palm-frond or papyrus.[4] To lay out
structural elements like oering tables and pits on a plas-
ter oor, string was used. The string was rst dipped in
black paint and stretched tightly and was allowed to touch
the ground, leaving a mark. In some instances the string
was even pushed into the plaster oor, leaving a shallow
groove. A similar technique was used to divide up wall
surfaces before they were decorated with relief.[4]
The actual construction of the temple was accomplished
in a series of steps. Before anything was built, there was
already some kind of dedication ceremony at the site.[4]
A ceremonial gateway with receptacles for liquid oer-

109
110
ings stood at the beginning of a paved avenue. The av-
enue extended eastward and was lined with sphinxes, but
they were later replaced by trees (tree pits, some still con-
taining tree roots, have been excavated). The avenue led
up to a small mud-brick shrine which was later built into
the main design scheme of the Temple.[4] The rst main
construction undertaken by Akhenaten was the building
of the temenos wall, enclosing a huge area of 229m x
730m.[5] As the wall was being completed, the stone
Sanctuary at the east end of the enclosure was built. This
Sanctuary seemed to function on its own for some time
until a few years later when Akhenaten added the Gem-
Aten on the west side of the enclosure. With this addition,
the original ceremonial gate had to be taken down and a
raised causeway was built over it. The Gem-Aten was
originally constructed in stone, but it seems that as time
went on Akhenaten ran low on materials and the latter
part of the Gem-Aten was nished with mud-brick.[4] It
is unknown exactly how the Temple walls were decorated
because the entire area was destroyed later on, but frag-
ments that have been found show that there were many
statues of Akhenaten and his family placed all around the
Temple.[4]
33.2 Layout
The Great Temple of the Aten lay to the north of the Cen-
tral City part of Akhetaten and was separated from the
Palace by many storehouses.[6] The Temple was oriented
on an east-west axis[6] and the western entrance to the
Great Temple was along the Royal Road, a road that ran
through the city and parallel to the Nile River.[3] Soon
after the death of Akhenaten, Atenism was rejected as
a religion and the city was destroyed. The temple was
dismantled, covered in new sand, and paved over, but
ironically this has preserved the site better than it might
normally have been for archaeologists today.[4] In 1890,
Flinders Petrie, with permission from the Egyptian An-
tiquities Service, began excavating the area.[7] Based on
the remaining foundations he found[5] as well as on mul-
tiple scenes of the Great Temple found in private tomb
decoration in Amarna, a comprehensive reconstruction
of the temple has been possible.[7]
The temple as pictured in Panehsys tomb
One of the most distinctive aspects of the Temple was
that there was no cult image of the god. Instead, the
Temple was open-aired and had no roof, so that people
worshipped the actual sun directly overhead as it traveled
from east to west.[5] In fact this was a common theme
CHAPTER 33. GREAT TEMPLE OF THE ATEN
amongst all of the Aten temples; they were all arranged to
direct worship towards the sky (such as in the wt Aten
(Mansion of Aten), the smaller temple of Aten located
500m south of the Great Temple in Akhetaten).[1]
In the Great Temple there were two main structures, the
Gem-Aten and the Sanctuary, which were separated by
about 300m.[8] Upon entering the enclosure wall, one
faced the rst of these structures, the Gem-Aten, which
was a very long building preceded by a court called the
Per-Hai (House of Rejoicing).[8] On the left of the main
entrance to the Temple was a columned pavilion and on
both the left and the right were small chapels.[9] These
chapels, originally built for Queen Kiya, were later taken
over by the elder princesses.[7] The rst great pylon di-
rectly ahead was the entrance into the Per-Hai and it had
swinging doors and ve pairs of tall masts with crimson
pennants anking the doorway.[9] The inside of the Per-
Hai had two rows of four columns on each side. Within
these colonnades were altars made of limestone carved
with images of the King and Queen giving oerings.[4]
Through the Per-Hai and the next great pylon was the
Gem-Aten, the [The Place of] He Who Found the Aten,[1]
and this was a series of six courtyards separated by pylons,
all leading to a main sanctuary and altar.[8] This Temple
diered from temples of other gods because as one pro-
gressed through the courts, they became more open to the
air and light, as opposed to temples like those of Amun-
Ra where the halls would get darker and more shrouded
in mystery.[1] The rst court had a high altar with small
chapels and chambers on either side. Each successive
court had altars and magazines where oering supplies
could be stored.[7] The fourth court was columned and
had many furnished chambers where people could rest in
the shade.[9] The nal court had a main High Altar in-
tended for the Royal pair, and it was surrounded by 365
mud-brick altars on either side, one for each day of the
year, divided to represent Upper and Lower Egypt.[7] The
oerings given here were dedicated to the Aten but were
then used to feed the ociating priests, the temple sta,
and even some of the local populace.[7] Beyond this High
Altar the Gem-Aten abruptly ended in a blank wall, which
shows no sign of having had a door in it.[4] On the out-
side of the Gem-Aten there was enough room to have a
large ambulatory[9] and there were 40 rows of 20 oering
tables set up on each side.[4]
The temple as pictured in Meryres tomb
Between the Gem-Aten and the Sanctuary, the main
building at the east end of the enclosure, was a smaller,
more sacred pillared portico with statues of Akhenaten
and his family standing in front of each column.[9] Inside
33.4. EXCAVATION & EXPLORATION 111

the portico was a great quartzite stela next to a colossal burning incense and pouring libations.[1] To consecrate
seated statue of Akhenaten.[7] This stela was carved with oerings, a special baton called a hrp was used to touch
images of Akhenaten and Nefertiti and was a variation the oerings, marking it as meant for the Aten.[1]
of a benben stone, a sacred solar symbol of Heliopolis.[5] On each day, the Royal Family approached the temple on
Traditionally, the benben stone was a representation of chariots after riding up and down the Royal Road,[4] and
the island created by the sun-god Atum at the beginning entered the temple precinct and presented oerings in
of the world.[1] This marked one of the holiest areas in the front of the Gem-Aten.[1] The King and Queen then con-
Temple and it was heaped in owers and oerings.[9] To- secrated their oerings with the hrp while their daugh-
day only a fragment of this stone has been found (discov-
ters rattled instruments called sistra.[1] The family then
ered by Carter in 1892),[7] but it was identied as a ben- passed through the pylons of the Gem-Aten and mounted
ben stone based on scenes of the Temple found in nearby
the steps of the High Altar where there were oerings
tombs.[5] of meat, poultry, vegetables, and owers already laid out
Also between the Gem-Aten and the Sanctuary in the and surmounted by three pans of burning incense.[1] As
Great Temple was a large square building where meat of- the King and Queen ociated, priests then placed of-
ferings were slaughtered and prepared, but further exca- ferings on many of the other altars for the public peo-
vation of the area is dicult because of the presence of ple while music was played. The Princesses continued to
the modern-day cemetery of Et-Till.[4] rattle the sistra while four male chanters sang hymns to
The second main structure of the Great Temple was the the Aten within the Gem-Aten court.[1] Outside the Gem-
Sanctuary at its east end, which may have been inspired Aten were female musicians who performed along with
by the Fifth Dynasty Sun Temples at Abu Ghuroub (c. the temple choir which was made up of blind singers and
2400 BCE).[1] The Sanctuary started with a pylon that led a blind harpist. These musicians performed at intervals
into an open court, on the south side of which were three throughout the day and were never allowed beyond the
houses probably intended for the priests on duty.[4] A sec- outer court.[1]
ond pylon led to a causeway that went through two large
colonnades with colossal statues of Akhenaten on either
side wearing the Red Crown and the White Crown.[4] The
causeway continued into a nal court that had a high al-
tar surrounded by oering tables. This main altar was
probably intended just for the Royal Family, especially 33.4 Excavation & Exploration
after the Gem-Aten was built and put into regular use.[4]
Behind the Sanctuary there were other rooms including a
Flinders Petrie was the rst person to work in the temple,
large room which housed the original shrine of the ded-
and his assistant, Howard Carter excavated in the sanctu-
ication ceremony, but these rooms were only accessible
[4] ary area. However, it was John Pendlebury who actually
from outside the Sanctuary.
fully mapped this area during his excavations in 1935.
Against the northeastern end of the enclosure wall was The EES Amarna Survey project returned to redig the
one nal altar called the Hall of Foreign Tribute. This site and corrected some mistakes in the mapping.
was a large set-in altar and was most likely where oerings
Project leader Sarah Parcak of the University of Al-
from foreign lands were made.[1]
abama at Birmingham, Based on the coins and pottery
we found, it appears to be a massive regional center that
traded with Greece, Turkey and Libya.
33.3 Worship This is part of a larger project aiming to map as much
of ancient Egypts archaeological sites, or tells, as pos-
The cult of the Aten was celebrated daily and was very sible before they [11]
are destroyed or covered by modern
[8]
simple. Although there were other priests, Akhenaten development.
acted as his own High Priest and special roles were given Although Akhenaten had several temples dedicated to the
to the royal women.[1] Since there was no cult statue, the Aten, the Great Temple of the Aten was the largest and
traditional acts of raising and washing the god played most signicant. During Akhenatens reign, the new city
no role in the Great Temple and worship rather con- of Akhetaten was completely built up and the regular wor-
sisted solely of singing hymns and giving oerings to the ship of the Aten was established. Shortly after Akhen-
Aten.[1] Some hymns told stories, such as one that at- atens death though, this all fell apart as successive kings
tributed the Aten with the creation of the human race and destroyed the Temple and the city in an eort to return
recognized that people were created dierently, to speak to the traditional religion of Egypt. Nonetheless, enough
dierent languages and have dierent colored skins,[10] remains preserved of the Great Temple of the Aten to be
while other hymns simply expressed adoration and grat- able to get a sense of what it looked like and how worship
itude to the Aten.[8] Oerings consisted of food, drink, of the Aten must have played out for inhabitants of the
owers, and perfume and were often accompanied by city of Akhetaten.
112 CHAPTER 33. GREAT TEMPLE OF THE ATEN

33.5 Image gallery
33.5.1 Sculptural fragments from the tem-
ple
A fragmentary face.
A fragmentary statue of the pharaoh wearing the
white crown.
A fragmentary statue of the pharaoh Akhenaten.
A fragmentary torso of Nefertiti.
Torso fragment of a prostrate statue, thought to
come from the Great Temple of the Aten.
33.6 References
[1] Barbara Watterson, Amarna: Ancient Egypts Age of
Revolution (Charleston, SC: Tempus Publishing, 1999),
69-72.
[2] John Baines and Jaromir Malek, Cultural Atlas of Ancient
Egypt, ed. Graham Speake (Oxfordshire: Andromeda,
1980), 36.
[3] Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology
of Ancient Egypt (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing,
2008), 221-225.
[4] J.D.S. Pendlebury, Tell el-Amarna (London: Lovat Dick-
son & Thomson Ltd., 1935), 65-100.
John Baines and Jaromir Malek, Cultural Atlas of
Ancient Egypt, ed. Graham Speake (Oxfordshire:
Andromeda, 1980), 36.
Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeol-
ogy of Ancient Egypt (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub-
lishing, 2008), 221-225.
J.D.S. Pendlebury, Tell el-Amarna (London: Lovat
Dickson & Thomson Ltd., 1935), 65-100.
Gay Robins, The Art of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 153.
Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the
Pharaohs (London: Thames and Hudson, 1987),
108-109.
Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (New
York: Thames and Hudson, 1988), 25-26, 52, 67,
273-275.
Robert Hari, New Kingdom Amarna Period (The
Netherlands: Leiden E. J. Brill, 1985), 10.
Arthur Weigall, The Life and Times of Akhnaton
(New York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 1923), 172-175.
Siegfried Morenz, Egyptian Religion (Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 1973), 51.
Coordinates: 273900N 305404E / 27.650N
30.901E

[5] Gay Robins, The Art of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 1997), 153.

[6] Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs

(London: Thames and Hudson, 1987), 108-109.

[7] Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (New York:

Thames and Hudson, 1988), 25-26, 52, 67, 273-275.

[8] Robert Hari, New Kingdom Amarna Period (The Nether-

lands: Leiden E. J. Brill, 1985), 10.

[9] Arthur Weigall, The Life and Times of Akhnaton (New

York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 1923), 172-175.

[10] Siegfried Morenz, Egyptian Religion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell

University Press, 1973), 51.

[11] Ancient Egyptian City Spotted From Space

George Hart, A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and

Goddesses, Routledge, 1986

Barry Kemp, Amarna Reports IV, Egypt Explo-

ration Society, 1987

Barbara Watterson, Amarna: Ancient Egypts Age

of Revolution (Charleston, SC: Tempus Publishing,
1999), 69-72.
Chapter 34

Meryre

For the given name, see Meryre (given name).

The Egyptian noble Meryre (also Merire) was the only

certain High Priest of the Aten. Amongst his other ti-
tles were Hereditary Noble and High Ocial and Fan-
bearer on the Right Side of the King[1] which emphasise
his closeness to the king.[2]
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Tomb 4, although
his remains have never been identied. (See Tombs of
the Nobles.)

34.1 References
[1] Breasted (1906) 988

[2] TOMB N4, Amarna. Retrieved 2008-01-29.

34.2 Literature
J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Chicago
1906, Part Two, .982-988

113
Chapter 35

Neferneferuaten

For other individuals named Nefer- Amarna period pharaohs from Akhenaten to Ay were
neferuaten, see Neferneferuaten. expunged from history as these kings total regnal years
were assigned to Horemheb. The result is that 3300 years
Ankhkheperure-mery-Neferkheperure/ -mery- later, scholars would have to piece together events and
Waenre/ -mery-Aten Neferneferuaten was a woman even resurrect the players bit by bit with the evidence
who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna sometimes limited to palimpsest - erased - text.
Period during the Eighteenth Dynasty. Her gender is With the evidence so murky and equivocal, at one time
conrmed by feminine traces occasionally found in the or another, the name, gender, identity and even the ex-
name and by the epithet Akhet-en-hyes (Eective for istence of Neferneferuaten has been a matter of debate
her husband), incorporated into one version of her among Egyptologists. The lack of unique names contin-
second cartouche.[1][2][3] ues to cause problems in books and papers written be-
She is to be distinguished from the king who used the fore the early 1980s: an object might be characterized
name Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare-Djeser Kheperu but as bearing the name of Smenkhkare, when if in fact the
without epithets appearing in either cartouche. name was Ankhkheperure it could be related to one of
two people.

35.1 General chronology

35.1.1 Manetho
As illustrated in a 2011 Metropolitan Museum of Art[4] Manetho was a priest in the time of the Ptolemies in the
symposium on Horemheb, the general chronology of the Third Century B.C.E. His Egyptian History divided the
late 18th Dynasty is: rulers into dynasties which forms the basis of the modern
There is no broad consensus as to the succession order system of dating Ancient Egypt. His work has been lost
of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten. With little dated and is known only in fragmentary form from later writers
evidence to x their reigns with any certainty, the order quoting his work. As a result of the suppression of the
depends on how the evidence is interpreted. Many ency- Amarna kings, Manetho is the sole ancient record avail-
clopedic sources and atlases will show Smenkhkare suc- able.
ceeding Akhenaten on the basis of tradition dating back
Manethos Epitome, a summary of his work, describes the
to 1845, and some still conate Smenkhkare with Nefer- late 18th Dynasty succession as "Amenophis for 30 years
neferuaten.
10 months",[5] who seems likely to be Amenhotep III.
The period from the 13th year of Akhenaten's reign to Then "his son Orus for 36 years 5 months", this is often
the ascension of Tutankhaten is very murky. The reigns seen as a corruption of the name Horemheb with the en-
of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were very brief and tire Amarna period attributed to him, but others see Orus
left little monumental or inscriptional evidence to draw as Akhenaten.
a clear picture of political events. Adding to this, Ne- Next comes "his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1
ferneferuaten shares her prenomen, or throne name, with month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years". Acencheres
Smenkhkare, and her nomen (or birth name) with Queen is Ankhkheperure according to Gabolde,[6] with a tran-
Nefertiti-Neferneferuaten making identication very dif- scription error assumed which converted 2 years, 1 month
cult at times. into the 12 years, 1 month reported (Africanus and Eu-
The Egyptians themselves tried to hide the evidence of sebius cite 32 and 16 years for this person). Most agree
the Amarna kings reigns from us. Neferneferuatens suc- that Rathotis refers to Tut, so the succession order also
cessor seems to have denied her a kings burial and, later, supports Acencheres as Ankhkheperure. Rathotis is fol-
in the reign of Horemheb, the entire Amarna period be- lowed by "his son Acencheres for 12 years 5 months, his
gan to be regarded as anathema and the reigns of the son Acencheres II for 12 years 3 months"[5] which are in-

114
35.2. KEY EVIDENCE 115

explicable and demonstrate the limits to which Manetho a new king. The jar also seems to indicate a coregency,
can be relied upon. but may be a case of one king associating himself with a
predecessor. The simple association of names is not al-
ways indicative of a coregency.[9] As with many things of
35.2 Key evidence this period, the evidence is suggestive, but not conclusive.

Image commonly taken to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but may

not be them.

There are several items central to the slow unveiling re-

garding the existence, gender and identity of Nefernefer-
uaten. These continue to be key elements to various the-
ories today.

The name of King Ankheprure Smenkhkare-

Djeserkheperu was known as far back as 1845 from
the tomb of Meryre II. There, he and Meritaten,
bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown re-
warding the tombs owner. The names of the king
have since been cut out but had been recorded by
Lepsius ca 1850.[7] A dierent scene on a dierent
wall depicts the famous Durbar scene which is dated
to regnal year 12.

A calcite globular vase from the tomb of

Tutankhamun bears the full double cartouche of
Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of
Smenkhkare. It is the only object to carry both
names side by side.[8]
Inscription from Carter 001k, a box from Tutankhamuns tomb.
These can be taken to represent that the two were core-
gents, as was the case initially. However, the scene in the
tomb of Meryre is not dated and Akhenaten is neither de- Indisputable images for Smenkhkare are rare. Aside
picted nor mentioned in it. It is not known with certainty from the tomb of Meryre II, the image to the right
when the tomb owner died or if he may lived on to serve showing an Amarna king and queen in a garden
116 CHAPTER 35. NEFERNEFERUATEN

is often attributed to him. It is completely with-
out inscription, but since they do not look like
Tut or his queen, they are often assumed to be
Smenkhkare and Meriaten, but Akhenaten and Ne-
fertiti are sometimes put forth as well.
A single wine docket, 'Year 1, wine of the house
of Smenkhkare', indicates he probably had a short
reign.[10] Another dated to Year 1 from 'The House
of Smenkhkare (deceased)'[11] was originally inter-
preted to indicate that he died during the harvest of
his rst year; more recently it has been proposed to
mean his estate was still producing wine in the rst
year of his successor.
The most denitive inscription attesting to Neferne-
feruaten is a hieratic inscription in the tomb of Pairi
(TT139):
Regnal year 3, third month of Inunda-
tion, day 10. The King of Upper and Lower
Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands Ankhkheperure
Beloved of Aten, the Son of Re Neferneferuaten
Beloved of Waenre. Giving worship to Amun,
kissing the ground to Wenennefer by the lay
priest, scribe of the divine oerings of Amun
in the Mansion [temple] of Ankhkheperure in
Thebes, Pawah, born to Yotefseneb. He says:
...[13]

There are several rings with most of his name

intact.[12] One example is Item UC23800 in the 35.3 Female king
Petrie Museum. The ring clearly shows the djeser
and kherperu elements of and a portion of the 'ka' For some time the accepted interpretation of the evidence
glyph. was that Smenkhkare served as coregent with Akhen-
aten beginning about year 15 using the throne name
Line drawings of a block depicting the nearly com- Ankhkheperure. At some point, perhaps to start his sole
plete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as reign, he changed his name to Ankhkheperure Neferne-
Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block feruaten. An alternate view held that Nefertiti was King
was lost. Neferneferuaten, in some versions she is also masquerad-
ing as a male using the name Smenkhkare.

A number of items in Tutankhamun's tomb were origi- Things remained in this state until the early 1970s when
nally intended for Neferneferuaten. Among them Carter English Egyptologist John Harris noted in a series of
261p(1), a stunning gold pectoral depicting the god- papers[14] the existence of versions of the rst cartouche
dess Nut. Other items include the stone sarcophagus, that seemed to include feminine indicators. These were
mummy wrappings, royal gurines; canopic items (chest, linked with a few items including a statuette found in Tu-
conettes and jar stoppers), various bracelets and eventankhamuns tomb[15] depicting a king whose appearance
shabti gures. Some items are believed to have been at was particularly feminine, even for Amarna art which
seems to favor androgyny. There are several stele de-
least originally intended for a female based on the style
even when a name cannot be restored. picting a king along with someone elseoften wear-
ing a kings crownin various familiar, almost intimate
scenes. All of them are unnished or uninscribed and
Where named depictions of Smenkhkare are rare, some are defaced. These include:
there are no known depictions for Neferneferuaten.
An unnished stele (#17813, Berlin) depicts two
Of particular interest is a box (Carter 001k) (right, royal gures in a familiar, if not intimate, pose. One
originally one long piece) inscribed with the follow- gure wears the double crown, while the other wears
ing: a headpiece which is similar to that from the famil-
iar Nefertiti bust, but is actually a Khepresh or blue
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Liv- crown worn by a king.
ing in Truth, Lord of the Two Lands,
Neferkheperure-Waenre Aidan Dodson cites this stele to
support the idea that Nefertiti may
Son of Re, Living in Truth, Lord of have at one point been something
Crowns, Akhenaten, Great in his duration like a coregent as indicated by
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord the crown, but not entitled to full
of the Two Lands, Ankhkheperure Mery- pharoanic honors such as the dou-
Neferkheperre ble cartouche.
Son of Re, Lord of Crowns, Neferneferuaten
Mery-Waenre Berlin 25574 depicts what clearly seems to be
Great Royal Spouse, Meritaten, May she Live Akhenaten and Nefertiti wearing her at top head-
Forever. piece. They are accompanied by four empty
35.3. FEMALE KING 117

cartouchesenough for two kingsone of which

seems to have been squeezed in.

Reeves sees this as an important

item in the case for Nefertiti. When
the stele was started, she was queen
and thus portrayed with the at top
headpiece. She was elevated to
coregent shortly afterwards and a
fourth cartouche was squeezed in to
accommodate two kings.[16]
Ankhkheperure with feminine indicators (93, 94) and without
(95). These read:
Flinders Petrie discovered seven limestone frag- (93) Ankhkheperure desired (f) of Neferkheperure (Akhen-
ments of a private stele in 1891, now in the Petrie aten).
Museum, U.C.410 sometimes called the Coregency (94) Ankh-et-kheprure (f) desired (f) of Wa-en-Re (using indi-
Stela.[17] One side bears the double cartouche of cators in the name and epithet).
Akhenaten alongside that of Ankhkheperure mery- (95) Ankhkheeprure desired of Wa-en-Re.
From Tell el Amarna, Flinders Petrie; 1894
Waenre Neferneferuaten Akhet-en-hyes (eective
for her husband) which had been carved over the
single cartouche of Nefertiti.[18]
which can be lost over time or simply misread especially
Today it seems obvious the clues point to a female core- on smaller items. Following Allen, without regard to the
gent, but the unique situation of succeeding kings using feminine indicators, all three of these names would re-
identical throne names resulted in a great deal of confu- fer to King Neferneferuaten since they include epithets
sion. The intimate depictions in so many stelae led to and associate her with Akhenaten ('desired of Wa-en re /
speculation about homosexuality which has come to be Neferkheperure').
accepted as fact with later evidence and interpretations
In a 1994 paper,[2] Allen suggested that the dierent ren-
being ignored.
dering of the names may well indicate two individuals
A paper by Rolf Krauss of the Egyptian Museum, not a single person: ...the evidence itself does not demand
Berlin proposed a middle way by suggesting that while an identication of Smenkh-ka-re with Nefer-neferu-aton,
Smenkhkare/Neferneferuaten was a man, his wife Mer- and in fact the insistence that the two sets of names must
itaten might have ruled with the feminine prenomen belong to a single individual only weakens each case.[2]
Ankh-et-kheperure after Akhenatens death and before
Allen noted another nuance in the names: the reed (jtn)
Smenkhkares accession.[1] Smenkhkare then takes the
glyph in 'Neferneferuaten' is always reversed to face the
masculine form of her prenomen upon gaining the throne
seated-woman determinative at the end of the name when
through marriage to her.[19] While this was a step forward
associated with the Nefertiti form. Except for a unique
in establishing a feminine king, it also sparked a new de-
case, the reed is not reversed when used with Ankhkhep-
bate regarding which evidence related to Meritaten and
erure. This can be taken to indicate Neferneferuaten is
which to Smenkhkare.
also an individual apart from Nefertiti based on the gen-
eral dierence, or to indicate they are the same person on
the basis of the unique rendering in the presence of the
35.3.1 Cutting the knot
seated-person determinative (see below).
In 1988, James P. Allen proposed it was possible Later, the French Egyptologist Marc Gabolde noted that
to cut the Gordian Knot and separate Smenkhkare several items from the tomb of Tutankhamun which had
from Neferneferuaten.[18] He pointed out the name been originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten and read
'Ankhkheperure' was rendered dierently depending on as "...desired of Ahkenaten were originally inscribed as
whether it was associated with Smenkhkare or Nefer- Akhet-en-hyes or eective for her husband.[20] His read-
neferuaten. When coupled with Neferneferuaten, the ing was conrmed later by James Allen.
prenomen included an epithet referring to Akhenaten The use of epithets (or lack of them) to identify the king
such as 'desired of Wa en Re'. There were no occasions referenced in an inscription eventually became widely
where the long versions of the prenomen occurred along-
accepted among scholars and regularly cited in their
side the nomen 'Smenkhkare', nor was the short versionwork[21] though a case for exempting a particular inscrip-
ever found associated with the nomen 'Neferneferuaten'. tion or instance will occasionally be argued to support a
As the image to the right shows, the dierences in the larger hypothesis. As the Smenkhkare versus Neferne-
feminine and standard forms are minimal: an extra 't' feruaten debate subsided, the door was opening for new
glyph either in the name or epithet (or both as in #94) interpretations for the evidence.
118 CHAPTER 35. NEFERNEFERUATEN

35.3.2 Sole reign?

Allen later showed that Neferneferuatens epithets were

of three types or sets. They were usually in the form of
desired of ..., but were occasionally replaced by ef-
fective for her husband. In a few cases, the names can
be followed by 'justied' using feminine attributes.[2] The
term 'justied' (maet kheru) is a common indicator that
the person referenced is dead. A similar reference asso-
ciated with Hatshepsut in the tomb of Penyati is taken
to indicate she had recently died.[22] Finally, a few of
her cartouches bear unique epithets not associated with
Akhenaten at all. These include desired of the Aten
and The Ruler.[2] The prenomen (left column) and nomen
Dr. Allen concluded[2] that the strong aliation with (right column) forms for Ankhkheperure
Akhenaten in the epithets and the number of them made Neferneferuaten[2][24][25] [26]
it likely that Neferneferuaten had been his coregent and Note that aside from rings, the feminine
therefore preceded Smenkhkare. The eective... ep- form Ankh-et-kheperure, as yet, is never
ithets, then represent a period during which Akhen- found in a royal cartouche. At one point, one
aten was incapacitated but may also date from a time or more mery Akhet-en-hyes (eective for
after Akhenatens death.[23] Finally, the less common her husband) had been read as desired of
'Akhenaten-less versions represented a period of sole Akhenaten probably on the basis of the bird
reign for Neferneferuaten. glyph. The fourth set are from the hieratic
inscription from the tomb of Pairi (TT139)
James Allen also oered a possible explanation for the
which seems to have a feminine marker in the
use of the same throne name by 2 successive kings.[2] He
nomens epithet. In the last nomen, the leading
suggested that the almost constant references to Akhen-
reed is reversed as it always is in the cartouche
aten, in particular the 'desired of Akhenaten' versions,
of Nefertiti-Neferneferuaten.
may be proclamations of legitimacy on the part of Ne-
ferneferuaten. That is, the epithets are being used to an-
nounce or proclaim her as Akhenatens chosen succes-
sor/coregent. One implication then, is there may have
been resistance to the choice of Neferneferuaten or was 35.4 Identity of Neferneferuaten
anticipated. This appears to be supported by her funeral
items being usurped to deny her a kings burial. By the late 20th Century, there was a "'a fair degree
Allen suggested that adopting the name Ankhkheperure of consensus"[27] that Neferneferuaten was a female
was "to emphasize the legitimacy of Smenkh-ka-res claim king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly
against that of Akhenatons chosen (/mr/) coregent".[2] among specialists of the period.[28] (the public and the
That is, a division in the royal house put Smenkhkare on internet still often commingle the two). Many Egyptol-
the throne as a rival king to Neferneferuaten. This was ogists believe she also served as coregent on the basis of
oered as a simple and logical reading of the evidence the stela and epithets, with advocates for Meritaten being
to explain the nature of the epithets, the use of identical notable exceptions. A sole reign seems very likely, given
prenomens by successive kings and that she was denied a that the Pairi inscription is dated using her regnal years.
royal burial. With no dated evidence of rival or contem- Opinion is more divided on the placement and nature of
poraneous kings though, it remains conjecture. the reign of Smenkhkare.
35.4. IDENTITY OF NEFERNEFERUATEN 119

The focus now shifts to the identity of Neferneferuaten, was added to her image, it would argue quite strongly that
with each candidate having its own advocate(s), a debate Nefertiti adopted a new name and title.[36] As it is, the
which may never be settled to the satisfaction of all. scene seems to be another of the royal family including
at least Meritaten. Replacing the name Nefertiti with the
name King Neferneferuaten in a depiction of the royal
35.4.1 Nefertiti family, still seems to favor Nefertiti as the new king.
The primary argument against Nefertiti has been that she
likely died sometime after year 12, the last dated depic-
tion of her. Typically, when someone disappears from in-
scriptions and depictions, the simplest explanation is that
they died. Evidence suggesting this includes:

Pieces of a shabtia funerary guremay indi-

cate her title at death was Great Royal Wife. The
shabti is in two pieces with a piece tting between
them assumed. One piece bears her name, Nefertiti-
Neferneferuaten, the other the title Great Royal
Wife.

With about 200 shabti for

Nefertiti depicted in familiar scene of a pharaoh smiting Egypts
enemy
Nefertiti was an early candidate for King Neferneferu-
aten, rst proposed in 1973 by J.R. Harris.[29] One the-
ory from the 1970s held that Nefertiti was masquerad-
ing as the male King Smenkhkare,[30] a view still held
by a few as late as 2001 by Reeves[16] and until 2004 by
Dodson.[31]
The apparent use of her name made her an obvious candi-
date even before Neferneferuatens gender was rmly es-
tablished. Remains of painted plaster bearing the kingly
names of Neferneferuaten found in the Northern Palace,
long believed to be the residence of Nefertiti, supports
the association of Nefertiti as the king.[32]
Nefertiti was well in the forefront during her husbands
reign and even depicted engaging in kingly activities such
as smiting the enemies of Egypt (see image, right).[33]
The core premise is that her prominence and attendant
power in the Amarna period was almost unprecedented
for a queen which makes her the most likely and most
able female to succeed Akhenaten.[16][34][35]
The Coregency Stela (UC 410) mentioned earlier might
resolve the question if it were not so badly damaged. The
name Neferneferuaten replaced Nefertitis name on it.
How the image of Nefertiti was changed to match the new
inscription could settle matters if her image was not miss-
ing. If her entire image was replaced it would mean Ne-
fertiti was replaced by someone else called King Nefer-
neferuaten and perhaps that she died. If just a new crown
Akhenaten,[37] a single one for
Nefertiti seems scant evidence for
her death. A 1999 article specu-
lates that the two pieces instead
belonged to two separate shabtis,
one of Nefertiti and the other of
Meritaten.[38]
Wine dockets from her estate decline and cease after
year 13.[39] Dockets from later years mention only a
Queen.
The oor of the royal tomb intended for her, though
apparently not used, shows signs of cuts being
started for the nal placement of her con.[34]
Meritatens title as chief queen alongside Akhen-
atens name in Tutankhamuns tomb indicates she
replaced Nefertiti as in that role. This also seems in-
dicated by her designation as mistress of the royal
house in Amarna Letter EA 11.
Nefertiti in regnal year 16
In December 2012, the Leuven Archaeological Mission
announced the nd of a hieratic inscription in a limestone
quarry which mentions a building project in Amarna. The
text is said to be badly damaged, but doctoral student
Athena Van der Perre has read the text to indicate a date
from regnal year sixteen of Akhenaten and mentions Ne-
fertiti as Akhenatens chief wife.[40] The full inscription
has not been ocially published or studied yetbut parts
of it have been published by Athena Van der Perre and
they clearly show that Nefertiti, Akhenatens chief queen
was still alive late in Year 16 of Akhenatens reign. The
inscription is dated explicitly to Year 16 III Akhet day
120 CHAPTER 35. NEFERNEFERUATEN

15 of Akhenatens own reign and mentions, in the same The regnal years attested for Neferneferuatentwo plus
breath, the presence of Queen Nefertitior the "Great a fractionare not enough to allow for a short coregency
Royal Wife, His Beloved, Lady of the Two Lands, Ne- with Akhenaten plus an independent reign or another
ferneferuaten Nefertiti"in its third line.[41] The badly coregency with Tutankhaten. Dodson accounts for this
legible ve line text, found in a limestone quarry at Deir by suggesting that Nefertiti counted her years only after
el-Bersha, was deciphered and interpreted by Athena Van Akhenatens death which is a generally held view put forth
der Perre.[42] by Murnane to account for the lack of double dates in
[46]
When the inscription is published in full and if Nefer- the New Kingdom even when a coregency is known
to exist. Dodson then speculates that she may later have
titis existence late in Akhenatens reign is veried, her
name, gender and location in time would all argue quite shared Tutankhamuns regnal dating, [47] in eect deferring
senior status at least nominally to him.
strongly for Nefertiti to be the female ruler known as Ne-
ferneferuaten. This would also impact various details of Several interesting ideas worthy of consideration are
the Amarna succession theories proposed. For instance, oered but the central assumption, that Nefertiti was
some such as Dodson propose that Neferneferuaten was mother to Tutankhaten, has since been proven false.
a coregent for some three years followed by another three DNA evidence published a year after the book con-
years as sole ruler.[43] The inscription would argue against cluded that Tutankhatens parents were sibling children
a coregency of more than about a yearif any at all of Amenhotep III, which Nefertiti was not.[48]
since the inscription attests to her as Queen just before Marc Gabolde contends that Tutankhaten never reigned
the start of Akhenatens nal year. for more than a few months at Amarna. He notes that
Unless and until the inscription is conrmed, the evidence while Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten and even Smenkhkare
fails to tilt the scales decisively either way on her candi- are attested as kings in Amarna, evidence for Tu-
dacy. tankhaten is limited to some bezel rings. That is, evi-
dence typically associated with a royal residence is lack-
ing: there are no stamped bricks, reliefs or paintings; he is
Sunset theory not mentioned or depicted in any private tombs, cult stela,
royal depictions or documents; the result is that there is
Even among Egyptologists who advocate Nefertiti as Ne- no evidence of King Tutankhaten in Amarna at all. Ring
ferneferuaten, the exact nature of her reign can vary. bezels and scarabs bearing his name found only shows
Reeves sees Nefertiti ruling independently for some the city was still inhabited during his reign.[49] With Ne-
time before Tutankhamun and has identied her as ferneferuaten scarcely attested outside Amarna and Tu-
Dahamunzu of the Hittite letter writing episode. In sup- tankaten scarcely attested at Amarna, a coregency or re-
port, Reeves makes clear that Nefertiti did not disappear gency seems unlikely.
and is seen in the last years of Akhenaten in the form
Regarding the jar sealings, excavators working the Tell
of the various stelae. The shabti is explained as a votive
el-Borg site note that the two amphorae bearing the car-
placed in the tomb of someone close to Nefertiti such as
touche of Neferneferuaten were found in a garbage pit
Meketaten at a time before she was elevated.[16]
200 meters away from the location where the two car-
Amarna Sunset, by Aidan Dodson, is the most recent touches of Nebkheperure (Tutankhaten) were found. Ad-
theory to date and proposes several new ideas regard- ditionally, sealings and small objects like bezel rings
ing the chronology and ow of events. Based on the from many 18th Dynasty characters including Akhen-
grounds of its location and state of completion, Dodson aten, Aye, Queen Tiye, and Horemheb are all present at
thinks that the depiction of Smenkhkare in the tomb of the site.[50] Egyptologists excavating the site conclude:
Meryre cannot date to later than Year 13/14 of Akhen- "Consequently, linking Tutankhamun and Neferneferu-
aten. If accepted, Smenkhkare cannot have had an inde- aten politically, based on the discovery of their names on
pendent reign and thus Neferneferuaten must have come amphorae at Tell el-Borg, is unwarranted.[51]
after him.[44] The result being that Smenkhkares reign is
entirely that of a coregent ending about a year later.
Nefertiti follows as coregent for a time, using the 35.4.2 Meritaten
name Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. He concludes
that Nefertiti was the mother of Tutankhaten, so after Meritaten as a candidate for Neferneferuaten seems to
Akhenaten dies she continues as regent/coregent to Tu- be the most uid, taking many forms depending on the
tankhaten. Dodson proposes that in that role, Nefernefer- views of the Egyptologist. She had been put forth by
uaten helped guide the reformation in the early years of Rolf Krauss in 1973 to explain the feminine traces in the
Tutankhaten and conjectures that her turn around is the prenomen and epithets of Ankhkheprure and to conform
result of her 'rapid adjustment to political reality'. To sup- to Manethos description of a Akenkheres as a daughter
port the Nefertiti-Tutankhamun coregency, he cites jar of Oros.[1] Though few Egyptologists endorsed the whole
handles found bearing her cartouche and others bearing hypothesis, many did accept her at times as the probable
those of Tutankhaten found in Northern Sinai.[45] or possible candidate for a female Ankhkheprure ruling
35.4. IDENTITY OF NEFERNEFERUATEN 121

for a time after Smenkhkares death and perhaps as regent The traditional view has long been that the plot took place
to Tutankhaten.[52] after the death of Tutankhamun and that Ankhesenamun
The primary argument against Meritaten either as is the queen, largely based on the fact that she did eventu-
Krausss pro tempore Ankh-et-kheprure before marriage ally married a servant Ay. Miller points out that "ser-
to Smenkhkare or as Akhenatens coregent King Nefer- vant is likely used in a disparaging manner, rather than
neferuaten is that she is well attested as wife and queen literally, and probably with reference to real persons who
to Smenkhkare. For her to have later ruled as king indeed were being put forth as candidates." If the refer-
means necessarily, and perhaps incredibly for her sub- ence to a 'servant' no longer exclusively indicates Ay, then
Meritaten and Nefertiti become candidates as well, since
jects, that she stepped down from King to the role of [57]
Kings Wife. This view places Smenkhkare after Ne- neither has sons known to us.
[25]

ferneferuaten which requires the Meryre depiction to be The Smenkhkare/Zannanza version garners little sup-
drawn 56 years after the 'Durbar' depiction it is along- port among Egyptologists. With the presence of Tu-
side and several years after work on tombs had stopped. tankhamun, Miller points out Meritaten "would presum-
The counter to this view comes from Marc Galbolde, ably have needed the backing of some powerful sup-
who oers political necessity as the reason for Meritatens porter(s) to carry out such a scheme as the tahamunzu
demotion.[53] He sees the box (Carter 001k tomb naming episode, one is left with the question of why this supporter
her alongside Akhenaten and Nefernferuaten) as depict- would have chosen [58]
to throw his weight behind such a dar-
ing Meritaten in simultaneous roles using the name Ne- ing scheme". For the plot to succeed, it assumes the
ferneferuaten as coregent and using her birth name in the young Meritaten with her co-conspirators successfully de-
[54]
role of royal wife to Akhenaten. He has also proposed ceived Suppiluliuma and his envoys (for there was a royal
that the Meryre drawing was executed in advance of an male - Tut - though not actually her son) and that the plot
anticipated coronation, which ended up not taking place remained secret during the period of letter writing and
due to his death. [49] Zannanzas travel to Egypt. It assumes the other elements
of Egyptian society remained idle with a female interreg-
Most Egyptologists see two names indicating two indi- num on the throne and a royal male standing by while
vidual people as the simplest and more likely view.[8][55] this played out. On the Hittite side, it assumes that Sup-
Most name changes in the Amarna period involved peo- piluliuma was not only willing to risk the consequences if
ple incorporating -Aten into their name or removing the plot were uncovered, but rather than merely shrewd,
an increasingly oensive -Amun element. Merit-Aten Suppiluliuma was ruthless in the extreme and willing to
would have had no such need, nor would she need to adopt risk the life of his son on a precarious endeavor where he
pharaonic aires such as a double cartouche simply to act suspected trickery.[59]
on behalf of her husband.
Details for the Dakhamunzu/Zannanza aair are entirely
If Nefertiti should be veried as alive as late as Year 16 from Hittite sources written many years after the events.
of Akhenatens reign, the Meritaten theory becomes less As Miller states, they were "written in full knowledge of
likely because she would no longer be the most likely liv- the schemes dismal failure, and one cannot dismiss the
ing person to be using either the name nor Eective for possibility that Mursili is revising history to some extent,
her husband as an epithet. placing full responsibility for the asco on the Egyptians,
absolving his father of any blame for his failed gamble,
giving the impression that he had done everything in his
Meritaten as Dakhamunzu theory
power to ensure that the way was free for Zannanza to
take the Egyptian throne."[60]
See also Dakhamunzu

Marc Gabolde is perhaps the most outspoken and stead-
fast advocate of Meritaten as King Neferneferuaten; as
such, his theory deserves a closer look. Most recently,
he has proposed that Meritaten was raised to coregent
of Akhenaten in his nal years. She succeeds him
as interregnum regent using the name Ankhkheprure,
and is the queen of the Dakhamunzu aair with the
Hittites.[Note 1] Her ploy succeeds and the Hittite prince
Zannanza travels to Egypt and marries her to claim the
throne. He adopts the name Smenkhkare[Note 2] and her
throne name. After his death, she adopts full pharoanic
prerogatives to continue to rule as King Ankhkheperure
Neferneferuaten. Since Tut was alive and of royal lin-
eage, Meritatens actions almost certainly must be taken
as intending to prevent his ascension.[56]
35.4.3 Neferneferuaten-tasherit
In 2006, James Allen proposed a new reading of
events.[25] Citing the evidence above, he nds it likely
Nefertiti died after year 13. About that time, Akhen-
aten began attempting to father his own grandchil-
dren. Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten appear with their
daughters in reliefs from Amarna which originally de-
picted Kiya with her daughter.[61] Meritaten-tasherit and
Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit bear the titles 'Kings daughter
of his body, his desired...' and 'born of Kings daughter
of his body, his desired...'. It is a matter of some debate
whether this means Akhenaten actually fathered his own
grandchildren, but Allen accepts the titles at face value
as a simpler explanation than 'phantom' children being
122 CHAPTER 35. NEFERNEFERUATEN

invented to ll space.[62] his own grandchildren.[66] If the grandchildren are not his
When Meritaten gave birth to a girl, he may have then or are indeed ctitious, with no progression through his
tried with Meketaten whose death in childbirth is de- daughters to arrive at Neferneferuaten-tasherit, his choice
picted in the royal tombs. Though the titles are missing of her as coregent at least remains a mystery, if not less
for the infant, it seems certain it was also a girl.[63] Still likely. Without grandchildren, there is less to support the
without a male heir, Akhenaten next tried with Ankhe- older age estimates. Her age alone need not disqualify her
senpaaten who also bears him a girl (also with titles attest- since is the same age at which Tutankhaten ascended the
ing to Akhenaten as father). His next youngest daughter, throne, but a 10 year old girl seems unlikely to many.
Neferneferuaten-tasherit was almost certainly too young, The strong point of the theory rests with her name: it
so: does not rely on someone changing their name in some
awkward fashion to assume the role of Neferneferuaten.
Insofar as can be determined, the primary She is made a less attractive candidate should the Year 16
element in the nomen of a pharaoh always cor- grato for Queen Nefertiti be veried.
responds to the name he (or she) bore be-
fore coming to the throne; from the Eigh-
teenth Dynasty onward, epithets were usually 35.5 Smenkhkare and the Amarna
added to this name in the pharaohs cartouche,
but Akhenaten provides the only example of a succession
complete and consistent change of the nomens
primary element, and even he used his birth Further information: Amarna
name, Amenhotep, at his accession. The ev- succession
idence of this tradition argues that the core-
gent bore the name Neferneferuaten before
her coronation, and since it now seems clear The evidence clearly indicates that Smenkhkare existed
that the coregent was not Nefertiti, she must and that he was invested with some degree of pharoanic
have been the only other woman known by that power at some point and died shortly afterwards. Beyond
name: Akhenatens fourth daughter, Neferne- that little else can be said with any certainty at all. As a
feruaten Jr.[64] result, proponents of one theory can assign him a place
in time and role with little to argue against it while others
Allen explains the 'tasherit' portion of her name may have can take a wholly dierent perspective.
been dropped, either because it would be unseemly to For instance, Dodson cites the Meryre depiction to rel-
have a King using 'the lesser' in their name, or it may egate him to a short lived coregent ca Year 15, with
have already been dropped when Nefertiti died.[64] little rm evidence to argue against it. Gabolde cites
Neferneferuaten-tasherits age is the rst objection often the Smenkhkare wine docket to support the idea that
raised. She is thought to have been about 10 at the time Smenkhkare must have succeeded Akhenaten. Finally,
of Akhenatens death [65] but Allen suggests that some Allen has used the wine docket and strong association of
daughters may have been older than generally calculated Neferneferuaten with Akhenaten in her epithets and on
based on their rst depicted appearance. Meketaten is stelae to speculate that both may have succeeded Akhen-
believed to have been born about year 4 when is she rst aten, with one as a rival king. An Allen-Dodson hy-
depicted. But if that is the case, she would only have been brid could see Tut succeeding Akhenaten directly as rival
10 or 11 when she died in childbirth around year 14[65] to Neferneferuaten. There are almost as many theories
which is several years shy of the age when girls became and putative chronologies as there are Egyptologists in-
marriageable at age 13. terested in the period.
Allen suggests that perhaps Meketatens rst The recently discovered inscription for Nefertiti as queen
appearanceand perhaps that of the other daughters in Regnal Year 16, if veried, seems to make clear she
was on the occasion of being weaned at age 3 in which was still alive and still queen. What Egyptologists will
case her age at death would be the more likely 13 or make of it remains to be seen, but with proof of her alive
14, an argument Dodson also adopts in Amarna Sunset. in Year 16, it could be seen as supporting her candidacy
Likewise, since Ankhesenpaaten bore a child late in as Neferneferuaten. On the other hand, advocates for
Akhenatens reign, if Neferneferuaten-tasherit was born Smenkhkare may make the case that since she attested
a year or so after her sister, then Neferneferuaten-tasherit as queen just before the start of Akhenatens nal regnal
may have been as old as 13 by the end of Akhenatens year, then Smenkhkare is more likely to be Akhenatens
reign.[66] The later use of the eective... epithets may successor.
indicate that she too was eventually old enough to act as The exact succession cannot be resolved without evidence
wife to her father supporting the older age. to more clearly x Smenkhkares place in time and role
Central to the theory is that Akhenaten was being driven (coregent only or king). If, as the evidence suggests, he
to produce a male heir which results in attempts to father was very short lived such clarication is not likely to be
35.7. REFERENCES
forthcoming. The result is that the Amarna Succession is
dictated by the underlying theory on the identity of King
Ankhkheperure-mery Neferkheperure Neferneferuaten-
mery Wa en Re.
35.6 Summary
There is also little that can be said with certainty about the
life and reign of Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Most
Egyptologists accept that she was a female and an in-
dividual apart of Smenkhkare. Many specialists in the
period believe the epigraphic evidence strongly indicates
she acted for a time as Akhenatens coregent.[16][25][35]
Whether she reigned before or after Smenkhkare depends
on the underlying theory as to her identity.
Based on the Pairi inscription dated to her 3rd Regnal
Year, it appears she enjoyed a sole reign. How much of [8] Allen, James P., The Amarna Succession, in Causing
her reign was as coregent and how much as sole ruler,
is a matter of debate and speculation. The same tomb
inscription mentions an Amun temple in Thebes, per-
haps a mortuary complex, which would seem to indi-
cate that the Amun proscription had abated and the tra-
ditional religion was being restored towards the end of [10] Pendlebury, J. D. S. ; The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part
her reign.[25][26][35] Since much of her funeral equipment
used in Tutankhamens burial, it seems fairly certain she
was denied a pharonic burial by her successor.[25][26][35]
The reasons for this remain speculation, as does a regency
with Tutankhaten.
With so much evidence expunged rst by Nefernefer-
uatens successor, then the entire Amarna period by [13] Murnane, W; Texts from the Amarna Period, (1995).
Horemheb and later in earnest by the kings of the 19th
Dynasty, the exact details of events may never be known.
The highly equivocal nature of the evidence often renders
it suggestive of something while falling short of proving it. the date as unequivocally 3rd day, Month 4, Akhet. The
The various steles for instance, strongly suggest a female
coregent but oer nothing conclusive as to her identity.
Speculations regarding the end of the Amarna Period are
likely to continue for years to come. The recently discov-
ered inscription mentioning Nefertiti as queen in year 16,
shows that the Amarna Period may yet have secrets and
clues to divulge.
35.7 References
[1] Krauss, Rolf. Das Ende der Amarnazeit (The End of the
Amarna Period); 1978, Hildesheim; pp.4347
[2] Allen, James P. (1994). Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Gt-
tinger Miszellen 141. pp. 717.
[3] M. Gabolde, Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky, in P. Brand
(ed.), Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Mur-
nane, pp. 17-21
123
[4] A Syposium of Horemhab: General and King of Egypt
See the rst 8 minutes of this 2011 Metropolitan Museum
of Art presentation. As the video notes, the order and
dates are under discussion.
[5] MANETHO, The Lieb Classical Library; 1940, English
translation by W. G. Waddell, p 102-103
[6] Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon, 1998;
pp.145-185
Some internet theories equate Achencheres with Akhen-
aten.
[7] de Garies Davies, N. 1905. The Rock Tombs of El
Amarna, Part II: The Tombs of Panehesy and Meryra II.
Archaeological Survey of Egypt. F. L. Grith. London:
Egypt Exploration Fund. See Line Drawing from 'The
Rock Tombs of El Amarna'. Lepsius rendering of the
names is lower right, and were originally in the upper right
where Meritatens cartouche is quite clearly shown.
His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and His-
tory in Memory of William J. Murnane, p.2
[9] Murnane, W.; (1977) Ancient Egyptian Coregencies,
pp.21315
III, p.164
[11] Pendlebury, J. D. S. ; The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part
III, pl lxxxvi and xcvii
[12] Petrie, W M Flinders (1894). Tell el Amarna. pp. pl. XV.
103104.
Note: Gardiner, JEA 14 (1928), pp. 1011 and pls. 5
6;, Reeves (False Prophet, 2001) and Murnane all give the
date as 10th Day, Month 3, Akhet. Dodson (2009) reports
dierence is 23 days.
[14] J. R. Harris, Neferneferuaten, Gttinger Miszellen 4
(1973), 15-17;
Neferneferuaten Rediviva, Acta Orientalia 35 (1973), 5-
13;
Neferneferuaten Regnans, Acta Orientalia 36 (1974),
11-21;
Akhenaten or Nefertiti?, Acta Orientalia 38 (1977), 5-
10.
[15] Burton, Harry (Photographer). Statuette of the King
upon a leopard. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Exca-
vation: The Howard Carter Archives. Grith Institute.
Retrieved 2012-09-23.
[16] Reeves, C. Nicholas; Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet;
(2001) Thames and Hudson
[17] Pendlebury J., Samson, J. et al; City of Akhenaten, Part III
(1951)
[18] Allen, James P. , Two Altered Inscriptions of the Late
Amarna Period, Journal of the American Research Center
in Egypt 25 (1988); pp.117-121.
124
[19] In fact, portions of Krausss hypothesis may have been put
forward twice previously. See Reeves, Nicholas; Oriental-
istische Literaturzeitung, vol. 78, no. 6 (1983)
[20] Gabolde, Marc (1998). "DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon".
pp. 14762, 213219.
[21] Allen (1994); Gabolde (1998); Eaton-Krauss and
Krauss(2001); Hornung (2006); von Beckerath (1997);
Allen (2006); Krauss (2007); Murnane (2001)
They otherwise hold very dierent views on the succes-
sion, chronology and identity of Neferneferuaten.
[22] Murnane, W; (1977) p.42
[23] Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon, 1998;
pp.156-157; This involves Isis relationship with Osiris.
[24] Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset (2009), appendix 3
[25] Allen, James P.; The Amarna Succession (2006); in P.
Brand (ed.), Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyp-
tian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Mur-
nane"; Archived from the original
[26] Giles, 2001
[27] Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nib-
hururiya in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007); p 272
[28] e.g. Murnane, J.; The End of the Amarna Periode Once
Again, (2001); Allen, J 1998, 2006; Gabolde, M.; Das
Ende der Amarnazeit, (2001); Hornung, E; The New King-
dom in Ancient Egyptian Chronology (2006); Miller, J.
Amarna Age Chronology (2007); Dodson A.; Amarna
Sunset (2009).
[29] Harris, J.R. Neferneferuaten Rediviva; 1973 in Acta Ori-
entalia 35 pp. 513
Harris, J.R. Neferneferuaten Regnans; 1973 in Gttinger
Miszellen 4 pp. 1517
[30] Samson, J; City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti; Aris & Phillips
Ltd, 1972; ISBN 978-0856680007
[31] Dodson & Hilton (2004); p 285
[32] Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset (2009) p. 43
[33] Giles, Frederick. J., Ikhnaton Legend and History; 1970;
Associated University Press; 1972 US; p 59
[34] Giles, F; 1972
[35] Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset, The American University in
Cairo Press, 2009
[36] Dodson, A; (2009); p. 43
[37] Martin, G. T., The Rock Tombs of El-'Amarna. Part VII.
The Royal Tomb at El-'Amarna, 1974. The Objects. (Vol.
I.) London: Egypt Exploration Society.
[38] Bovot, J.-L. (1999). Un chaouabti pour deux reines
amarniennes?. gypte Afrique et Orient 13. pp. 3134.
[39] Aldred, Cyril (1988). Akhenaten: King of Egypt. Thames
and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27621-8.
CHAPTER 35. NEFERNEFERUATEN
[40] Dayr al-Barsha Project Press Release, Dec 2012; http://
www.dayralbarsha.com/node/124
[41] Athena Van der Perre, Nofretetes (vorerst) letzte doku-
mentierte Erwhnung, (Nefertitis (now) latest docu-
mented attestation) in: Im Licht von Amarna - 100 Jahre
Fund der Nofretete. [Katalog zur Ausstellung Berlin,
07.12.2012 - 13.04.2013]. (December 7, 2012 - April
13, 2013) Petersberg, pp.195-197
[42] Dayr al-Barsha Project featured in new exhibit 'Im Licht
von Amarna' at the gyptisches Museum und Papyrus-
sammlung in Berlin 12/06/2012
[43] Dodson, A; (2009) p. 50
[44] Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, pp. 27-29
[45] Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, p. 51, 45-46
[46] Murnane, W.; Ancient Egypt Coregencies (1977) p 31-32
[47] Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, pp.45-46
[48] JAMA. 2010 Feb 17; Ancestry and pathology in King Tu-
tankhamuns family; Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat
R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, Ahmed A, Elleithy H, Ball M,
Gaballah F, Wasef S, Fateen M, Amer H, Gostner P,
Selim A, Zink A, Pusch CM. Source Supreme Council
of Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt. http://jama.jamanetwork.
com/article.aspx?articleid=185393
[49] Gabolde, M; Ancient Near East Forum, Dec 2007
[50] Hoemeir, Van Dijk. "New Light on the Amarna Period
from North Sinai".
[51] Hoemeir, Van Dijk; New Light on the Amarna Period"
(2010) pp.201-202
[52] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,
Thames & Hudson, pp.136-137;
also Gabolde, M,; Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky, P. Brand
(ed.), in Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyp-
tian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Mur-
nane, (2006) pp.17-21
[53] Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon, 1998;
pp.178183
[54] Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon, 1998;
pp.187-226
[55] Murnane, W.; The End of the Amarna Period Once Again,
2001
[56] Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.275; to wit
Gabolde 1998; 2001; 2002
[57] Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.261
[58] Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.275
n104
[59] Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) pp.260-
261; Miller believes Suppiluliuma was indeed that brutal
[and] unscrupulous"; implicitly he must have been much
less aware of the state of aairs at Amarna court than
Neferneferuaten was of minutiae regarding Suppiluliuma
such as his aliation with the Hittite sun god. p.273 n94
35.8. FURTHER READING
[60] Miller, J.; Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.262
[61] Roeder, Amarna-Reliefs aus Hermopolis, pls. 19 (234-
VI) and 106 (451-VIIA). Also D. Redford, Studies on
Akhenaten at Thebes, II, JARCE 12 (1975), pp. 1112.
[62] Allen, J, Amarna Succession (2006); p 9-10, p9 n. 34
[63] van Dijk, Jacobus; The Death of Meketaten in Causing His
Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History
in Memory of William J. Murnane; (2006) pp 7-8
[64] Allen; Amarna Succession; p15
[65] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen; Penguin;
1998; ISBN 0-670-86998-8
[66] Allen, James P.; The Amarna Succession in Causing His
Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History
in Memory of William J. Murnane Online Archive pp
12-17
35.7.1 Notes
[1] Briey, an Egyptian queen writes to Suppiluliuma asking
for him to send a son for her to marry for she has no sons.
In marrying her, the son will become King of Egypt. The
Hittite king is wary and sends an envoy to verify the lack
of a male heir. The queen writes back, rebuking Suppiluli-
uma for suggesting she lied about a son and indicates she
is loath to marry a servant. A key element in the Hittite
sources is that Zannanza died not long after departing. It
has been supposed that he was murdered at the border of
Egypt (Brier) to thwart the plot. As there is no evidence
as to when or where he died nor that he was murdered,
Gabolde believes that he completed the trip and died only
after ascending the throne as Smenkhare.
The traditional view has been that Tutankhamuns widow
is the queen in question because she had no sons and even-
tually was married to a servant, Ay. Reeves has long
held that the queen was Nefertiti who was The Queen, par
excellence of the period.
[2] Gabolde and others have long noted that the name
Smenkhkare-Djeser Kheperu with the theophoric element
of Re and somewhat lofty epithet seems much more like
a throne name than a birth name. A name change does
seem likely to many even if he is Egyptian. The change
may have been simply adopting the 'Holy of Manifesta-
tions epithet or changing the theophoric element to 'Re'
to gain acceptance from both Atenists and traditionalists.
35.8 Further reading
Each of the leading candidates have their own propo-
nents among Egyptologists, whose work can be consulted
for more information and many more details for a given
candidate. Several of the works of Nicholas Reeves and
Aidan Dodson advocate for Nefertiti as Neferneferuaten.
Marc Gabolde has written several papers and at least one
book (in French) supporting Meritaten. James Allens
125
previous work in this area primarily dealt with establish-
ing the female gender of Neferneferuaten and then as an
individual apart from Smenkhkare. His paper on The
Amarna Succession is his rst theory as to identity of
King Neferneferuaten, having previously cited Nefertiti
or Meritaten as the probable or possible identity depend-
ing on the state of the evidence.
Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames &
Hudson, 1988).
Aldred, Cyril (1973). Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Lon-
don: Thames & Hudson.
Aldred, Cyril (1984). The Egyptians. London:
Thames & Hudson.
Allen, James H. (2006). The Amarna Succession
(PDF). Archived from the original on May 28, 2008.
Retrieved 2008-06-23.
Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete
Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hud-
son. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3
Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tu-
tankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian
Counter-Reformation. The American University in
Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3
Freed, Rita E., Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H.
D'Auria (ed.) (1999). Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhen-
aten - Nefertiti - Tutankhamen. Bulnch Press.
ISBN 0-8212-2620-7.
Gabolde, Marc, Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky in
Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J.
Murnane"; Gabolde - Starry Sky
Giles, Frederick. J., Ikhnaton Legend and History
(1970, Associated University Press, 1972 US)
Giles, Frederick. J. The Amarna Age: Egypt (Aus-
tralian Centre for Egyptology, 2001)
Hornung, Erik, Akhenaten and the Religion of
Light, translated by David Lorton, Cornell Univer-
sity Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8014-3658-3)
Miller, Jared; Amarna Age Chronology and the Iden-
tity of Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Recon-
structed Hittite Text (2007); Altoriental. Forsch. 34
(2007) 2, 252293
Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King
(Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-691-
03567-9)
Redford, Donald B.;Akhenaten: The Heretic King
(1984) Princeton University Press
126 CHAPTER 35. NEFERNEFERUATEN

Reeves, C. Nicholas., Akhenaten, Egypts False

Prophet (Thames & Hudson, 2001).
Reeves, C. Nicholas., The Complete Tutankhamun:
The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London:
Thames & Hudson, 1 November 1990, ISBN 0-500-
05058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paper-
back)

Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Pen-

guin. 1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8

The Amarna Project

Chapter 36

Small Aten Temple

Reconstruction of the Small Aten Temple at Amarna

The Small Aten Temple is located in the abandoned city

of Akhetaten (modern Amarna, in Egypt). It is one of the
two major temples in the city, the other being the Great
Temple of the Aten. It is situated close to the Kings House
and the Royal Palace, in the central part of the city.
Original known as the Hwt Aten or Mansion of the Aten, it
was probably constructed before the larger Great Temple.
Like the other structures in the city, it was constructed
quickly, and hence was easy to dismantle and reuse the
material for later construction.
Coordinates: 273843N 305347E / 27.6453N
30.8963E

127
Chapter 37

Tutankhamun

King Tut redirects here. For other uses, see King Tut When he became king, he married his half-sister,
(disambiguation). Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to
Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both
[8]
Tutankhamun (/tutnkmun/;[3] alternatively stillborn. Computed tomography studies released in
spelled with Tutenkh-, -amen, -amon) was an Egyptian 2011 revealed that one daughter died at 56 months of
pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled ca. 1332 BC pregnancy and the other at 9 months of pregnancy. No ev-
1323 BC in the conventional chronology), during the idence was found in either mummy of congenital anoma-
period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. lies or an apparent cause of death.[14]
He is popularly referred to as King Tut. His original
name, Tutankhaten, means Living Image of Aten",
while Tutankhamun means Living Image of Amun". 37.1.1 Reign
In hieroglyphs, the name Tutankhamun was typically
written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom
that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase
to show appropriate reverence.[4] He is possibly also
the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters, and likely the
18th dynasty king Rathotis who, according to Manetho,
an ancient historian, had reigned for nine yearsa
gure that conforms with Flavius Josephus's version of
Manethos Epitome.[5]
The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter and George
Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon[6][7] of Tutankhamuns
nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage. It
sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for
which Tutankhamuns burial mask, now in Cairo Mu-
Cartouches of his birth and throne names are displayed between
seum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts
rampant Sekhmet lioness warrior images (perhaps with his head)
from his tomb have toured the world. In February 2010, crushing enemies of several ethnicities, while Nekhbet ies pro-
the results of DNA tests conrmed that he was the son of tectively above.
Akhenaten (mummy KV55) and Akhenatens sister and
wife (mummy KV35YL), whose name is unknown but Given his age, the king probably had very powerful ad-
whose remains are positively identied as "The Younger visers, presumably including General Horemheb and the
Lady" mummy found in KV35.[8] Vizier Ay. Horemheb records that the king appointed
him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain
law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king
37.1 Life when his temper ared.[15]
In his third regnal year, Tutankhamun reversed several
Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten (formerly changes made during his fathers reign. He ended the
Amenhotep IV) and one of Akhenatens sisters,[9] or per- worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to
haps one of his cousins.[10] As a prince he was known supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted
as Tutankhaten.[11] He ascended to the throne in 1333 and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood.
BC, at the age of nine or ten, taking the throne name The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of
Nebkheperure.[12] His wet-nurse was a woman called Akhetaten abandoned.[16] This is when he changed his
Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.[13] A teacher was name to Tutankhamun, Living image of Amun, rein-
most likely Sennedjem. forcing the restoration of Amun.

128
37.1. LIFE 129

As part of his restoration, the king initiated building questions about Tutankhamuns lineage, proving that his
projects, in particular at Thebes and Karnak, where he father was Akhenaten, but that his mother was not one
dedicated a temple to Amun. Many monuments were of Akhenatens known wives. His mother was one of
erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares his fathers ve sisters, although it is not known which
the king had spent his life in fashioning the images of one.[22] The team was able to establish with a probabil-
the gods. The traditional festivals were now celebrated ity of better than 99.99 percent that Amenhotep III was
again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Hore- the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the
makhet, and Opet. His restoration stela says: father of Tutankhamun.[23] The young kings mother was
found through the DNA testing of a mummy designated
The temples of the gods and goddesses ... as 'The Younger Lady' (KV35YL), which was found ly-
were in ruins. Their shrines were deserted ing beside Queen Tiye in the alcove of KV35. Her DNA
and overgrown. Their sanctuaries were as non- proved that, like his father, she was a child of Amenhotep
existent and their courts were used as roads ... III and Tiye; thus, Tutankhamuns parents were brother
the gods turned their backs upon this land ... If and sister.[24] Queen Tiye held much political inuence
anyone made a prayer to a god for advice he at court and acted as an adviser to her son after the death
would never respond.[17] of her husband. Some geneticists dispute these ndings,
however, and complain that the team used inappropriate
The country was economically weak and in turmoil fol- analysis techniques.[25]
lowing the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with While the data are still incomplete, the study suggests that
other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun one of the mummied fetuses found in Tutankhamuns
sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. tomb is the daughter of Tutankhamun himself, and the
Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from other fetus is probably his child as well. So far, only par-
various countries found in his tomb. Despite his eorts tial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has
for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics been obtained.[26] One of them, KV21A, may well be the
were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His infants mother, and, thus, Tutankhamuns wife, Ankhe-
tomb contained body armor and folding stools appropri- senamun. It is known from history that she was the daugh-
ate for military campaigns. However, given his youth and ter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, and thus likely to be her
physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of husbands half-sister. Another consequence of inbreed-
a cane in order to walk (he died c. age 19), historians ing can be children whose genetic defects do not allow
speculate that he did not personally take part in these them to be brought to term.
battles.[8][18]
A further autopsy and genetic evidence in 2014 re-
conrmed the 2010 ndings that Tutankhamun was the
37.1.2 Health and appearance product of a brother-sister relationship.[27][28]

See also: Racial identity of Tutankhamun

Tutankhamun was slight of build, and was roughly 180 37.1.4 Death
cm (5 ft 11 in) tall.[19] He had large front incisors and
the overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line There are no surviving records of Tutankhamuns nal
to which he belonged. Between September 2007 and days. What caused Tutankhamuns death has been the
October 2009, various mummies were subjected to de- subject of considerable debate. Major studies have been
tailed anthropological, radiological, and genetic stud- conducted in an eort to establish the cause of death.
ies as part of the King Tutankhamun Family Project. There is some evidence, advanced by Harvard microbiol-
It was determined that none of the mummies of the ogist Ralph Mitchell, that his burial may have been hur-
Tutankhamun lineage has a cephalic index of 75 or ried. Mitchell reported that dark brown splotches on the
less (indicating dolichocephaly), that Tutankhamun ac- decorated walls of Tutankhamuns burial chamber sug-
tually has a cephalic index of 83.9, indicating brachy- gested that he had been entombed even before the paint
cephaly, and that none of their skull shapes can be consid- had a chance to dry.[29]
ered pathological.[20] The research also showed that Tu-
Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun
tankhamun had a slightly cleft palate"[21] and possibly a
mild case of scoliosis, a medical condition in which the was assassinated, the consensus is that his death was ac-
spine is curved from side to side. cidental. A CT scan taken in 2005 showed that he had
suered a left leg fracture[30] shortly before his death,
and that the leg had become infected. DNA analysis
37.1.3 Genealogy conducted in 2010 showed the presence of malaria in
his system, leading to the belief that malaria and Khler
In 2008, a team began DNA research on Tutankhamun disease II combined led to his death.[31] On 14 Septem-
and the mummied remains of other members of his fam- ber 2012, ABC News presented a further theory about
ily. The results from the DNA samples nally put to rest Tutankhamuns death, developed by lecturer and sur-
130 CHAPTER 37. TUTANKHAMUN

geon Dr. Hutan Ashraan, who believed that temporal he struggled against other [congenital aws] until a se-
lobe epilepsy caused a fatal fall which also broke Tu- vere bout of malaria or a leg broken in an accident added
tankhamuns leg.[32] one strain too many to a body that could no longer carry
In June 2010, German scientists said they believed there the load, wrote Zahi Hawass, archeologist and head of
was evidence that he had died of sickle cell disease. Other Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity involved in the
experts, however, rejected the hypothesis of homozygous research.
sickle cell disease[33] based on survival beyond the age of A review of the medical ndings to date found that
5 and the location of the osteonecrosis which is character- he suered from mild kyphoscoliosis, pes planus,
istic of Freiberg-Kohler syndrome rather than sickle-cell hypophalangism of the right foot, bone necrosis of sec-
disease. Research conducted in 2005 by archaeologists, ond and third metatarsal bones of the left foot, malaria,
radiologists, and geneticists, who performed CT scans on and a complex fracture of the right knee shortly before
the mummy found that he was not killed by a blow to the death.[40]
head, as previously thought.[34] New CT images discov- In late 2013, Egyptologist Dr. Chris Naunton and sci-
ered congenital aws, which are more common among entists from the Craneld Institute performed a virtual
the children of incest. Siblings are more likely to pass autopsy of Tutankhamun, revealing a pattern of injuries
on twin copies of harmful genes, which is why children down one side of his body. Car-crash investigators then
of incest more commonly manifest genetic defects.[22] It created computer simulations of chariot accidents. Naun-
is suspected he also had a partially cleft palate, another ton concluded that Tutankhamun was killed in a chariot
congenital defect.[35] crash: a chariot smashed into him while he was on his
Various other diseases, invoked as possible expla- knees, shattering his ribs and pelvis. Naunton also refer-
nations to his early demise, included Marfan syn- enced Howard Carters records of the body having been
drome, Wilson-Turner X-linked mental retardation syn- burnt. Working with anthropologist Dr. Robert Connolly
drome, Frhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy), and forensic archaeologist Dr. Matthew Ponting, Naun-
Klinefelter syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, ton produced evidence that Tutankhamuns body was
aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal burnt while sealed inside his con. Embalming oils com-
craniosynostosis syndrome, AntleyBixler syndrome or bined with oxygen and linen had caused a chemical reac-
one of its variants,[36] and temporal lobe epilepsy.[32] tion, creating temperatures of more than 200 C. Naun-
ton said, The charring and possibility that a botched
A research team, consisting of Egyptian scientists Yehia
Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Cen- mummication led to the body spontaneously combust-
tre in Cairo, conducted further CT scans under the di- ing shortly after burial was entirely unexpected.[41][42]
rection of Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem of the Fac- A further investigation, in 2014, revealed that it was un-
ulty of Medicine at Cairo University. Three interna- likely he had been killed in a chariot accident. Scans
tional experts served as consultants: Carsten Pusch of found that all but one of his bone fractures, including
the Eberhard Karls University of Tbingen, Germany; those to his skull, had been inicted after his death. The
Albert Zink of the EURAC-Institute for Mummies and scans also showed that he had a partially clubbed foot and
the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy;[37] and Paul Gostner of would have been unable to stand unaided, thus making
the Central Hospital Bolzano.[38] STR analysis based it unlikely he ever rode in a chariot; this was supported
DNA ngerprinting analysis combined with the other by the presence of many walking sticks among the con-
techniques have rejected the hypothesis of gynecomas- tents of his tomb. Instead, it is believed that genetic de-
tia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley-Bixler syndrome) fects arising from his parents being siblings, complica-
or Marfan syndrome, but an accumulation of malfor- tions from a broken leg and his suering from malaria,
mations in Tutankhamuns family was evident. Sev- together caused his death.[43][44]
eral pathologies including Khler disease II were diag-
nosed in Tutankhamun; none alone would have caused
death. Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 37.1.5 Aftermath
genes specic for Plasmodium falciparum revealed in-
dications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including With the death of Tutankhamun and the two stillborn
Tutankhamuns.[39] However their exact contribution to children buried with him, the Thutmosid family line
the causality of his death still is highly debated. came to an end. The Amarna letters indicate that Tu-
As stated above, the team discovered DNA from sev- tankhamuns wife, recently widowed, wrote to the Hit-
eral strains of a parasite proving he was infected with the tite king Suppiluliuma I, asking if she could marry one of
most severe strain of malaria several times in his short his sons. The letters do not say how Tutankhamun died.
life. Malaria can trigger circulatory shock or cause a fatal In the message, Ankhesenamun says that she was very
immune response in the body, either of which can lead afraid, but would not take one of her own people as hus-
to death. If Tutankhamun did suer from a bone disease band. However, the son was killed before reaching his
which was crippling, it may not have been fatal. Perhaps new wife. Shortly afterward, Ay married Tutankhamuns
widow and became Pharaoh as a war was fought be-
37.4. LEGACY
tween the two countries, and Egypt was left defeated.[45]
The fate of Ankhesenamun is not known, but she dis-
appears from record and Ays second wife Tey became
Great Royal Wife. After Ays death, Horemheb usurped
the throne and instigated a campaign of damnatio memo-
riae against him. Tutankhamuns father Akhenaten, step-
mother Nefertiti, his wife Ankhesenamun, half sisters
and other family members were also included. Not even
Tutankhamun was spared. His images and cartouches
were also erased. Horemheb himself, despite a possible
marriage to Nefertitis sister, Mutnedjmet, was left child-
less and willed the throne to Paramessu, who founded the
Ramesside family line of pharaohs.
37.2 Signicance
Tutankhamun was nine years old when he became
Pharaoh, son of god Ra, and reigned for approximately
ten years. The Egyptian sun god Ra, considered the
father of all pharaohs, was said to have created himself
from a pyramid-shaped mound of earth before creating
all other gods. (Donald B. Redford, PhD, Penn State)[46]
In historical terms, Tutankhamuns signicance stems
from the fact that his reign was close to the apogee of
Egypt as a world power and from his rejection of the rad-
ical religious innovations introduced by his predecessor
and father, Akhenaten.[47] Secondly, his tomb in the Val-
ley of the Kings was discovered by Carter almost com-
pletely intactthe most complete ancient Egyptian royal
tomb ever found. As Tutankhamun began his reign at
such an early age, his vizier, and eventual successor Ay,
was probably making most of the important political de-
cisions during Tutankhamuns reign.
Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary
cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one
of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his
lifetime.[48] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to
Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could
be appealed to in his deied state for forgiveness and to
free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Tem-
ples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras
in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush
included a reference to the deied king, indicative of the
universality of his cult.[49]
37.3 Tomb
Further information: KV62
Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was small rel-
ative to his status. His death may have occurred unex-
pectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb,
so that his mummy was buried in a tomb intended for
someone else. This would preserve the observance of the
customary seventy days between death and burial.[50]
131
King Tutankhamuns mummy still rests in his tomb in the
Valley of the Kings. On 4 November 2007, 85 years to
the day after Carters discovery, the 19-year-old pharaoh
went on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when
the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden
sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case
was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decompo-
sition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists
visiting the tomb.[51]
His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based
on the items taken (including perishable oils and per-
fumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb af-
ter the intrusions, it seems clear that these robberies took
place within several months at most of the initial burial.
Eventually the location of the tomb was lost because it
had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent
tombs, either dumped there or washed there by oods. In
the years that followed, some huts for workers were built
over the tomb entrance, clearly not knowing what lay be-
neath. When at the end of the 20th Dynasty the Valley
of the Kings burials were systematically dismantled, the
burial of Tutankhamun was overlooked, presumably be-
cause knowledge of it had been lost and his name may
have been forgotten.
For many years, rumors of a "Curse of the Pharaohs"
(probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time
of the discovery[52] ) persisted, emphasizing the early
death of some of those who had entered the tomb. How-
ever, a recent study of journals and death records indi-
cated no statistical dierence between the age of death
of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedi-
tion who did not.
37.4 Legacy
Further information: Exhibitions of artifacts from the
tomb of Tutankhamun
If Tutankhamun is the worlds best known pharaoh, it is
largely because his tomb is among the best preserved, and
his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited. As
Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977
edition of Carters The Discovery of the Tomb of Tu-
tankhamun, The pharaoh who in life was one of the least
esteemed of Egypts Pharoahs has become in death the
most renowned.
The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the
1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern ne-
ologism, "King Tut". Ancient Egyptian references be-
came common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Al-
ley songs; the most popular of the latter was Old King
Tut by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923, which was recorded
by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare and
Sophie Tucker. King Tut became the name of prod-
ucts, businesses, and even the pet dog of U.S. President
132 CHAPTER 37. TUTANKHAMUN

Herbert Hoover. tour, as the Egyptian government has determined that the
Relics from Tutankhamuns tomb are among the most mask is too fragile[60] to withstand travel and will never again
traveled artifacts in the world. They have been to many leave the country.
countries, but probably the best-known exhibition tour A separate exhibition called Tutankhamun and the World
was The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour, which ran from of the Pharaohs began at the Ethnological Museum in
1972 to 1979. This exhibition was rst shown in London Vienna from 9 March to 28 September 2008, showing
at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September a further 140 treasures.[61] Renamed Tutankhamun: The
1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition, Golden King and the Great Pharaohs, this exhibition be-
some queuing for up to eight hours. It was the most pop- gan a tour of the US and Canada in Atlanta on 15 Novem-
ular exhibition in the Museums history. The exhibition ber 2008. It is scheduled to nish in Seattle on 6 January
moved on to many other countries, including the USA, 2013.[62]
USSR, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibi-
tion, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April
1979. More than eight million attended.
37.5 In popular culture
In 2004, the tour of Tutankhamun funerary objects en- See also: Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination
titled Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter, consisting of
fty artifacts from Tutankhamuns tomb and seventy fu-
nerary goods from other 18th Dynasty tombs, began in
Basle, Switzerland and went on to Bonn Germany on the 37.5.1 Film and television
second leg of the tour. This European tour was organ-
ised by the Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Re- We Want Our Mummy, a 1939 lm by The Three
public of Germany, the Supreme Council of Antiquities Stooges. In it, the slapstick comedy trio explores the
(SCA), and the Egyptian Museum in cooperation with the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten (pronounced
Antikenmuseum Basel and Sammlung Ludwig. Deutsche rootin'-tootin'") and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy. A
Telekom sponsored the Bonn exhibition.[53] decade later, they were crooked used-chariot sales-
In 2005, Egypts Supreme Council of Antiquities, in part- men in Mummys Dummies, in which they ultimately
nership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the assist a dierent King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent)
National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tu- with a toothache.
tankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary ob-
jects, this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age King Tut, played by Victor Buono, was a villain on
of the Pharaohs. It features the same exhibits as Tu- the Batman TV series which aired from 1966 to
tankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly dierent 1968. Mild-mannered Egyptologist William Om-
format. It was expected to draw more than three million aha McElroy, after suering a concussion, came to
people.[54] believe he was the reincarnation of Tutankhamun.
His response to this knowledge was to embark upon
The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved to Fort a crime spree that required him to ght against the
Lauderdale, Florida, Chicago and Philadelphia. The ex- Caped Crusaders, Batman and Robin.
hibition then moved to London[55] before nally return-
ing to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibi- The Discovery Kids animated series Tutenstein stars
tion in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of a ctional mummy based on Tutankhamun, named
Art from October 2008 to May 2009.[56] The tour con- Tutankhensetamun and nicknamed Tutenstein in his
tinued to other U.S. cities.[57] After Dallas the exhibition afterlife. He is depicted as a lazy and spoiled 10-
moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, fol- year-old mummy boy who must guard a magical ar-
lowed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New tifact called the Scepter of Was from the evil Egyp-
York City.[58] tian god Set.
In 2011 the exhibition visited Australia for the rst time,
opening at the Melbourne Museum in April for its only The rst episode of the 2005 BBC series Egypt:
Australian stop before Egypts treasures return to Cairo Rediscovering a Lost World focuses on the life and
in December 2011. [59] death of Tutankhamun and the serendipitous discov-
ery of his tomb.
The exhibition includes 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tu-
tankhamuns immediate predecessors in the Eighteenth La Reine Soleil (2007 animated lm by Philippe
dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly Leclerc), features Akhenaten, Tutankhaten (later
increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lav- Tutankhamun), Akhesa (Ankhesenepaten, later
ish wealth of Tutankhamuns burial artifacts, as well as 50 Ankhesenamun), Nefertiti, and Horemheb in a
from Tutankhamuns tomb. The exhibition does not in- complex struggle pitting the priests of Amun against
clude the gold mask that was a feature of the 19721979 Akhenatens intolerant monotheism.
37.7. ANCESTRY 133

In the US documentary series, King Tut Unwrapped, nb-prw-r, and, again, according to modern Egyptologi-
Moroccan singer-actor, Faissal Oberon Azizi, por- cal convention is written Nebkheperure, meaning Lord
trayed Tutankhamun. of the forms of Re". The name Nibhurrereya in the
Amarna letters may be closer to how his praenomen was
actually pronounced.
37.5.2 Other media
"King Tut", a whimsical 1978 song by (Ameri-
can comedian) "Steve Martin and the Toot Uncom- 37.7 Ancestry
mons (a backup group consisting of members of
the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band). 37.8 References
The 1981 arcade game Tutankham revolves around
King Tutankhamun. [1] Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The
Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of An-
1989 television networks often advertised commer- cient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 128. ISBN 0-500-
cials for King Tuts dog food, complete with Anubis- 28628-0.
styled canine animation and music to the tune of
[2] Frail boy-king Tut died from malaria, broken leg by Paul
"Camel Caravan. The can label was also adorned
Schemm, Associated Press. 16 February 2010.
with themed hieroglyphs.
[3] Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen. Collins Dictionary.
The mummy of Tutankhamun is depicted as a villain n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
in Raj Comics's Nagraj, a Hindi superhero comic-
book. In this series, his mask is the source of his [4] Zauzich, Karl-Theodor (1992). Hieroglyphs Without Mys-
power. tery. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 3031. ISBN
978-0-292-79804-5.
For "Transformers" the Decepticon character
Frenzy repeats the name, Tutankhamun. [5] Manethos King List.

The video game Sphinx and the Cursed Mummy
features a ctional representation of Prince Tu-
tankhamun. Tutankhamun is the victim of an un-
named magical ritual which results in almost instan-
taneous mummication and extraction of what ap-
pears to be his life force. In the instruction man-
ual, the Mummy is described as young, inexperi-
enced and naive.
The novel Tutankhamun (2008) by novelist Nick
Drake [not the musician] takes place during the
reign of Tutankhamun and gives a possible expla-
nation for his injury and death (and the aftermath)
set amid a murder mystery.
The novel The Lost Queen of Egypt (1937) by
novelist Lucile Morrison is about Ankhsenpaaten /
Ankhesenamun, the wife of Tutankhamun. He is
a major character, coming in about midway in the
story. Here, his name is spelled as 'Tutankhamon.'
Its strongly hinted that he was murdered.
37.6 Names
[6] The Egyptian Exhibition at Highclere Castle. Archived
from the original on 3 September 2010. Retrieved 21 Oc-
tober 2013.
[7] Hawass, Zahi A. The golden age of Tutankhamun: divine
might and splendor in the New Kingdom. American Univ
in Cairo Press, 2004.
[8] Hawass, Zahi; et al. (17 February 2010). Ancestry and
Pathology in King Tutankhamuns Family. The Journal
of the American Medical Association 303 (7): 638647.
Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[9] Hawass, Zahi; et al. (17 February 2010). Ancestry and
Pathology in King Tutankhamuns Family. The Journal
of the American Medical Association 303 (7): 640641.
Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[10] Powell, Alvin (12 February 2013). A dierent take on
Tut. Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[11] Jacobus van Dijk. The Death of Meketaten (PDF). p.
7. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
[12] Classroom TUTorials: The Many Names of King Tu-
tankhamun (pdf). Michael C. Carlos Museum. Retrieved
10 July 2013.

[13] Egypt Update: Rare Tomb May Have Been Destroyed.

At the reintroduction of traditional religious practice, Science Mag. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
his name changed. It is transliterated as twt-n-mn
q-wnw-m, and according to modern Egyptological [14] Hawass, Zahi and Saleem, Sahar N. Mummied daughters
of King Tutankhamun: Archaeological and CT studies.
convention is written Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema,
The American Journal of Roentgenology 2011. Vol 197,
meaning Living image of Amun, ruler of Upper No. 5, pp. W829-836.
Heliopolis". On his ascension to the throne, Tu-
tankhamun took a praenomen. This is transliterated as [15] Booth pp. 8687
134
[16] Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Trans-
lated by David Lorton, Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univer-
sity Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8014-8725-0.
[17] Hart, George (1990). Egyptian Myths. University of
Texas Press. p. 47. ISBN 0-292-72076-9.
[18] Booth pp. 129130
[19] Radiologists Attempt To Solve Mystery Of Tuts
Demise from ScienceDaily.com
[20] Hawass, Z.; Gad, Y. Z.; Ismail, S.; Khairat, R.; Fathalla,
D.; Hasan, N.; Ahmed, A.; Elleithy, H.; Ball, M.; Gabal-
lah, F.; Wasef, S.; Fateen, M.; Amer, H.; Gostner, P.;
Selim, A.; Zink, A.; Pusch, C. M. (2010). Ancestry
and Pathology in King Tutankhamuns Family. JAMA
303 (7): 638647. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. PMID
20159872.
[21] Handwerk, Brian (8 March 2005). King Tut Not Mur-
dered Violently, CT Scans Show. National Geographic
News. p. 2. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[22] Bates, Claire (20 February 2010). Unmasked: The real
faces of the crippled King Tutankhamun (who walked
with a cane) and his incestuous parents. Daily Mail (Lon-
don).
[23] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Maga-
zine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 Octo-
ber 2010.
[24] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Maga-
zine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 Octo-
ber 2010.
[25] DNA experts disagree over Tutankhamuns ancestry.
Archaeology News Network. 22 January 2011. Retrieved
24 February 2011.
[26] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Maga-
zine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 Octo-
ber 2010.
[27] Gwennedd, pseudonym (October 21, 2014). King Tut
Revealed: Scientists do Virtual Autopsy of the Famous
King and Find Shocking Surprises. DailyKos. Retrieved
October 21, 2014.
[28] Ledwith, Mario (19 October 2014). The REAL face of
King Tut: Pharaoh had girlish hips, a club foot and buck
teeth according to 'virtual autopsy' that also revealed his
parents were brother and sister. Daily Mail. Retrieved 21
October 2014. A virtual autopsy, composed of more
than 2,000 computer scans, was carried out in tandem
with a genetic analysis of Tutankhamuns family, which
supports evidence that his parents were brother and sis-
ter. The scientists believe that this left him with physical
impairments triggered by hormonal imbalances. And his
family history could also have led to his premature death
in his late teens.
[29] Was King Tut Buried in a Hurry?". History.com.
[30] Hawass, Zahi. Tutankhamon, segreti di famiglia. Na-
tional Geographic. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
CHAPTER 37. TUTANKHAMUN
[31] Roberts, Michelle (16 February 2010). "'Malaria' killed
King Tutankhamun. BBC News. Retrieved 12 March
2010.
[32] Rosenbaum, Matthew (14 September 2012). Mystery of
King Tuts death solved?". ABC News. Retrieved 21 Oc-
tober 2013.
[33] Pays, JF (December 2010). Tutankhamun and sickle-
cell anaemia. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 103 (5, number
5): 346347. doi:10.1007/s13149-010-0095-3. PMID
20972847. Retrieved 21 October 2013.(Abstract)
[34] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Maga-
zine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 21 Octo-
ber 2013.
[35] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Maga-
zine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 Octo-
ber 2010.
[36] Markel, H. (17 February 2010). King Tutankhamun,
modern medical science, and the expanding bound-
aries of historical inquiry. JAMA 303 (7): 667668.
doi:10.1001/jama.2010.153. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
(subscription required)
[37] EURAC research Research Institutes Institute for
Mummies and the Iceman Home. Eurac.edu. Re-
trieved 11 October 2010.
[38] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Maga-
zine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 Octo-
ber 2010.
[39] JAMA. 17 Feb 2010;303(7):638-47. Ancestry and
pathology in King Tutankhamuns family. Hawass Z, Gad
YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, Ahmed
A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F, Wasef S, Fateen M,
Amer H, Gostner P, Selim A, Zink A, Pusch CM. Source
Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt. http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20159872.1
[40] Hussein K, Matin E, Nerlich AG (2013) Paleopathology
of the juvenile Pharaoh Tutankhamun-90th anniversary
of discovery. Virchows Arch
[41] Owen, Jonathan (3 November 2013). Solved: The mys-
tery of King Tutankhamuns death. The Independent.
Retrieved 3 November 2013.
[42] Webb, Sam (2 November 2013). Mummy-fried! Tu-
tankhamuns body spontaneously combusted inside his
con following botched embalming job after he died in
speeding chariot accident. The Daily Mail. Retrieved 3
November 2013.
[43] Webb, Sam (20 October 2014). The Indepen-
dent http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/
king-tutankhamun-did-not-die-in-chariot-crash-virtual-autopsy-reveals-980
html. Retrieved 26 October 2014. Missing or empty
|title= (help)
[44] Webb, Sam (25 October 2014). Russia Today http://rt.
com/news/199328-tutankhamun-pharaoh-egypt-death/.
Retrieved 26 October 2014. Missing or empty |title=
(help)
37.9. FURTHER READING
[45] Interview with G.A. Gaballa, of Cairo University. The
Hittites: A Civilization that Changed the World by Cin-
ema Epoch 2004. Directed by Tolga Ornek. Documen-
tary.
[46] Redford, Donald B., PhD; McCauley, Marissa. How
were the Egyptian pyramids built?". Research. The Penn-
sylvania State University. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
[47] Aude Gros de Beler, Tutankhamun, foreword Aly Maher
Sayed, Moliere, ISBN 2-84790-210-4
[48] Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology, Ed-
itor Donald B. Redford, p. 85, Berkley, ISBN 0-425-
19096-X
[49] The Boy Behind the Mask, Charlotte Booth, p. 120,
Oneworld, 2007, ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8
[50] "The Golden Age of Tutankhamun: Divine Might and
Splendour in the New Kingdom", Zahi Hawass, p. 61,
American University in Cairo Press, 2004, ISBN 977-
424-836-8
[51] Michael McCarthy (5 October 2007). 3,000 years old:
the face of Tutankhaten. The Independent (London).
[52] Hankey, Julie (2007). A Passion for Egypt: Arthur
Weigall, Tutankhamun and the 'Curse of the Pharaohs.
Tauris Parke Paperbacks. pp. 35. ISBN 978-1-84511-
435-0.
[53] Al-Ahram Weekly | Heritage | Under Tuts spell.
Weekly.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
[54] King Tut exhibition. Tutankhamun & the Golden Age
of the Pharaohs. Treasures from the Valley of the Kings.
Arts and Exhibitions International. Retrieved 5 August
2006.
[55] Return of the King (Times Online)
[56] Dallas Museum of Art Website. Dallasmuseumo-
fart.org. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
[57] Associated Press, "Tut Exhibit to Return to US Next
Year"
[58] Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs | King
Tut Returns to San Francisco, June 27, 2009 March 28,
2010. Famsf.org. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
[59] Melbourne Museums Tutenkhamun and the Golden Age
of the Pharaohs Ocial Site
[60] Jenny Booth (6 January 2005). CT scan may solve Tu-
tankhamun death riddle. The Times (London).
[61] Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
[62] King Tut: The Exhibition | King Tut | Special Exhibits.
Pacicsciencecenter.org. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
[63] Digital Egypt for Universities: Tutankhamun. Univer-
sity College London. 22 June 2003. Retrieved 5 August
2006.
135
37.9 Further reading
Andritsos, John. Social Studies of ancient Egypt:
Tutankhamun. Australia 2006
Booth, Charlotte. The Boy Behind the Mask",
Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8
Brier, Bob. The Murder of Tutankhamun: A
True Story. Putnam Adult, 13 April 1998, ISBN
0-425-16689-9 (paperback)/ISBN 0-399-14383-1
(hardcover)/ISBN 0-613-28967-6 (School & Li-
brary Binding)
Carter, Howard and Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery
of the Tomb of Tutankhamun. Courier Dover Pub-
lications, 1 June 1977, ISBN 0-486-23500-9 The
semi-popular account of the discovery and opening
of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible
Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane. Sarwat Okasha
(Preface), Tutankhamun: Life and Death of a
Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society,
1963, ISBN 0-8212-0151-4 (1976 reprint, hard-
cover) /ISBN 0-14-011665-6 (1990 reprint, paper-
back)
Edwards, I.E.S., Treasures of Tutankhamun. New
York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976, ISBN
0-345-27349-4 (paperback)/ISBN 0-670-72723-7
(hardcover)
Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The
Mummy of Tutankhamun: the CT Scan Report, as
printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.
Haag, Michael. The Rough Guide to Tu-
tankhamun: The King: The Treasure: The Dy-
nasty. London 2005. ISBN 1-84353-554-8.
Hoving, Thomas. The search for Tutankhamun:
The untold story of adventure and intrigue surround-
ing the greatest modern archeological nd. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 15 October 1978, ISBN
0-671-24305-5 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-8154-1186-3
(paperback) This book details a number of interest-
ing anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of
the tomb
James, T. G. H. Tutankhamun. New York: Fried-
man/Fairfax, 1 September 2000, ISBN 1-58663-
032-6 (hardcover) A large-format volume by the for-
mer Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Mu-
seum, lled with colour illustrations of the funerary
furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects
Neubert, Otto. Tutankhamun and the Valley of the
Kings. London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1972,
ISBN 0-583-12141-1 (paperback) First hand ac-
count of the discovery of the Tomb
136 CHAPTER 37. TUTANKHAMUN

Reeves, C. Nicholas. The Complete Tutankhamun:

The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London:
Thames & Hudson, 1 November 1990, ISBN 0-500-
05058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paper-
back) Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb

Rossi, Renzo. Tutankhamun. Cincinnati (Ohio)

2007 ISBN 978-0-7153-2763-0, a work all illus-
trated and coloured.

37.10 External links

Grim secrets of Pharaohs cityBBC News
Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs
website
British Museum Tutankhamun highlight

Swiss geneticists examine Tutankhamuns genetic

prole by Reuters

Ultimate Tut Documentary produced by the PBS

Series Secrets of the Dead
37.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 137

Bust of Tutankhamun found in his tomb, 1922.

Statue of Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun at Luxor, hacked

at during the damnatio memoriae campaign against the Amarna
line of Thutmoside pharaohs.

Signet ring, with cartouche, for the Pharaoh Tutankhamun:

Perfect God, Lord of the Two Lands"('Ntr-Nfr, Neb-taui'
right to left)
Wooden bust of the boy king, found in his tomb.
138 CHAPTER 37. TUTANKHAMUN

Tutankhamuns chest now in the Cairo Museum.

Tutankhamun receives owers from Ankhesenamen.

Tomb of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings.

King Tut Saloon, Louisiana.

Howard Carter and associates opening the shrine doors in the

burial chamber (1924 reconstruction of the 1923 event)
The gilded bier from the base of Tutankhamuns Sarcophagus.
37.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 139

A pectoral belonging to Tutankhamun, representing his

Prenomen.
Chapter 38
Amarna Period
The Amarna Period was an era of Egyptian history
during the latter half of the Eighteenth Dynasty when
the royal residence of the pharaoh and his queen was
shifted to Akhetaten ('Horizon of the Aten') in what is
now Amarna. It was marked by the reign of Amenhotep
IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten (13531336
BC) in order to reect the dramatic change of Egypts
polytheistic religion into one where a sun-god Aten was
worshipped over all other gods. Aten was not solely
worshipped (the religion was not monotheistic), but the
other gods were worshipped to a signicantly lesser de-
gree. The Egyptian pantheon of the equality of all gods
and goddesses was restored under Akhenatens succes-
sor. Other rulers of this period include Amenhotep III,
Smenkhkare, Neferneferuaten, Tutankhamun, Ay, and
Horemheb.
38.1 Religious developments
Akhenaten instigated the earliest veried expression of
monotheism, (although the origins of a pure monothe-
ism are the subject of continuing debate within the aca-
demic community and some state that Akhenaten re-
stored monotheism while others point out that he merely
suppressed a dominant solar cult by the assertion of an-
other, while he never completely abandoned several other
traditional deities). Scholars believe that Akhenatens de-
votion to his deity, Aten, oended many in power be-
low him, which contributed to the end of this dynasty; he
later suered damnatio memoriae. Although modern stu-
dents of Egyptology consider the monotheism of Akhen-
aten the most important event of this period, the later
Egyptians considered the so-called Amarna period an un-
fortunate aberration. Religion prompted many innova-
tions in the name and service of religion. They viewed
religion and science as one in the same. Previously, the
presence of many gods explained the natural phenom-
ena, but during the Amarna period there was a rise in
monotheism. With people beginning to think of the ori-
gins of the universe, Amun-Re was seen as the sole cre-
ator and Sun-god. The view of this god is seen through the
poem entitled Hymn to the Aten"; When your move-
ments disappear and you go to rest in the Akhet, the land
is in darkness, in the manner of death... darkness a blan-
140
ket, the land in stillness, with the one who makes them at
rest in his Akhet. The land grows bright once you have ap-
peared in the Akhet, shining in the sun disk by day. When
you dispel darkness and give your rays, the Two Lands are
in a festival of light. From the poem, one can see that the
nature of the gods daily activity revolves around recreat-
ing the earth on a daily basis. It also focuses on the present
life rather than on eternity. After the Amarna reign, these
religious beliefs fell out of favor. This was partly because
access to Amun-Re was limited only to the king and his
family. Only they were allowed to worship, and the rest
were left to worship the king and his family.[1]
38.2 Royal women
The royal women of Amarna have more surviving text
about them than any other women from ancient Egypt.
It is clear that they played a large role in royal and reli-
gious functions. These women were frequently portrayed
as being very powerful. Many of the kings daughters
(Amenhotep) had inuences as great if not greater than
his wives. Tiye and Nefertiti were the most inuential
of his wives, and Nefertiti was said to be the force be-
hind the new monotheist religion. Nefertiti, whose name
means the beautiful one is here, bore six of Amen-
hoteps daughters. There is a debate whether the rela-
tionship between Amenhotep and his daughters was sex-
ual. Although there is much controversy over this topic,
there is no evidence that any of them bore his children.
Amenhotep gave many of his daughters titles of queen.
Tiye, the kings chief wife, came to be known as the
commoner queen for the lack of royal blood. Tiye
came from a military family, and had inuence even af-
ter Amenhoteps death.[2]
38.3 Art
Main article: Amarna art
During Akhenatens reign, royal portraiture underwent
dramatic change. Sculptures of Akhenaten deviate from
conventional portrayal of royalty. Akhenaten is depicted
in an androgynous and highly stylized manner, with large
38.5. FOREIGN RELATIONS
A relief of a royal couple in the Amarna-period style; gures
may be Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Smenkhkare and Meritaten, or
Tutankhamen and Ankhesenamun; Egyptian Museum of Berlin.
thighs, a slim torso, drooping belly, full lips, and a long
neck and nose.[3] Some believe that the break with con-
vention was due to the presence at Amarna of new peo-
ple or groups of artists whose background and training
were dierent from those of the Karnak sculptors.[4]
The events following Akhenatens death are unclear and
the identity and policies of his co-regent and immediate
successor are the matter of ongoing scholarly debate.
38.4 Tutankhamun and the
Amarna Succession
Main article: Amarna succession
Tutankhamun died before he was twenty years old, and
the dynastys nal years clearly were shaky. The royal line
of the dynasty died out with Tutankhamun. Two fetuses
found buried in his tomb may have been his twin daugh-
ters who would have continued the royal lineage, ac-
cording to a 2008 investigation.[5] An unidentied Egyp-
tian queen Dakhamunzu, widow of King Nibhururiya
is known from Hittite annals. She is often identied as
Ankhesenamun, royal wife of Tutankhamun, although
Nefertiti and Meritaten have also been suggested as possi-
ble candidates. This queen wrote to Suppiluliuma I, king
of the Hittites, asking him to send one of his sons to be-
come her husband and king of Egypt. In her letters she
expressed fear and a reluctance to take as husband one
of her servants. Suppiluliumas sent an ambassador to in-
141
vestigate, and after further negotiations agreed to send
one of his sons to Egypt. This prince, named Zannanza
was however murdered, probably en route to Egypt. Sup-
piluliumas reacted with rage at the news of his sons death
and accused the Egyptians. Then, he retaliated by going
to war against Egypts vassal states in Syria and Northern
Canaan and captured the city of Amki. Unfortunately,
Egyptian prisoners of war from Amki carried a plague
which eventually would ravage the Hittite Empire and kill
both Suppiluliumas I and his direct successor.
The last two members of the eighteenth dynasty - Ay and
Horemheb - became rulers from the ranks of ocials in
the royal court, although Ay may have married the widow
of Tutankhamun in order to obtain power and she did
not live long afterward. Ays reign was short. His suc-
cessor was Horemheb, who had been a diplomat in the
administration of Tutankhamun and may have been in-
tended as his successor by the childless Tutankhamun.
Horemheb may have taken the throne away from Ay in a
coup. He also died childless and appointed his successor,
Paramessu, who under the name Ramesses I ascended
the throne in 1292 BC and was the rst pharaoh of the
Nineteenth Dynasty.
38.5 Foreign relations
Map of the ancient Near East during the Amarna period, showing
the great powers of the period: Egypt (green), Hatti (yellow), the
Kassite kingdom of Babylon (purple), Assyria (grey), and Mittani
(red). Lighter areas show direct control, darker areas represent
spheres of inuence. The extent of the Achaean/Mycenaean civ-
ilization is shown in orange.
The Great Powers Club is a recent reference to the
correspondence between the Great Kings as found in the
Amarna Letters.
These powers are Babylon, Assyria, Mitanni and Hatti,
viz. the major powers in Mesopotamia, the Levant and
Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age.
142
38.5.1 The Great Powers
Babylon EA 1-11
Assur
Zubeidi
Mari Imlihiye
Dur-Kurigalzu
kilometers
miles
100
Sippar
Babylon Kish
Nippur
Isin
Babylonia
at the time of the Uruk
Kassites
13th century BC
The extent of the Babylonian Empire during the Kassite dynasty
The Babylonians were conquered by an outside group of
people and were referred to in the letters as Karaduniyas
[6]
Babylon was ruled by the Kassite dynasty which would
later on assimilate to the Babylonian culture. The let-
ters of correspondence between the two deal with various
trivial things but it also contained one of the few mes-
sages from Egypt to another power. It was the pharaoh
responding to the demands of the King Kasashman-Enlil
who initially inquired about the whereabouts of his sis-
ter, that was sent as a diplomatic marriage. The king,
Kasashman-Enlil who is hesitant to send out his daughter
to another diplomatic marriage until he knows the status
of his sister. The pharaoh responds by politely telling the
king to send someone who would recognize his sister.[7]
Then later correspondence dealt with the importance of
exchanging of gifts namely the gold which is used in the
construction of a temple in Babylonia. There was also a
correspondence where the Babylonian king was oended
by not having a proper escort for a princess. He was dis-
traught by how few the chariots there was to transport her
and would be ashamed by the responses by the great kings
of the region.[8]
Assyria EA 15-16
An independent power by the time of the Amarna letters,
who were originally a vassal but regained independence.
The two letters came from the king Assur-uballit dealt
with him introducing himself and sending a messenger to
investigate Egypt He should see what you are like and
what your country is like, and then leave for here. (EA
15) The second letter dealt with him inquiring why Egypt
was not sending enough gold to him and arguing about
prot for the king. then let him (a messenger) stay out These clay tablets were found in the city of el-Amarna
and let him die right there in the sun, but for (but) for the which was founded by the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten.
CHAPTER 38. AMARNA PERIOD
king himself there must be a prot. [9]
Mittani EA 1730
Once enemies,The Mittannis were an old ally of Egypt
by the time of the Amarna letters.[10] The topics as hit by
the King Tuiseratta dealt with various topics as preserv-
ing and renewing marriage alliances or sending in various
gifts. For example, EA 22 and EA 25 in the Amarna let-
ters is just an inventory of the gifts from the Mittani king
Tusratta to the pharaoh. The other correspondence of
note dealt with a gold status that was addressed in EA 26
and EA 27. Akhenaten married a princess of the Mittani
Susa
nation in order to create ties between the nations through
the bond or marriage.
Girsu
Ur Hatti EA 41-44
Kingdom from Eastern Anatolia that would later on make
the Mitanni a vassal of them. The correspondence from
them come from the king called Suppiluliumas. The let-
ters varied from discussing about past alliances, to gift
giving and dealing with honor. In EA 42, the tablet stated
how the Hittite king was oended by the name of the
pharaoh written over his name. Although, the ending of
the text became too fragmented it mentioned that he will
blot out the name of the pharaoh.[11]
38.5.2 Amarna Letters
Main article: Amarna letters
These letters took their name from the region they were
found called el-Amarna, 190 miles south of Cairo.[12]
They are dated from the late Bronze Age during the 18th
Dynasty of Egypt from the reign of Amenhotep III to
Akhenaten and a possible third king.[13] They are clay
tablets written in Akkadian cuneiform, the Lingua franca
of the time. The dates of these correspondence are from
the New Kingdom. Within these tablets, there exists dia-
logue between what ancient historians began to term the
Great Powers Club which included Babylonia, Assyria,
Mittani, and Hatti.[14] The letters range from inquiries
about diplomatic marriages to requesting gifts. These let-
ters themselves were not the earliest moments of interna-
tional relations but greatly intrigued people who desired
to study the beginnings of international relations as they
saw and hoped to tie in the Amarna Letters to the hap-
penings of the Cold War. These letters demonstrated a
glimpse in how the ancient Near East Great Powers in-
teracted with each other.[15] The success of this system
lasted for two hundred years and there was no signicant
ghting amongst these great powers.[16]
38.6. GALLERY OF IMAGES
The locations of these tablets today are found in vari-
ous museums such as the Vorderasiatisches Museum in
Berlin, the British Museum, the Cairo Museum and the
Oriental Institute.[17] There are over 300 tablets that range
from foreign correspondence to inventories. The modern
division of these letters were due to the Norwegian As-
syriologist J. A. Knudtzon who published Die El-Amarna-
Tafeln.[18] There are over three hundred of these mes-
sages but some are in such a bad condition that they could
not be fully recovered.
The opening statement
William Moran discussed how the rst line in these doc-
uments followed a certain pattern of Say to PN. Thus
PN. There are variations of this but was found common
among all the tablets. The other is a salutation which
is one a report of the monarchs well being and then
the second which is a series of good wishes toward the
monarch.[19] Indeed, this seems to be part of the style of
Akkadian style of writing which helped facilitate foreign
correspondence for the long term. As scholars argued,
this aided in ltering out the chauvinistic domestic ideol-
ogy at home to the other monarch. This allowed diplo-
macy to ourish which aided to the relative peace of the
time.[20]
Brothership
Despite the fact that there are great distances between the
rulers. The concept of a global village reigned.
The importance of this in EA 7 is that it demonstrates the
mindset of the rulers in the Near East world at the time.
The enlarged village which scholars like to term perme-
ated their thoughts where they took the idea of brother-
hood. They were related through the political marriages
but is an idea of a village of clans which gives reason to
the good wishes and update on the health of the monar-
chs themselves. The monarchs seem to have very little
concept of the time of travel between each other and at
most likely saw that the village worldview they lived in
was applicable for the long distant correspondence of the
Amarna letters.[21] Indeed, there is a constant demonstra-
tion of love as seen in these letters. Scholars pointed out
that to demonstrate good friendship it had to be on the
practical level of constant stream of gift giving. This re-
quest for gifts is constant with the various correspondence
with the Great Kings.[22]
38.6 Gallery of images
Queen Tiye, matriarch of the Amarna Dynasty.
She was the mother of Akhenaten and wife of
Amenhotep III. She mainly ran Egypts aairs of
state for her son.
143
Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV, began a religious
revolution in which he declared Aten was a supreme
god and turned his back on the old traditions. He
moved the capital to Akhetaten.
Queen Nefertiti, the daughter of Ay, married
Akhenaten. Her role in daily life at the court soon
extended from Great Royal Wife to that of a co-
regent. It is also possible that she may have ruled
Egypt in her own right as pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.
Smenkhkare, was a co-regent of Akhenaten who
ruled after his death. It was believed that
Smenkhkare was a male guise of Nefertiti. How-
ever, it is accepted that Smenkhkare was a male.
He took Meritaten, Queen Nefertitis daughter as his
wife.
Queen Meritaten, was the oldest daughter of Akhen-
aten and Nefertiti. She was the wife of Smenkhkare.
She also may have ruled Egypt in her own right as
pharaoh and is one the possible candidates of being
the pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.
Neferneferure and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.
Shown here as children, they were two of six
daughters born to Akhenaten and Nefertiti. It is
possible that Neferneferuaten Tasherit was the one
who may have been her fathers co-regent and may
have ruled as the female pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.
Kiya. She was one of Akhenatens secondary wives.
It was once believed that she was the mother of Tu-
tankhamun, but that was proven not the case when
DNA revealed it not so.
The Younger Lady mummy of KV35 was by
DNA matching Tutankhamuns mother. Origi-
nally thought to be Nefertiti, DNA showed that she
was the sister of Akhenaten. Princess Nebetah or
Beketaten are considered candidates.
Maia was the wet nurse of the Crown Prince, Tu-
tankhamun. Having lost his mother at a young age,
she helped rear the young prince. Maia was later
allowed to have a grand tomb at Saqarra. Here the
young prince holds her hand.
Tutankhamun, formerly Tutankhaten, was Akhen-
atens son through an incestal relationship with his
sister. As pharaoh, he instigated policies to restore
Egypt to its old religion and moved the capital back
to Memphis.
Ankhesenamun, born Ankhesenpaaten, was the
wife of Tutankhamun, and daughter of Akhenaten.
After her husbands death, she was married to her
maternal grandfather Ay.
Ay served as vizier to Akhenaten, and Tu-
tankhamun. He was the father of Nefertiti. After
the death of Tutankhamun, Ay lay a claim to the
144 CHAPTER 38. AMARNA PERIOD

throne by burying him and by marrying his grand-
daughter Ankhesenamun.
After the death of Ay, Horemheb assumed the
throne. A commoner, he had served as vizier to
both Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb instigated a
policy of damnatio memoriae, against everyone as-
sociated with the Amarna period. He was married
to Nefertitis sister, Mutnodjmet, who died in child
birth. With no heir, he appointed his own vizier,
Paramessu as his successor.
The ruins of Akhetaten. Now commonly called
Amarna, Akhenatens capital city was abandoned by
Tutankhamun. It survived several years before be-
ing torn apart by Horemhebs orders.
38.7 See also
Foreign relations of Egypt during the Amarna period
Amarna letters
[13] Cohen, Raymond and Westbrook, Raymond. (2000).
Amarna Diplomacy: the Beginnings of International Re-
lations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.
6 ISBN 0-8018-6199-3
[14] Ibid., 6-7
[15] Ibid., 3-4
[16] Ibid., 234
[17] Moran. Amarna Letters. xiii - xv
[18] Ibid., xiv
[19] Moran. Amarna Letters. XXII - XXIII.
[20] Cohan and Westbrook. Amarna Diplomacy. 235-236
[21] Liverani, Mario, The Great Powers Club, in Amarna
Diplomacy, edited by Raymond Cohen and Raymond
Westbrook, 18-19
[22] Zaccagnini, Carlos, The Interdependence of the Great
Powers, in Amarna Diplomacy, edited by Raymond Co-
hen and Raymond Westbrook, 145.

38.8 References
[1] Arnold, Dorothea, James P. Allen, and L. Green. The
Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from An-
cient Egypt. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1996. Print.

[2] Arnold, Dorothea, James P. Allen, and L. Green. The

Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from An-
cient Egypt. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1996. Print.

[3] Cothren, Michael and Stokstad, Marilyn: Art History.

Prentice Hall, 2011.

[4] Arnold, Dorothea, James P. Allen, and L. Green. The

Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from An-
cient Egypt. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1996. Print.

[5] Khanna, Aditi (2008-09-01). Bodies found in the tomb

of 'boy king' Tutankhamuns tomb are twin daughters.
Times Online (London). Retrieved 2008-09-01.

[6] Ibid., 7

[7] Moran. Amarna Letters. 1-3

[8] Moran. Amarna Diplomacy. 21

[9] Moran. Amarna Letters. 41-42.

[10] Cohan and Westbrook. Amarna Diplomacy. 6.

[11] Moran. Amarna Diplomacy. 116

[12] Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Balti-

more: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. p.xii. ISBN
0-8018-4251-4.
Chapter 39
Abdi-Heba
Abdi-Heba (Abdi-Kheba, Abdi-Hepat, or Abdi-
Hebat) was a local chieftain of Jerusalem during the
Amarna period (mid-1330s BC). Abdi-Hebas name can
be translated as servant of Hebat", a Hurrian goddess.
Whether Abdi-Heba was himself of Hurrian descent is
unknown, as is the relationship between the general pop-
ulace of pre-Israelite Jerusalem (called, several centuries
later, Jebusites in the Bible) and the Hurrians. Egyptian
documents have him deny he was a aznu and assert he
is a soldier (we'w), the implication being he was the son
of a local chief sent to Egypt to receive military training
there.[1]
EA 161, letter by Aziru, leader of Amurru, (stating his case to
pharaoh), (note paragraph divisions).
Also unknown is whether he was part of a dynasty that
145
governed Jerusalem or whether he was put on the throne
by the Egyptians. Abdi-Heba himself notes that he holds
his position not through his parental lineage but by the
grace of Pharaoh, but this might be attery rather than
an accurate representation of the situation. At this time
the area he administered from his garrison may have had
a population of fteen hundred people and Jerusalem
would have been a 'small highlands stronghold' in the
fourteenth century BC with no fortications or large
buildings.[2]
39.1 Correspondence with Egypt
During Abdi-Hebas reign the region was under at-
tack from marauding bands of Apiru.[3] Abdi-Heba
made frequent pleas to the Pharaoh of Egypt (probably
Amenhotep III), for an army[4] or, at least, an ocer
to command.[5] Abdi-Heba also made other requests for
military aid in ghting o his enemies, both Canaanite
warlords and bands of Apiru:
Say to the king, my lord: Message of Abdi-
Heba, your servant. I fall at the feet of my lord
7 times and 7 times. Consider the entire af-
fair. Milkilu and Tagi brought troops into Qiltu
against me... ...May the king know (that) all the
lands are at peace (with one another), but I am
at war. May the king provide for his land. Con-
sider the lands of Gazru, Aqaluna, and Lakisi.
They have given them [my enemies] food, oil
and any other requirement. So may the king
provide for archers and send the archers against
men that commit crimes against the king, my
lord. If this year there are archers, then the
lands and the hazzanu (client kings) will be-
long to the king, my lord. But if there are no
archers, then the king will have neither lands
nor hazzanu. Consider Jerusalem! This nei-
ther my father nor my mother gave to me. The
strong hand (arm) of the king gave it to me.
Consider the deed! This is the deed of Milkilu
and the deed of the sons of Lab'ayu, who have
given the land of the king to the 'Apiru. Con-
sider, O king, my lord! I am in the right!.... EA
146 CHAPTER 39. ABDI-HEBA

287.[6] [3] EA 179. Scholars refer to the Amarna letters by a number

system prexed with EA for El Amarna.
As a result, conspiracy charges are made against Abdi [4] EA 179-183.
Heba, who defended himself strenuously in his corre-
spondence with Pharaoh.[7] [5] EA 182

In later years Abdi-Heba appears to have reconciled with [6] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Baltimore: Johns
the Apiru, or at least certain bands of them, and hired Hopkins University Press, (1992), pp.327-28
mercenaries from among their ranks. Indeed, though
[7] EA 179.
he earlier complained about the depredations of Labaya,
Shuwardata, king of the Canaanite town of Keilah as well [8] Moran, op. cit., pp.321-22
as other places in the Judean highlands, refers to him as
a new Labaya": [9] Moran, op. cit., pp.325-334

Say to the king, my lord, my god, my Sun:

Message of Shuwardata, your servant, the dirt 39.4 Resources
at your feet. I fall at the feet of the king, my
lord, my god, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. 39.4.1 Sources
The king, my lord, permitted me to wage war
against Qeltu (Keilah). I waged war. It is now Translations adapted from
at peace with me; my city is restored to me.
Why did Abdi-Heba write to the men of Qeltu, Moran, William (ed. and trans.) The Amarna Let-
Accept silver and follow me?"... Moreover, ters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1992.
Labaya, who used to take our towns, is dead,
but now another Labaya is Abdi-Heba, and he
seizes our town. So, may the king take cog- 39.4.2 Other works
nizance of his servant because of this deed...
EA 280.[8] Baikie, James. The Amarna Age: A Study of the
Crisis of the Ancient World. University Press of the
Abdi-Hebas ultimate fate is unknown. Pacic, 2004.

Cohen, Raymond and Raymond Westbrook (eds.).

Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of Interna-
39.2 List of Abdi-Hebas 6 letters tional Relations. Johns Hopkins University Press,
to Pharaoh 2002.

Abdi-Heba was the author of letters EA 285-290.[9]

1. EA 285title: The soldier-ruler of

Jerusalem"
2. EA 286title: A throne granted, not in-
herited
3. EA 287title: A very serious crime"'
4. EA 288title: Benign neglect
5. EA 289title: A reckoning demanded
6. EA 290title: Three against one"' [9]

39.3 References
[1] Donald B. Redford , Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times, Princeton University Press, 1992 p.270.

[2] Finkelstein, Israel and Silberman, Neil AsherThe Bible

Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel
and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, 2001, The Free Press,
New York City, ISBN 0-684-86912-8 p. 239
Chapter 40

Ahatmilku

Ahatmilku (. 1265 BCE) was a princess of Amurru,

who became queen of Ugarit through marriage.

40.1 Life
Ahatmilku was a wife of the King Niqmepa of Ugarit and
daughter-in-law of Niqmaddu II.[1] She held great wealth
and inuence.
She supported her youngest son Ammittamru IIs succes-
sion to the throne after the death of her husband.[2] She
banished two of her sons to Cyprus, when they contested
this, but made sure they had sucient supplies.[3]

40.2 Notes
[1] Sweeney, Emmet John (2007). Empire of Thebes, or, Ages
in Chaos Revisited. Algora Publishing. p. 128. ISBN 0-
87586-480-5.

[2] Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Ven-
eration of the Goddess Asherah by Bob Becking, Meindert
Dijkstra, Marjo Korpel, Karel Vriezen

[3] Marsman, Hennie J (2003). Women in Ugarit & Israel.

Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 660.

147
Chapter 41

Alashiya

Amarna letters contain references to a ship belonging to

Map of the Ancient Near East during the Amarna period
Alashiya or Alasiya was a state which existed in the Mid-
dle and Late Bronze Ages, and was situated somewhere
in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was a major source of
goods, especially copper, for Ancient Egypt and other
states in the Ancient Near East. It is referred to in a num-
ber of the surviving texts and is now thought to be the
ancient name of Cyprus, or an area of Cyprus. This was
conrmed by the scientic analysis performed in the Tel
Aviv University of the clay tablets which were sent from
Alashiya to other rulers.[1]
the King of Alashiya and the men of Lukki (probably part
of the Sea Peoples, similar to pirates) seizing villages in
Alashiya.[3]
In other correspondence, the King of Ugarit pleads for
help from the King of Alashiya to protect Ugarit from the
Sea Peoples. Another document from Ugarit records the
banishment of two princes to the land of Alashiya. One
further text found at Ugarit may contain a further clue to
the location of the capital city of Alashiya, as it could
imply that the city was located on a mountain. However,
this word has more usually been translated as shore.[4]
The extant ending of the Story of Wenamun records how
Wenamun, a priest of Egypt, had been blown o course
on the sea journey from Byblos to Egypt and ended up on
Alashiya. Wenamun reports that he was almost killed by
an angry mob, but was rescued by Hatbi, the princess of
the town.
Some of the last texts referring to Alashiya are from the
Hittite Empire (based in modern Turkey) and boast of
quelling Alashiya by force. However, with all such mili-
tary reports it is dicult to assess the true outcome.

41.1 The texts 41.2 Identication

The name of the state translated as Alashiya is found on
texts written in Egyptian, Hittite, Akkadian, Mycenean Alashiya therefore needs to be situated somewhere where
there was sizable Bronze Age copper production, on the
(Linear B) and Ugaritic. A number of the Amarna let-
ters are from the King or ministers of Alashiya. These coast, and in the East Mediterranean.
mostly concern the amount of copper that has been sent Some scholars have suggested sites and areas of Syria or
from Alashiya and requests for silver or ivory in return. Turkey, but it is now generally (although not universally)
One letter refers to 500 talents of copper (probably about agreed that Alashiya refers to at least part of Cyprus.[5]
12.5 tons) and makes excuses as to why so little copper Specically, it was generally argued that the site of
has been sent. Pharaoh is also referred to by the King Enkomi was the capital of the kingdom of Alashiya,
of Alashiya as his brother, indicating that the king re- which covered the entire island of Cyprus.[6]
garded himself as an equal, probably because of the eco-The identication of Cyprus with Alashiya was conrmed
nomic power of his kingdom. Papyrus Anastasi IV, writ- by the 2003 publication by Goren et al. of an article
ten several centuries later, also refers to copper (as well
in the American Journal of Archaeology detailing the
as cows) sent from Alashiya to Egypt.[2] petrographic and chemical analysis of a number of the
Any place identied as Alashiya must therefore have had Amarna and Ugaritic letters sent from Alashiya. These
sizable copper production during the Late Bronze Age. examinations of the provenance of the clay used to cre-
There are a number of other clues in the texts. The ate the tablets indicate that Syria could not be the location

148
41.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 149

of Alashiya, while clay on Cyprus is a good match.
However, this analysis showed that the clays did not orig-
inate anywhere near the site of Enkomi and that suitable
clays are close to the sites of Kalavasos and Alassa (itself
a possible cognate of Alashiya). These sites, especially
Kalavasos, were also important Late Bronze Age sites and
are located close to sources of copper.
Moreover, Armstrong[7] argues that there is considerable
evidence for regional variation and that there is no evi-
dence for a centralized, island-wide political authority on
Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age.
It is therefore currently unclear whether the kingdom of
Alashiya comprised the whole of Cyprus, with the capital
city moving location (probably starting with Enkomi), or
was always sited at Kalavasos, or whether Alashiya com-
prised only one region of Cyprus.[8]
Schwemer, D. 2008 The Storm-Gods of the An-
cient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Stud-
ies (part II). Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008.
Wachsmann, S. 1986 Is Cyprus Ancient Alashiya?
New Evidence from an Egyptian Tablet. The Bib-
lical Archaeologist 49(1):37-40
41.5 External links
Ancient Cyprus
Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age
Letters from the king of Alasiya
The Amarna Letters

41.3 References
[1] Goren et al. 2003

[2] Knapp 1996

[3] Armstrong 2003

[4] Goren 2003

[5] Wachsmann 1986

[6] Knapp 1997

[7] Armstrong, 2003

[8] Goren et al. 2003; Armstrong 2003

41.4 Sources
Armstrong, K. M. 2003 Settlement Hierarchy and
The Location of Alashiya on Cyprus. Unpublished
MA dissertation, University of Cincinnati.

Buttrick, G. A. and C. M. Laymon. 1971 The Inter-

preters One Volume Commentary on the Bible, pp.
1314. ISBN 0-687-19299-4.

Goren, Y., Bunimovitz, S., Finkelstein, I. and

Na'aman, N. 1993 The Location of Alashiya, Pet-
rographic analysis of the tablets. American Journal
of Archaeology 107:233-255

Knapp, A. B. ed. 1996 Near Eastern and Aegean

Texts from the Third to the First Millennia BC.
(Translations of all 122 Bronze Age and early
Iron Age texts referring to Alashiya). ISBN 0-
9651704-2-X

Knapp, A. B. 1997 The Archaeology of Late Bronze

Age Cypriot Society. ISBN 0-85261-573-6
Chapter 42

Amarna art

Two of Akhenatens daughters, Nofernoferuaton and Nofer-

noferure, c. 1375-1358 BC

The Ancient Egyptian art style, known as Amarna Art

or the Amarna Style, is a style which was adopted in
the Amarna Period (i.e. during and just after the reign
of Akhenaten in the late Eighteenth Dynasty), and is no-
ticeably dierent from more conventional Egyptian art
styles.
It is characterized by a sense of movement and activity
in images, with gures having raised heads, many gures
overlapping and many scenes busy and crowded. Also,
the human body is portrayed dierently in Amarna style
artwork than Egyptian art on the whole. For instance, Princess of the Akhenaten family, Louvre, Paris.
many depictions of Akhenatens body give him distinctly
feminine qualities, such as large hips, prominent breasts,
and a larger stomach and thighs. This is a divergence from 42.1 Tombs
the earlier Egyptian art which shows men with perfectly
chiseled bodies. Faces on reliefs are still shown exclu- The decoration of the tombs of non-royals is quite dier-
sively in prole. ent from previous eras. These tombs do not feature any
The illustration of gures hands and feet are apparently funerary or agricultural scenes, nor do they include the
important. Fingers and toes are depicted as long and slen- tomb occupant unless he or she is depicted with a mem-
der and are carefully detailed to show nails. The skin ber of the royal family. There is an absence of other gods
color of both male and female is generally dark brown and goddesses, apart from the Aten, the sundisc. How-
(contrasted with the usual dark brown or red for males ever, the Aten does not shine its rays on the tomb owner,
and light brown or white for females) this could merely only on members of the royal family. There is neither
be convention, or it may depict the life blood. Figures in a mention of Osiris nor other funerary gures. There is
this style are shown with both a left and a right foot, con- also no mention of a journey through the underworld. In-
trasting the traditional style of being shown with either stead, excerpts from the Hymn to the Aten are generally
two left or two right feet. present.

150
42.3. ARCHITECTURE 151

has a similarly shaped skull, although not so elongated as

[in typical Amarna-style art]". However, there is still a
possibility the style is purely ritualistic.
The hands at the end of each ray extending from Aten
in the relief are delivering the ankh, which symbolized
life in the Egyptian culture, to Akhenaten and Nefertiti
and often also reach the portrayed princesses. The im-
portance of the Sun God Aten is central to much of the
Amarna period art, largely because Akhenatens rule was
marked by its monotheistic following of Aten.
In several, if not most sculptures of Akhenaten, he has
wide hips and a visible paunch. His lips are thick and
his arms and legs are thin and lack muscular tone, un-
like his counterparts of other eras in Egyptian artwork.
Some scholars suggest that the presentation of the human
body as imperfect during the Amarna period is in defer-
ence to Aten. Others think Akhenaten suered from a
genetic disorder (most likely the product of inbreeding)
that caused him to look as such. Others interpret this un-
precedented stylistic break from Egyptian tradition to be
a reection of the Amarna Royals attempts to wrest po-
litical power from the traditional priesthoods and bureau-
cratic authorities.
Much of the nest work, including the famous Nefertiti
bust in Berlin, was found in the studio of the second and
last Royal Court Sculptor Thutmose, and is now in Berlin
and Cairo, with some in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York.

Akhenaten, Pharaoh of Egypt. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

The period saw the use of sunk relief, previously used
for large external reliefs, extended to small carvings, and
used for most monumental reliefs. Sunk relief appears
best in strong sunlight. This was one innovation that had
42.2 Sculpture a lasting eect, as raised relief is rare in later periods.

Sculptures from the Amarna period are set apart from

other periods of Egyptian art. One reason for this is the 42.3 Architecture
accentuation of certain features. For instance, an elonga-
tion and narrowing of the neck and head, sloping of the
forehead and nose, a prominent chin, large ears and lips, Not many buildings from this period have survived the
spindle-like arms and calves as well as large thighs, stom- ravages of later kings, partially as they were constructed
achs, and hips were often portrayed. out of standard size blocks, known as talatat, which were
very easy to remove and reuse. In recent decades, re-
In a relief of Akhenaten, he is portrayed with his primary building work on later buildings has revealed large num-
wife, Nefertiti, and their children, the six princesses, in an ber of reused blocks from the period, with the origi-
intimate setting. His children appear to be fully grown, nal carved faces turned inwards, greatly increasing the
only shrunken to appear smaller than their parents, a rou- amount of work known from the period.
tine stylistic feature of traditional Egyptian art. They also
have elongated necks and bodies. An unnished head of Temples in Amarna did not follow the traditional Egyp-
a princess from this time, that is currently an artifact of tian design and were smaller, with sanctuaries open to the
the Tutankhamun, and the golden age of the pharaohs ex- sun, containing large numbers of altars. They had no clos-
hibition, displays a very prominent elongation to the back ing doors. See Great Temple of the Aten, Small Temple
of the head. of the Aten and the Temple of Amenhotep IV.

The unusual, elongated skull shape often used in portrayal

of the royal family may be a slightly exaggerated treat-
ment of a hereditary trait of the Amarna royal family, ac- 42.4 See also
cording to the Brooklyn Museum, seeing as the mummy
of Tutankhamun, presumed to be related to Akhenaten, Art of ancient Egypt
152 CHAPTER 42. AMARNA ART

Amarna monkey. Blue faience from Brooklyn Museum

Amarna letters

42.5 External links

'Gifts for the Gods: Images from Egyptian Tem-
ples, a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The
Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which con-
tains material on Amarna art
Chapter 43

Amarna succession

The succession of kings at the end of the Eighteenth dy- 43.1 Sources
nasty of Ancient Egypt is a matter of great debate and
confusion. There are very few contemporary records that The Coregency Stela, found in a tomb in Amarna possibly
can be relied upon, due to the nature of the Amarna Pe- shows his queen Nefertiti as his coregent, ruling alongside
riod and the reign of Akhenaten and his successors and him.
possible co-regents. It is known that Akhenaten reigned
for seventeen years, and it was previously believed that in
the last 3 or 4 years, he had two co-regents: Smenkhkare,
who was possibly his brother or son, and Neferneferuaten,
43.2 References
who was either one of his daughters or his Great Royal
Wife Nefertiti. It is unknown in which order they fol- [1] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. p. 1.
Archived from the original on 2008-05-28. Retrieved
lowed each other, and neither of their reigns lasted long,
2008-06-23., reprinted from Brand, Peter and Cooper,
for Tutankhamun succeeded not long after Akhenatens Louise, Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
death. Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane
The last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna (Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 37), (Lei-
family is in the tomb of Meryre II, and dates from sec- den: E. J. Brill, 2009).
[1]
ond month, year 12 of his reign. After this the his- [2] Athena Van der Perre, Nofretetes (vorerst) letzte doku-
torical record is unclear, and only with the succession of mentierte Erwhnung, in: Im Licht von Amarna - 100
Tutankhamun is it somewhat claried. Jahre Fund der Nofretete. [Katalog zur Ausstellung Berlin,
07.12.2012 - 13.04.2013]. (December 7, 2012-April 13,
However, the coregency theory has now been discredited
2013) Petersberg, pp.195-197
by the December 2012 announcement of the discovery
of a Year 16 III Akhet day 15 inscription dated explic- [3] Dayr al-Barsha Project featured in new exhibit 'Im Licht
itly to Akhenatens reign which mentions, in the same von Amarna' at the gyptisches Museum und Papyrus-
breath, the presence of Queen Nefertiti--or the "Great sammlung in Berlin 12/06/2012
Royal Wife, His Beloved, Lady of the Two Lands, Nefer-
[4] Khanna, Aditi (2008-09-01). Bodies found in the tomb
neferuaten Nefertiti"--in its third line.[2] The badly legi-
of 'boy king' Tutankhamuns tomb are twin daughters.
ble ve line text, found in a limestone quarry at Deir el- Times Online (London). Retrieved 2008-09-01.
Bersha mentions a building project in Amarna"--Egypts
political capital under Akhenaten and was deciphered
and interpreted by Athena Van der Perre.[3] This means
that there Nefertiti was still Akhenatens living wife late
in this pharaohs 16th year; thus, the Amarna pharaohs
Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten could only have suc-
ceeded to the throne after Akhenatens death and may
have had an independent reign of their own over Egypt.
The royal line of the dynasty died out with Tutankhamun,
for two foetuses found buried in his tomb may have been
his twin daughters, according to a 2008 investigation.[4]

153
Chapter 44

Amarna Tomb 1

Coordinates: 273942N 305420E / 27.66167N The South Wall: includes two scenes depicting Tiye sit-
30.90556E ting at meal with Akhenaten and Nefertiti Akhenaten and
Nefertiti are seated on the left. Akhnaten seems to wear
The tomb of the Ancient Egyptian noble Huya, known
as Amarna Tomb 1 is located in the cluster of tombs a khat headdress and Nefertiti a short Nubian style wig.
known collectively as the Northern tombs, near to the city Next to Nefertiti seated on small chairs are Meritaten
of Amarna, in Egypt. and one of her sisters - possibly Neferneferuaten-tasherit.
Queen Tiye is shown opposite the King and Queen. She is
Huya was the treasurer and steward in the house of the seated and wears the double plumed headdress with the
Kings Chief Wife, Tiye and the overseer of the royal horned sundisk. She is accomponaied by her daughter
quarters of the Great Kings Wife Tiye. He held further Baketaten, who is seated next to her on a small chair.
titles including that of favorite of the Lord of the Two
Lands.

Banquet scene

In another scene Tiye is now seated on the left. She

wears a tripartite wig, topped with a modius and the
double plumes with the horned sun-disk. Baketaten is
shown standing next to Tiye. On the right Akhenaten
and Nefertiti are seated and shown drinking from cups.
The sculptor Iuti-Iuti working on a statue of Beketaten. Ankhesenpaaten is shown standing on the footstool in
front of Nefertiti, while another princess (Meketaten?)
stands next to Nefertiti and looks as though shes help-
Huya is also appointed as standard-bearer of the troop of ing herself to some fruit. Nefertiti is called: The heiress,
young ghters called 'Aten Appears for him'. In other great of favor, lady of grace, charming in loving-kindness,
scenes he is shown overseeing the craftsmen and others mistress of South and North, the Great wife of the King
who serve under him. Mentioned in the tomb are the whom he loves, the Lady of the Two Lands, Nefertiti,
scribe of the House of Charm, Nakhtiu and the Over- living for ever and ever.
seer of the sculptors of the kings chief wife Tiye, named East wall: Akhenaten is shown leading his mother Tiye
Iuti-Iuti. to a temple. They are accompanied by the princess
Huya also mentions his wife Wenher, and his mother Tuy. Baketaten as they enter the temple. Nefertiti and her
In other scenes there is mention of two possible sisters of daughters are not shown in this scene.
Huya, by the name of Nebet and Kherpu(t). West Wall: Akhenaten and Nefertiti on the State Palan-
The tomb includes several scenes:[1] quin and the year 12 Durbar scene. Akhenaten and

154
44.1. REFERENCES 155

Akhenaten leading Tiye to the temple

Nefertiti are shown being carried on a sedan chair.

Akhenaten appears to be wearing the red crown of the
north and holding a crook and ail(?). The royal daugh-
ters Meritaten and Meketaten are shown walking behind
the sedan chair. They are attended by two nurses and six
female attendants.
On the North Wall Huya is shown in an award scene.
He appears before Akhenaten and Nefertiti to receive his
reward. Two princesses are shown in the palace. The
princesses are identied as Meritaten and Meketaten.

The two royal families as shown on the lintel

The Lintel on the North Wall shows a depiction of the

two royal families. On the left hand side Akhenaten
and Nefertiti are shown seated. Nefertiti turns to-
ward Akhenaten. Before them four royal daughters
are shown: Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten and
Neferneferuaten Tasherit. All four girls are holding
plume shaped wands. On the right side Amenhotep III
is shown seated opposite Queen Tiye who is accompa-
nied by the princess Baketaten. Three female attendants
are shown behind Tiye.

44.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
Chapter 45

Amarna Tomb 3

The tomb of the Ancient Egyptian noble Ahmes (Ah-

mose), known as Amarna Tomb 3, is located in the north-
ern side of the wadi that splits the cluster of tombs known
collectively as the Northern tombs, near to the city of
Amarna, in Egypt.[1]
Ahmes was a sealbearer of the King of Lower Egypt, the
sole companion, the attendant of the Lord of the Two
Lands, the favorite of the good god, true kings scribe,
steward in the house of Akhenaten, overseer of the front
hall of the Lord of the Two Lands (=court of justice?),
and a fanbearer at the right hand of the king.[2]
On the west wall of the tomb Akhenaten and Nefertiti are
depicted riding a chariot. The royal couple is on their way
to visit the temple. They are shown together in the char-
iot accompanied by one of their daughters. Akhenaten
wear a khepresh crown, while Nefertiti is shown wearing
her at topped blue crown. In another scene on the west
wall the royal family is shown eating. Akhenaten is shown
seated eating what appears to be a roasted duck. Behind
him we see Nefertiti seated with one of the princesses on
her lap. She is holding meat. Next to Nefertiti we see two
more princesses seated on chairs.[1]

45.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5

[2] Murnane, W.J., Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt,

Atlanta, 1995

156
Chapter 46

Amarna Tomb 5

Penthu served at court during the reign of Akhenaten.

Pentu held the titles of sealbearer of the King of Lower
Egypt, the sole companion, the attendant of the Lord of
the Two Lands, the favorite of the good god, kings scribe,
the kings subordinate, First servant of the Aten in the
mansion of the Aten in Akhetaten, Chief of physicians,
chamberlain.
Pentus tomb is one of the six Northern tombs at Amarna.
The tomb is located to the south of the Tomb of Meryra.
The tomb is very similar to the tomb of Ahmes. It is T-
shaped and the inner chamber would have served as the
burial chamber.[1]
The tomb is decorated and scenes include a visit from the
royal family to the temple and a reward scene.[1]
North Wall: The royal family is shown entering the tem-
ple. Akhenaten and Nefertiti are accompanied by three
of their daughters: Meritaten, Meketaten and most likely
Ankhesenpaaten.
On the same wall the royal family is depicted rewarding
Penthu at the temple. Akhenaten is shown wearing the
read crown and Nefertiti stands behind him (the upper
half of her body is damaged). Behind the royal couple
we see three princesses accompanied their nurse(s).
On the South Wall Penthu is depicted in another award
scene but this one takes place at the palace. In an as-
sociated scene the king and queen are shown having a
meal. Akhenaten is shown wearing a khat headdress. He
is seated and is eating fowl. Nefertiti is seated behind
him, wearing her blue crown and seems to be drinking
from a cup.[1]

46.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5

157
Chapter 47

Amarna Tomb 7

Coordinates: 273942N 305420E / 27.66167N 47.1 References

30.90556E Amarna tomb 7 was one of the Southern
tombs at Amarna, and belonged to Parennefer who was a [1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts V
pure handed cupbearer of the kings Person. and VI, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-161-3
The facade of the tomb depicts scenes with Akhenaten,
Nefertiti, Meritaten, and Meketaten (and on the left [2] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
Ankhesenpaaten) oering to the Aten.[1] in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0
Near the entrance Akhenaten, Nefertiti and three daugh-
ters oer to the Aten and in a nearby scene Parennefer
oers a prayer.

An award scene with Akhenaten and Nefertiti from the tomb of

Parennefer

On the West Wall an award scene shows Akhenaten and

Nefertiti in the window of Appearances. The priincesses
Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten and the Queens
Sister Mutbenret (sometimes referred to as Mutnod-
jemet) are shown in the palace in a room behind the win-
dow. Parennefer is shown receiving many gifts from the
royal family, followed by a trip back to his house among
celebrating crowds. Parennefer is shown being received
at the gates of his own house by his wife (whose name
was lost), but was said to be a favorite of the Kings Chief
Wife Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti.
The East Wall contains a scene where the King gives and
audience to Parennefer. Akhenaten, nefertiti and one of
their daughter are shown in a kiosk, while Parennefer and
a servant appear before the royal family. The servant of-
fers ointment, while Parennefer oers a speech. Several
courtiers and musicians are shown attending with several
tables with food and drink presented in the scene.[2]

158
Chapter 48

Amenhotep III

Amenhotep III (Hellenized as Amenophis III; Egyptian Nebetah on the right; and another, whose name is de-
Amna-tpa; meaning Amun is Satised) also known stroyed, on the left.[8]
as Amenhotep the Magnicent was the ninth pharaoh of
the Eighteenth dynasty. According to dierent authors,
he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC or June 1388
BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC[4] after his father
Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep III was the son of Thut-
mose by a minor wife Mutemwiya.[5]
His reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and
artistic splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of its
artistic and international power. When he died (proba-
bly in the 39th year of his reign), his son initially ruled as
Amenhotep IV, but later changed his own royal name to
Akhenaten.

48.1 Family
The son of the future Thutmose IV (the son of
Amenhotep II) and a minor wife Mutemwiya, Amen-
hotep was born around 1388 BC.[6] He was a member
of the Thutmosid family that had ruled Egypt for almost
150 years since the reign of Thutmose I.
Amenhotep III was the father of two sons with his Great
Royal Wife Tiye, a queen who could be considered as
the progenitor of monotheism[7] through her rst son,
Crown Prince Thutmose, who predeceased his father,
and her second son, Amenhotep IV, later known as
Akhenaten, who ultimately succeeded Amenhotep III to
the throne. Amenhotep III also may have been the father
of a third childcalled Smenkhkare, who later would
succeed Akhenaten and briey rule Egypt as pharaoh.
Amenhotep III and Tiye may also have had four daugh-
ters: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Isis or Iset, and Nebetah.[8]
They appear frequently on statues and reliefs during
the reign of their father and also are represented by
smaller objectswith the exception of Nebetah.[9] Nebe-
tah is attested only once in the known historical records
on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet
Habu.[10] This huge sculpture, that is seven meters high,
shows Amenhotep III and Tiye seated side by side, with
three of their daughters standing in front of the throne--
Henuttaneb, the largest and best preserved, in the centre;
Vase in the Louvre with the names Amenohotep III and Tiye writ-
ten in the cartouches on the left, (and Tiyes on the right).
Amenhotep III elevated two of his four daughters
Sitamun and Isisto the oce of great royal wife dur-
ing the last decade of his reign. Evidence that Sitamun al-
ready was promoted to this oce by Year 30 of his reign,
is known from jar-label inscriptions uncovered from the
royal palace at Malkata.[8] It should be noted that Egypts
theological paradigm encouraged a male pharaoh to ac-
cept royal women from several dierent generations as
wives to strengthen the chances of his ospring succeed-
ing him.[11] The goddess Hathor herself was related to
Ra as rst the mother and later wife and daughter of
the god when he rose to prominence in the pantheon of
the Ancient Egyptian religion.[8] Hence, Amenhotep IIIs
marriage to his two daughters should not be considered

159
160 CHAPTER 48. AMENHOTEP III

unlikely based on contemporary views of marriage.

Amenhotep III is known to have married several foreign
women:

Gilukhepa, the daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni,

in the tenth year of his reign.[12]
Tadukhepa, the daughter of his ally Tushratta of Mi-
tanni, Around Year 36 of his reign.[13][14]
A daughter of Kurigalzu, king of Babylon.[14]
A daughter of Kadashman-Enlil, king of
Babylon.[14]
A daughter of Tarhundaradu, ruler of Arzawa.[14]
A daughter of the ruler of Ammia (in modern
Syria).[14]

48.2 Life
Amenhotep III has the distinction of having the most sur-
viving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 of
his statues having been discovered and identied. Since
these statues span his entire life, they provide a series of
portraits covering the entire length of his reign.
Another striking characteristic of Amenhotep IIIs reign
is the series of over 200 large commemorative stone
scarabs that have been discovered over a large geographic
area ranging from Syria (Ras Shamra) through to Soleb in
Nubia.[15] Their lengthy inscribed texts extol the accom-
plishments of the pharaoh. For instance, 123 of these
commemorative scarabs record the large number of lions
Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been de-
(either 102 or 110 depending on the reading) that Amen- picted to her right in this broken statue
hotep III killed with his own arrows from his rst regnal
year up to his tenth year.[16] Similarly, ve other scarabs
state that the foreign princess who would become a wife
to him, Gilukhepa, arrived in Egypt with a retinue of 317Amenhotep appears to have been crowned while still a
women. She was the rst of many such princesses who child, perhaps between the ages of 6 and 12. It is likely
would enter the pharaohs household.[16] that a regent acted for him if he was made pharaoh at
that early age. He married Tiye two years later and
Another eleven scarabs record the excavation of an arti-
she lived twelve years after his death. His lengthy reign
cial lake he had built for his Great Royal Wife, Queen
was a period of unprecedented prosperity and artistic
Tiye, in his eleventh regnal year,
splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of her artistic
"Regnal Year 11 under the Majesty and international power. Proof of this is shown by the
of...Amenhotep (III), ruler of Thebes, given diplomatic correspondence from the rulers of Assyria,
life, and the Great Royal Wife Tiye; may she Mitanni, Babylon, and Hatti which is preserved in the
live; her fathers name was Yuya, her mothers archive of Amarna Letters; these letters document fre-
name Tuya. His Majesty commanded the quent requests by these rulers for gold and numerous
making of a lake for the great royal wife Tiye other gifts from the pharaoh. The letters cover the pe-
--may she live--in her town of Djakaru. (near riod from Year 30 of Amenhotep III until at least the end
Akhmin). Its length is 3,700 (cubits) and its of Akhenaten's reign. In one famous correspondence
width is 700 (cubits). (His Majesty) celebrated Amarna letter EA 4--Amenhotep III is quoted by the
the Festival of Opening the Lake in the third Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil I in rmly rejecting
month of Inundation, day sixteen. His Majesty the latters entreaty to marry one of this pharaohs daugh-
was rowed in the royal barge Aten-tjehen in it ters:
[17]
[the lake]. Amenhotep IIIs refusal to allow one of his daughters to
48.2. LIFE 161

One of the many commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III. This

scarab belongs to a class called the marriage scarabs, which
arm the divine power of the king and the legitimacy of his wife,
Tiye. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

be married to the Babylonian monarch may indeed be

connected with Egyptian traditional royal practices that
could provide a claim upon the throne through marriage Colossal granite head of Amenhotep III, British Museum.
to a royal princess, or, it be viewed as a shrewd attempt
on his part to enhance Egypts prestige over those of her
neighbours in the international world. gold as part of a marriage dowry for sending his daughter,
Tadukhepa, into the pharaohs household.[22] This cor-
The pharaohs reign was relatively peaceful and unevent- respondence implies that if any co-regency occurred be-
ful. The only recorded military activity by the king is tween Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, it lasted no more
commemorated by three rock-carved stelas from his fth than a year.[23] Lawrence Berman observes in a 1998 bi-
year found near Aswan and Sai Island in Nubia. The o- ography of Amenhotep III that,
cial account of Amenhotep IIIs military victory empha-
sizes his martial prowess with the typical hyperbole used
by all pharaohs. It is signicant that the proponents of the
coregency theory have tended to be art his-
Amenhotep III celebrated three Jubilee Sed festivals, torians [ie: Raymond Johnson], whereas his-
in his Year 30, Year 34, and Year 37 respectively at torians [such as Donald Redford and William
his Malkata summer palace in Western Thebes.[20] The Murnane] have largely remained unconvinced.
palace, called Per-Hay or House of Rejoicing in an- Recognizing that the problem admits no easy
cient times, comprised a temple of Amun and a festival solution, the present writer has gradually come
hall built especially for this occasion.[20] One of the kings to believe that it is unnecessary to propose a
most popular epithets was Aten-tjehen which means the coregency to explain the production of art in
Dazzling Sun Disk"; it appears in his titulary at Luxor the reign of Amenhotep III. Rather the per-
temple and, more frequently, was used as the name for ceived problems appear to derive from the in-
one of his palaces as well as the Year 11 royal barge, and terpretation of mortuary objects.[24]
denotes a company of men in Amenhoteps army.[21]

In February 2014, Egyptian Ministry for Antiqui-

48.2.1 Proposed co-regency by Akhenaten ties announced what it called conclusive evidence that
Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least 8
There is currently no conclusive evidence of a co-regency years, based on the evidence coming from the tomb of
between Amenhotep III and his son, Akhenaten. A letter Vizier Amenhotep-Huy.[25][26] The tomb is being studied
from the Amarna palace archives dated to Year 2rather by a multi-national team led by the Instituto de Estudios
than Year 12of Akhenatens reign from the Mitannian del Antiguo Egipto de Madrid and Dr Martin Valentin.
king, Tushratta, (Amarna letter EA 27) preserves a com- The theory of co-regency was rst proposed by John
plaint about the fact that Akhenaten did not honor his fa- Pendlebury who excavated at Amarna, as well as by N.
thers promise to forward Tushratta statues made of solid de Garis Davies.
162 CHAPTER 48. AMENHOTEP III

father-in-law Tushratta of Mitanni, a statue of Ishtar of

Nineveha healing goddessin order to cure him of his
various ailments which included painful abscesses in his
teeth.[28] A forensic examination of his mummy shows
that he was probably in constant pain during his nal years
due to his worn, and cavity-pitted teeth. However, more
recent analysis of Amarna letter EA 23 by William L.
Moran, which recounts the dispatch of the statue of the
goddess to Thebes, does not support this popular theory.
The arrival of the statue is known to have coincided with
Amenhotep IIIs marriage with Tadukhepa, Tushratta's
daughter, in the pharaohs 36th year; letter EA 23s ar-
rival in Egypt is dated to regnal year 36, the fourth month
of winter, day 1 of his reign.[29] Furthermore, Tushratta
never mentions in EA 23 that the statues dispatch was
meant to heal Amenhotep from his maladies. Instead,
Tushratta merely writes,

The likeliest explanation is that the statue was sent to

Egypt to shed her blessings on the wedding of Amen-
hotep III and Tadukhepa, as she had been sent previ-
ously for Amenhotep III and Gilukhepa.[31] As Moran
writes: One explanation of the goddess visit is that she
was to heal the aged and ailing Egyptian king, but this
explanation rests purely on analogy and nds no sup-
port in this letter... More likely, it seems, is a connec-
tion with the solemnities associated with the marriage of
Amenhotep III and Sobek, from Dahamsha, now in the Luxor Turattas daughter; sf. the previous visit mentioned in
Museum lines 18f., perhaps on the occasion of the marriage of
Kelu-Heba (i.e.: Gilukhepa)...and note, too, aukas role
48.2.2 Final years along with Aman, of making Tadu-Heba answer to the
kings desires.[32]
The contents of Amarna letter EA21 from Tushratta to his
brother Amenhotep III strongly arms this solution. In
this correspondence, Tushratta explicitly states,

48.2.3 Death
Amenhotep IIIs highest attested regnal date is Year
38, which appears on wine jar-label dockets from
Malkata.[34] He may have lived briey into an unrecorded
Year 39, dying before the wine harvest of that year.[35]

Birds - Wall painting fragment from the Malkata palace.

Amenhotep III was buried in the Western Valley of
Metropolitan Museum of Art the Valley of the Kings, in Tomb WV22. Some-
time during the Third Intermediate Period his mummy
Reliefs from the wall of the temple of Soleb in Nubia was moved from this tomb and was placed in a side-
and scenes from the Theban tomb of Kheruef, Stew- chamber of KV35 along with several other pharaohs of
ard of the Kings Great Wife, Tiye, depict Amenhotep the Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties where it lay un-
as a visibly weak and sick gure.[27] Scientists believe til discovered by Victor Loret in 1898.
that in his nal years he suered from arthritis and be- An examination of his mummy by the Australian
came obese. It has generally been assumed by some anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded that the
scholars that Amenhotep requested and received from his pharaoh was aged between forty and fty years old at
48.2. LIFE
Faience decoration with Amenhotep IIIs prenomen from his The-
ban palace, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
death.[36] His chief wife, Tiye, is known to have outlived
him for at least twelve years as she is mentioned in sev-
eral Amarna letters dated from her sons reign as well as
depicted at a dinner table with Akhenaten and his royal
family in scenes from the tomb of Huya, which were made
163
An authentic sphinx of Amenhotep III, now adorning
Universitetskaya Embankment in Saint Petersburg, Russia
during Year 9 and Year 12 of her sons reign.[37][38]
Foreign leaders communicated their grief at the pharaohs
death, with Tushratta saying:
Amenhotep III, Muse du Louvre.
When Amenhotep III died, he left behind a country
that was at the very height of its power and inuence,
commanding immense respect in the international world;
however, he also bequeathed an Egypt that was wedded
to its traditional political and religious certainties under
the Amun priesthood.[40]
The resulting upheavals from his son Akhenaten's re-
forming zeal would shake these old certainties to their
very foundations and bring forth the central question of
whether a pharaoh was more powerful than the existing
domestic order as represented by the Amun priests and
164 CHAPTER 48. AMENHOTEP III

their numerous temple estates. Akhenaten even moved

the capital away from the city of Thebes in an eort to
break the inuence of that powerful temple and assert
his own preferred choice of deities, the Aten. Akhen-
aten moved the Egyptian capital to the site known today
as Amarna (though originally known as Akhetaten, 'Hori-
zon of Aten'), and eventually suppressed the worship of
Amun.[41]

48.3 The Court

There were many important individuals in the court
of Amenhotep III. Viziers were Ramose, Amenhotep,
Aperel and Ptahmose. They are known from a remark-
able series of monuments, including the well known tomb
of Ramose at Thebes. Treasurers were another Ptahmose
and Merire. High stewards were Amenemhat Surer and
Amenhotep (Huy). Viceroy of Kush was Merimose. He
was a leading gure in the military campaigns of the king
in Nubia. Perhaps the most famous ocial of the king
was Amenhotep, son of Hapu. He never had high titles
but was later worshipped as god and main architect of
some of the kings temples.[42] Priests of Amun under the
king included the brother-in-law of the king Anen and
Simut. Both were second prophet of Amun. The northern Colossus of Memnon

well as founding] additional temples at Kawa

48.4 Monuments and Sesebi.[46]

Amenhotep III built extensively at the temple of Karnak

including the Luxor temple which consisted of two
pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and
a new temple to the goddess Ma'at. Amenhotep III dis-
mantled the fourth pylon of the Temple of Amun at Kar-
nak to construct a new pylonthe third pylonand cre-
ated a new entrance to this structure where he erected
two rows of columns with open papyrus capital[s]" down
the centre of this newly formed forecourt.[43] The fore-
court between the third and fourth pylons of Egypt, some-
times called an obelisk court, was also decorated with
scenes of the sacred barque of the deities Amun, Mut, and
Khonsu being carried in funerary boats.[44] The king also
started work on the Tenth pylon at the Temple of Amun
Luxor Temple of Amenhotep III
there. Amenhotep IIIs rst recorded act as kingin his
Years 1 and 2was to open new limestone quarries at
Tura, just south of Cairo and at Dayr al-Barsha in Middle His enormous mortuary temple on the west bank of the
Egypt in order to herald his great building projects.[45] He Nile was, in its day, the largest religious complex in
oversaw construction of another temple to Ma'at at Luxor Thebes, but unfortunately, the king chose to build it too
and virtually covered Nubia with numerous monuments. close to the oodplain and less than two hundred years
later, it stood in ruins. Much of the masonry was pur-
loined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own
"...including a small temple with a construction projects.[47] The Colossi of Memnontwo
colonnade (dedicated to Thutmose III) at massive stone statues, eighteen meters high, of Amen-
Elephantine, a rock temple dedicated to Amun hotep that stood at the gateway of his mortuary temple
'Lord of the Ways at Wadi es-Sebuam, and are the only elements of the complex that remained stand-
the temple of Horus of Miam at Aniba...[as ing. Amenhotep III also built the Third Pylon at Karnak
48.7. FOOTNOTES
and erected 600 statues of the goddess Sekhmet in the [7]
Temple of Mut, south of Karnak.[48] Some of the most
magnicent statues of New Kingdom Egypt date to his
reign such as the two outstanding couchant rose gran-
ite lions originally set before the temple at Soleb in Nu- [8]
bia" as well as a large series of royal sculptures.[49] Sev-
eral beautiful black granite seated statues of Amenhotep [9]
wearing the nemes headress have come from excavations
behind the Colossi of Memnon as well as from Tanis in
the Delta.[49]
One of the most stunning nds of royal statues dating to
his reign was made as recently as 1989 in the courtyard
of Amenhotep IIIs colonnade of the Temple of Luxor
where a cache of statues was found, including a 6 feet
(1.8 m)-high pink quartzite statue of the king wearing the
Double Crown found in near-perfect condition.[49] It was [12]
mounted on a sled, and may have been a cult statue.[49]
The only damage it had sustained was that the name of
the god Amun had been hacked out wherever it appeared [13]
in the pharaohs cartouche, clearly done as part of the sys-
tematic eort to eliminate any mention of this god during [14]
the reign of his successor, Akhenaton.[49]
48.5 Ancestry
48.6 See also
Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III
Colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III
History of ancient Egypt
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree
Mitanni
Quay with Sphinxes
48.7 Footnotes
[1] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, (1992), EA 3, p.7
[2] Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames &
Hudson Ltd., 1994. p.112
[3] Amenhotep III
[4] Beckerath, Jrgen von, Chronologie des Pharaonischen
gypten. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, (1997) p.190
[5] O'Connor, David & Cline, Eric. Amenhotep III: Perspec-
tives on His Reign, University of Michigan Press, 1998,
p.3
[6] Fletcher (2000), p.10
165
Schwarz-Bart, Simone & Schwarz-Bart, Andr (2001). In
Praise of Black Women, Ancient African Queens: Volume
1. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 5261. ISBN 0-
299-17250-3.
O'Connor, David & Cline, Eric., p.7
Kozlo, Arielle. & Bryan, Betsy. Royal and Divine Stat-
uary in Egypts Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and his
World, (Cleveland, 1992), nos. 24, 57, 103 & 104
[10] Kozlo & Bryan, g. II, 5
[11] Troy, Lana. Patterns of Queenship in Ancient Egyptian
Myth and History. University of Uppsala, Uppsala Stud-
ies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civiliza-
tions 14, (1986), 103, 107, 111
Dodson, Aidan & Hilton, Dyan The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004),
p.155
Fletcher (2000), p.156
Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic
Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005,
ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3
[15] O'Connor, David & Cline, Eric., pp.11-12
[16] O'Connor, David & Cline, Eric., p.13
[17] Kozlo & Bryan, no.2
[18] William L. Moran, p.8
[19] Urk. IV 1665-66
[20] David O'Connor & Eric Cline, p.16
[21] David O'Connor & Eric Cline, pp.3 & 14
[22] William L. Moran, translation, op. cit., pp.87-89
[23] Nicholas Reeves, Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet,
Thames & Hudson, 2000, pp.75-78
[24] Lawrence M. Berman, 'Overview of Amenhotep III and
His Reign,' in Amenhotep III: Perspectives on his Reign,
ed: David O'Connor & Eric Cline, p.23
[25] Pharaoh power-sharing unearthed in Egypt Daily News
Egypt. February 6, 2014
[26] Proof found of Amenhotep III-Akhenaten co-regency the-
historyblog.com
[27] Grimal, p.225
[28] William Hayes, Internal aairs from Thutmosis I to the
death of Amenophis III, in CAH Pt 1, Vol 2, The Middle
East and the Aegean Region, c.1800-1380 BC, 1973, p.346
[29] Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt, Thames & Hud-
son, 1991, pl.13
[30] William L. Moran, translation, pp.61-62
[31] David O'Connor & Eric Cline, p.22
[32] William L. Moran, translation, p.62 n.2
166 CHAPTER 48. AMENHOTEP III

[33] William L. Moran, translation, p.50 Hayes, William (1973). Internal aairs from Thut-
mosis I to the death of Amenophis III. The Middle
[34] Kozlo & Bryan, p.39, g. II.4 East and the Aegean Region, c.1800-1380 BC. Pt 1,
[35] Clayton, p.119 Vol 2.

[36] Grafton Elliot Smith, The Royal Mummies, 1912, Cairo,
p.50
[37] North Tombs at Amarna. Archived from the original on
7 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
[38] David O'Connor & Eric Cline, p.23
[39] Fletcher (2000), p.161
[40] Grimal, pp.223 & 225
Kozlo, Arielle; Bryan, Betsy (1992). Royal and
Divine Statuary in Egypts Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep
III and his World. Cleveland.
Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). Ancient Egyptian Liter-
ature: A Book of Readings: The Late Period. Uni-
versity of California Press.
Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[41] Fletcher (2000), p.162 Reeves, Nicholas (2000). Akhenaten: Egypts False
Prophet. Thames & Hudson.
[42] Lichtheim (1980), p.104
Troy, Lana (1986). Patterns of Queenship in An-
[43] Amenhotep III cient Egyptian Myth and History. Studies in An-
cient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations
[44] The Obelisk Court of Amenhotep III
(Uppsala: University of Uppsala) 14.
[45] Urk. IV, 1677-1678

[46] Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell

Books: 1992. p.223

[47] Grimal, p.224

[48] Grimal, p.224 & 295

[49] Clayton, p.118

48.8 Bibliography
Aldred, Cyril (1991). Akhenaten: King of Egypt.
Thames & Hudson.

Allen, James P. The Amarna Succession. Re-

trieved 2014-02-01.

Beckerath, Jrgen von (1997). Chronologie des

Pharaonischen gypten. Mainz: Philipp von
Zabern,.

Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs.

Thames & Hudson Ltd.

O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric (1998). Amenhotep

III: Perspectives on His Reign. University of Michi-
gan Press.

Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete

Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson.

Fletcher, Joann (2000). Chronicle of a Pharaoh -

The Intimate Life of Amenhotep III. Oxford Univer-
sity Press.

Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt.

Blackwell Books.
Chapter 49

Amurru kingdom

Coordinates: 343411N 361355E / 34.56972N

36.23194E

The geopolitic map of the Middle East during the Amarna Period,
before Amurru became part of the Hittite zone of inuence

Amurru was an Amorite kingdom located at the territory

that spans modern western and north-western Syria and
northern of modern Lebanon, which made up northern
Syrian during the 14th12th centuries BC[1][2]
The rst documented leader of Amurru was Abdi-
Ashirta, under whose leadership Amurru was part of the
Egyptian empire. His son Aziru made contact with the
Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, and eventually defected to the
Hittites.
The Amurru kingdom was destroyed by the Sea Peoples
around 1200 B.C.

49.1 Notes
[1] Izre'el, Sh. (1991). Amurru Akkadian: A Linguistic Study.
With an Appendix on the History of Amurru by Itamar
Singer. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press.

[2] Singer, I. (1991). The Land of Amurru and the Lands

of Amurru in the augamuwa Treaty. Iraq 53: 6974.
doi:10.2307/4200336.

49.2 External links

Chronology of Amurru

167
Chapter 50

Archers (Egyptian ptati)

50.1 A letter example--no. 337

A vassalstate letter example from Hiziru, a 'mayor'-

(often referred to as the Man of the City-(L)), in an-
cient Palestine is EA 337-(EA for 'el Amarna'), entitled:
Abundant supplies ready. The letter is short, and un-
damaged:

Say to the king, my lord, my Sun, my god:

Rahotep, a superintendent of the military, and military supplies,
including archers(Note Archer hieroglyph, and quiver hiero-
glyph).
(Superintendent-(overseer): is 'Emir', represented by the Owl
above mouth hieroglyphs, for m-r, 'emeer'.)
Message of Hiziru, your servant. I fall at
the feet of the king, my lord, 7 times and
7 times. The king, my lord, wrote to me,
Prepare the supplies before the arrival of
a large army of p-ta-ti of the king, [m]y
l[ord]. May the god of the king, my lord,
grant that the king, my lord, come forth
along with his large army and learn about
his lands. I have indeed prepared accord-
ingly abundant supplies before the arrival
of a large army of the king, my lord.

The king, my lord, wrote to me, Guard

The Ptati (p-ta-ti) were a contingent of archers in the Maya, the commissioner of the king, my
Egyptian Empire, often requested and dispatched, to lord. Truly. I guard Maya very carefully.
support the Egyptian vassalage in Canaan, or northern -EA 337, lines 1-30 (complete)
Canaan. They are recorded in the correspondence of the
1350 BC Amarna letters, and were often requested to de-
fend against the Habiru, also rogue vassal-kings and for-
eign troops of neighboring kingdoms-(for example Hatti),
who were on the attack.
50.2 Archers and myrrh
The vassal cities, and 'city-states' were constantly request-
ing the services-(protection) of the Pharaohs armies, Letter no. 3 of 5 by Milkilu of Gazru, modern Gezer:
by means of this archer-army force, basically garrison
forces. A request for lodging, and preparations of food,
drink, straw, and other supplies required,[1] is often de- Say to the god, my king, my lord, my Sun:
manded by the pharaoh, for a small, or a large contingent. Message of Milkilu, your servant, the dirt
at your feet. I fall at the feet of the god,
The ptati archer force were mercenaries from the south- my king, my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7
ern Egyptian land of Kush"-(named Kaa, or Kai in the times. I have heard what the king, my lord,
letters). wrote to me, and so may the king, my lord,
The rst use of Nubian mercenaries was by Weni the El- send the archers to his servants, and may the
der of the 6th Dynasty, (the Old Kingdom of about 2300 king, my lord send myrrh for medication.
BC). -EA 269, lines 1-17 (complete)

168
50.5. REFERENCES 169

50.3 Analysis
Part of the debate in analyzing the army-archer-force
is whether the army just annually accompanied the
pharaohs commissioner/envoy and were then extracting
tribute, or whether the archer-force duty was strictly mil-
itary, and in support of the Egyptian borderlands control
and inuence. The short time period of the Amarna let-
ters, 1520 years, (17?), may give an answer to the inu-
ence of the archer-forces.

50.4 See also

Letters from Yidya, (EA 325)

50.5 References
[1] Moran, William L., 1992. The Amarna Letters, p. 352-
353. EA 325: Title: (from, Man of the City: Yidya):
Preparations completed, (2),
"...indeed prepared absolutely everythingfood, strong
drink, oxen, 'sheep and goats, grain, straw, absolutely ev-
erything that the king, my lord, commanded.

Moran, William L., 1992. The Amarna Letters.

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (soft-
cover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0)
Chapter 51

Ay

For other uses, see AY (disambiguation).

Ay was the penultimate Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's

18th dynasty. He held the throne of Egypt for a
brief four-year period (probably 13231319 BC[1] or
13271323 BC, depending on which chronology is fol-
lowed), although he was a close advisor to two and
perhaps three of the pharaohs who ruled before him
and was said to be the power behind the throne during
Tutankhamun's reign. Ays prenomen or royal name
Kheperkheperuremeans Everlasting are the Manifes-
tations of Ra while his birth name Ay it-netjer reads as
'Ay, Father of the gods.'[2] Records and monuments that A stone block shows Ay receiving the 'Gold of Honor' award in
can be clearly attributed to Ay are rare, not only due to his Amarna tomb from Akhenaten.
his short length of reign, but also because his successor,
Horemheb, instigated a campaign of damnatio memoriae
against him and other pharaohs associated with the un- 51.2 Amarna Period
popular Amarna Period.
51.1 Origins
Ay is usually believed to be a native Egyptian from
Akhmim. During his short reign, he built a rock cut
chapel in Akhmim and dedicated it to the local de-
ity there: Min. He may have been the son of Yuya,
who served as a member of the priesthood of Min at
Akhmin as well as superintendent of herds in this city,
and wife Tjuyu.[3] If so, Ay could have been of partial
non-Egyptian, perhaps Syrian blood since the name Yuya
was uncommon in Egypt and is suggestive of a foreign
background.[4] Yuya was an inuential nobleman at the
royal court of Amenhotep III who was given the rare priv-
ilege of having a tomb built for his use in the royal Val-
ley of the Kings presumably because he was the father
of Tiye, Amenhoteps chief Queen. There are also noted
similarities in the physical likenesses of monuments at-
tributed to Ay and those of the mummy of Yuya, and
both held similar names and titles.[5]
All that is known for certain was that by the time he
was permitted to build a tomb for himself (Southern
Tomb 25) at Amarna during the reign of Akhenaten, he
had achieved the title of Overseer of All the Horses
of His Majesty, the highest rank in the elite chario-
teering division of the army, which was just below the
rank of General.[6] Prior to this promotion he appears to
have been rst a Troop Commander and then a regu-
lar Overseer of Horses, titles which were found on a box
thought to have been part of the original furnishings for
his tomb.[7] Other titles listed in this tomb include Fan-
bearer on the Right Side of the King, Acting Scribe of the
King, beloved by him, and Gods Father. The 'Fan-bearer
on the Right Side of the King' was a very important po-
sition, and is viewed as showing that the bearer had the
'ear' of the ruler. The nal Gods Father title is the one
most associated with Ay, and was later incorporated into
his royal name when he became pharaoh.[7]
This title could mean that he was the father-in-law of
the pharaoh, suggesting that he was the son of Yuya
and Tjuyu, thus being a brother or half-brother of Tiye,
brother-in-law to Amenhotep III and the maternal uncle
of Akhenaten. If Ay was the son of Yuya, who was a se-
nior military ocer during the reign of Amenhotep III,
then he likely followed in his fathers footsteps, nally in-
heriting his fathers military functions upon his death. Al-

170
51.3. TUTANKHAMUN
ternatively, it could also mean that he may have had a
daughter that married the pharaoh Akhenaten, possibly
being the father of Akhenatens chief wife Nefertiti. Ul-
timately there is no evidence to denitively prove either
hypothesis.[8] The two theories are not mutually exclu-
sive, but either relationship would explain the exalted sta-
tus to which Ay rose during Akhenatens Amarna inter-
lude, when the royal family turned their backs on Egypts
traditional gods and experimented, for a dozen years or
so, with monotheism; an experiment that, whether out of
conviction or convenience, Ay appears to have followed
under the reign of Akhenaten.
The Great Hymn to the Aten is also found in his Amarna
tomb which was built during his service under Akhen-
aten. It is likely that this was required by Akhenaten,
though not evidence that Ay agreed with Akhenatens de-
cision to promote the Aten above all other gods. It sug-
gests that he did believe in Akhenatens religious revolu-
tion. His wife Tey was born a commoner but was given
the title Nurse of the Pharaohs Great Wife.[8] If she were
the mother of Nefertiti she would be expected to have the
royal title Mother of the Pharaohs Great Wife instead, had
Ay been the father of Nefertiti, then Tey would have been
her stepmother.[8] In several Amarna tomb chapels there
is a woman whose name begins with Mut who had the
title Sister of the Pharaohs Great Wife. This could also
be a daughter of Ays by his wife Tey, and it is known that
his successor Horemheb married a woman with the name
Mutnodjimet.[9]
51.3 Tutankhamun
Ay performing the opening of the mouth ceremony for Tu-
tankhamun, scene from Tutankhamuns tomb.
Ays reign was preceded by that of King Tutankhamun,
who ascended to the throne at the age of eight or nine,
171
at a time of great tension between the new monotheism
and the old polytheism. He was assisted in his kingly
duties by his predecessors two closest advisors: Grand
Vizier Ay and General of the Armies Horemheb. Tu-
tankhamuns nine-year reign, largely under Ays direc-
tion, saw the gradual return of the old gods and, with
that, the restoration of the power of the Amun priesthood,
who had lost their inuence over Egypt under Akhenaten.
Egyptologist Bob Brier suggested that Ay murdered Tu-
tankhamun in order to usurp the throne, a claim which
was based on X-ray examinations of the body done in
1968. He also alleged that Ankhesenamun and the Hit-
tite Prince she was about to marry were also murdered at
his orders.[10] This murder theory was not accepted by all
scholars, and more detailed CT-scans of the mummy un-
dertaken by National Geographic (published in late 2005)
suggested that Tutankhamun did not die from a blow to
his head as Brier had theorized. The National Geographic
forensic researchers instead presented a new theory that
Tutankhamun died from an infection caused by a badly
broken leg since he is often portrayed as walking with
a cane due to spina bida, a hereditary trait in his fam-
ily on his fathers side.[11] The bone fragments found in
Tutankhamuns skull were most likely the result of post-
mortem damage caused by Howard Carters initial exam-
ination of the boy king "because they show no evidence
of being inundated with the embalming uid used to pre-
serve the pharaoh for the afterlife.[12] However, Brier has
stated that the bone fragment in the skull is not relevant
to the issue of whether Tutankhamun was murdered, ac-
knowledging that it was likely caused by the embalmers.
The evidence Brier presents for the murder is a dark spot
on the base of the skull, indicating a blow to the head.
Dr. Gerald Irwin agrees with Brier on this point. (The
Murder of Tutankhamen (March, 1999) ISBN 0-425-
16689-9)
When the results of the CT-Scan examination had been
published, many scientists accepted its ndings, but some
still believe the mystery of Tutankhamuns death is far
from solved and continue to support the older mur-
der theory. There are books that have subsequently
been published that adhere to the original murder the-
ory and dispute the conclusions reached by the CT scan
team, though also citing other means of murder, such as
poisoning.[13][14] In 2010, a team led by Zahi Hawass
reported that he had died from complications caused
by malaria and Kohlers disease but another team from
the Bernhard Noct Institute for Tropical Medicine in
Hamburg believes his death was caused by sickle-cell
disease.[15] Tutankhamun could very well have died from
this, combined with the infection in his knee. Ay was also
buried in the tomb intended for Tutankhamun in the West
Valley of the Kings (KV 23), and Tutankhamun in Ays
intended tomb in the East Valley of the Kings (KV 62).
172
51.4 Rule As The Pharaoh
Faience plate with the complete royal titulary of Ay, Egyptian Habu were either destroyed or usurped by his successor,
Museum.
Fragment of a cartouche of Ay in the Petrie Museum.
Tutankhamuns death at the age of 18 or 19, together with
his failure to produce an heir, left a power vacuum that
his Grand Vizier Ay was quick to ll: Ay is depicted
conducting the funerary rites for the deceased monarch
and assuming the role of heir. The grounds on which Ay
based his successful claim to power are not entirely clear.
The Commander of the Army, Horemheb, had actually
CHAPTER 51. AY
been designated as the idnw or Deputy of the Lord of
the Two Lands under Tutankhamun and was presumed
to be the boy kings heir apparent and successor.[16] It ap-
pears that Horemheb was outmaneuvered to the throne
by Ay who married Ankhesenamun, the widow of Tu-
tankhamun, in order to legitimise his claim to the throne.
Ay was certainly a powerful gure: he was close to the
centre of political power at the royal palace for some 25
years under both Tutankhamun and Akhenaten. But this
was probably still not enough, however, to legitimize his
claims to the throne in the highly hierarchical society of
Ancient Egypt, if he was of non-royal birth especially at
a time of domestic upheaval without his marriage to Tu-
tankhamuns widow. Since he was already advanced in
age upon his accession, Ay ruled Egypt in his own right
for only four years. During this period, he consolidated
the return to the old religious ways that he had initiated
as senior advisor and constructed a mortuary temple at
Medinet Habu for his own use. A stela of Nakhtmin
(Berlin 2074), a military ocer under Tutankhamun and
Aywho was Ays chosen successor is dated to Year
4, IV Akhet day 1 of Ays reign.[17] Manetho's Epit-
ome assigns a reign length of 4 years and 1 month to
Horemheb and this was usually assigned to Ay based on
this Year 4 dated stela; however, it is now believed that
gure should be raised by a decade to [1]4 years and 1
month and attributed to Horemheb instead as Manetho in-
tended. Hence, Ays precise reign length is unknown and
he could have ruled for as long as 7 to 9 years since most
of his monuments and his funerary temple at Medinet
Horemheb.
51.5 Royal succession
Prior to his death, Ay designated Nakhtmin to succeed
him as pharaoh. However, Ays plan for his succes-
sion went awry since Horemheb became the last king of
Egypts 18th Dynasty instead of Nakhtmin. The fact that
Nakhtmin was Ays intended heir is strongly implied by
an inscription carved on a dyad funerary statue of Nakht-
min and his spouse which was presumably made dur-
ing Ays reign. Nakhtmin is clearly given the titles rpat
(Crown Prince) and zA nzw (Kings Son).[18] The only
conclusion which can be drawn here is that Nakhtmin was
either a son or an adopted son of Ay and that Ay was
grooming Nakhtmin for the royal succession instead of
Horemheb. The Egyptologists Aidan Dodson and Dyan
Hilton observe that the aforementioned statue:
is broken after the signs for 'Kings Son of',
and there has been considerable debate as to
whether it continued to say 'Kush', making
Nakhtmin a Viceroy of Nubia, or 'of his body',
making him an actual royal son. Since there is
no other evidence for Nakhtmin as a Viceroy--
with another man [Paser I] attested in oce at
51.7. FAMILY
this period as well--the latter suggestion seems
the most likely. As Nakhtmin donated items to
the burial of Tutankhamun without such a ti-
tle, it follows that he only became a Kings Son
subsequently, presumably under Ay. This the-
ory is supported by the evidence of intentional
damage to Nakhtmins statue, since Ay was
amongst the Amarna pharaohs whose memo-
ries were execrated under later rulers.[19]
51.6 Aftermath
The burial chamber of Ays tomb in the Valley of the Kings
It appears that one of Horemhebs undertakings as
Pharaoh was to eliminate all references to the monothe-
istic experiment, a process that included expunging the
name of his immediate predecessors, especially Ay, from
the historical record. Horemheb desecrated Ays burial
and had most of Ays royal cartouches in his WV23 Tomb
Wall paintings erased while his sarcophagus was smashed
into numerous fragments.[20] However, the sarcophagus
lid was discovered in 1972 by Otto Schaden, the US
Egyptologist who opened Tomb KV63 in the Valley of
the Kings in 2006. It still preserved Ays cartouche. The
sarcophagus had been buried under debris in this kings
tomb.[21] Horemheb also usurped Ays mortuary temple
at Medinet Habu for his own use. Uvo Hlscher (1878
1963) who excavated the temple in the early 1930s pro-
vides these interesting details concerning the state of Ay-
Horemhebs mortuary temple:
'Wherever a cartouche has been preserved, the
name of Eye [ie: Ay] has been erased and re-
placed by that of his successor Harmhab. In
all but a single instance had it been overlooked
and no change made. Thus the temple, which
Eye had begun and nished, at least in the rear
rooms with their ne paintings, was usurped by
his successor and was thenceforth known as the
temple of Harmhab. Seals on stoppers of wine
173
jars from the temple magazines read: Wine
from the temple of Harmhab."'[22]
51.7 Family
Ay is believed to be the son of Yuya and Thuya, and there-
fore a brother of Queen Tiye, wife of Amenhotep III,
and the Prophet of Amun, Anen. Hence, he would be
the uncle of pharoaohs Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. His
assumed wife was Iuy, mother of Nakhtmin, chosen suc-
cessor of Ay. His Great Royal Wife was Tey, Wet Nurse
to Queen Nefertiti.
Ay is believed to be the father of Queen Nefertiti,
wife of Akhenaten, and Mutbenret or Mutnodjmet de-
pending on how the name is read, Mutnodjmet be-
ing the wife of Horemheb. Their mother is plau-
sibly the Adoratrix of Min, Songstress of Isis" Iuy,
who is known to be the mother of Nakhtmin, Ays
chosen successor, and presumed son. Therefore, he
is believed to be the grandfather of Queen Meritaten,
Meketaten, Queen Ankhesenamun, Neferneferuaten
Tasherit, Neferneferure and Setepenre.
51.8 In ction
Ay appears as a major character in P. C. Doherty's trilogy
of Ancient Egyptian novels, An Evil Spirit Out of the West,
The Season of the Hyaena and The Year of the Cobra.
He is also a character in Mika Waltaris historical novel
The Egyptian and Wolfgang Hohlbein's Die Prophezei-
hung (The Prophecy). He is also a major character in
Michelle Moran's bestselling novel Nefertiti. Ay is the
villain of Lucile Morrison's 1937 young adult novel The
Lost Queen of Egypt. He also appears as a villain in the
Lucien de Gieters Papyrus comic book series (the seven-
teenth book in the series: Tutankhamun, the assassinated
pharaoh). Kerry Greenwoods novel, Out of the Black
Land features him as a greedy villain whose sole goal
was accruing wealth.
51.9 See also
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree
51.10 References
[1] Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (edi-
tors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Ori-
ental Studies), Brill: 2006, p. 493
[2] Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames &
Hudson Ltd, 1994. p136
174 CHAPTER 51. AY

[3] Egypt during the reign of Akhenaten 51.11 Further reading

[4] Yuyas name was analysed by G. Maspero in The Tomb
of Iouiya and Austin by Theodore M. Davis, Archibald Jrgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonis-
Constable and Co. Ltd, 1907, pp. xiiixiv chen gypten, MS 46 (Philip von Zabern, Mainz:
1997), pp. 201
[5] Hindley, Marshall. Featured Pharaoh: The Gods Father
Ay, Ancient Egypt, April/May 2006. p. 26

[6] Hindley, Marshall. Featured Pharaoh: The Gods Father 51.12 External links
Ay, Ancient Egypt, April/May 2006. p. 2728.
The Tomb of Ay
[7] Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tu-
tankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-
Reformation. p. 95 The American University in Cairo
Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3

[8] Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tu-

tankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-
Reformation. p96 The American University in Cairo
Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3

[9] Dodson, Aidan.Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,

Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
p. 98 The American University in Cairo Press. 2009,
ISBN 978-977-416-304-3

[10] Hawass, Zahi. Scanning Tutankhamun, KMT. Volume

16, Number 2. p. 33. Summer 2005.

[11] Hawass, Zahi. Scanning Tutankhamun, KMT. Volume

16, Number 2. p. 34. Summer 2005.

[12] King Tut Not Murdered Violently, CT Scans Show, Na-

tional Geographic, March 8, 2005.

[13] Haywood, John. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient

Civilizations p. 56. Penguin. 2005. ISBN 0-14-101448-2

[14] King, Michael R., Cooper, Gregory M. Who Killed King

Tut?: Using Modern Forensics to Solve a 3300-Year-Old
Mystery (with New Data on the Egyptian CT Scan), New
Ed. 2006. ISBN 1-59102-401-3

[15] King Tuts Chariot travels to New York.

[16] Peter J. Brand, The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic,

Historical and Art Historical Analysis, Brill, NV Leiden,
(2000), p. 311

[17] Urk IV: 2110

[18] Wolfgang Helck, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie: Texte der

Hefte 20-21 (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1984), pp. 1908
1910

[19] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, (2004), p. 151

[20] Bertha Porter, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient

Egyptian Hieroglyph Texts, Vol 1, Part 2, Oxford Claren-
don Press, (1960), Tomb 23, pp. 550551

[21] Otto Schaden, Clearance of the Tomb of King Ay (WV

23), JARCE 21(1984) pp.3964

[22] Uvo Hlscher, Excavations at Ancient Thebes 1930/31,

pp. 5051
Chapter 52
Aziru
Amarna letter EA 161, Aziru to Pharaoh, An Absence Ex-
plained. (British Museum no. 29818, painted in black on top
of letter, visible)[1]
Aziru was the Canaanite ruler of Amurru, modern
Lebanon, in the 14th century BC. He was the son of Abdi-
Ashirta, the previous Egyptian vassal of Amurru and a
direct contemporary of Akhenaten.
The dealings of Aziru are well-known from the Amarna
letters. While being a formal vassal of Egypt, he tried to
expand his kingdom towards the Mediterranean coast and
captured the city of Sumur (Simyrra). This was seen with
alarm by his neighbouring states, particularly Rib-Hadda,
the king of Gubla, (Byblos), who pleaded for Egyptian
troops to be sent for their protection. Rib-Hadda was
ultimately exiledand probably not long afterwards
killed at the behest of Aziru. Rib-Hadda had left his
175
city of Byblos for 4 months to conclude a treaty with the
king of Beirut, Ammunira, but when he returned home,
he learned that a palace coup led by his brother Ilirabih
had unseated him from power.[2] He temporarily sought
refuge with Ammunira and unsuccessfully appealed for
support from Egypt to restore him to the throne. (EA
136-138; EA 141 & EA 142)[3] When this failed, Rib-
Hadda was forced to ignominiously appeal to his sworn
enemy, Aziru, to place him back on the throne of his city.
Aziru promptly betrayed him and dispatched Rib-Hadda
into the hands of the rulers of Sidon where Rib-Hadda al-
most certainly met his death.[3] This event is mentioned in
Amarna letter EA 162 by Akhenaten to Aziru when the
pharaoh demanded that Aziru travel to Egypt to explain
his actions.[4] Aziru was detained in Egypt for at least a
year before being released when the advancing Hittites
conquered the important city of Amki thereby threaten-
ing Amurru (EA 170).
EA 161, line 2: message (speaking thus) ':
1. A-zi-ru,
servant-yours
(Individual (1.) + 3 cuneiform characters, A, zi, ru.)
Aziru was allowed to leave Egypt and return to his king-
dom. Aziru had, however, made secret contacts with the
Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, and sometime upon his return
to Amurru, he permanently switched his allegiance to
the Hittites to whom he remained loyal until his death.[5]
Henceforth, Amurru remained rmly in Hittite hands un-
til the reign of the 19th dynasty Pharaohs Seti I and
Ramesses II.
52.1 See also
Amarna letter EA 161
176 CHAPTER 52. AZIRU

52.2 References
[1] Moran, 1970, The Amarna Letters, EA 161, An absence
explained, pp. 247-248.

[2] Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Clarendon

Press, 1998., p.186

[3] Bryce, p.186

[4] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkings

University, 1992. p.248-249

[5] Bryce, p.189

Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hop-

kins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN
0-8018-6715-0)
Chapter 53

Bek (sculptor)

Bek (or Bak; the name means 'servant' in Ancient Egyp- out.[4]
tian) was the rst chief royal sculptor during the reign of
On the stela Bek states that he is the apprentice whom
Pharaoh Akhenaten. His father Men held the same posi- His Majesty taught. It is likely that he oversaw the mak-
tion under Akhenatens father Amenhotep III; his mother
ing of the statues which show Akhenaten and his family
Roi was a woman from Heliopolis.[1] in an overly naturalistic style, breaking with the idealised
Bek grew up in Heliopolis, an important cult centre of depiction that tradition demanded.[5]
the sun god Ra. The young prince Amenhotep (who be- A stela (now in Berlin) shows Bek with his wife Taheret.
came the pharaoh Akhenaten) had a palace here, and it is This is possibly the rst self-portrait in history. The in-
likely that his religious views were formed in part by the scription of this stela also mentions him being taught by
Heliopolitan teachings.[2] Bek followed his lord to Akhet- Akhenaten. A drawing of Akhenaten, which depicts the
Aten, the city founded by Akhenaten. He oversaw the pharaoh and Aten and is likely to have been made in the
construction of the great temple statues of the king and early years of his reign, is possibly Beks work. This pic-
the opening of the Aswan and Gebel es-Silsila stone quar- ture shows Aten with a falcon-headed man, which was an
ries, from where the stone was transported.[3] attribute of Ra.[5]

53.1 Sources
[1] Cyril Aldred: Akhenaten, King of Egypt (London,
Thames and Hudson, 1991, ISBN 0-500-27621-8,
pp.93,94

[2] Aldred, pp.259260

[3] Aldred, op.cit., p.262

[4] Aldred, op.cit., p.93

The Aswan stela of Men and Bek [5] Aldred, p.94

A stela found in Aswan, made around the 9th regnal

year of Akhenaten shows Men and his son Bek with the 53.2 External links
pharaohs they serve. On the right side Men stands before
the statue of Amenhotep III. The statue is very likely to
Information and images
be one of the colossi of the pharaoh that was made by
Men. This side of the stela reects the traditional artis-
tic style of the 18th dynasty, and the only indication of
the Amarna period is that the name Amenhotep is left
out, instead of it the pharaohs throne name Nebmaatre
is repeated, in order to avoid having to mention the god
Amun whose cult was forbidden. On the left side of the
stela Bek is shown before Akhenaten, who makes oer-
ings to his god Aten; according to the inscription the de-
picted scene is set in the Great Temple of the Aten. A typ-
ical feature of Amarna era pictures, the rays of Aten end
in hands. Atens and Akhenatens name was later chiseled

177
Chapter 54

Beketaten

Beketaten (14th century BCE) was an Ancient Egyptian

princess of the 18th dynasty. Beketaten is considered
to be the youngest daughter of Pharaoh Amenhotep III
and his Great Royal Wife Tiye, thus the sister of Pharaoh
Akhenaten.[1] Her name means Handmaid of Aten".

54.1 Biography

Akhenaten and his mother Tiye. Beketaten stands behind Tiye

Banquet scene

Beketaten is mainly known from the tomb of Huya, the

steward of Queen Tiye in Amarna.[2] Amenhotep III, Tiye and Beketaten.
Beketaten is shown with Queen Tiye in two separate
banquet scenes. Queen Tiye is shown seated opposite
Pharaoh Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti. In one scene 54.2 Proposed alternative identi-
Beketaten is shown seated on a small chair next to her
mother Tiye, and in the other banquet scene Beketaten is
ties
shown standing next to Tiye. On the east wall of Huyas
tomb Akhenaten is shown leading his mother Tiye to a Beketatens only known title is Kings Daughter of his
temple. They are accompanied by the Beketaten as they Body. It is likely that she died young since she is not men-
enter the temple.[2] tioned in the historical records after Queen Tiyes death.
The lintel on the North Wall shows a depiction of the two Some scholars have speculated that Nebetah, Amenhotep [3]
royal families. On the right side Amenhotep III is shown IIIs youngest daughter, was identical with Beketaten.
seated opposite Queen Tiye who is accompanied by the However, no evidence proves that they are the same per-
princess Beketaten. Three female attendants are shown son.
behind Tiye.[2] According to one theory Beketaten was in fact a daugh-

178
54.4. SOURCES 179

ter of Akhenaten and his secondary wife Kiya. She may Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
be identical with the princess who is shown with Kiya,
[3] Joyce Tyldesley: Nefertiti Egypts Sun Queen
whose name ends in -aten but whose full name was lost.
After Kiyas demise her depictions were re-carved to [4] Dr. Marc Gabolde: The End of the Amarna Period
show Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten with their daughters
Meritaten Tasherit and Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit (who [5] Kramer, Enigmatic Kiya, from: A Delta-man in Yebu
might have been ctional and made up to ll the place edited by A. K. Eyma, C. J. Bennett,Universal-Publishers,
2003
of Kiyas child on these depictions).[4] This theory is par-
tially based on the fact that Beketaten was never named [6] Jacobus van Dijk, A noble lady from Mitanni and other
kings sister in the scenes from Amarna, but only kings royal favorites from the eighteenth dynasty, from Essays
bodily daughter. She never appears alongside the daugh- on ancient Egypt in honour of Herman te Velde, Brill,
ters of Nefertiti, leading to the conjecture that she must 1997
be the daughter of Akhenaten by another wife who may
be Kiya. After the death of her mother, Beketaten may
have been raised by her grandmother Tiye.[5] A wine
docket mentioning Beketaten dates to year 13 and it has
been proposed that she inherited Kiyas estates after her
death.[6]

54.3 In Fiction

54.3.1 Amarnan Kings series

Beketaten is the central character in a series of ve his-
torical novels written by Max Overton and published
by Writers Exchange E-Publishing. The novels fol-
low the life of Beketaten from early childhood through
to the end of her life in the reign of Ramses the
Great. The ve books cover her life during the reigns of
Akhenaten (Scarab-Akhenaten), Smenkhkare (Scarab-
Smenkhkare), Tutankhamen (Scarab-Tutankhamen), Ay
(Scarab-Ay), and Horemheb (Scarab-Horemheb). A
sixth novel in the series is set in 1960s Egypt and deals
with the discovery of Beketatens tomb.

54.3.2 The Egyptian

Beketaten is featured as a secondary character in Mika
Waltari's novel The Egyptian, going under the name
Baketaton (and named Bakethamun in the movie). In the
novel, she is wed to Horemheb, Egypts warlord though of
common blood, that has desired her (and her royal blood-
line) since youth. However, she resents being touched by
a simple commoner, and makes good on her promise that
if he ever touches her again, she will lie with every man
in Thebes, starting a rumor she is the incarnation of the
goddess Bast.

54.4 Sources
[1] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), p.154

[2] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III

and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Chapter 55
Biridawa
Biridawa was a mayor of Atartu, (Tell-Ashtara), south
of Damascus, (named Dimasqu/Dimaqu), during the
time of the Amarna letters correspondence, about 1350-
1335 BC. A second mayor of Atartu, Ayyab, existed in
this short 15-20 year time period.
55.1 History
Though Biridawa did not communicate with the
Egyptian pharaoh directly in any of the Amarna letters,
he, along with the mayors of Busruna and Halunnu were
involved with the intrigues of city/city-state takeovers, in
the region of Damascus. The region around Dimaqu
was named Upu, or Apu, a name going back to at least
pharaoh Thutmose III's time, (1479-1425 BC).
55.2 Biridawa of EA letters 196,
and EA 197
Biryawaza the king of Dimaqu wrote 4 letters addressed
to pharaoh, and letters 3 and 4 are about Biridawa.
55.2.1 Letter no. 197: title: Biryawazas Letter EA 197-(EA for 'el Amarna'), is the only reference
plight to the locality/capture of: addu. Also the only reference
Biryawaza letter no. 4 of 4:
"[... ...he] said t[o me when] your servant
was in A[dura, ...They gave] his horses and
hi[s] chariots to the 'Apiru, and they did
not [give them] to the king, my lord. And
who am I? My (only) purpose is to be a ser-
vant. Everything belongs to the king. Biri-
dawa saw this deed and moved Yanuamma
to rebellion against me. Having barred the
city gate against me, he took chariots from
Atartu but gave both of them to the 'Apiru
and did not give both of them to the king, my
lord. When the king of Busruna and the
king of Halunnu saw (i.e. saw this), they
180
waged war with Biridawa against me, con-
stantly saying, Come, lets kill Biryawaza-
(i.e. 'of Damascus), and we must not let
him go to [...] .... But, I got away from them
and stayed in [...]Dimaqa, for [by myself
h]ow can I serv[e the king, my lord]? [They]
keep saying, "[We are servants of the king
of Hatti, and I keep saying, I am a ser-
vant of the king of Egyp[t]-(named Mizri).
Arsawuya went to Ki[ssa]-(Qidu/Kadesh),
took (some of) Aziru's troops, and captured
addu. He gave it to the 'Apiru and did
not give it to the king, my lord. Now, since
Itatkama (Etakkama), has caused the loss
of the land of Kissa, and since Arsawuya
along with Biridawa is causing the loss of
Apu-(i.e. the region surrounding Damas-
cus), may the king look carefully to his land
lest the enemies take it. Since my brothers
are at war with me, I am guarding Kumidu,
the city of the king, my lord. May the king
indeed be at one with his servant. [M]ay the
king [not] abandon his servant, [and may]
the kings of [... (and) the ki]ngs of Apu see
whe[ther ...] ... I have seen the archers. -EA
197, lines 1-42 (~~complete, with lacunae)
to city Yanuamma.
55.2.2 Letter no. 196: title: Unheard-of
deeds
Biryawazas letter 196, is a heavily reconstructed letter
with 6 lines of 43, a lacuna. The ending is mostly com-
plete and has the referencing to Biridawa.
Biryawaza letter no. 3 of 4:
"...
Moreover, may the king, [my] lord, send
me 200men to guard ((to guard))-(-
emphasis?), the cities of the king, [my]
55.4. REFERENCES 181

lord, [un]til [I] see the archers [of the

king], my lord. The king, my lord, must
not negle[ct] this deed that Biridawa [has]
committed, for he has moved the land
of [the king], my lord, and [his] cities to
rebellion. -EA 196 (only lines 33-43(End))

55.3 See also

Biryawaza
Aram Damascus

Upu

55.4 References
Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hop-
kins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN
0-8018-6715-0)
Chapter 56
Burna-Buriash II
Burna-Buria II, rendered in cuneiform as Bur-na- or
Bur-ra-Bu-ri-ia-a in royal inscriptions and letters, and
meaning servant of the Lord of the lands in the Kassite
language, where Buria is a Kassite storm god possi-
bly corresponding to the Greek Boreas,[1] was a king
in the Kassite dynasty of Babylon, in a kingdom called
Kardunia at the time, ruling ca. 13591333 BC (short
chronology). Recorded as the 19th King to ascend the
Kassite throne, he succeeded Kadaman-Enlil I, who was
likely his father, and ruled for 27 years. He was a contem-
porary of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. The proverb
the time of checking the books is the shepherds or-
deal was attributed to him in a letter to the later king
Esarhaddon from his agent Mar-Issar.[2]
56.1 Correspondence with Egypt
The diplomatic correspondence between Burna-Buria
and the pharaohs is preserved in nine of the Amarna let-
ters, designated EA (for El Amarna) 6 to 14. The rela-
tionship between Babylon and Egypt during his reign was
friendly at the start, [i 1] and a marriage alliance was in the
making. From the time my ancestors and your ancestors
made a mutual declaration of friendship, they sent beauti-
ful greeting-gifts to each other, and refused no request for
anything beautiful.[i 2] Burna-Buria was obsessed with
being received as an equal and often refers to his coun-
terpart as brother.[3] They exchanged presents, horses,
lapis-lazuli and other precious stones from Burna-Buria
and ivory, ebony and gold from Akhenaten.[i 3]
But then things began to go sour. On EA 10,[i 4] he com-
plains that the gold sent was underweight.[4] You have
detained my messenger for two years! he declares in
consternation.[i 5]:4950 He reproached the Egyptian for
not having sent his condolences when he was ill[i 5]:1425
and, when his daughters wedding was underway, he com-
plained that only ve carriages were sent to convey her to
Egypt.[i 6]:2122 The bridal gifts lled 4 columns and 307
lines of cuneiform inventory on tablet EA 13.[i 7][5]
Not only were matters of state of concern. What
you want from my land, write and it shall be brought,
and what I want from your land, I will write, that it One letter[i 10] preserves the apologetic response from
may be brought.[i 1]:1317 But even in matters of trade, a mrat arri, or princess, to her m b-l-ia, or lord
182
things went awry and, in EA 8,[i 8] he complains that
Egypts Canaanite vassals had robbed and murdered his
merchants. He demanded vengeance, naming um-
Adda, the son of Balumme, aliation unknown, and
utatna, the son of aratum of Akka, as the villainous
perpetrators.[i 8]:842
In his correspondence with the Pharaohs, he did not hes-
itate to remind them of their obligations, quoting ancient
loyalties:
In the time of Kurgalzu, my ancestor,
all the Canaanites wrote here to him saying,
Come to the border of the country so we can
revolt and be allied with you. My ancestor
sent this (reply), saying, Forget about being
allied with me. If you become enemies of the
king of Egypt, and are allied with anyone else,
will I not then come and plunder you? For
the sake of your ancestor my ancestor did not
listen to them.[6]
Burna-Buria, from tablet EA 9, BM 29785,
line 19 onward.
Posterity has not preserved any Egyptian response, how-
ever, Abdi-Heba, the Canaanite Mayor of Jerusalem,
then a small hillside town, wrote in EA 287[i 9] that Kas-
site agents had attempted to break into his home and as-
sassinate him.
With regard to the Kassites Though the
house is well fortied, they attempted a very
serious crime. They took their tools, and I
had to seek shelter by a support for the roof.
And so if he (pharaoh) is going to send troops
into Jerusalem, let them come with a garrison
for regular service. And please make the
Kassites responsible for the evil deed. I was
almost killed by the Kassites in my own house.
May the king make an inquiry in their regard.
Abdi-Heba, El-Amarna tablet EA 287.
56.3. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS
(Nefertiti to Burna-Buria?). The letters present a play-
ful, forthright and at times petulant repartee, but per-
haps conceal a cunning interplay between them, to con-
rm their relative status, cajole the provision of desirable
commodities and measure their respective threat, best ex-
emplied by Burna-Buria' feigned ignorance of the dis-
tance between their countries, a four month journey by
caravan.[i 5] Here he seems to test Akhenaten to shame
him into sending gold[4] or perhaps just to gauge the ex-
tent of his potential military reach.
56.2 International Relations
Bronze statue of Napir-asu[i 11] in the Louvre.
Diplomacy with Babylons neighbor, Elam, was con-
ducted through royal marriages. A Neo-Babylonian copy
of a literary text which takes the form of a letter,[i 12] now
located in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin, is ad-
dressed to the Kassite court by an Elamite King. It details
the genealogy of the Elamite royalty of this period, and
from it we nd that Pahir-Ian married Kurigalzu Is sis-
ter and Humban-Numena married his daughter and their
son, Untash-Napirisha was betrothed to Burna-Burias
daughter.[7] This may have been Napir-asu, whose head-
less statue[i 11] (pictured) now resides in the Louvre in
Paris.
It is likely that Suppiluliuma I, king of the Hittites, mar-
ried yet another of Burna Burias daughters, his third and
nal wife, who thereafter was known under the traditional
title Tawananna, and this may have been the cause of
183
his neutrality in the face of the Mitanni succession cri-
sis. He refused asylum to the eeing Shattiwaza, who
received a more favorable response in Hatti, where Sup-
piluliuma I supported his reinstatement in a diminished
vassal state.[8] According to her step son Mursili II, she
became quite a troublemaker, scheming and murderous,
as in the case of Mursilis wife, foistering her strange
foreign ways on the Hittite court and ultimately being
exiled.[9] His testimony is preserved in two prayers in
which he condemned her.[10]
Kassite inuence reached to Bahrain, ancient Dilmun,
where two letters found in Nippur were sent by a Kas-
site ocial, Il-ippara, in Dilmun to Ililiya, a hypocoris-
tic form of Enlil-kidinni, who was the governor, or
andabakku, of Nippur during Burna Burias reign and
that of his immediate successors.[11][12] In the rst let-
ter, the hapless Ili-ippara complains that the anarchic lo-
cal Alam tribesmen have stolen his dates and there is
nothing I can do while in the second letter they certainly
speak words of hostility and plunder to me.[13]
56.3 Domestic Aairs
Building activity increased markedly in the latter half of
the fourteenth century with Burna-Buria and his succes-
sors undertaking restoration work of sacred structures.[14]
Inscriptions from three door sockets and bricks, some of
which are still in situ, bear witness to his restoration of the
Ebabbar of the sun god ama in Larsa. A tablet provides
an exhortation to Enlil and a brick refers to work on the
great socle of the Ekiur of Ninlil in Nippur.[15] A thirteen
line bilingual inscription can now probably be assigned to
him.[i 13][16] Neo-Babylonian temple inventory from Ur
mentions him along with successors as a benefactor.[i 14]
A cylinder inscription of Nabonidus[i 15] recalls Burna-
Buria earlier work on the temenos at Sippar:
The foundation record of Ebarra which
Burna-buria, a king of former times, my
predecessor, had made, he saw and upon
the foundation record of Burna-buria, not a
nger-breadth too high, not a nger-breadth
beyond, the foundation of that Ebarra he
laid.[17]
Inscription of Nabonidus, cylinder BM
104738.
There are around 87 economic texts, most of which were
found at successive excavations in Nippur, providing a
date formula based on regnal years, which progress up
to year 27. Many of them are personnel rosters deal-
ing with servile laborers, who were evidently working un-
der duress as the terms Z, escapee, and ka-mu, fet-
tered, are used to classify some of them.[18] Apparently
thousands of men were employed in construction and
184
agriculture and women in the textile industry. An oppres-
sive regime developed to constrain their movements and
prevent their escape.[19] Other texts include two extispicy
reports provide divinations based on examination of ani-
mal entrails.[15] Nippur seems to have enjoyed the status
of a secondary capital. The presence of the royal retinue
replete with scribes would have provided the means for
the creation of business records for the local population.
56.4 Kara-arda, Nazi-Buga and
the events at end of his reign
Later in his reign the Assyrian king Aur-uballi I was
received at the Egyptian court by Tutankhamen, who had [8]
by then ascended the throne. This caused a great deal
of dismay from Burna-Buria who claimed the Assyrians
were his vassals, Why have they been received in your
land? If I am dear to you, do not let them conclude any
[9]
business. May they return here with empty hands!" on EA
9.[20] Finally released from beneath the yoke of Mitanni
hegemony, Assyria emerged as a great power during his
reign, threatening the northern border of the kingdom. [10]
Perhaps to cement relations, Muballiat-ra, daugh-
ter of Aur-uballi, had been married to either Burna-
Buria[21] or possibly his son,[22] Kara-arda; the his-
torical sources do not agree.[23] The scenario proposed
by Brinkman[24] has come to be considered the ortho-
dox interpretation of these events. A poorly preserved
letter in the Pergamon Museum possibly mentions him
and a princess or mrat arri.[i 16] Kara-arda was mur- [13] Bilingual inscription Sm. 699, K. 4807 + Sm. 977 + 79-
dered, shortly after succeeding his father to the throne,
during a rebellion by the Kassite army in 1333 BC. This
incited Aur-uballi to invade, depose the usurper in-
stalled by the army, one Nazi-Buga or uziga, de-
scribed as a Kassite, son of a nobody,[25] and install
Kurigalzu II, the younger, variously rendered as son
of Burnaburia[i 17] and son of Kadaman-arbe, likely
a scribal error for Kara-arda.[i 18] Note, however, that
there are more than a dozen royal inscriptions of Kuri-
galzu II identifying Burna-Buria as his father.
56.5 Inscriptions
[1] EA 6, Burna-Buria to Nummuwarea (Amenhotep III):
An oer of friendship, tablet VAT 149 in the Vorderasi-
atisches Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[2] EA 9, Burna-Buria to Niburrereya (Tutankhamen?):
Ancient loyalties, new requests, tablet BM 29785 in the
British Museum, London, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[3] EA 14, Egyptian king to Burna-Buria: Inventory of
Egyptian gifts, tablets VAT 1651 and VAT 2711 in the
Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, and 1893.1-41 in the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, CDLI ORACC Transliter-
ation
CHAPTER 56. BURNA-BURIASH II
[4] EA 10, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Egyp-
tian gold and carpenters, tablet BM 29786 in the British
Museum, London, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[5] EA 7, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): A lesson
in geography, tablet VAT 150 in the Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[6] EA 11, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Proper
escort for a betrothed princess, tablet VAT 151 in
the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC
Transliteration
[7] EA 13, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Inven-
tory of a dowry, tablet VAT 1717 in the Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
EA 8, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Mer-
chants murdered, vengeance demanded, tablet VAT 152
in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC
Transliteration
EA 287, Abdi-Heba to Egyptian Pharaoh: A very se-
rious crime, tablet VAT 1644 in the Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC transliteration
EA 12, Princess to King: A letter from a princess, tablet
VAT 1605 in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin,
CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[11] Sb 2731, Statue of Queen Napirasu, wife of Untash-
Napirisha.
[12] utruk-Naunte (?) to Kassite court, Tablet VAT 17020
CDLI
7-8,80 + 79-7-8,314.
[14] Temple inventory UET 4 143 (now = IM 57150).
[15] Cylinder BM 104738, column I, lines 49 to 52.
[16] Tablet VAT 11187 published as KAV 097 CDLI, line 1:
[ka-ra-] ar-da-a, and 3: a-ma DUMU MUNUS MAN
di-mu.
[17] The Synchronistic Chronicle (ABC 21), K4401a, Column
1, line A16.
[18] Chronicle P (ABC 22), tablet BM 92701, line 14
56.6 References
[1] Georges Roux (1964). Ancient Iraq. George Allen & Un-
win. pp. 221, 233234.
[2] K. Fabritius (1999). K. Radner, ed. The Prosopography
of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part II: BG. The
Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. 354.
[3] Amanda H. Podany (2010). Brotherhood of Kings: How
International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East. Ox-
ford University Press. p. 206.
56.6. REFERENCES 185

[4] Raymond Westbrook (JulSep 2000). Babylonian Diplo- [21] Sarah C. Melville (2004). 16 Royal Women and the Ex-
macy in the Amarna Letters 120 (3). Journal of the Amer- ercise of Power in the Near East. In Daniel C. Snell. A
ican Oriental Society. pp. 377382. companion to the ancient Near East. p. 225.

[5] Stephen Bertman (2003). Handbook to life in ancient
Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. p. 81.
[6] William L. Moran (2000). The Amarna Letters. Johns
Hopkins University Press. p. 18.
[7] D. T. Potts (1999). The archaeology of Elam: forma-
tion and transformation of an ancient Iranian State. Cam-
bridge University Press. p. 207.
[8] Trevor Bryce (2005). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford
University Press. p. 159.
[9] Trevor Bryce (2003). Letters of the Great Kings of the
Ancient Near East: The Royal Correspondence of the Late
Bronze Age. Routledge. pp. 14, 103.
[22] Paul Collins (2008). From Egypt to Babylon: the interna-
tional age 1550-500 BC. Trustees of the British Museum.
p. 65.
[23] A. K. Grayson (1975). Assyrian and Babylonian chroni-
cles. J. J. Augustin. p. 211.
[24] J. A. Brinkman. The Chronicle Tradition Concerning the
Deposing of the Grandson of Aur-uballi I. MSKH I.
pp. 418423.
[25] Amlie Kuhrt (1995). The ancient Near East, c. 3000-330
BC. Routledge.

[10] Harry A. Honer, Jr. (JanMar 1983). A Prayer of

Murili II about His Stepmother. Journal of the Amer-
ican Oriental Society 103 (1): 187192. JSTOR 601872.
discussing tablets K Bo 4.8 and KUB 14.4.

[11] P. B. Cornwall (1952). Two Letters from Dilmun.

Journal of Cuneiform Studies 6 (4): 137145. JSTOR
1359537.

[12] Albrecht Goetze (1952). The texts Ni. 615 and 641 of
the Istanbul Museum. Journal of Cuneiform Studies (6):
142145. JSTOR 1359537.

[13] Eric Olijdam (1997). Nippur and Dilmun in the second

half of the fourteenth century BC: a re-evaluation of the
Il-ippara letters. Proceedings of the Seminar for Ara-
bian Studies 27: 199203.

[14] Richard L. Zettler et al. (1993). Nippur III, Kassite Build-

ings in Area WC-1. Oriental Institute Publication. p. 8.

[15] J. A. Brinkman (1976). Burna-Buria". Materials and

Studies for Kassite History, Vol. I (MSKH I). Oriental In-
stitute of the University of Chicago. pp. 105108.

[16] J. A. Brinkman (Autumn 1985). Texts and Fragments.

Journal of Cuneiform Studies 37 (2): 249252. JSTOR
1359870.

[17] S. Langdon (Jan 1916). New Inscriptions of Nabuna'id.

The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Litera-
tures 32 (2): 112. doi:10.1086/369788. JSTOR 52834.

[18] J. A. Brinkman (May 1982). Sex, Age, and Physical

Condition Designations for Servile Laborers in the Middle
Babylonian Period. In G. van Driel. Zikir Sumin. V.U.
Uitgeverij. pp. 18.

[19] J. A. Brinkman (Jan 1980). Forced Laborers in the Mid-

dle Babylonian Period. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 32
(1): 1722. JSTOR 1359787.

[20] J. A. Brinkman (Jul 1972). Foreign Relations of Baby-

lonia from 1600 to 625 B. C.: The Documentary Evi-
dence. American Journal of Archaeology 76 (3): 271
281. JSTOR 503920.
Chapter 57

Coregency Stela

The Coregency Stela is the name given to seven lime-

stone stela-fragments which were found in a tomb at
Amarna. The stela dates from the late Eighteenth dy-
nasty of Egypt and shows the gures of Akhenaten,
Nefertiti, and Meritaten. At some time after the stela
was made, Nefertitis name had been chiselled out and
was replaced with Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten, the
name of Akhenatens co-regent. At the same time Meri-
tatens name was replaced with that of Ankhesenpaaten,
Akhenaten and Nefertitis third daughter.
The stela might shed light on the events of the little-
known late-Amarna Period and the question of Akhen-
atens immediate succession.[1] Restoration and interpre-
tation of the stela vary, but it has been suggested that it
supports the claim that Nefertiti should be identied as
Akhenaten co-regent and successor.[2]
The stela is currently in the Petrie Museum, in London.[3]

57.1 References
[1] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. Retrieved
2008-06-22.

[2] Nicholas Reeves. Book Review: Rolf Krauss, Das Ende

der Amarnazeit (Hildesheimer gyptologische Beitrge,
1978)". Retrieved 2008-06-22.

[3] Stelae UC410. Petrie Museum. Retrieved 2008-06-22.

186
Chapter 58

Dakhamunzu

Dakhamunzu (sometimes Dahamunzu) is the name 58.2 The Zannanza aair

of an Egyptian queen known from the Hittite annals
The Deeds of Suppiluliuma, which were composed by The annals then recount the message the Egyptian widow
Suppiluliuma I's son Mursili II. The identity of this queen queen wrote to Suppiluliuma:
has not yet been established with any degree of certainty
and Dakhamunzu has variously been identied as either
Nefertiti, Meritaten or Ankhesenamen. The identica-
tion of this queen is of importance both for Egyptian
chronology and for the reconstruction of events during
the late Eighteenth Dynasty.
The episode in The Deeds of Suppiluliuma that features
Dakhamunzu is often referred to as the Zannanza aair,
after the name of a Hittite prince who was sent to Egypt
to marry her.
58.1 Context
My husband died. A son I have not. But
to thee, they say, the sons are many. If thou
wouldst give me one son of thine, he would be-
come my husband. Never shall I pick out a ser-
vant of mine and make him my husband. I am
afraid.[3]
Such an oer to marry a female member of the Egyp-
tian royal family was unprecedented,[1] as Amenhotep III
made clear in his correspondence with a foreign king, the
gift of women in marriage was for Egypt a one way trade:
From time immemorial no daughter of the king of Egypt
is given to anyone.[4] Suppiluliuma is therefore surprised
and suspicious,[1] the annals report his reaction:

The Dakhamunzu episode should be seen against the Such a thing has never happened to me in
background of Egypts relations with the other major my whole life[5]
powers in Western Asia during the second half of the 14th
century BC, more specically the three-cornered struggle Nevertheless he sends his chamberlain to Egypt to inves-
for power between Egypt, Mitanni and the newly arising tigate the matter,[1] he orders him:
power of the Hittites under Suppiluliuma I.[1] During the
late-Amarna period and its immediate aftermath we are
almost totally dependent on the Hittite records for infor- Go and bring thou the true word back to
mation on these matters. [2] me. Maybe they deceive me. Maybe in fact
they do have a son of their lord[5]
While involved in war with Mitanni, the Hittites are at-
tacked by Egyptian forces in the region of Kadesh, which
only recently came under Hittite control. Suppiluliuma In the meantime Suppiluliuma concludes the siege of Car-
retaliates by simultaneously besieging Mitanni forces at chemish[1] and then returns to his capital Hattusa for the
Carchemish and sending forces into the Amqu region, at winter. The following spring his chamberlain and a
that time an Egyptian vassal state.[1] At this point the an- messenger from Egypt[6]
return to him, bringing a further
nals inform us that: letter of the queen:

Why didst thou say 'they deceive me' in

"[The Egyptians] were afraid. And
since, in addition, their lord Nibhururiya
had died, therefore the queen of Egypt,
who was Dakhamunzu, sent a messenger to
[Suppiluliuma].[3]
that way? had i a son, would I have written
about my own and my countrys shame to a
foreign land? Thou didst not believe me and
hast even spoke thus to me. He who was my
husband has died. A son I have not. Never
shall I take a servant of mine and make him

187
188 CHAPTER 58. DAKHAMUNZU

my husband. I have written to no other coun- 58.4 Identication of the Egyptian

try, only to thee have i written. They say thy
sons are many: so give me one son of thine.
protagonists
To me he will be husband, but to Egypt he will
be king[7] Initially the name Dakhamunzu was believed to be
a misreading of Sankhamun, a supposed version of
Suppiluliuma however remains suspicious and he tells the Ankhesenamun, Tutankhamun's widow. This emen-
Egyptian messenger: dation is however now seen as unjustied and it is
rather assumed that Dakhamunzu is a Hittite render-
ing of the Egyptian title ta hemet nesu (the kings wife)
You keep asking me for a son of mine as if instead of a proper name of a queen.[10] As a conse-
it were my duty. He will in some way become quence Dakhamunzu has variously been identied as ei-
a hostage, but king you will not make him[8] ther Nefertiti, Meritaten or Ankhesenamen.
Nibhururiya, the name of the recently deceased Pharaoh
Nevertheless, after further negotiations with the Egyp- as it is recorded in the annals, might equally be seen as a
tian messenger and consultation of an earlier peace treaty rendering of the prenomen of either Akhenaten (Nefer-
between the Hittites and Egypt, Suppiluliuma agrees to kheperure ) or Tutankhamun (Nebkheperure)[10] and the
send one of his sons to Egypt.[9] But this prince, named exibility of the chronology of the period admits both
Zannanza, was killed, possibly before he even reached possibilities.[15] The chronology of events requires that
Egypt.[10] As the annals make clear, the Hittites accused the death of Nibhururiya occurs near the end of Sup-
the Egyptians for this murder: piluliumas life[16] and therefore conventional Egyptian
chronology favours Tutankhamun. It is also assumed
They spoke thus: 'The people of Egypt that the situation at the Egyptian court (i.e. the lack of
killed Zannanza' and brought word: 'Zannanza male royal ospring) ts better with the period after Tu-
died'. And when [Suppiluliuma] heard of the tankhamuns death.[2] In this case Dakhamunzu should
slaying of Zannanza, he began to lament for be identied as Ankhesenamun, while the anonymous
Zannanza and to the gods he spoke thus: 'Oh pharaoh from Suppiluliumas draft letter can be identied
gods! I did no evil, yet the people of Egypt did as Ay, a servant Dakhamunzu did not want to marry.
this to me, and they also attacked the frontier Alternative Egyptian[17] or Hittite[18] chronologies how-
of my country'.[11] ever make Akhenaten a more likely candidate for Nib-
hururiya. Comparison between the probable times of
This led to recriminations on behalf of Suppiluliuma, death for Akhenaten (after the vintaging of wine, i.e. at
who again attacks Amqu, drives the Egyptians from it and the end of September or the start of October) and Tu-
returns with prisoners to Hattusa.[12] tankhamun (in December, based on oral and faunal ev-
idence from his tomb) with the account found in the Hit-
tite annals (which places the reception of Dakhamunzus
rst letter in late autumn) also seems to favour the identi-
58.3 Aftermath cation of Nibhururiya with Akhenaten.[19] Further ev-
idence to support this identication might come from
Nothing is told of the eventual fate of Dakhamunzu, but one of the Amarna letters which seems to deal with the
the draft for a letter written by Suppiluliuma[13] might same military actions against Amqu that are reported
shed more light on the matter. This letter is addressed in the Hittite annals. Since the Amarna archives seems
to an unnamed pharaoh, written in response to an ear- to have been abandoned and closed by the end of Tu-
lier letter from this pharaoh to Suppiluliuma. From this tankhamuns reign, the presence of this letter there sug-
correspondence it appears that this pharaoh came to the gest he cannot have been the recently deceased pharaoh
throne of Egypt at some time before the murder of Zan- from the annals.[20] The recently proposed identication
nanza, and that Suppiluliuma seems to have been unaware of an Egyptian ocial named Armaa, who appears in a
of this development at the Egyptian court at the time he Hittite document relating events from Mursili IIs regnal
send his son there. This new pharaoh might be seen either years 7 and 9, as Horemheb in his function of viceroy and
as a servant to whom Dakhamunzu was married against commander in Asia (i.e. before his ascent to the throne)
her own wish or as supplanting her on the throne, depend- would also rule out Tutankhamun as possible candidate
ing on the identication of the individuals involved (see for Nibhururiya.[21]
below). The identication of Nibhururiya as Akhenaten does
The deaths of both Suppiluliuma and his immediate suc- however complicate the identity of Dakhamunzu because
cessor Arnuwanda II might be seen as an indirect result of besides his great royal wife Nefertiti, Meritaten seems to
the Zannanza aair because both succumbed to a plague have held the title ta hemet nesu in relation to her father
brought to Hattusa by the prisoners from Amqu.[12][14] as well.[22] in this case the identity of Dakhamunzu is
58.6. SEE ALSO
largely depended on the identity of Akhenatens co-regent
and successor. Those who see evidence for a gradually
changing role for Nefertiti (from great royal wife, over
co-regent to sole ruler after Akhenatens death) will nat-
urally identify Dakhamunzu as Nefertiti and they see the
Zannanza aair as further evidence for Nefertitis contin-
uing importance in the late-Amarna period. In this case it
is believed that, in spite of her changed role at the Egyp-
tian court, to the outside world she would have remained
to be known as the kings wife[23] and a parallel is drawn
between the Hatshepsut-Tuthmosis III co-rule earlier in
the 18th dynasty and a co-regency between Nefertiti and
Tutankhamun,[24] the latter king can then be identied
as the unnamed pharaoh from Suppiluliumas letter, sup-
planting Nefertiti on the Egyptian throne. Others how-
ever maintain that Nefertiti predeceased her husband and
they will therefore identify Dakhamunzu/Akhenatens fe-
male co-regent as Meritaten. In this scenario Smenkhare
can be identied as the new unnamed pharaoh, who would
then be the servant Dakhamunzu was unwilling to marry,
although the identication of Smenkhkare as Zannanza is
also suggested as a (more unlikely) possibility.[22]
58.5 Notes & references
58.5.1 References
[1] Reeves (2001) p.175
[2] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 297
[3] Gterbock (1956) p.94
[4] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 64
[5] Gterbock (1956) p.95
[6] Gterbock, H.G., The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as told by
his son, Mursilli II, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 10
(1956) p. 96
[7] Gterbock, H.G., The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as told by
his son, Mursilli II, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 10
(1956) pp. 96-97
[8] Gterbock, H.G., The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as told by
his son, Mursilli II, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 10
(1956) p. 97
[9] Gterbock, H.G., The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as told by
his son, Mursilli II, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 10
(1956) pp. 97-98
[10] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 176
[11] Gterbock, H.G., The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as told by
his son, Mursilli II, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 10
(1956) p. 108
189
[12] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 298
[13] http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http:
//www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Alley/4482/Ay.
html&date=2009-10-25+11:24:47
[14] http://www.hittites.info/history.aspx?text=history%
2fEarly+Late+Empire.htm#Arnuwanda2
[15] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hud-
son, 1988) p. 229
[16] McMurray, W., Towards an Absolute Chronology for An-
cient Egypt, p.4
[17] McMurray, W., Towards an Absolute Chronology for An-
cient Egypt, p.5 and table 1
[18] Miller, J.L., Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of
Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite
Text, Altorientalische Forschungen, 34 (2007) g. 1
[19] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) pp. 176-177
[20] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 177
[21] Miller, J.L., Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of
Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite
Text, Altorientalische Forschungen, 34 (2007)
[22] McMurray, W., Towards an Absolute Chronology for An-
cient Egypt, p.5
[23] Reeves (2001) p.177
[24] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 180
58.5.2 Bibliography
Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and
Hudson, 1988)
Gterbock, H.G., The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as
told by his son, Mursilli II, Journal of Cuneiform
Studies, 10 (1956)
Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet
(Thames and Hudson, 2001)
58.6 See also
Foreign relations of Egypt during the Amarna period
Chapter 59

Gath (city)

59.1 Archaeological site

A tradition reported by Ishtori Haparchi and other early

Jewish writers is that Ramla was Gath.[2] Archaeology in-
dicates that Ramla was not built on the site of an ancient
city,[3] but Mazar proposed that ancient Gath lay at a site
Ras Abu Hamid east of Ramla.[2] Avi-Yonah, however,
considered that to be a dierent Gath, usually now called
Gath-Gittaim.[4]
The 19th-century scholar Edward Robinson proposed
that Gath be identied with Tell es-Sa, and this iden-
tication was generally accepted until the early 20th
century.[1] In the 1920s, famed archaeologist W. F. Al-
Archaeological ndings at Gath bright disputed this identication, writing that The ar-
chaeological exploration of Tell el-Sa did not yield a
shred of evidence for the identication with Gath.[1]
Albright suggested another site, Tell 'Areini (now close
to the city of Kiryat Gat) which, despite some opposi-
tion, was accepted to the point that the Israel Govern-
ment Names Committee renamed it as Tel Gat in 1953.[1]
Gath, Gat, or Geth (Hebrew: , Winepress; Latin: Ge- However, excavations at Tell 'Areini starting in 1959
th), often referred to as Gath of the Philistines, was one found no Middle Bronze Age traces and the excavators
of the ve Philistine city-states, established in northwest- proposed instead that Gath be identied with a third site
ern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city Tell en-Nejileh (Tel Nagila), a possibility that itself was
was Achish, in the times of Saul, David, and Solomon. It abandoned after excavations in the 1980s.[1] Attention
is not certain whether this refers to two or more kings of then returned to Tell es-Sa, and it is now again the most
the name 'Achish' or not. Gath was also the home city of favored site as the location of Gath.[1]
Goliath and his brothers, as well as of Itai and his 600 sol- Tell es-Sa and Tel Zat (Arabic: , Tall a-
diers who aided David in his exile from Absalom. David,
f ; Hebrew: , Tzafit Tel) are Arabic and He-
while running from Saul, escaped to Gath, and served un- brew names for the ancient mound now identied as
der its king Achish. During Solomon's reign, Shemei goes Gath, one of the ve cities in the ancient Canaanite and
to Gath to return his escaped slave (I Kings). In II Kings, Philistine Pentapolis (along with Gaza, Ekron, Ashkelon,
the city of Gath is mentioned as being captured by Hazael and Ashdod). It is a large multi-period site that is lo-
of Aram Damascus. Recent excavations at the site have cated in central Israel, approximately half way between
produced dramatic evidence of a siege and subsequent Jerusalem and Ashkelon, on the border between the
destruction of the site in the late 9th century BC, most southern Coastal Plain of Israel and the Judean foothills.
probably related to this event, although a stone inscription
disclosing the name of the city has yet to be discovered. Although rst noted by explorers in the mid-19th cen-
tury CE, and subsequently briey excavated in 1899 by
Gath is also mentioned in the El-Amarna letters as the British archaeologists F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalis-
Gimti/Gintu, ruled by a king Shuwardata, and possibly ter, extensive exploration of the site was not conducted
by Abdi-Ashtart as well. until 1996, when a long-term project was commenced at
The site most favored as the location of Gath is Tel es- the site, directed by Aren Maeir of Bar-Ilan University,
Sat, also called Tel Zat in Tel Tzat National Park.[1] Israel. Since 1996, excavations, surveys and other studies

190
59.3. IRON AGE 191

have been conducted at the site, focusing on various cul- sites (such as Ekron, Ashdod, and Ashkelon) these phases
tures, periods and aspects relating to the site, its culture are not well represented.
and history, and its surroundings.[5] According to the Jerusalem Post archeologists have un-
The site was inhabited from Proto-Historic through Mod- covered a Philistine temple and evidence of a major
ern times. The earliest evidence for settlement is from earthquake in biblical times, during digs carried out at
the Chalcolithic Period (c. 5th millennium BCE), after the Tel Tzat National Park.
which there is continuous occupation until the modern
These excavations by Aren Maeir helped to establish the
Palestinian village of Tell es-Sa, abandoned during the dating of this geological event,
1948 ArabIsraeli War.

Based on the tight stratigraphic context,

this [earthquake] can be dated to the mid-8th
59.2 Bronze Age cent. BCE...[6]

During the Early Bronze Age there is evidence of a large Other major nds there were evidence of the destruction
urban site, apparently similar to other EB III urban sites of Gath by Hazael King of Aram-Damascus around 830
in southern Canaan, such as nearby Tel Yarmut. BCE, and evidence of the rst Philistine settlement in
[7]
Scant evidence of this period was found on the tell in the Canaan.
form of stray sherds. In the vicinity of the tell (to the east, A very impressive, site-wide destruction is evidenced at
in Area C6) evidence of tombs and possible domestic ac- the site during the late Iron Age IIA (c. late 9th century
tivities were found. BCE). Throughout the site there is evidence of this de-
Finds from the MB IIB (and a few MB IIA) were found on struction, and well-preserved assemblages of nds. The
various parts of the tell in the survey (including a scarab dating of this destruction to the late 9th century BCE is a
of Khyan, found in the 1960s). Recently, in the 2006 sea- strong indication that it can be related to the conquest of
son, evidence of an impressive MB IIB fortication was Gath by Hazael, King of Aram Damascus, as mentioned
found in the vicinity of the summit of the tell, comprising in II Kings 12:18. Evidence of a large-scale siege system
a stone wall/tower and a packed earth rampart/glacis. that was found surrounding the site, is apparently related
to this event. This siege system, which comprises a man-
The Late Bronze remains at the site are impressive as
made siege trench, a related berm (earth embankment)
well, evidence of the Canaanite city of Gath, which is
and other elements, is currently the earliest archaeologi-
mentioned in the El-Amarna letters. Finds from this pe-
cal evidence on the ground for an ancient siege system.
riod include a large, apparently public building, cultic-
It could also be in relation to the conquest of Gath by
related nds, and a small collection of Egyptiaca, includ-
Uzziah (2 Chronicles 26:6);coinciding well with the siege
ing two Egyptian Hieratic inscriptions, both inscribed on
technology described in 2 Chronicles 26:15.
locally-made vessels. This city was apparently destroyed
at the end of the Late Bronze Age, most probably with Among the numerous nds from this destruction level,
the arrival of the Philistines. one can note the impressive pottery assemblage, various
cultic objects, a bone tool workshop, and assorted other
nds.
59.3 Iron Age
59.3.1 Goliath Shard
During the Iron Age, the site becomes a major Philis-
tine site, Gath of the Philistines, one of the ve cities In the 2005 season, below the late 9th-century BCE de-
of the Philistine Pentapolis, known from biblical and struction level, in a stratum dating to an earlier phase of
extra-biblical sources. Settled from the earliest phases of the Iron Age IIA, an important inscription was found.
the Philistine culture (ca. 1175 BCE), evidence of the Scratched on a sherd typical of the Iron Age IIA, two
various stages of the Philistine culture have been found. non-Semitic names written in Semitic Proto-Canaanite
In particular, nds indicating the gradual transformation letters were found. These two names, ALWT ()
of the Philistines, from a non-local (Aegaean) culture, and WLT (), are etymologically similar to the name
to a more locally-oriented culture abound. This process, Goliath (), the well-known Philistine champion, who
which has been termed Acculturation or Creolization according to the biblical text, was a native of Gath.
can be seen in various aspects of the Philistine culture, as These two name fragments might indicate that names
the Iron Age unfolds. similar to the name Goliath were in use in Philistia during
Of particular importance are the strata dating to the 10th- the Iron Age IIA, approximately the same time as Goliath
9th century BCE, in which rich assemblages of nds were is described in the Bible. Although not proof of Goliaths
uncovered. These strata enable the study of the entire existence, the ostracon provides evidence of the cultural
sequence of the Philistine culture, since at other Philistine milieu of this period. In any case, they provide a useful
192
example of the names used by the Philistines during that
time, and the earliest evidence for the use of an alphabetic
writing system in the Philistine culture.[8]
59.4 Crusader Period
Blanche Garde, Tel Tzat
Main article: Tell es-Sa
Following the destruction of the site by Hazael, Philis-
tine Gath lost its role as a primary Philistine city. Al-
though the site was settled during later periods, it never [9] Gittite. WebBible Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-02-
regained its role as a site of central importance. Dur-
ing the Crusader period, following the conquest of the
land during the First Crusade, a small fortress, named [10] Ishtori Haparchi, Kaphtor u'ferach, vol. II, chapter 11,
Blanche Garde for the dramatic white chalk clis that
guard its western approach, was built at the site as part of
the Crusader encirclement of Fatimid Ashkelon. This site
was subsequently captured by the Ayyubids, and served
the basis for the Medieval and Modern village of Tell es- 59.7 Further reading
Sa, which existed until 1948. The ruins of the castle and
the village can be seen on the site today. Portions of the
exterior fortications of the castle have been excavated
in recent years.
59.5 Other Gaths
Gath was a common place name in ancient Israel and the
surrounding regions. Various cities are mentioned in the
Bible with such names as Gath of the Philistines, Gath-
Gittaim, and Gath Carmel, and other sites with similar
names appear in various ancient sources, including the
Amarna letters. A Gittite is a person from Gath.[9] Some
scholars hold the view that the biblical Gath was located
where Ramlah is now built, based on a medieval Jewish
tradition passed down by Ishtori Haparchi.[10]
CHAPTER 59. GATH (CITY)
59.6 References
[1] Horton Harris (2011). The location of Ziklag:
a review of the candidate sites, based on Bibli-
cal, topographical and archaeological evidence.
Palestine Exploration Quarterly 143 (2): 119133.
doi:10.1179/003103211x12971861556954.
[2] B. Mazar (1954). Gath and Gittaim. Israel Exploration
Journal 4 (3/4): 227235.
[3] Nimrod Luz (1997). The Construction of an Islamic City
in Palestine. The Case of Umayyad al-Ramla. Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series 7 (1): 2754.
[4] Michael Avi-Yonah. Gath. Encyclopedia Judaica 7
(second ed.). p. 395.
[5] Looking for a wider view of history, Israeli archaeologists
are zooming in, Haaretz
[6] View of Philistine temple and Amos earthquake The
Tell es-Sa/Gath Excavations Weblog - July 2010
[7] Temple found in Philistine home of Goliath, Kiryat Gat
discovery sheds light on Samson, Ben Hartman, July 29,
2010, Jerusalem Post.
[8] For the editio princeps and an in-depth discussion of the
inscription and its signicance, see: Maeir, A.M., Wim-
mer, S.J., Zukerman, A., and Demsky, A. 2008. An Iron
Age I/IIA Archaic Alphabetic Inscription from Tell es-
Sa/Gath: Paleography, Dating, and Historical-Cultural
Signicance. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental
Research.
26.
s.v. , (3rd edition) Jerusalem 2007, p.
78 (Hebrew)
Rainey, A. 1975. The Identication of Philistine
Gath - a Problem in Source Analysis for Historical
Geography. Eretz Israel 12:63*76*.
Schniedewind, W. 1998. The Geopolitical History
of Philistine Gath. Bulletin of the American Schools
of Oriental Research 309:6977.
Ackermann, O., Maeir, A., and Bruins, H. 2004.
Unique Human-Made Catenary Changes and Their
Eect on Soil and Vegetation in the Semi-Arid
Mediterranean Zone: A Case Study on Sar-
copterium Spinosum Distribution Near Tell es-
S/Gath, Israel. Catena 57: 309-30
Ackermann, O., Bruins, H., and Maeir, A. 2005. A
Unique Human-Made Trench at Tell es-Sa/Gath,
Israel: Anthropogenic Impact and Landscape Re-
sponse. Geoarchaeology 20(3): 303-28
59.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 193

Avissar, R., Uziel, J., and Maeir, A. 2007. Tell es-
Sa/Gath During the Persian Period. Pp. 65115
in A Time of Change: Judah and Its Neighbors in the
Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods, ed. Y. Levin.
London: T&T Clark International.
Ben-Shlomo, D., Shai, I., Zukerman, A., and Maeir,
A. 2008. Cooking Identities: Aegean-Style and
Philistine Cooking Jugs and Cultural Interaction in
the Southern Levant During the Iron Age. American
Journal of Archaeology 112: 22546.
Horwitz, L., Lev-Tov, J., Chadwick, J., Wim-
mer, S., and Maeir, A. 2006. Working Bones: A
Unique Iron Age IIA Bone Workshop from Tell es-
Sa/Gath. Near Eastern Archaeology 66: 16973.
Maeir, A. 2003. Notes and News: Tell es-Sa.
Israel Exploration Journal 53(3): 237-46
Idem. 2004. The Historical Background and Dating
of Amos VI 2: An Archaeological Perspective from
Tell es-Sa/Gath. Vetus Testamentum 54(3): 319-34
Idem. 2007. Ten Years of Excavations at Biblical
Gat Plishtim (In Hebrew). Qadmoniot 133: 1524.
Maeir, A., Wimmer, S., Zukerman, A., and
Demsky, A. 2008. A Late Iron Age I/Early
Iron Age II Old Canaanite Inscription from Tell
e-f/Gath, Israel: Palaeography, Dating, and
Historical-Cultural Signicance. Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research.
Uziel, J., and Maeir, A. 2005. Scratching the Sur-
face at Gath: Implications of the Tell es-Sa/Gath
Surface Survey. Tel Aviv 32(1): 50-75.
Wimmer, S., and Maeir, A. 2007. The Prince
of Sat: A Late Bronze Age Hieratic Inscription
from Tell Es-S/Gath. Zeitschrift Des Deutschen
Palstina-Vereins 123(1): 3748.
Zukerman, A. H., L.K., Lev-Tov, J., and Maeir,
A. 2007. A Bone of Contention? Iron Age IIA
Notched Scapulae from Tell es-Sa/Gath, Israel.
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Re-
search 347: 5781.
Zukerman, A., and Shai, I. 2006. The Royal City
of the Philistines in the Azekah Inscription and
the History of Gath in the Eighth Century BCE.
Ugarit-Forschungen 38: 729816.

Idem. 2007. A New Interpretation of the Term

`Opalim ( )in Light of Recent Archaeologi- 59.8 External links
cal Finds from Philistia. Journal for the Study of the
Old Testament 32: 2340. Tell es-Sa website

Idem. 2008. Fragments of Stone Reliefs from Bliss Tell es-Sa weblog
and Macalisters Excavations at Tell es-Sa/Gath (In
Hebrew with English Abstract). Eretz Israel (E. Stern Coordinates: 314200N 345049E / 31.700N
Volume) 28. 34.847E

Idem., ed. 2012. Tell es-Sa/Gath I: Report on the

19962005 Seasons. gypten und Altes Testament
69. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Maeir, A. and Ehrlich, C. 2001. Excavating Philis-

tine Gath: Have We Found Goliaths Hometown?
Biblical Archaeology Review 27(6): 22-31

Maeir, A., and Shai, I. 2007. An Iron Age IIA

Phoenician-Style (?) Fluted Ceramic Bowl from
Tell es-Sa/Gath: A Ceramic Imitation of a Metal
Prototype. Journal of the Serbian Archaeological
Society 23: 21926.

Maeir, A., and Uziel, J. 2007. A Tale of Two

Tells: A Comparative Perspective on Tel Miqne-
Ekron and Tell es-S/Gath in Light of Recent Ar-
chaeological Research. Pp. 2942 in Up to the Gates
of Ekron: Essays on the Archaeology and History
of the Eastern Mediterranean in Honor of Seymour
Gitin, eds. S. Crawford, A. Ben-Tor, J. Dessel, W.
Dever, A. Mazar and J. Aviram. Jerusalem: Israel
Exploration Society.
Chapter 60

Horemheb

Horemheb (sometimes spelled Horemhab or Haremhab

and meaning Horus is in Jubilation) was the last pharaoh
of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from either 1319
BC to late 1292 BC,[1] or 1306 to late 1292 BC (if he
ruled for 14 years) although he was not related to the pre-
ceding royal family and is believed to have been of com-
mon birth.
Before he became pharaoh, Horemheb was the comman-
der in chief of the army under the reigns of Tutankamun
and Ay. After his accession to the throne, he reformed
the state and it was under his reign that ocial action
against the preceding Amarna rulers began.
Horemheb demolished monuments of Akhenaten,
reusing their remains in his own building projects,
and usurped monuments of Tutankhamun and Ay.
Horemheb presumably remained childless since he
appointed his vizier Paramesse as his successor, who
would assume the throne as Ramesses I.

60.1 Early career

Horemheb is believed to have originated from
Herakleopolis Magna or ancient Hnes (modern Ih-
nasya el-Medina) on the west bank of the Nile near the
entrance to the Fayum since his coronation text formally
credits the God Horus of Hnes for establishing him on
the throne.[2]
His parentage is unknown but he is believed to have been
a commoner. According to the French (Sorbonne) Egyp-
tologist Nicolas Grimal, Horemheb does not appear to
be the same person as Paatenemheb (Aten Is Present In
Jubilation) who was the Commander-in-chief of Akhen-
atens army.[3] Grimal notes that Horemhebs political ca-
reer rst began under Tutankhamun where he is depicted
at this kings side in his own tomb chapel at Memphis.[4]
In the earliest known stage of his life, Horemheb served
as the royal spokesman for [Egypts] foreign aairs
and personally led a diplomatic mission to visit the Nu-
bian governors.[4] This resulted in a reciprocal visit by
the Prince of Miam (Aniba)" to Tutankhamuns court,
an event [that is] depicted in the tomb of the Viceroy
Huy.[4] Horemheb quickly rose to prominence under
A statue of Horemheb as a scribe
Tutankhamun, becoming Commander-in-Chief of the
Army and advisor to the Pharaoh. Horemhebs specic
titles are spelled out in his Saqqara tomb, which was built
while he was still only an ocial: Hereditary Prince,
Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King, and Chief
Commander of the Army"; the attendant of the King
in his footsteps in the foreign countries of the south and
the north"; the Kings Messenger in front of his army to
the foreign countries to the south and the north"; and the
Sole Companion, he who is by the feet of his lord on the
battleeld on that day of killing Asiatics.[5]
When Tutankhamun died while still a teenager,
Horemheb had already been ocially designated as
the rpat or iry-pat (basically the Hereditary or Crown
Prince) and idnw (Deputy of the King in the entire
land) by the child pharaoh; these titles are found in-
scribed in Horemhebs then private Memphite tomb at
Saqqara which dates to the reign of Tutankhamun since

194
60.2. INTERNAL REFORM
the child kings ...
... cartouches, although later usurped by
Horemheb as king, have been found on a
block which adjoins the famous gold of hon-
our scene, a large portion of which is in Leiden.
The royal couple depicted in this scene and in
the adjacent scene 76, which shows Horemheb
acting as an intermediary between the king and
a group of subject foreign rulers, are therefore
to be identied as Tut'ankhamun and 'Ankhe-
senamun. This makes it very unlikely from
the start that any titles of honours claimed by
Horemheb in the inscriptions in the tomb are
ctitious.[6]
Relief from Horemhebs tomb. Receiving 'gold of honour' collars.
The title iry-pat (Hereditary Prince) was used very fre-
quently in Horemhebs Saqqara tomb but not combined
with any other words. When used alone, the Egyp-
tologist Alan Gardiner has shown that the iry-pat title
contains features of ancient descent and lawful inheri-
tance which is identical to the designation for a Crown
Prince.[7] This means that Horemheb was the openly
recognised heir to Tutankhamuns throne and not Ay, Tu-
tankhamuns ultimate successor. As the Dutch Egyptol-
ogist Jacobus Van Dijk observes:
There is no indication that Horemheb al-
ways intended to succeed Tut'ankhamun; obvi-
195
ously not even he could possibly have predicted
that the king would die without issue. It must
always have been understood that his appoint-
ment as Crown Prince would end as soon as
the king produced an heir, and that he would
succeed Tut'ankhamun only in the eventual-
ity of an early and/or childless death of the
sovereign. There can be no doubt that nobody
outranked the Hereditary Prince of Upper and
Lower Egypt and Deputy of the King in the
Entire Land except the king himself, and that
Horemheb was entitled to the throne once the
king had unexpectedly died without issue. This
means that it is Ays, not Horemhebs acces-
sion which calls for an explanation. Why was
Ay able to ascend the throne upon the death of
Tut'ankhamun, despite the fact that Horemheb
had at that time already been the ocial heir
to the throne for almost ten years?"[8]
The aged Vizier Ay sidelined Horemhebs claim to the
throne and instead succeeded Tutankhamun, likely be-
cause Horemheb was in Asia with the army at the
time of Tutankhamuns death. No objects belong-
ing to Horemheb was found in Tutankhamuns tomb,
whereas items donated by other high-ranking ocials
such as Maya and Nakhtmin were found in tomb
KV62 by Egyptologists. Further, Tutankhamuns queen,
Ankhesenamun, refused to marry Horemheb, a com-
moner, and so make him king of Egypt.[9] Having
pushed Horemhebs claims aside, Ay proceeded to nom-
inate the aforementioned Nakhtmin, who was possibly
Ays son or adopted son, to succeed him rather than
Horemheb.[10][11]
After Ays reign, which lasted for a little over four years,
Horemheb managed to seize power presumably from his
position as Commander of the Army, to assume what he
must have perceived to be his just reward for having ably
served Egypt under Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb
quickly removed Nakhtmins rival claim to the throne and
arranged to have Ays WV23 tomb desecrated by smash-
ing the latters sarcophagus, systematically chiselling out
Ays name and gure out of the tomb walls and proba-
bly destroying Ays mummy.[12] However, he spared Tu-
tankhamuns tomb from vandalism presumably because
it was Tutankhamun who had promoted his rise to power
and chosen him to be his heir. Horemheb also usurped
and enlarged Ays mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for
his own use and erased Ays titulary on the back of a 17
foot colossal statue by carving his own titulary in its place.
60.2 Internal reform
Upon his accession, Horemheb initiated a comprehensive
series of internal transformations to the power structures
of Akhenaten's reign, due to the preceding transfer of
196 CHAPTER 60. HOREMHEB

had two tombs constructed for himself: the rst when he

was a mere nobleman at Saqqara near Memphis, and the
other in the Valley of the Kings, in Thebes, in tomb KV57
as king. His chief wife was Queen Mutnedjmet, who may
have been Nefertiti's younger sister. They did not have
any children. He is not known to have any children by his
rst wife, Amenia, who died before Horemheb assumed
power.[17]

60.3 Reign length: 26/27 years or

14 years?

Horemheb with Amun at the Museo Egizio

state power from Amens priests to Akhenatens govern-

ment ocials. Horemheb appointed judges and regional The sarcophagus of Horemheb and wall reliefs in his KV57 tomb.
tribunes ... reintroduced local religious authorities and
divided legal power between Upper Egypt and Lower This pharaohs reign length is a matter of debate among
Egypt" between the Viziers of Thebes and Memphis scholars. Horemhebs highest clearly known dates are
respectively.[13] a pair of Year 13 and Year 14 wine labels from this
kings wine estates which were found in his royal tomb
These deeds are recorded in a stela which the king erected in the Valley of the Kings. It is traditionally believed
at the foot of his Tenth Pylon at Karnak. Occasionally that Horemhebs highest year-date is likely attested in an
called The Great Edict of Horemheb,[14] it is a copy of the
anonymous hieratic grato written on the shoulder of a
actual text of the kings decree to re-establish order to the now fragmented statue from his mortuary temple in Kar-
Two Lands and curb abuses of state authority. The stelas
nak which mentions the appearance of the king himself,
creation and prominent location emphasizes the great im- or a royal cult statue representing the king, for a reli-
portance which Horemheb placed upon domestic reform.
gious feast. The ink grato reads Year 27, rst Month
Horemheb also reformed the Army and reorganized of Shemu day 9, the day on which Horemheb, who loves
the Deir el-Medinah workforce in his 7th Year while Amun and hates his enemies, entered the temple for this
Horemhebs ocial Maya renewed the tomb of Thutmose event. (JNES 25[1966], p. 123) Donald Redford, in a
IV, which had been disturbed by tomb robbers in his 8th BASOR 211(1973) No.37 footnote, observes that the use
Year. While the king restored the priesthood of Amun, of Horemhebs name and the addition of a long Merya-
he prevented the Amun priests from forming a stran- mun (Beloved of Amun) epithet in the grato suggests
glehold on power, by deliberately reappointing priests a living, eulogised king rather than a long deceased one.
who mostly came from the Egyptian army since he could The Egyptologist Rolf Krauss, in a DE 30(1994) paper,
rely on their personal loyalty.[15] Horemheb was a pro-argued that this date may well reect Horemhebs acces-
lic builder who erected numerous temples and build- sion where a feast or public holiday was traditionally pro-
ings throughout Egypt during his reign. He constructed claimed to honour the accession date of a deceased or a
the Second, Ninth and Tenth Pylons of the Great Hy- current king. Krauss supports his hypothesis with evi-
postyle Hall, in the Temple at Karnak, using recycled dence from Ostraca IFAO 1254 which was initially pub-
talatat blocks from Akhenatens own monuments here, as lished by Jac Janssen in a BIFAO 84(1984) paper under
building material for the rst two Pylons.[16] the title "A Curious Error."[18] The ostraca records the
Because of his unexpected rise to the throne, Horemheb number of days on which an unknown Deir el-Medinah
60.3. REIGN LENGTH: 26/27 YEARS OR 14 YEARS?
workman was absent from work and covers the period
from Year 26 III Peret day 11 to Year 27 II Akhet day
12 before breaking o.[19] The signicant fact here is
that a Year change occurred in the ostraca from Year
26 to Year 27 around the interval IV Peret day 28 and I
Shemu day 13. The Year 27 date of Horemheb is located
within this interval and would reect Horemhebs acces-
sion date, Krauss suggests. Ays accession date occurred
somewhere in the month of III Peret.[20] Since Manetho
gives Ay a reign of 4 years and 1 month, this ruler would
have died sometime around the month of IV Peret or the
rst half of I Shemu at the very latest. This is precisely the
time period noted in Ostraca IFAO 1254. The fact that
the ostraca records the case of only one worker rather than
an entire group of workmen means the necropolis scribe
cannot be presumed at rst glance to have committed
a dating error in altering the unknown kings Year date in
the interval between IV Peret 28 and I Shemu 13.
However, it is manifestly obvious from a close study of
Manetho that he did not reckon the last month of a kings
reign (and his death) in the context of a year from the
pharaohs accession date. That was only done in civil
dating on a document or monument. Manetho supplied
whole regnal years and then gave the month in which the
king died (if he thought he knew it) reckoning from the
beginning of that year. For example, the historian (er-
roneously) thought Hatshepsut must have died in the 9th
month of the year because he knew that Thutmose III suc-
ceeded on Day 4 of the rst month of Summer (the 9th Another important text, The Inscription of Mes, records
month of the civil calendar), thereby assigning her a reign that a court case decision was rendered in favour by a rival
of 21 years and 9 months. (Marianne Luban)
A wall relief of Horemheb making an oering to Amun on the
10th pylon at Karnak.
Janssen, in his original BIFAO paper, noted the curious
fact that no known New Kingdom pharaohs who reigned
for a quarter of a century including Ramesses II and
Ramesses III had their accession date in this time frame
and suggests the Year change was an error committed on
behalf of the scribe. He then attributed the ostraca to
Ramesses III, whose accession date was I Shemu day 26
and expressed his view that the scribe may have inad-
vertently implemented the Year change two weeks early
197
instead. Janssen also observed that the palaeography of
the ostraca suggests a date in the 20th Dynasty partly be-
cause it followed the later New Kingdom form of writ-
ing and due to its provenance in the Grand Putit region,
which features numerous Dynasty 20 ostracas. However,
this form of writing is also attested in monuments of
Ramesses II and it would, therefore, not be unexpected
to nd it in a document from the very late 18th Dynasty
since the transition from the Early New Kingdom to the
Late New Kingdom Form of writing had already occurred
prior to the end of Horemhebs reign, as Frank Yurco
once noted. Indeed, Janssens palaeographical reference
for his paperProf. Georges Posenerhimself suggested
a date in the 19th Dynasty due to the form of the wsf
(absent) and akhet (inundation) text. As Janssen himself
writes, a few 19th Dynasty ostracas have been found in
the Grand Putit area prior to the 20th Dynastys inten-
sive exploitation of this region.[21] This does not exclude
some late 18th Dynasty work here either. Secondly, both
Janssen and Krauss stress in their papers that the relative
scarcity of the hieratic text in Ostraca IFAO 1254 pre-
cludes a clear dating of the document to Ramesses IIIs
reign and that palaeography, in general, does not give a
precise date for a documents creation. Hence, a dating
of the ostraca to Horemhebs reign on the basis of the
Year change is eminently plausible. On other matters, a
damaged wall fragment painting from the Petrie Collec-
tion reportedly mentions Horemhebs 15th or 25th Year.
branch of Mes family in Year 59 of Horemheb.[22] Since
the Mes inscription was composed during the reign of
Ramesses II when the Amarna-era Pharaohs were struck
from the ocial king-lists, the Year 59 Horemheb date
certainly includes the nearly 17 year long reign of Akhen-
aten, the 2 year independent reign of Neferneferuaten, the
9 year reign of Tutankhamun and the 4 year reign of Ay.
Once all these rulers reigns are deducted from the Year
59 date, Horemheb would still have easily enjoyed a reign
of 2627 years.
At a well known 1987 Conference from Gothenburg,
Sweden, Kenneth Kitchen astutely noted that any attempt
to explain away the Year 59 Horemheb date as a scribal
error fails to consider the long and volumnious listed se-
ries of court trials and legal setbacks which Mes family
endured in order to win back control over certain valu-
able lands which had been stolen from his familys line.
Indeed, Mes likely ordered the protracted legal dispute,
which is presented as a series of court depositions and
testimonies of various plaintis and witnesses, to be in-
scribed on his tomb walls in order to create a permanent
('carved in stone') record of his familys ultimately victo-
rious struggle to win back these lands. Mes, hence, could
hardly be expected to forget the beginning of his familys
legal tribulations in Year 59 of Horemheb. Kitchen also
observes in his paper that Horemhebs extensive building
projects at Karnak supported the theory of a long reign
198
for this Pharaoh and stressed that a good number of the
undated 'late 18th Dynasty' private monuments that are
in both Egypt and the worlds Museums must, in fact, be-
long to his reign. Horemheb, hence, probably was as-
sumed to have died after a minimum reign of 27 or, at
most, 28 years. Manetho's Epitome assigns a reign length
of 4 years and 1 month to Horemheb and this was usually
assigned to Ay; however, it is now believed that gure
should be raised by a decade to [1]4 years and 1 month
and attributed to Horemheb instead as Manetho intended.
60.3.1 Horemhebs new reign length
However, the most recent archaeological evidence from 3
excavation seasons conducted under G.T. Martin in 2006
and 2007 establishes that Horemheb most likely died af-
ter a maximum reign of 14 years based on a massive hoard
of 168 inscribed wine sherds and dockets recently dis-
covered below densely compacted debris in a great shaft
(called Well Room E) in this kings royal KV57 tomb.
Of the 46 wine sherds with year dates, 14 have nothing
but the year date formula, 5 dockets have Year 10+X, 3
dockets have Year 11+X, 2 dockets preserve Year 12+X
and 1 docket has a Year 13+X. Meanwhile, 22 dockets
mention Year 13 and 8 have Year 14 [of Horemheb]"
but none mention a higher date for Horemheb.[23]
The full text of the docket reads are identical and reads
as:
Year 13. Wine of the estate of
Horemheb-meren-Amun, L.P.H.,
in the domain of Amun. Western
River. Chief vintner Ty.[23]
Meanwhile, the Year 14 dockets, in contrast, are all in-
dividual and mention specic wines such as very good
quality wine or, in one case sweet wine and the loca-
tion of the vineyard is identied.[23] A general example is
this text on a Year 14 wine docket:
Year 14, Good quality wine
of the estate of Horemheb-meren-
Amun, L.P.H., in the domain of
Amun, from the wineyard of Ath,
Chief vintner Haty.[23]
Other Year 14 dockets mention Memphis (?), the West-
ern River while their vintners are named as Nakhtamun,
[Mer-]seger-men, Ramose and others.[24]
The quality and consistency of the KV57 dockets
strongly suggest that Horemheb was buried in his Year
14, or at least before the wine harvest of his Year 15
at the very latest.[24] This evidence is consistent with
the Horemheb dockets from Deir el-Medina which men-
tion Years 2, 3, 4, 6, 13 and 14, but again no higher
dates... while a docket ascribed to Horemheb from Sed-
ment has Year 12.[25] The lack of dated inscriptions
CHAPTER 60. HOREMHEB
for Horemheb after his Year 14 also explains the unn-
ished state of Horemhebs royal KV57 tomb--"a fact not
taken into account by any of those [scholars] defending
a long reign [of 26 or 27 years]. The tomb is compa-
rable to that of Seti I in size and decoration technique,
and Seti Is tomb is far more extensively decorated than
that of Horemheb, and yet Seti managed to virtually com-
plete his tomb within a decade, whereas Horemheb did
not even succeed in fully decorating the three rooms he
planned to have done, leaving even the burial hall unn-
ished. Even if we assume that Horemheb did not begin
the work on his royal tomb until his Year 7 or 8, ... it re-
mains a mystery how the work could not have been com-
pleted had he lived on for another 20 or more years.[26]
Therefore, Horemhebs reign has been determined and
accepted today by most scholars to be 14 years and 1
monthManetho had assigned him a reign of 4 years in
his Epitome and 1 monthbased on the clear evidence
of the wine jar labels and the lack of dates beyond his
Year 14 but this gure should be raised by a decade. As
for the Year 27 hieratic grato at Horemhebs Funer-
ary temple at Medinet Habu and the Year 59 date from
the inscription of Mes, Van Dijk argues that the rst date
likely inaugurated a statue of Horemheb during Year 27
of Ramesses II or III in Horemhebs temple while the lat-
ter date of Mes can hardly be taken seriously, and indeed
is not taken at face value by even the staunchest supporters
of a long reign for Horemheb since there was no standard
Egptian practise of including the years of all the rulers be-
tween Amenhotep III and Horemheb as Wolfgang Helck
makes clear.[27]
60.4 Succession
KV57: the Tomb of Horemheb
Under Horemheb, Egypts power and condence were
once again restored after the internal chaos of the Amarna
period; this situation set the stage for the rise of the 19th
Dynasty under such ambitious Pharaohs like Seti I and
Ramesses II. Horemheb is believed to have unsuccess-
fully attempted to father an heir to the throne since the
60.5. FICTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS
The forecourt of Horemhebs Memphite tomb at Saqqara.
mummy of his second wife was found with a fetus in it.
Georey Martin in his excavation work at Saqqara states
that the burial of Horemhebs second wife Mutnedjmet
was located at the bottom of a shaft to the rooms of
Horemhebs Saqqara tomb. He notes that a fragment
of an alabaster vase inscribed with a funerary text for the
chantress of Amun and Kings Wife, Mutnodjmet, as well
as pieces of a statuette of her [was found here] ... The fu-
nerary vase in particular, since it bears her name and titles
would hardly have been used for the burial of some other
person.[28]
Expert analysis subsequently showed that
the bones represented part of the skull and
other portions of the body, including the pelvis,
of an adult female who had given birth several
times. Furthermore, she had lost all her teeth
early in life, and was therefore only able to eat
soft foods for much of the time. She died in her
mid-forties, perhaps in childbirth, for with her
bones were those of a foetus or newborn child.
The [tomb] plunderers had evidently dragged
the two mummies, mother and child, from the
burial chamber below, and broken them open
in the pillared hall above. The balance of prob-
ability, taking into account the evidence of the
objects inscribed for Mutnodjmet, is that the
adult bones are those of the queen herself and
that she died in attempting to provide her hus-
band the Pharaoh with an heir to the throne.[28]
Since Horemheb remained childless, he appointed his
Vizier, Paramesse, to succeed him upon his death, both
to reward Paramesses loyalty and because the latter had
both a son and grandson to secure Egypts royal succes-
sion. Paramesse employed the name Ramesses I upon as-
suming power and founded the 19th Dynasty of the New
Kingdom. While the decoration of Horemhebs KV57
tomb was still unnished upon his death, this situation is
not unprecedented: Amenhotep II's tomb was also not
fully completed when he was buried, even though this
ruler enjoyed a reign of 26 Years.
199
60.5 Fictional representations
Horemheb is a major character in Katie Hamsteads
trilogy, Kiya: Hope of the Pharaoh, Kiya: Mother of
the King and Kiya: Rise of a New Dynasty.
Horemheb is a major character in P. C. Doherty's
trilogy of historical novels, An Evil Spirit Out of the
West, The Season of the Hyaena and The Year of the
Cobra.
Horemheb is a major character in Pauline Gedge's
historical novel The Twelfth Transforming.
Horemheb is a major character in Mika Waltaris
historical ction international bestseller, Sinuhe, The
Egyptian. He was portrayed by Victor Mature in the
lm adaptation The Egyptian (1954).
Horemheb is a major character in Nick Drakes tril-
ogy of mystery novels, The Book of the Dead,
Tutankhamun and The Book of Chaos.
Horemheb appears as a major character in Lynda
Suzanne Robinson's Lord Meren series of Egyptian
mysteries.
Horemheb is a minor character in the novel Nefertiti
by Michelle Moran.
Horemheb is a minor character in the Japanese
graphic novel, Red River centered around ancient
Anatolia and ancient Egypt.
60.6 References
[1] Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (edi-
tors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Ori-
ental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.493 Chronology table
[2] Alan Gardiner, The Coronation of King Haremhab,
JEA 39 (1953), pp.14, 16 & 21
[3] Virtual Egyptian Museum - The Full Collection
[4] Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell:
1992, p.242
[5] John A. Wilson "Texts from the Tomb of General Hor-em-
heb" in Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET) relating to
the Old Testament, Princeton Univ. Press, 2nd edition,
1955. pp.250-251
[6] THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS:
THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS.
Historical and Iconographical Studies by JACOBUS VAN
DIJK, University of Groningen dissertation. Groningen
1993. Chapter One: Horemheb, Prince Regent of Tu-
tankh'amun, pp.17-18 (online: pp.9-10)
[7] Alan Gardiner, The Coronation of King Haremhab, Jour-
nal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol.39 (1953), pp.13-31
200 CHAPTER 60. HOREMHEB

[8] THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS:
THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS.
Historical and Iconographical Studies by JACOBUS VAN
DIJK, University of Groningen dissertation. Groningen
1993. Chapter One: Horemheb, Prince Regent of Tu-
tankh'amun, pp.48-49 (online: pp.40-41)
the Memphite Area and Sidmant. 3. An inscribed am-
phora from Sidmant, in J. Baines, et al., Pyramid Studies
and Other Essays presented to I.E.S. Edwards (London,
1988), 118-120, pl.21.
[26] Van Dijk, JARCE 44, p.198

[9] THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS: [27] Helck, Urkunden IV, 2162 & Van Dijk, JARCE 44,
THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS. pp.198-99
Historical and Iconographical Studies by JACOBUS VAN
[28] G. Martin, The Hidden Tombs of Memphis, Thames &
DIJK, Ibid., pp.50-51 & 56-60 (online: pp.42-43 & 48-
Hudson (1991), pp.97-98
52)

[10] Wolfgang Helck, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie: Texte der

Hefte 20-21 (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1984), pp.1908- 60.7 Bibliography
1910

[11] THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS:
THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS.
Historical and Iconographical Studies by JACOBUS VAN
DIJK, University of Groningen dissertation. Groningen
1993. Chapter One: Horemheb, Prince Regent of Tu-
tankh'amun, pp.59-62 (online: pp.51-54)
[12] Tomb 23 in the western annex of the Valley of the Kings;
see Porter & Moss, Topographical Bibliography of An-
cient Egyptian Hieroglyph Texts, Reliefs and Parts, vol.
1, part 2, (Oxford Clarendon Press:1960), pp.550-551
[13] Nicolas Grimal, op.cit., p.243
[14] The Great Edict of Horemheb
[15] Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames &
Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.137
[16] Grimal, op.cit., pp.243, 303
Alan Gardiner, The Inscription of Mes: A Contribu-
tion to Egyptian Juridical Procedure, Untersuchun-
gen IV, Pt. 3 (Leipzig: 1905).
Jrgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des pharaonis-
chen gypten, MS 46, Philip Von Zabern, Mainz:
1997
Nicholas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt,
Blackwell Books: 1992
K.A. Kitchen, The Basis of Egyptian Chronology in
relation to the Bronze Age, Volume 1: pp. 37-
55 in High, Middle or Low?: Acts of an Interna-
tional Colloquium on absolute chronology held at
the University of Gothenburg 2022 August 1987.
(ed: Paul Astrm).

[17] Joyce Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 60.8 External links
Thames & Hudson 2006. p.140

[18] Rolf Krauss, Nur ein kurioser Irrtum oder ein Beleg fr Horemheb - Archaeowiki.org
die Jahr 26 und 27 von Haremhab?" Discussions in Egyp-
tology 30, 1994, pp.73-85 Symposium on Horemhab, Metropolitan Museum
of Art
[19] Jac Janssen, A Curious Error, BIFAO 84(1984), pp.303-
306.

[20] J. von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen

gypten, Mainz, (1997), p.201

[21] Janssen, op. cit., p.305

[22] Inscription of Mes

[23] Jacobus Van Dijk, New Evidence on the Length of the

Reign of Horemheb, Journal of the American Research
Centre in Egypt (JARCE) 44, 2008, p.195

[24] Van Dijk, JARCE 44, p.196

[25] Van Dijk, JARCE 44, pp.197-98 which quotes papers

by G. Nagel, La ceramique du Nouvel Empire a Deir
Medineh (Cairo) 1938, 15:6 (Year 2); Y. Koenig, Cat-
alogues des etiquettes de jarres hieratiques de Deir el
Medineh (Cairo, 1979-1980), nos. 6299 (Year 3), 6295
(Year 4), 6403 (Year 6), 6294 (Year 13) 6345 (Year 14) &
G.T. Martin, Three Objects of New Kingdom Date from
Chapter 61

Huya (noble)

Huya was an Egyptian noble living around 1350 BC. He

was the Superintendent of the Royal Harem, Super-
intendent of the Treasury and Superintendent of the
House, all titles that are associated with Queen Tiye,
mother of Akhenaten.
He had a tomb constructed in the Northern cemetery at
Amarna, although his remains have never been identied.
His tomb contained a large amount of material about the
royal family and the Aten cult, including a Hymn to the
Aten.[1][2]

61.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5

[2] Michael Rice, Whos Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge

2001, ISBN 0-415-15448-0, p.73

61.2 External links

Northern tomb no. 1 of Huya

201
Chapter 62

Labaya

Labaya (also transliterated as Labayu or Lib'ayu) was invaded Gezer and insulting its king Milkilu. He denied
a 14th-century BCE ruler or warlord in the central hill any knowledge of his sons alleged collaboration with the
country of southern Canaan. He lived contemporane- Habiru:
ously with Pharaoh Akhenaten. Labaya is mentioned in
several of the Amarna Letters (abbreviated EA, for 'el
Amarna'), which is practically all scholars know about
him. He is the author of letters EA 25254.
Labaya was active over the whole length of Samaria and
slightly beyond, as he gave land to Habiru in the vicinity
of akmu (Shechem) and he and his sons threatened such
powerful towns as Jerusalem and Gazru (Gezer) to the
south, and Megiddo to the north.
62.1 Career
To the king, my lord and my Sun: Thus
Lab'ayu, your servant and the dirt on which
you tread. I fall at the feet of the king, my
lord and my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. I have
obeyed the orders that the king wrote to me.
Who am I that the king should lose his land on
account of me? The fact is that I am a loyal
servant of the king! I am not a rebel and I am
not delinquent in duty. I have not held back
my payments of tribute; I have not held back
anything requested by my commissioner. He
denounces me unjustly, but the king, my Lord,
does not examine my (alleged) act of rebellion.
Moreover, my act of rebellion is this: when
I entered Gazru-(Gezer), I kept on saying,
Everything of mine the king takes, but where
is what belongs to Milkilu? " I know the
actions of Milkilu against me! Moreover, the
king wrote for my son. I did not know that my
son was consorting with the 'Apiru. I hereby
hand him over to Addaya-(commissioner).
Moreover, how, if the king wrote for my wife,
how could I hold her back? How, if the king
wrote to me, Put a bronze dagger into your
heart and die, how could I not execute the
order of the king?
(EA 254)[1]

Other Canaanite rulers, such as Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem,

complained of Labayas depredations (e.g. EA 289)[2]
but note that in later years, Abdi-Heba would himself be
referred to as another Labaya in EA 280.[3] Labaya was
Map of Canaan in Labayas era accused of capturing cities that were under Egyptian pro-
tection. Biridiya, the king of Megiddo, accused him of
The Amarna letters give an incomplete look at Labayas besieging his city:
career. In the rst of Labayas letters thus far discov-
ered (EA 252), he defends himself to the Pharaoh against Say to the king-(pharaoh), my lord and my
complaints of other city rulers about him, for exam- Sun: Message of Biridiya, the loyal servant
ple, the complaint that he has hired mercenaries from of the king, I fall at the feet of the king, my
among the Habiru. Labaya further admitted to having lord and my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. May

202
62.4. REFERENCES 203

the king, my lord, know that since the return

(to Egypt) of the [Egyptian]-archers, Lab'ayu
has waged war against me. We are thus unable
to do the plucking: Ka-Zi-ra (harvesting),
and we are unable to get out of the city gate,
because of Lab'ayu. When he learned that
archers were not coming out, he immediately
determined to take Magidda. May the king
save his city lest Lab'ayu seize it. Look, the
city is consumed by pestilence, by.... ...So may
the king give a garrison of 100 men to guard
his city lest Lab'ayu seize it. Look, Lab'ayu
has no other purpose. He seeks simply the
seizure of Maggida.
(EA 244)[4]

After receiving numerous complaints about Labayas be-

havior, the pharaoh (probably Amenhotep III) nally or-
dered several Canaanite rulers to take Labaya prisoner
and send him to Egypt. Biridiya, ruler of Megiddo, wrote
to the pharaoh that Zurata, governor of Akko, had cap-
tured Labaya, but accepted a bribe from the latter and
released him (EA 245).[5]
Labaya was eventually killed by the citizens of Gina
(Beth-Hagan, possibly modern-day Jenin). His death
was reported to the Pharaohs agent, Balu-Ur-Sag, by
Labayas two sons. The sons of Labaya continued
to campaign against other Egyptian vassals in Canaan. EA 161, letter by Aziru (leader of Amurru) stating his case to
pharaoh, one of the Amarna letters in cuneiform writing on a
One of Labayas sons, Mutbaal, ruled Pella in the
clay tablet
Trans-Jordanian part of Canaan. Biryawaza, king of
Damascus, was eventually asked to take armed action
against Labayas sons (EA 250).[6] Still others, such as David Rohl, have advocated a to-
tally revised chronology of ancient Israelite and Egyp-
tian history, and instead identify Labaya with Saul, and
62.2 List of Labayas three letters Mutbaal with Sauls son Ishbaal. Ish-baal and Mutbaal,
whose names have the same meaning, Man of Baal,
to Pharaoh moved their capital to Transjordan after the death of their
fathers, whose center of power had been west of the
Labayas name is referenced in fourteen el Amarna letters Jordan river. Rohl further identies Dadua, Ayab and
and his name used thirty-two times. He was the author of Yishaya, three gures mentioned by Mutbaal in a later
letters EA 252-254.[7] Amarna Letter, with King David, his general Joab and
Davids father Jesse.[10] The Rohl chronology is not, how-
1. EA 252title: Sparing ones enemies ever, widely accepted. Rohls suggestions are rejected by
2. EA 253title: Neither rebel nor delin- other Egyptologists, such as Kenneth Kitchen, who ar-
quent (1)" gue that there are discrepancies between the Labaya of
the Amarna texts and King Saul as he is described in the
3. EA 254title: Neither rebel nor delin- Books of Samuel.
quent (2)"' [8]

62.4 References
62.3 Identications with Biblical
gures [1] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins, 1992), p. 307
Some researchers, such as Richard Abbott, note the pos- [2] Moran, pp. 332-333
sibility that Labaya and the biblical gure of Abimelech
ben Gideon, from Judges 9, were identical.[9] [3] Moran, p. 321
204 CHAPTER 62. LABAYA

[4] Moran, p. 298

[5] Moran, pp. 299-300

[6] Moran, pp. 303-304

[7] Moran, pp. 305-308

[8] Moran, p. 379. See: Commissioner Addaya.

[9] Abimelech, Saul, and Amarna - Abimelech and Labayu

(dead link)

[10] Arguments identifying Labaya with Saul (dead link). See

also EA 256, title: Oaths and denials, in Moran, p. 309-
310.

62.5 Bibliography
Baikie, James (2004). The Amarna Age. Seattle:
University Press of the Pacic. ISBN 1-4102-1510-
5.

Moran, William (1992). The Amarna Letters. Bal-

timore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-
8018-6715-0.
Rohl, David (1995). Pharaohs and Kings: A Biblical
Quest. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-
70315-7.

Westbrook, Raymond (2000). Amarna Diplomacy.

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
0-8018-7103-4.

62.6 External links

Abimelech, Saul, and Amarna - Abimelech and
Labayu
Saul and Labayu - are they the same person?

Arguments identifying Labaya with Saul

The Revision of Ancient History - A Perspective

Amarna Letters Concerning the Labaya Aair
Chapter 63

Maya (Egyptian)

Statue of Maya and Merit from Leiden

Frontal view of Maya & Merits statue

Maya was an important gure during the reign of
Pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay and Horemheb of the
eighteenth dynasty of Ancient Egypt. time, however, the tomb was covered by sand, and its lo-
The Overseer of the Treasury, he was also an important cation was lost. In 1975, a joint expedition of archaeolo-
ocial and was noted for restoring the burials of several gists from the Egypt Exploration Society in London and
earlier Pharaohs in the Royal Necropolis in the years fol- the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, Netherlands
lowing the deaths of Tutankhamun and Ay. The statues began a quest to rediscover the[1]tomb, and on February
of Maya and his wife Merit have been put on display in the 6, 1986 they nally succeeded. On this date, Professor
National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Netherlands Georey T. Martin together with Dr. Jacobus Van Dijk
since 1823. He donated a shabti gure to the tomb of representing the Leiden museum discovered the burial
Tutankhamun. chamber of Mayas subterranean tomb at Saqqara some
18 metres (60 feet) below the surface.[1]
Maya collected taxes and performed other services for
these pharaohs, including supervising the preparation As Martin states:
of their tombs. Mayas own tomb at Saqqara was ini-
tially partly excavated in 1843 by the archaeologist Karl "We were in total darkness for about 15 min-
Richard Lepsius,and its impressive reliefs were recorded utes...Suddenly we glimpsed wonderful reliefs
in sketches and some of them brought to Berlin. Over and were extremely startled to nd ourselves in

205
206 CHAPTER 63. MAYA (EGYPTIAN)

the antechamber leading to a burial chamber.

My colleague looked across at an inscribed wall
and said, 'My God, its Maya'.[1]

The rst full seasons work on Mayas burial in early 1987

indicated that his tomb is a slightly smaller and abbre-
viated version of Horemhebs Saqqara tomb. An open
courtyard has a collanade on its west side and doors lead-
ing to three vaulted ceilings. An inner courtyard has been
found to contain reliefs of very ne quality and a statue
of Maya and his wife.[1] The underground burial cham-
bers were paved with limestone and decorated with reliefs
showing Maya and his wife in front of gods.

63.1 References
[1] Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs:
A Complete Guide to Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson,
1987. p.115

63.2 Bibliography
Rice, Michael (1999). Whos Who in Ancient Egypt.
Routledge. p. 106.

Georey T. Martin: The Hidden Tombs of Memphis,

London 1991, p. 147-88 ISBN 0-500-39026-6

The Experience of Ancient Egypt by Ann Rosalie

David, 2000 Routledge, pp. 107 .

Coordinates: 295159N 311301E / 29.86639N

31.21694E
Chapter 64

Meritaten Tasherit

Meritaten Tasherit, which means Meritaten the Younger

was an ancient Egyptian princess of the 18th dynasty. She
is likely to have been the daughter of Meritaten, eldest
daughter of Pharaoh Akhenaten.
The father of this child remains under debate. Many
assume it to be none other than Meritatens fa-
ther, Akhenaten, or possibly her husband Smenkhkare.
Since both Meritaten Tasherit and another princess,
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit appear only in texts that once
mentioned Akhenatens second wife Kiya, it is also possi-
ble that they were children of Akhenaten and Kiya, or that
they were ctional, replacing the name of Kiyas daugh-
ter, who might have been Beketaten, more commonly
thought to be Tiye's child.[1][2]
The fate of this child is uncertain. The mention of the god
Aten in her name suggests that she was indeed a daugh-
ter of Akhenaten, since his successors reverted his reli-
gious reforms, and reverted to the worship of Egypt's tra-
ditional gods. Meanwhile, the name Aten was dropped
from popular use during this time.

64.1 References
[1] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.148

[2] Dr. Marc Gabolde: The End of the Amarna Period

Eyma, Aayko ed., A Delta-Man in Yebu: Occasional

Volume of the Egyptologists Electronic Forum No. 1,
Universal-Publishers.com 2003, p. 54

207
Chapter 65

Meryre II

The Ancient Egyptian noble known as Meryre II was

superintendent of the queen Nefertiti, and had the title
Royal scribe, Steward, Overseer of the Two Treasuries,
Overseer of the Royal Harim of Nefertiti.[1]
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Tomb 2, although
his remains have never been identied. The tomb has the
last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna fam-
ily, dating from second month, year 12 of his reign.[2]

65.1 References
[1] North Tombs. The Amarna Project. Retrieved 2008-
07-08.

[2] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. p. 1.

Archived from the original on 2008-05-28. Retrieved
2008-06-23.

208
Chapter 66

William L. Moran

William Lambert Moran (August 11, 1921 Decem- 66.2 External links
ber 19, 2000) was an American Assyriologist. He was
born in Chicago, United States. Obituary from Harvard Gazette
In 1939, Moran joined the Jesuit order. He then attended
William Lambert Moran
Loyola University in Chicago, where he received his B.A.
in 1944. After this, he taught Latin and Greek in a high
school in Cincinnati between 1946 and 1947. He re-
sumed his studies at Johns Hopkins University and gained
his Ph.D. in 1950. After further studies he worked on
the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, and in 1955 he taught
biblical studies at the Pontical Biblical Institute in Rome
between 1958 and 1966.
In 1966, he took the position as professor of Assyriology
at Harvard University, and was respected as a rigorous
and learned teacher of the Akkadian language who could
easily discuss problems in Biblical lexicon and literature.
He was married to Suzanne Drinker in 1970. In 1985, he
was appointed Andrew W. Mellon Professor of the Hu-
manities Emeritus, and in 1996 he was made a Fellow of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
He retired in 1990, and moved to Brunswick, Maine,
where he died in 2000. In 2005, a 224 page book titled
'Biblical and Oriental Essays in Memory of William L.
Moran,' edited by Agustinus Gianto for Biblica et Orien-
talia 48 was published by Roma: Ponticio Istituto Bib-
lico to honor his career and memory.

66.1 Publications

His doctorate, under W.F Albright, studied Canaanite

glosses in the Amarna letters and was signicant for the
understanding of biblical Hebrew. Other signicant pub-
lications include the standard translation and commen-
tary of "The Amarna Letters" in 1992. These texts doc-
ument the international and imperial correspondence of
the Egyptian Pharaohs around the time of the Egyp-
tian kings Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun.
Many other journal articles concerned illuminating stud-
ies of Akkadian literature, including the Gilgamesh Epic.

209
Chapter 67

Mutbaal

Mutbaal (Akk. man of Baal") was a Canaanite king of whom Rohl identies with David, Jesse,
the Amarna Period. He is identied in the Amarna letters and Joab.
as a son of Labaya, the ruler of the hill country north of
Jerusalem, including the territory in the vicinity of the
city of Shachmu (biblical Shechem). 67.2 References
Mutbaal may be the son whose association with the
Habiru raiders Labaya denounced in EA 254. He ruled in [1] Moran, The Amarna Letters, pp 308-310.
Pella on the eastern side of the Jordan river. After his fa-
thers death at the hands of the citizens of Gina, Mutbaal
and his brother continued their assaults on other Canaan- 67.3 Resources
ite rulers and their holdings, employing Habiru mercenar-
ies. Eventually Biryawaza of Damascus was ordered by Baikie, James. The Amarna Age: A Study of the
the Egyptian court to take armed action against the sons Crisis of the Ancient World. University Press of the
of Labaya. (EA 250) Pacic, 2004.
David Rohl identies Mutbaal with Ishbaal or Ish-
bosheth, the son of the Israelite King Saul, but the Cohen, Raymond and Raymond Westbrook (eds.).
chronology that would make this identication feasible Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of Interna-
is not accepted by the majority of scholars. It cannot be tional Relations. Johns Hopkins University Press,
denied that the names have exactly the same meaning, 2002.
but two people may have the same name and still belong Moran, William L. (ed. and trans.) The Amarna
to dierent time-periods. But of both Mutbaal son of Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Labaya and of Ishbosheth son of Saul it can be said that,
though his father ruled from Shechem, he himself ruled
from Pella.
In Rohls historical view, it would not have been Mutbaal
but Jonathan who displeased Labaya by associating with
the Habiru. Mutbaals brother in the post-Labaya period
would be David, his brother-in-law.

67.1 List of Mutbaals 2 letters to

Pharaoh
1. EA 255title: No destination too far
See: Karaduniyash
2. EA 256title: Oaths and denials.[1]
EA 256 is about Mutbaal, and Pella-
(Pihilu); a list of cities in the letter, in the
Golan Heights=(Garu)Udumu, Aduru,
Araru, Meta-(Meshta), Magdalu, Heni-
anabi-(Kheni-anabi), Sarqu, Hayyunu, &
Yabiluma. People mentioned in this let-
ter include Dadua, Yishuya and Ayab,

210
Chapter 68
Mutnedjmet
For other Egyptian ladies called Mutnedjmet see
Mutnedjmet (disambiguation)
Mutnedjmet (Mutnedjemet, Mutnodjmet, Mutnodjemet)
an Ancient Egyptian queen, the Great Royal Wife of
Horemheb, the last ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The
name, Mutnedjmet, translates as: The sweet Mut.
68.1 Titles
Mutnedjemets titles include: Hereditary Princess (iryt-
p`t), Great Kings Wife (hmt-niswt-wrt), Great of Praises
(wrt-hzwt), Lady of Grace (nbt-im3t), Sweet of Love
(bnrt-mrwt), Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt (hnwt-
Shmw -mhw), Songstress of Hathor (hsyt-nt-hwt-hrw),
and Songstress of Amun (Smyt-nt-imnw) [1]
68.2 Mutnedjmet as Nefertitis Sis-
ter
Some Egyptologists have speculated that Mutnedjemet is
identical to Nefertiti's sister Mutbenret.[2] This identi-
cation was partially based on the fact that Mutbenret's
name used to be read as Mutnedjmet. Other Egyptolo-
gist such as Georey Martin note that there is no denite
evidence to prove this assertion.[3] Martin writes that:
The name Mutnodjmet was not particularly
rare in the late Eighteenth Dynasty, and even
if she were the sister of Nefertiti her mar-
riage to Horemheb would have had no ef-
fect on Horemhebs legitimacy or candidacy
since Mutnodjmet (who is depicted in the pri-
vate tombs at El-Amarna) was not herself of
royal blood. In any case whatever her an-
tecedents Mutnodjmet could have been mar-
ried to Horemheb a little before he became
Pharaoh.[4]
211
68.3 Monuments and Inscriptions
Mutnedjmet is known from several object and inscrip-
tions:
A double statue of Horemheb and Mutnedjmet was
found in Karnak, but is now in the Museo Egizio in
Turin (1379). On Mutnedjmets side of the throne
she is depicted as a winged sphinx who adores her
own cartouche. As Sphinx she is depicted wearing
a at topped crown topped with plant elements as-
sociated with the goddess Tefnut. The back of the
statue records Horemhebs rise to power.[5]
Horemheb and Mutnodjemet are depicted in the
tomb of Roy (TT255) in Dra Abu el-Naga. The
Royal couple are shown in an oering scene.[6]
One of the colossal statues in Karnak (north side of
the 10th pylon) was made for Horemheb and de-
picted Mutnedjmet. The statue was later usurped
and reinscribed for Ramesses II and Nefertari.[7]
Mutnedjmet usurped several inscriptions of
Ankhesenamun in Luxor.[8]
Statues (fragments) and other items including al-
abaster fragments naming Mutnodjemet were found
in Horemheb's Saqqara tomb. Some items bear fu-
nerary texts.[9]
68.4 Death and Burial
Mutnedjmet died soon after Year 13 of her husbands
rule in her mid-40s based on a wine-jar docket found
in a burial chamber of Horemheb tomb at Saqqara, in
Memphis and a statue and other items of hers found
here.[10] The mummy was found in King Horemheb's un-
used Memphite tomb along with the mummy of a still-
born, premature infant. She appears to have been buried
in the Memphite tomb of Horemheb, alongside his rst
wife Amenia. Mutnedjmets mummy shows she had
given birth several times, but the last King of the 18th dy-
nasty did not have a living heir at the time of his demise.
212 CHAPTER 68. MUTNEDJMET

It has been suggested that she had a daughter who was [12] Elizabeth Thomas: Was Queen Mutnedjmet the Owner of
simply not mentioned on any monuments. The presence Tomb 33 in the Valley of the Queens? in: The Journal of
of the infant along with Mutnedjmet in the tomb suggests Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 53, (Dec., 1967), pp. 161-
that this queen died in childbirth. A canopic jar of the 163
[11]
Queen is now located in the British Museum.
It is possible that the tomb KV33 in the Valley of the
Queens was originally built for her. The tomb is known as
the tomb of an otherwise unknown Tanedjmet, but both
cartouches with her name are damaged and the similar
hieroglyphs for ta and mut allow for this interpretation.[12]

68.5 In popular culture

The South African artist Winifred Brunton painted
a portrait of this queen during the 1920s.
In Michelle Moran's novel, Nefertiti: A Novel,
Mutnedjmet is the principal character as the
younger sister of Queen Nefertiti. She is also refer-
enced in Morans second novel, The Heretic Queen,
as the mother of the principal character, Princess
and later Queen Nefertari.

Mutnedjmet is one of two main characters in Kerry

Greenwoods historical mystery, Out of the Black Land
(2010)

68.6 References
[1] Grajetski Ancient Egyptian Queens: a hieroglyphic dic-
tionary Golden House Publications

[2] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,

Thames & Hudson

[3] Georey Martin, The Hidden Tombs of Memphis,

Thames & Hudson (1991), p.96

[4] Martin, p.96

[5] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,

Thames & Hudson

[6] Briant Bohleke, Amenemopet Panehsi, Direct Successor

of the Chief Treasurer Maya, Journal of the American Re-
search Center in Egypt, Vol. 39, (2002), pp. 157-172

[7] Maya Mller, ber die Bste 23725 in Berlin, Jahrbuch

der Berliner Museen, Bd. 31, (1989), pp. 7-24

[8] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Fam-
ilies of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN
0-500-05128-3, pg 156

[9] Georey T. Martin, Excavations at the Memphite Tomb

of oremeb, 1977: Preliminary Report, The Journal of
Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 64, (1978), pp. 5-9

[10] Dodson & Hilton, p.156

[11] Dodson & Hilton, p.156

Chapter 69

Nakhtpaaten

Nakhtpaaten (Strong is the Aten) or Nakht was an [6] Reeves, op.cit, p.136
ancient Egyptian vizier during the reign of Pharaoh
Akhenaten of the 18th dynasty.

69.1 Career
Nakhtpaaten seems to have succeeded the Vizier Ramose
in oce. Ramose was the vizier in Thebes possibly up
to the time of the move to Akhetaten, Akhenaten's new
capitol. Ramoses tomb in Thebes was not nished and
after the move to the new city in year 4-5 of Akhen-
aten Nakhtpaaten is the vizier. His titles as given in his
house and tomb were: Hereditary prince, count, seal-
bearer, overseer of the city and vizier, overseer of the
work projects in Akhet-Aten.[2]
It is likely Nakhtpaaten who is depicted in the tomb of
Mahu who served as the Chief of Police. Mahu is shown
meeting with a vizier and a lesser ocial named Heqane-
fer in a scene related to policing the city.[3]
He lived in the southern city part of Akhet-Aten, his
house has been found.[4] Nakhtpaatens house was a large
mansion which included reception halls, bedrooms, a
bathroom, a lavatory and oces.[5]
His tomb was Tomb no. 12 of the Amarna rock tombs.[6]

69.2 References
[1] Hermann Ranke: Die gyptische Persnennamen. Verlag
von J. J. Augustin in Glckstadt, 1935, p.210
[2] Murnane, William J, Texts from the Amarna Period in
Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 1-
55540-966-0
[3] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
[4] Nicholas Reeves: Akhenaten Egypts False Prophet.
London, Thames & Hudson, 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7,
p.126
[5] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8

213
Chapter 70

Neferkheperuhesekheper

Neferkheperu-her-sekheper was an ancient Egyptian [3] Norman de Garis Davies: The Rock Tombs of El-Amarna.
ocial during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten. He was Part IV: Tombs of Penthu, Mahu, and others. Egypt Ex-
the mayor of Akhet-Aten, the pharaohs new capital. He ploration Society, London, 1906. p.23
was buried in Tomb EA13 in the southern group of the
[4] de Garies Davies, p.24
Amarna rock tombs.[2] His name (Neferkheperu causes
me to live is a basilophoric name (one that contains the
name of a king, usually to glorify him), since Neferkhep-
eru is an element of Akhenatens throne name.

70.1 Tomb
Neferkheperu-her-sekhepers tomb was ocially opened
by Bouriant in 1883 and excavated by Daressy in 1893,
but it had been entered before, as inscriptions on the ceil-
ing included modern-era names and dates.[3]
The tomb is unnished and in a good state. Its layout
is similar to that of other Amarna tombs. It consists of
one room, with six white columns in one row perpendic-
ular to the entry; the distance between the two middle
ones is slightly more than between the others. Work has
been started on the back wall of the room, there would
have been another room or possibly a shrine there. Dec-
oration below the ceiling is complete, only the colours
and the inscriptions are missing. Decoration lower on
the wall is completely missing; on the south side even the
columns haven't been carved completely.[4] By the time
the burial took place it must have been evident that the
tomb wouldn't be nished; after nishing the room and
most of the columns the workers began to work in the
northeastern corner, the usual place of the stairs lead-
ing to the burial chamber. The chamber itself was just
large enough to contain the sarcophagus. Two corridors
leading from it are either contemporary or were carved
later.[4]

70.2 Sources
[1] Hermann Ranke: Die gyptische Persnennamen. Verlag
von J. J. Augustin in Glckstadt, 1935., p.199

[2] Amarna Project: The South Tombs (PDF)

214
Chapter 71

Panehesy

Not to be confused with the Nubian viceroy [3] Amarna North Tomb 6
Pinehesy.
[4] Gay Robins, Ann S. Fowler, Proportion and Style in
Ancient Egyptian Art, University of Texas Press 1994,
pp.130f.

[5] Robert Hari, New Kingdom - Amarna Period: The Great

Hymn to Aten, Brill 1985, p.24

[6] Robins & Fowler, p.60

Panehesys EA6 Amarna tomb

The Egyptian noble Panehesy was the 'Chief servitor of

the Aten in the temple of Aten in Akhetaten' ('Second
Prophet of the Lord of the Two Lands). He was also the
'Seal-bearer of Lower Egypt.'.[1] These titles show how
powerful he must have been during the Amarna Period.
His house has been located in the ruins of Amarna,[2]
lying in the main city back from the Royal Road in
Amarna. In this house was a large shrine which depicted
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and princess Meritaten making of-
ferings to the Aten.
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Tomb 6[3] contain-
ing scenes of himself and his family[4] and others showing
the royal family,[5] but his remains have never been iden-
tied. In later times, his tomb was turned into a Coptic
place of worship for a while[6] and suered damage.

71.1 References
[1] Aayko Eyma, ed., A Delta-Man in Yebu: Occasional Vol-
ume of the Egyptologists Electronic Forum No. 1, p.35

[2] Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society

by Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, Manchester
University Press 1935, p.19

215
Chapter 72

Penthu

The Egyptian noble Penthu was the sealbearer of the

King of Lower Egypt, the sole companion, the attendant
of the Lord of the Two Lands, the favorite of the good
god, kings scribe, the kings subordinate, First servant of
the Aten in the mansion of the Aten in Akhetaten, Chief
of physicians, and chamberlain.[1] These titles alone show
how powerful he would have been in Eighteenth Dynasty
Egypt.
He was originally Chief Physician to Akhenaten, but may
have survived the upheavals of the end of the Amarna
period, and served under Ay, after being Vizier under
Tutankhamun.[2] The identication of Penthu the Physi-
cian with Pentu the Vizier is not certain however.[3]
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Amarna Tomb
5,[1] although his remains have never been identied, and
he was probably never buried there.

72.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5

[2] J. Cerny: Hieratic Inscriptions from the Tomb of

Tut'ankhamun, Oxford 1965, S. 4 no. 26

[3] Aiden Dodson, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,

Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation,
American University in Cairo Press (2009), page 79

72.2 External links

El Amarna North Tombs

216
Chapter 73

Pihuri

Pakhura (Pihu) was an Egyptian commissioner in the

Land of Retenu" (Canaan) mentioned in the Amarna
letters. He probably served under Pharaoh Amenhotep
III and/or Akhenaten. In EA 122, Rib-Hadda, king of
Byblos, complained of an attack by Pakhura, who killed
a number of Byblos Shardana mercenaries and took cap-
tive three of Rib-Haddas men.

73.1 References
I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond,
E. Sollberger, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History,
Cambridge University Press 1973

Epiphanius Wilson, Egyptian Literature, The Colo-

nial Press 1901, p.212

Charles Francis Horne, The Sacred Books and Early

Literature of the East, Kessinger Publishing 2001,
p.288

217
Chapter 74

Ramose

74.2 External links

Theban Tomb TT 71, Senenmuts parents

Lamenting Women, from the tomb (TT55) of Ramose, c. 1411-

1375 BCE

Ramose was an ancient Egyptian name, meaning Born

of Ra. Variants of the name include Ramesses
(Ramessu) and Paramessu; these various spellings could
be used to refer to the same person.[1]
Notable bearers of the name include:

Ramose, a son of Ahmose I.

Ramose, the father of Senenmut, Hatshepsuts high-

est state ocial;

Ramose, Amenhotep IIIs vizier (TT55);

Ramose, a general from Amarna (Tombs of the No-

bles (Amarna)).

74.1 References

[1] Cruz-Uribe, Eugene (July 1978). The Father of Rameses

I: 0I 11456. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37 (3): 237
244.

218
Chapter 75

Ramose (TT55)

Mourning women scene.

The Ancient Egyptian noble, Ramose was Governor

of Thebes and Vizier under both Amenhotep III and
Akhenaton. He was one of the earliest public gures to
convert to Atenism.

75.1 TT55
His tomb[1] is located in the Sheikh Abd el-Qurna part
of the Theban Necropolis, on the west bank of the Nile,
opposite to Luxor, and is notable for the high quality dec-
orations in both the traditional and Amarna styles.

75.2 References
[1] Ramose (TT 55)

219
Chapter 76
Rib-Hadda
Rib-Hadda (also rendered Rib-Addi, Rib-Addu, Rib-
Adda) was king of Byblos during the mid fourteenth cen-
tury BCE. He is the author of some sixty of the Amarna
letters all to Akhenaten. His name is Akkadian in
form and may invoke the Northwest Semitic god Hadad,
though his letters invoke only Ba'alat Gubla, the Lady of
Byblos (probably another name for Asherah).
Letter EA 362 written by Rib-Hadda to Pharaoh, one of the
Amarna letters, Louvre Museum
Rib-Haddas letters often took the form of complaints or
pleas for action on the part of the reigning Pharaoh. In
EA 105, he begged Pharaoh to intervene in a dispute with
Beirut, whose ruler had conscated two Byblian merchant
vessels.[1] In EA 122, Rib-Hadda complained of an at-
tack by the Egyptian commissioner Pihuri, who killed a
number of Byblos Shardana mercenaries and took cap-
220
tive three of Rib-Haddas men.
Rib-Hadda was involved in a long-standing dispute with
Abdi-Ashirta, the ruler of Amurru (probably in south-
eastern Lebanon and southwestern Syria), who hired mer-
cenaries from among the Habiru, Shardana, and other
warlike tribes. EA 81 contains a plea for Egyptian aid
against Amurru, whose ruler Rib-Hadda accused of lur-
ing away his followers and inciting them to rebellion. He
reported further that an assassin sent by Abdi-Ashirta
had attempted to kill him.[2] Rib-Hadda pleaded with
Akhenaten to send archers to defend him from the forces
of Amurru and from his own increasingly resentful peas-
antry. In one of the most poignant of the Amarna texts,
Rib-Hadda wrote the people of Ammiya have killed
their lord and I am afraid. (EA 75). He added: like
a bird in a trap so I am here in Gubla (ie: Byblos). (EA
74 & EA 81)[3] Zemar, a city previously under his con-
trol, fell to Abdi-Ashirta (EA 84). Shortly thereafter the
Egyptian commissioner Pahannate was withdrawn from
northern Canaan, leaving Rib-Hadda without even the ap-
pearance of Egyptian support. His pleas for assistance
evidently went unanswered (EA 107) and caused much
annoyance to Akhenaten. Akhenatens irritation with
Rib-Hadda is recounted in EA 117 where the pharaoh
is quoted saying to Rib-Hadda Why do you alone keep
writing to me?" (EA 117)[4] While Abdi-Ashirta is re-
ported to have been killed in EA 101, this only pro-
vided temporary relief to Rib-Hadda since the former
was succeeded by his son Aziru; Rib-Hadda soon after
complains about the depredations caused by the sons
of Abdi-Ashirta in several Amarna letters to Akhenaten
such as EA 103[5] and EA 109[6]
In EA 89, Rib-Hadda reported a coup d'etat in neigh-
boring Tyre, in which the ruler of Tyre, his fellow kins-
men, was killed along with his family. Rib-Haddas sister
and her daughters, who had been sent to Tyre to keep
them away from Abdi-Ashirtas Amurru invaders, were
also presumed to be among those killed.[7] If this was
not bad enough, Rib-Hadda wrote again to report that
the Hittites were invading Egyptian protectorates in Syria
and burning the Kings lands. (EA 126). At one point
Rib-Hadda was forced to ee to exile in Beirut, under
the protection of king Ammunira. (EA 137) In EA 75,
Rib-Hadda details the changing political situation around
76.1. SEE ALSO 221

Rib-Hadda was ultimately exiled by his younger brother

Ilirabih and not long afterwards, killed at the behest of
Aziru.[9] This event is mentioned in Amarna letter EA
162 from Akhenaten to Aziru.[10]

76.1 See also

Amarna letter EA 86, Rib-Hadda to ocial
Amanappa at the Egyptian court of Pharaoh

Map of the Ancient Near East during the Amarna period,
showing the great powers of the period: Egypt (green), Hatti
(yellow), the Kassite kingdom of Babylon (purple), Assyria
(grey), and Mittani (red). Lighter areas show direct control,
darker areas represent spheres of inuence. The extent of the
Achaean/Mycenaean civilization is shown in orange.
76.2 References
[1] The designation EA followed by a number is used by
Egyptologists and other historians to refer to the various
Amarna letters by the number assigned to them.
[2] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2002., p.150

[3] Moran, p.143 & p.151

Byblos:
[4] Moran, p.193
[Ri]b Hadda says to his lord, king of all [5] Moran, p.176
countries, Great King: May the Lady of
Gubla grant power to my lord. I fall at the [6] Moran, p.183
feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times.
[7] Moran, p.162
May the king, my lord, know that Gubla
(ie: Byblos), the maidservant of the king [8] Moran, EA 75 p.145
from ancient times, is safe and sound. The
war, however, of the Apiru against me is se- [9] Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Clarendon
Press, 1998. p.186
vere. (Our) sons and daughters and the fur-
nishings of the houses are gone, since they [10] Moran, The Amarna Letters, p.xxvi
have been sold [in] the land of Yarimuta for
our provisions to keep us alive. For the
lack of a cultivator, my eld is like a woman 76.3 Resources
without a husband. I have written repeat-
edly to the palace because of the illness af-
Baikie, James. The Amarna Age: A Study of the
icting me, [but there is no one] who has
Crisis of the Ancient World. University Press of the
looked at the words that keep arriving. May
Pacic, 2004.
the king give heed [to] the words of [his]
servant... ...The Apiru killed [[Aduna of Cohen, Raymond and Raymond Westbrook (eds.).
Arqa|Ad[una]] the king] of Irqata-(Arqa), Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of Interna-
but there was no one who said anything tional Relations. Johns Hopkins University Press,
to Abdi-Ashirta, and so they go on taking 2002.
(territory for themselves). Miya, the ruler
of Arani, seized Ar[d]ata, and just now Moran, William L. (ed. and trans.) The Amarna
the men of Ammiy have killed their lord. Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
I am afraid. May the king be informed
that the king of Hatti has seized all the
countries that were vassals of the king of
Mitan<ni>...Send arc[hers] [8]

An aged and ailing Rib-Hadda continued to write to

Pharaoh, telling him of violent upheavals in Phoenicia
and Syria, including revolutions instigated by Abdi-
Ashirtas son Aziru coupled with incursions by Apiru
raiders. (e.g., EA 137)
Chapter 77

Suteans

The Suteans were a Semitic people who lived through-

out the Levant and Canaan circa 1350 BC, and were
later to be found in Babylonia also. They are mentioned
in eight of the 382 Amarna letters. Like the Habiru,
they traditionally worked as mercenaries. They are listed
in documents from the Middle Assyrian Empire (1395-
1075 BC) as being extant in the Assyrian colony city of
Emar, in what is now north east Syria. Together with
other Semitic peoples; the Chaldeans and Arameans, they
overran swathes of Babylonia circa 1100 BC. They were
eventually conquered by Assyria, along with the rest of
Babylonia.[1]

77.1 Amarna letters

One letter mentioning the Suteans is entitled Waiting
for the Pharaohs words, from Biryawaza of Dimasqu-
(Damascus) to pharaoh:

I am indeed, together with my troops and

chariots, together with my brothers, my 'Apiru
and my Suteans, at the disposition of the
archers, wheresoever the king, my lord, shall
order (me to go).

EA 195 (EA for el Amarna), lines 24-32.[2]

This usage is somewhat atypical of the usage of Habiru
and external mercenary forces in the Amarna letters,
since this letter quotes them as being necessary and ben-
ecial to the eorts of Biryawaza.
The Sutean language appears to have been Semitic.

77.2 References
[1] George Roux. Ancient Iraq. ISBN 978-0140125238.

[2] Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN 0-8018-
6715-0)

222
Chapter 78
Tadukhipa
One of the Amarna Letters negotiating a marriage between
Amenhotep III and Tushratta's daughter Tadukhipa
Tadukhipa, in the Hurrian language Tadu-Hepa, was
the daughter of Tushratta, king of Mitanni (reigned ca.
1382 BC1342 BC) and his queen, Juni and niece of
Artashumara. Tadukhipas aunt Gilukhipa (sister of
Tushratta) had married Pharaoh Amenhotep III in his
10th regnal year. Tadukhipa was to marry Amenhotep
III more than two decades later.[1]
223
78.1 Marriage to Amenhotep III
Relatively little is known about this princess of Mitanni.
She is believed to have been born around Year 21 of the
reign of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III, (c. 1366 BC).
Fifteen years later, Tushratta married his daughter to his
ally Amenhotep III to cement their two states alliances in
Year 36 of Amenhotep IIIs reign (1352 BC). Tadukhipa
is referenced in seven of Tushrattas thirteen Amarna let-
ters, of about 1350-1340 BC.[2] Tushratta requested that
his daughter would become a queen consort, even though
that position was held by Queen Tiye.[3] The gifts sent to
Egypt by Tushratta include a pair of horses and a char-
iot, plated with gold and inlaid with precious stones, a
litter for a camel adorned with gold and precious stones,
cloth and garments, jewelry such as bracelets, armlets and
other ornaments, a saddle for a horse adorned with gold
eagles, more dresses colored purple, green and crimson
and a large chest to hold the items.[4] In return Amen-
hotep III never sent the golden statues he oered and af-
ter his death Tushratta sent some missives complaining
about the lack of reciprocity.[5]
78.2 Marriage to Akhenaten
Amenhotep III died shortly after Tadukhipa arrived
in Egypt and she eventually married his son and heir
Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten).[3]
78.3 Identied with Kiya or Nefer-
titi
Some scholars tentatively identify Tadukhipa with Kiya,
a queen of Akhenaten.[1] It has been suggested that the
story of Kiya may be the source for the New Kingdom
story called the Tale of Two Brothers. This fable tells
the story of how the pharaoh fell in love with a beautiful
foreign woman after smelling her hair. If Tadukhipa was
later known as Kiya, then she would have lived at Amarna
where she had her own sunshade and was depicted with
the pharaoh and at least one daughter.[6]
224 CHAPTER 78. TADUKHIPA

Others such as Petrie, Drioton and Vandier have sug-

gested that Tadukhipa was given a new name after be-
coming the consort of Akhenaten and is to be identied
the famous queen Nefertiti.[6] This theory suggests that
Nefertitis name the beautiful one has come refers to
Nefertitis foreign origin as Tadukhipa. Seele, Meyer and
others have pointed out that Tey, wife of Ay, held the ti-
tle of nurse to Nefertiti, and that this argues against this
identication. A mature princess arriving in Egypt would
not need a nurse.[7]

78.4 References
[1] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3

[2] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1992, EA 23, pp. 61-62

[3] Tyldesley, Joyce. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt.

Thames & Hudson. 2006. p. 124 ISBN 0-500-05145-
3

[4] A. L. Frothingham, Jr., Archological News, The Ameri-

can Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine
Arts, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1893), pp. 557-631

[5] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and

Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8

[6] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.

1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8

[7] Cyril Aldred, The End of the El-'Amrna Period, The

Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 43, (Dec., 1957),
pp. 30-41
Chapter 79

Tiye

For other uses, see Tiye (disambiguation). served as a priest and superintendent of oxen or com-
Tiye (c. 1398 BC 1338 BC, also spelled Taia, mander of the chariotry.[2] Tiyes mother, Thuya, was in-
volved in many religious cults, as her dierent titles at-
tested (Singer of Hathor, Chief of the Entertainers of both
Amun and Min...),[3] which suggests that she was a mem-
ber of the royal family. Some Egyptologists,[note 1] be-
lieve that Tiye is of Mitanni (Armenian) origin, and she
brought the Aten religion to Egypt from her native land,
and taught her son, Akhenaten.[4]
It sometimes is suggested that Tiyes father, Yuya, was
of Asiatic or Nubian descent due to the features of
his mummy and the many dierent spellings of his
name, which might imply it was a non-Egyptian name in
origin.[5] Some suggest that the queens strong political
and unconventional religious views might have been due
not just to a strong character, but to foreign descent.[3]
Tiye also had a brother, Anen, who was Second Prophet
of Amun.[6] Other Egyptologists speculated that Ay, a
successor of Tutankhamen as pharaoh after the latters
death, also might have been descended from Tiye. No
clear date or monument can conrm the link between the
two, but these Egyptologists presumed this by Ays ori-
gins, also from Akhmin, and because he inherited most
of the titles that Tiyes father, Yuya, held during his life-
time, at the court of Amenhotep III.[3][7]
Tiye was married to Amenhotep III by the second year of
his reign. He had been born of a secondary wife of his
father and needed a stronger tie to the royal lineage.[5] He
appears to have been crowned while still a child, perhaps
Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been de- between the ages of six to twelve. They had at least seven,
picted to her right in this broken statue possibly more children:
Tiy and Tiyi) was the daughter of Yuya and Tjuyu (also 1) Sitamun- The eldest daughter, who was elevated to the
spelled Thuyu). She became the Great Royal Wife of position of Great Royal Wife around year 30 of her fa-
the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III. She was the mother thers reign.[8]
of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun. Her 2) Isis- Also elevated to the position of Great Royal
mummy was identied as The Elder Lady found in the Wife.[8]
tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) in 2010.
3) Henuttaneb- Not known to have been elevated to
Queenship, though her name does appear in a Cartouche
at least once.
79.1 Family and early life
4) Nebetah- Sometimes thought to have been renamed
Tiyes father, Yuya, was a non-royal, wealthy landowner Baketaten during her brothers reign.
from the Upper Egyptian town of Akhmin,[1] where he

225
226 CHAPTER 79. TIYE

5) Crown Prince Thutmose- Crown Prince and High

Priest of Ptah, pre-deceasing his father.
6) Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten- Succeeded his father
as pharaoh, husband of Queen Nefertiti, father of
Ankhesenamun, who married Tutankhamun.
7) Smenkhkare- traditionally seen as one of Akhenaten's
immediate successors, today some Egyptologists such as
Aidan Dodson believe he was the immediate predeces-
sor of Neferneferuaten and a junior co-regent of Akhen-
aten who did not have an independent reign.[9] Sometimes
identied with the mummy from KV55, and therefore
Tutankhamuns father.
8) The Younger Lady from KV35- A daughter of Amen-
hotep III and Tiye, mother of Tutankhamun and sister-
wife of KV55. Presumably one of the already-known
daughters of Amenhotep III and Tiye.
9) Baketaten- Sometimes thought to be Queen Tiyes
daughter, usually based on a stelae with Baketaten seated
next to Tiye at dinner with Akhenaten and Nefertiti.[1]

79.2 Monuments
Her husband devoted a number of shrines to her and
constructed a temple dedicated to her in Sedeinga in
Nubia where she was worshipped as a form of the god- Fragmentary funerary mask of Queen Tiye - in the gyptisches
dess Hathor-Tefnut.[10] He also had an articial lake built Museum collection in Berlin
for her in his Year 12.[11] As the American Egyptologists
David O'Connor and Eric Cline note:
79.3 Inuence at court
Tiye wielded a great deal of power during both her hus-
bands and sons reigns. Amenhotep III became a ne lived him for as many as twelve years. Tiye continued
sportsman, a lover of outdoor life, and a great statesman.
He often had to consider claims for Egypts gold and re-
quests for his royal daughters in marriage from foreign
kings such as Tushratta of Mitanni and Kadashman-Enlil
I of Babylon. The royal lineage was carried by the women
of Ancient Egypt and marriage to one would have been
a path to the throne for their progeny. Tiye became her
husbands trusted adviser and condant. Being wise, in-
telligent, strong, and erce, she was able to gain the re-
spect of foreign dignitaries. Foreign leaders were willing
to deal directly through her. She continued to play an
active role in foreign relations and was the rst Egyptian
queen to have her name recorded on ocial acts.[13]
Tiye may have continued to advise her son, Akhenaten,
when he took the throne. Her sons correspondence with
Tushratta, the king of Mitanni, speaks highly of the po-
litical inuence she wielded at court. In Amarna let-
ter EA 26, Tushratta, king to Mitanni, corresponded di-
rectly with Tiye to reminisce about the good relations he
enjoyed with her then deceased husband and extended
his wish to continue on friendly terms with her son,
Akhenaten.[14]
Amenhotep III died in Year 38 or Year 39 of his reign
(1353 BC/1350 BC) and was buried in the Valley of the
Kings in WV22; however, Tiye is known to have out-
to be mentioned in the Amarna letters and in inscrip-
tions as queen and beloved of the king. Amarna letter
EA 26, which is addressed to Tiye, dates to the reign of
Akhenaten. She is known to have had a house at Amarna,
Akhenatens new capital and is shown on the walls of the
tomb of Huya a steward in the house of the kings
mother, the great royal wife Tiyi" depicted at a dinner
table with Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their family and then
being escorted by the king to her sunshade.[15] In an in-
scription approximately dated to November 21 of Year 12
of Akhenatens reign (1338 BC), both she and her grand-
daughter Meketaten are mentioned for the last time. They
are thought to have died shortly after that date.
If Tiye died soon after Year 12 of Akhenatens reign
(1338 BC), this would place her birth around 1398 BC,
her marriage to Amenhotep III at the age of eleven or
twelve, and her becoming a widow at the age of forty-
eight to forty-nine. Suggestions of a co-regency between
Amenhotep III and his son Akhenaten lasting for up to
twelve years continue, but most scholars today, either ac-
79.5. NOTES
cept a brief co-regency lasting no more than one year at Dodson and Dyan Hilton, who once stated that it seems
the most,[16] or no co-regency at all.[15]
79.4 Burial and mummy
The mummy of Queen Tiye, now in the Egyptian Museum
Tiye is believed to have been originally buried in Akhen-
atens royal tomb at Amarna alongside her son and grand-
daughter, Meketaten, as a fragment from the tomb not
long ago was identied as being from her sarcophagus.
Her gilded burial shrine (showing her with Akhenaten)
ended up in KV55 while shabtis belonging to her were
found in Amenhotep III's WV22 tomb.[17]
Her mummied remains was found adjacent to two other
mummies in an opposite side chamber of Amenhotep II
in KV35 by Victor Loret in 1898. The two other mum-
mies were a young boy who died at around the age of
ten, thought to be Webensenu or Prince Thutmose and
another, younger unknown woman. All three were found
together, lying naked side-by-side and unidentied in a
small antechamber of the tomb. They had been exten-
sively damaged by ancient tomb robbers.[18] At rst, re-
searchers were unable to identify both female mummies
and were instead given names with Tiye being labelled
as the 'The Elder Lady' while the other woman was 'The
Younger Lady'. Several researchers argued that the El-
der Lady was Queen Tiye. Some noted that miniature
cons inscribed with her name were found at the tomb of
her grandson, Tutankhamun, as memento from a beloved
grandmother.[17] There were also some scholars who were
skeptical about this theory such as British scholars Aidan
227
very unlikely that her mummy could be the so-called 'El-
der Lady' in the tomb of Amenhotep II.[17]
By 2010, DNA analysis, sponsored by the Secretary Gen-
eral of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi
Hawass, was able to formally identify the Elder Lady to
be Queen Tiye. Also, the strands of her hair found in-
side Tutankhamuns tomb matched the DNA of the Elder
Lady.[19]
79.5 Notes
[1] Flinders Petrie (19th century Egyptologist) after whom
Petrie Museum in London, England is named
Jacquetta Hawkes, The First Great Civilizations Yet
the Hurrians did not disappear from history. Away to
the North in their Armenian homeland, they entrenched
themselves and build up the kingdom of Urartu."; M.
Chahin, The Kingdom of Armenia, The new kingdom
of Urartu, which proved to be the stronghold of the Hur-
rian race.
79.6 References
[1] Tyldesley 2006, p. 115.
[2] Bart, Anneke. Ancient Egypt. http://euler.slu.
edu/~{}bart/egyptianhtml/kings%20and%20Queens/
amenhotepiii.htm
[3] Tyldesley 2006, p. 116.
[4] King, L. W. (Leonard William); Hall, H. R. (Harry Regi-
nald). History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and
Assyria in the Light of Recent Discovery. p. 384.
[5] O'Connor 1998, p. 5.
[6] O'Connor 1998, p. 5-6.
[7] Shaw, Ian. The Oxford history of Ancient Egypt. Oxford
University Press: London, 2003. p.253
[8] Tyldesley 2006, p. 121.
[9] Aidan Dodson, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tu-
tankhamun, Ay, Horemhab and the Egyptian Counter-
reformation (Cairo: AUC Press, 2010), pp.27-29
[10] O'Connor 1998, p. 6.
[11] Kozlo, Arielle; Bryan, Betsy (1992). Royal and Divine
Statuary. Egypts Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and his
World (2). Cleveland. ISBN 978-0-940717-16-9.
[12] O'Connor 1998, p. 6-7.
[13] Tyldesley 2006, p. 118.
[14] EA 26 - A Letter from Tushratta to Tiye.
228 CHAPTER 79. TIYE

[15] O'Connor 1998, p. 23.

[16] Reeves, Nicholas. Akhenaten: The False Prophet, pp. 75-

78

[17] Dodson 2004, p. 157.

[18] Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D,

Hasan N, Ahmed A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F,
Wasef S, Fateen M, Amer H, Gostner P, Selim A, Zink
A, Pusch CM (February 2010). Ancestry and Pathol-
ogy in King Tutankhamuns Family. JAMA : the jour-
nal of the American Medical Association 303 (7): 63847.
doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. PMID 20159872.

[19] Hawass, Zahi et al. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tu-

tankhamuns Family The Journal of the American Med-
ical Association pp.640-641

Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete

Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames
& Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3.
O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric H. (1998).
Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN
978-0-472-08833-1.
Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of
Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-
500-05145-0.
Chapter 80

Tomb of Meryra

The Tomb of Meryra is part of a group of tombs lo-

cated near Amarna, Egypt. Placed in the mountainsides,
the tombs are divided into north and south groupings; the
northern tombs are located in the hillsides and the south-
ern on the plains. Meryras tomb, identied as Amarna
Tomb 4 is located in the northern cluster. The tomb is the
largest and most elaborate of the noble tombs of Amarna.
It, along with the majority of these tombs, was never
completed.[1] The rock cut tombs of Amarna were con-
structed specically for the ocials of King Akhenaten.
Norman de Garis Davies originally published details of
the Tomb in 1926 in the Rock Tombs of El Amarna, Part
I the Tomb of Meryra. The tomb dates back to the 18th
Egyptian Dynasty.

80.1 Tomb layout

The tomb was found in relatively good condition com-

pared to the other tombs of Amarna. After the death of
Akhenaten, depictions of his rule and religion were de-
stroyed because they were considered to be heretical. In
Meryras tomb, Akhenaten and Nefertitis features have
been consistently erased. The desecration is conned
to these individuals, and the names and gures of the
princesses remain untouched. The tomb consists of four
sections: the antechamber, the hall of columns, a second
hall, and the shrine. The entrance to the tomb was orig- Plan of the tomb
inally decorated with inscriptions to the Amarna Royal
family and the Aten. These decorations have either been
destroyed, or are hidden by the modern doors protecting 80.2 Meryra
the tomb entrance. The antechamber itself shows Meryre
oering prayers to the Akhenaten, and the cartouches of Meryra served as the high priest of the cult of Aten, a new
the king, Nefertiti and the Aten. The door jambs are religious tradition instituted by King Akhenaten. This
inscribed with funerary prayers for Akhenaten and the belief system placed exclusive emphasis on sun worship
Aten. The entrance from the antechamber to the outer in the form of Aten, or the solar disc, a deity encap-
hall is decorated with the Short Hymn to the Aten, and sulating the idea of many gods into the essence of the
shows Meryres wife Tenre making oerings to the sun- sun.[2] The tomb provides little information regarding the
disc. personal life of Merya. Familial references are limited

229
230 CHAPTER 80. TOMB OF MERYRA

to depictions of his wife, Tenre, who is described as a the House of Aten, in Ahket-aten.[4] In this statement,
great favorite of the Lady of the two Lands. Lady of the the reliance on Akhenaten in Atenism is referred to in a
two Lands refers to Nefertiti, the queen of Akhenaten. physical sense, as Akhenaten pledges to attach Meryra
Not all ocials at Amarna had tombs. Having a tomb to him. This is similar to the contact the royal family has
at Amarna reected closeness with Akhenaten, due, in with the Aten, which is furnished with hands, or ankhs
part, to demonstrating a commitment to Akhenatens in- extending from its rays. One purpose of the ankhs is to
stitution of Atenism.[1] literally ll the recipient through bodily orices with the
life and prosperity of the Aten.[1]
A variety of texts were found in the tomb, including
80.3 Tomb Decorations prayers to be said by visitors to the tomb, as well as re-
ligious texts, such as the Hymn to the Aten. The Hymn
The sculptured reliefs of Meryras tomb were done in a to Aten, traditionally ascribed to Akhenaten himself cel-
new artistic style instituted under Akhenaten. The tech- ebrates the Aten as the universal creator of all life. Al-
nique of modeling in plaster which was used consisted though similar to hymns to Amun, the Hymn to Aten re-
of the images initially being cut directly into the stone, ects the originality of Akhenatens simplistic perception
and then covered by a layer of plaster, which was nally of his solar religion.[2]
painted over.[3] Like the style, the subject of the scenes
was also unique. Traditionally tombs in the New King-
dom contained decorations dedicated to the owner of the 80.4 See also
tomb, such as depictions of family members and ances-
tors, or scenes about the owners career, amusement or Amarna
domestic life.[3] This tradition was not carried out in the
tomb of Meryra, or the other tombs of Amarna, which in- Akhenaten
stead focused almost exclusively on Akhenaten and wor-
ship of the Aten. Davies acknowledges the tombs of
Amarna were often dicult to identify as little empha- Aten
sis was placed on the owner. This contrasts sharply with
the dominant tradition of New Kingdom tombs in which Atenism
cartouches and images of the ruling king were marginal
aspects to the tomb, sometimes not even identied.[3]
The reliefs in the Tomb of Meryra are decidedly centered 80.5 References
upon praising Akhenaten, and Meryra himself only ap-
pears marginally, sometimes indistinguishable from other [1] Redford, Donald, B. The Sun-disc in Akhenatens Pro-
minor gures carved in the relief. Despite this, Meryra gram: Its Worship and Antecedents, IJournal of the
maintains a constant contextual presence in the scenes, American Research Center in Egypt. 13. (1976), 47-
61, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40001118. (accessed Oc-
even if not being explicitly portrayed. In the scene Davies
tober 29, 2010).
titles, A Royal Visit to the Temple, Akhenaten and Ne-
fertiti are depicted paying a visit to Meryra at the temple. [2] Kemp,Barry J.. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civiliza-
It is uncertain if Meryra is included in this image and tion. New York: Routledge, 1989.
the description of the scene has been destroyed. Davies
[3] Davies,Norman de Garis. The Rock Toms of El Amarna.
speculates that the scene either shows Akhenaten on his
1, London, Boston: Oces of the Egypt Exploration
way to the temple to appoint Meryra as the High Pries of Fund, 1903.
Aten, or it is simply as example of Merya honored with
the presence of the King and Queen at the temple and [4] Murnane, William J., Meltzer, Edmund S,Texts from the
exercising his oce for them. Either situation serves to Amarna period in Egypt. Scholars Press: 1995.
promote the role and importance of Merya, even though
the scene seems to be immediately focused upon Akhen- Coordinates: 273950N 305539E / 27.66389N
aten. As the art was not focused upon Meryra, maintain- 30.92750E
ing a strong contextual importance allowed for Meryra to
still be bestowed with honor and praise.
In the immediately preceding scene, Akhenaten ocially
declares Merya as the High Priest of Aten. Despite be-
ing the High Priest of Aten, Meryra was not recognized
with the power to access the Aten, an exclusive ability of
Akhenaten. In the text of this relief, Akhenaten addresses
Meryra with the proclamation, Behold, I am attaching
you to myself, to be the Greatest of Seers of the Aten, in
Chapter 81
Tushratta
Tushratta was a king of Mitanni at the end of the reign of
Amenhotep III and throughout the reign of Akhenaten
approximately the late 14th century BC. He was the
son of Shuttarna II. His sister Gilukhipa and his daugh-
ter Tadukhipa were married to the Egyptian pharaoh
Amenhotep III; Tadukhipa later married Akhenaten who
took over his fathers royal harem.
He had been placed on the throne after the murder of his
brother Artashumara. He was probably quite young at the
time and was destined to serve as a gurehead only. But
he managed to dispose of the murderer.
81.1 History
At the beginning of his reign, the Hittite King
Suppiluliuma I, reconquered Kizzuwatna, then invaded
the western part of the Euphrates valley and conquered
the Amurru and Nuhae in Hanigalbat. According to the
Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Suppiluliuma had made
a treaty with Artatama, a rival of Tushratta. Nothing
is known of Artatamas previous life or connection, if
any, to the royal family. The document calls him king of
the Hurrians, while Tushratta is given the title of King
of Mitanni, which must have disagreed with Tushratta.
Suppiluliuma started to plunder the lands of the west bank
of the Euphrates river and he annexed Mount Lebanon.
Tushratta threatened to raid beyond the Euphrates if even
a single lamb or kid was stolen.
Suppiluliuma then recounts how the land of Isuwa on the
upper Euphrates had seceded in the time of his grand-
father. Attempts to conquer it failed. In the time of
his father, other cities rebelled. Suppiluliumas claims to
have defeated them, but the survivors ed to the territory
of Isuwa that must have been part of Tushrattas realm.
A clause to return fugitives was part of many treaties
made at the time, so possibly the harbouring of fugitives
by Isuwa formed the pretext for the Hittite invasion. A
Hittite army crossed the border, entered Isuwa and re-
turned the fugitives (or deserters or exile governments)
to Hittite rule. I freed the lands which I captured; they
dwelt in their places. All the people whom I released re-
joined their peoples and Hatti incorporated their territo-
ries, Suppiluliuma later boasted.
231
The Hittite army then marched through various districts
towards the Mitanni capital of Washshukanni. Suppiluli-
umas claims to have plundered the district and to have
brought loot, captives, cattle, sheep and horses back to
Hatti. He also claims that Tushratta ed, but obviously he
failed to capture the capital. While the campaign weak-
ened Tushrattas kingdom, he still held onto his throne.
81.2 A second campaign
In a second campaign, the Hittites again crossed the
Euphrates and subdued Halab, Mukish, Niya, Arahati,
Apina, and Qatna as well as some cities whose names have
not been preserved. Charioteers are mentioned among
the booty from Arahati, who were brought to Hatti to-
gether with all their possessions. While it was common
practice to incorporate enemy soldiers in the army, this
might point to a Hittite attempt to counter the most po-
tent weapon of the Mitanni, the war-chariots, by building
up or strengthening their own chariot forces.
Tushratta had possibly suspected Hittite intentions on his
kingdom, for the Amarna letters include several tablets
from Tushratta concerning the marriage of his daughter
Tadukhipa with Akhenaten, explicitly to solidify an al-
liance with the Egyptian kingdom. However, when Sup-
piluliumas invaded his kingdom, the Egyptians failed to
respond in timeperhaps because of the sudden death
of Akhenaten, and the resulting struggle for control of
the Egyptian throne.
According to a treaty later made between Suppiluliuma
and Tushrattas brother Shattiwaza, after a third devastat-
ing Hittite raid led to the fall of Carchemish, Tushratta
was assassinated by a group led by one of his sons. A
time of civil war followed which came to an end when
Suppiluliuma placed Shattiwaza on the Mitannian throne.
81.3 See also
Mitanni
Amarna letter EA 19
Chapter 82

Zemar

For the moth genus, see Simyra (moth).

Zemar (Biblical Hebrew: , Tzumur; Egyptian: Smr;

The location of Zimyra/Zemar (in the north)

Akkadian: Sumuru; Assyrian: Simirra) was a Phoenician

city in what is now Syria. Zemar was a major trade center.
Zemar (as Sumura or Sumur) appears in the Amarna
letters; Ahribta is named as its ruler. It was under the
guardianship of Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos, but revolted
against him and joined Abdi-Ashirta's expanding king-
dom of Amurru. Pro-Egyptian factions may have seized
the city again, but Abdi-Ashirtas son, Aziru, recaptured
Zemar.
It has been linked by Maurice Dunand and N. Salisby to
the archaeological site of Tell Kazel in 1957.[1]

82.1 References
[1] Badre, Leila., Tell Kazel-Simyra: A Contribution to a
Relative Chronological History in the Eastern Mediter-
ranean during the Late Bronze Age, American University
of Beirut, Lebanon, Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research, 2006.

232
Chapter 83
Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten
Boundary stela U, Amarna, Egypt.
The Boundary Stelae at the city of Amarna were con-
structed between Year 5 and Year 8 in the reign of
Akhenaten.
83.1 Naming
There have been sixteen stelae found at this site, each of
which has been labeled with a letter. Of the sixteen, three
are located on the western side of the Nile. These have
been distinguished as the letters A, B and F. The other
twelve are located on the eastern side of the Nile and are
represented by the letters H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, U,
V, X.[1] This system of labeling the stelae was created by
the English Egyptologist Flinders Petrie and is still used
233
today.
83.2 Work done on the stelae
Claude Sicard, a Jesuit priest, rst discovered the site in
1714 but the work he did was minimal. More work was
done in the early and mid-1800s by Joseph Bonomi, John
Wilkinson and others. Karl Lepsius also did some work
on the site thanks to some funding from the Prussian gov-
ernment. Flinders Petrie was the rst to categorize the
stelae in a systematic way using letters. However, the
work of Norman de Garis Davis and William J. Murnane
contributed the most knowledge of the site than anyone
else.[2] Stela 'H' was only found in 2006.
83.3 Stelae
Akhenaten built the city of Akhetaten for the sun deity
Aten. He also decided to make the city both the politi-
cal and religious capital. The stelae he built around the
perimeter of the city explained why the city was built,
what he planned on doing in honor of Aten, and described
the projected layout of the city. Some of them also depict
Akhenaten and his royal family worshiping Aten. Sadly,
many of these rock-hewn stelae which marked the ex-
act bounds of the city of Akhetaten are now in a sad
state.[3] This is due to a number of things including nat-
ural weathering, and being built in a bad type of rock.
Stelae P was blown up in 1906.[4] Though many of the ste-
lae are in bad shape, Stelae A is still in fairly good shape
and is also easy for archaeologists and tourists to get to.
The building of the city and the transition that Akhenaten
made to the religion aected the state of Egypt. Many of
the temples were closed down. Though people still wor-
shiped the old gods, they were unable to visit the tem-
ples and participate in the ceremonies associated with the
gods.
234 CHAPTER 83. BOUNDARY STELAE OF AKHENATEN

83.3.1 Damage
Stelae P was dynamited around 1908, and Stelae S was
extensively damaged in 1984 by looters and then dyna-
mited in 2004, totally destroying it.[5] The stelae were
subjected to further vandalism in February 2013.[6]

83.4 References
[1] http://amarnaproject.com/pages/amarna_the_place/
boundary_stelae/index.shtml

[2] Murnane, William J. and Charles C. Van Siclen III. 1993.

The Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten. Kegan Paul Interna-
tional: London. pp. 2-6

[3] ldred, Cyril. 1989. Akhenaten King of Egypt. Thames and

Hudson: London. p. 45

[4] Aldred, Cyril. 1989. Akhenaten King of Egypt. Thames

and Hudson: London. p. 45

[5] Boundary Stelae.

[6] Hartley, Aiden (9 November 2013). The new tomb

raiders. The Spectator (UK). Retrieved 10 November
2013.

83.5 External links

Media related to Boundary Steles of Akhenaten at Wiki-
media Commons
Chapter 84

Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh

Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh at Amarna

The building known as the Bureau of Correspondence

of Pharaoh (also known as the Records Oce) is lo-
cated in the 'Central City' area of the Ancient Egyp-
tian city of Amarna, Akhetaten, the short-lived capital of
Akhenaten.[1]

84.1 History
The actual building (although the name may refer to
a larger complex of buildings[2] ) is located behind the
buildings known as the 'Kings House' and the Small Aten
Temple, and is now ruined, and it appears to be where lo-
cal villagers discovered a deposit of tablets, now known
as the Amarna letters around the year 1888.[3] The build-
ing included bricks stamped with the words Bureau of
Correspondence of Pharaoh.

84.2 References
[1] The Central City. Amarna Project. Retrieved 2007-06-
28.
[2] Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. p.xvi. ISBN
0-8018-4251-4.
[3] Fatemah Farag. Kiss and Tel. Al-Ahram Weekly On-
line. Retrieved 2007-06-28.

235
Chapter 85

Kom el-Nana

A central platform with a building including a

columned hall and other rooms
The Southern Shrine, consisting of rooms and a
western portico.

In the southeast corner of the southern enclosure stood a

group of houses in two sets, with garden plots.[2]

85.1 Sources
[1] Nicholas Reeves: Akhenaten Egypts False Prophet.
London, Thames & Hudson, 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7
Kom el-Nana , p.126

[2] The Amarna Project: Kom el-Nana

Kom el-Nana is an archaeological site near the ancient
Egyptian city of Akhet-Aten. It lies south of the city and
east of the modern village of el-Hagg Quandil. For a long
time its ruins were thought to be those of a Roman mili-
tary camp, but between 1988 and 2000 Barry Kemp ex-
cavated remains of an Amarna period stone temple with
garden and subsidiary buildings including a bakery and a
brewery. Neither the original name nor the owner of the
complex has been identied.[1] It is likely to have been
a sun temple and is very similar to Maru-Aten. It con-
sists of a brick enclosure with an area of 228213 m; it
is divided into two unequal parts by an east-west wall. It
is likely that pylon gates opened on all four outer walls.
Since it stood at a very prominent place at the south-
ern end of the so-called Royal Road, the main street of
Akhet-Aten its possibly identical with the sunshade
temple of Nefertiti mentioned on the boundary stelae.[2]
In the northern part of the enclosure brick ovens were
found, ndings suggest a bakery and brewery. Traces
of a building (the northern shrine) were also found.
Most of the northern part was overbuilt by a 5th-6th cen-
tury Christian monastery that reused the original walls,
so the southern part, which was not overbuilt, is better
preserved; the follosing buildings were excavated:[2]

A stone-oored pylon

The rectangular Southern Pavilion, surrounded by

sunken gardens;

236
Chapter 86

Maru-Aten

Plan of the complex

Located 3 km to the south of the central city area of the

city of Akhetaten (todays el Amarna), the Maru-Aten,
short for Pa-maru-en-pa-aten (The Viewing-Palace-of-
the-Aten),[1] is a palace or sun-temple originally thought
to have been constructed for Akhenaten's queen Kiya, but
on her death her name and images were altered to those
of Meritaten, his daughter.[2]
This site is now lost beneath modern elds, but was exca-
vated by Leonard Woolley in 1921.

86.1 References
[1] D. P. Silverman, J. Houser Wegner, Akhenaten and Tu-
tankhamun: Revolution and Restoration, Univ. of Penn-
sylvania Museum 2006, p.87

[2] Aayko Eyma ed., A Delta-Man in Yebu, Universal-

Publishers. 2003, p.53

Maru-Aten

237
Chapter 87

Northern Palace (Amarna)

clis, the North City.

Most of Amarna is covered with sand and/or badly
eroded. Scientists are trying their best to preserve, clean,
and repair the ciy, making it more accessible.

87.1 External links

Models and reconstructions of the city, including the
Northern Palace

Coordinates: 274012N 305412E / 27.67000N

Ruins of the North Palace, showing reconstruction and restora-
30.90333E
tion

The Northern Palace is located in the abandoned

Northern Suburbs of the city of Ahketaten (modern
Amarna, in Egypt).
Like the other structures in the city, it was constructed
quickly, and hence was easy to dismantle and reuse the
material for later construction.
Far north of the excavated structure in northern Amarna
(ancient Akhetaten) rests the North Palace. Today we
believe that the structure was eventually converted into
a palace for Akhenatens oldest daughter, Pharaoh Ner-
fetiti, and may have previously been the home of one of
his queens. It could very well be that the future king, Tu-
tankhamun was raised in this palace. However, the ori-
gins of the building are more obscure and some scholars
believe it may have once served as perhaps a retreat for
the king as a sort of garden where he could satisfy his love
of nature. It has even been suggested that it could have
been Akhenatens principle residence. But these are all
possibilities, not facts.
The city of Amarna rests on the nile river and divides
into a number of zones. The Central City was home to
the main palaces, temples to the sun, and administra-
tive buildings. Running directly south was a dense area
of houses, the Main City, with a more thinly developed
southern extension, the South Suburb. To the north of
the Central City, after a gap, came another area of hous-
ing, the North Suburb. Further north still lay the isolated
North Palace. And beyond this, sitting at the foot of the

238
Chapter 88

Workmens Village, Amarna

Located in the desert east of the ancient city of

Akhetaten, the Workmens village at Amarna closely
resembles in many respects that much more ancient
workers village at Lahun or at Deir el-Medina, and
was intended for the artisans who worked on the nearby
Tombs of Nobles and the Royal Wadi. At the height of
the Amarna Period, the population was 310.
It is located in a little valley on the south side of a low
plateau that runs out from the base of the clis between
the Royal Wadi and the Southern Tombs. Excavations
here have yielded important discoveries.

239
Chapter 89

Mahu (noble)

Mahu was Chief of Police at Akhetaten.

Mahus tomb is Amarna Tomb 9 of the Tombs of the No-
bles at Amarna. In the tomb Mahu is shown being re-
warded by king Akhenaten. He is shown inspecting the
defences of the city with the king and queen. The vizier
and other ocials are also present. In another scene
Mahu is shown in his work policing the city, and is shown
in a meeting with the vizier (probably Nakhtpaaten) and
a lesser ocial named Heqanefer. [1]

89.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5

89.2 External links

Egyptian Monuments, El-Amarna South Tombs

240
Chapter 90

Royal Wadi and tombs

The Royal Wadi (known locally as Wadi Abu Hassah their child Baketaten (if she was their child and not a sister
el-Bahari) at Amarna is a where the Royal Family of of Akhenaten).
Amarna were to be buried. It can be thought of as be-
ing an Amarna replacement for the Valley of the Kings.
There has been a great deal of work to ease access to the 90.4 Tomb 29
Royal Tomb, and to protect the tombs from damage by
ash ooding. The wadi can now be journeyed along on This tomb was plastered, but never decorated. It consists
a metalled road, and the tomb is protected by a covering of 4 corridors, and in plan is similar to the suite of rooms
and channels to divert water away from its entrance. The in the Royal Tomb, and may have been intended for a
angle of the entrance and descent allows sunlight (Aten) lesser Royal Wife.
to reach all the way down to the burial chamber, however
A docket found in this tomb refers to a Year 1, so the
the tomb is unnished and had it been nished at the time,
tomb must have been open in the time of Akhenaten's
sunlight would not have been able to reach the chamber.
successors.
In the wadi itself, there are 5 tombs, the Royal Tomb of
Akhenaten, three unnished tombs in a side wadi, and
what seems to be a cache, near to the Royal Tomb. 90.5 References
Gabolde M & Dunsmore A, The Royal Necropolis
90.1 Royal Tomb at Tell el-Amarna, Egyptian Archaeology, Autumn
2004
Main article: Royal Tomb of Akhenaten

The Royal Tomb (Tomb 26) is the only decorated tomb,

and contained the burial of Akhenaten. It includes a suite
of chambers for his daughters, his mother and probably
Nefertiti, although she was never buried there.

90.2 Tomb 27
The next of the tombs, Tomb 27, seems to have been in-
tended for a Royal Burial, as the doorway and entrance
are of a similar size to that of the Royal Tomb. How-
ever, it was never nished and no burial material has ever
been found. It may have been intended for the burial of
Akhenaten's successor.

90.3 Tomb 28
This is the only nished tomb in the Wadi. It may have
been used by a lesser wife of Akhenaten, maybe Kiya and

241
Chapter 91

Southern Tomb 11

Southern Tomb 11 at Amarna, Egypt, was used for

the burial of Ramose (General), whose titles included,
Royal scribe, Commander of troops of the Lord of the
Two Lands, Steward of Nebmaatra (Amenhotep III)".[1]
It is unknown whether he was the same person as the
Vizier Ramose whose Theban tomb is TT55, but it seems
unlikely because they have dierent titles and the names
of their wives do not agree.[2]
The tomb is small and the main body is undecorated.
The entrance doorway shows Ramose being rewarded
by Akhenaten, together with scenes showing Nefertiti
and Meritaten.[2] In the shrine a double statue showing
Ramose and his sister Nebetiunet was carved out of the
rock, then plastered.

91.1 References
[1] Southern Tombs. Retrieved 2007-06-05.

[2] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III

and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5

Amarna Project: The South Tombs (PDF)

242
Chapter 92

Southern Tomb 23

Southern Tomb 23 at Amarna was used for the burial

of Any, whose titles included, Royal scribe, Scribe of
the oering-table of the Aten, Steward of the estate of
Aakheperura (Amenhotep II).
The tombs corridor design resembles some of the
northern group of tombs. It has 2 unnished porches on
either side of the door and is only basically decorated.

92.1 References
N. de G. Davies - The Rock Cut Tombs of El
Amarna. Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiq-
uities, 2004 (ISBN 0-85698-160-5).
Owen, Gwil - The Amarna courtiers tombs. Egyp-
tian Archaeology Autumn 2000

92.2 External links

Tomb of Any

243
Chapter 93

Southern Tomb 25

Southern Tomb 25 at Amarna was intended for

the burial of Ay, who later became Pharaoh, after
Tutankhamun. The tomb was never nished, and he was
later buried in the Western Valley of the Valley of the
Kings (WV23), in Thebes.
The tomb was only partially carved from the rock, with
the rst part of the pillared hall approaching completion.
The tomb contains depictions of Ay receiving rewards
from Akhenaten and Nefertiti.
The tomb also contains a version of the Great Hymn to
the Aten.

244
Chapter 94

Southern Tombs Cemetery

The Southern Tomb Cemetery, the burial of low status

individuals from the city of Akhenaten (the modern city
of Amarna), is located close to the southern tombs of the
Nobles.[1]

94.1 Discovery
This cemetery, together with several other disturbed
cemeteries, was discovered in 2007, by the continuing
EES exploration discovered the cemetery, during the
desert GPS survey.[2]

94.2 References
[1] Barry Kemp. SOUTH TOMBS Cemetery. The
Amarna Project. The Amarna Project. Retrieved 2009-
08-23.

[2] John Hayes-Fisher (2008-01-25). Grim secrets of

Pharaohs city. BBC Timewatch. news.bbc.co.uk. Re-
trieved 2008-10-01.

245
Chapter 95

Tomb of Meryra II

The tomb of the Ancient Egyptian noble Meryre II,

known as Amarna Tomb 2, is located in the northern
side of the wadi that splits the cluster of tombs known
collectively as the Northern tombs, near to the city of
Amarna, in Egypt.[1] The tomb is largely destroyed. It
was decorated with the last dated appearance of Akhen-
aten and the Amarna family, dating from the second
month, year 12 of his reign.[2]

95.1 References
[1] Guide Book, Northern tombs (PDF). pp. p.5. Retrieved
2008-07-08.

[2] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. pp. p.6.

Archived from the original on 2008-05-28. Retrieved
2008-07-08.

246
Chapter 96

Tombs of the Nobles (Amarna)

Located in Middle Egypt, the Tombs of the Nobles at 96.2 Southern tombs
Amarna are the burial places of some of the powerful
courtiers and persons of the city of Akhetaten. The southern tombs are located in a series of low blus
The tombs are in 2 groups, cut into the clis and blus in south and east of the main city. Associated with these
the east of the dry bay of Akhetaten. There are 25 major tombs a recently discovered workers cemetery has been
tombs, many of them decorated and with their owners found.[3]
name, some are small and unnished, others modest and
unassuming. Each seems to reect the personality and
patronage of the tombs original owner.

96.1 Northern tombs

Southern Tombs at Amarna, showing clis behind

96.3 Rediscovery and excavation

Northern Tombs at Amarna, looking south along the clis
These tombs are located in two groups in the clis over-
looking the city of Akhetaten, to the north and east of
the city. They are split into two groups by a Wadi, and
are near one of the Boundary Stelae (Stelae V).
Some the tombs have obviously been open since antiq-
uity, and have been used variously as burial places in
the Ptolemaic times, store houses, houses and as coptic
churches.
96.4 Notes and references

96.4.1 References
96.1.1 Desert altars
At a short distance to the west and north of the North-
ern Tombs lie the remains of three large mud-brick solar
altars in the form of platforms with ramps. The reason
for their location is not clear. Their connection with an
ancient road leading to the Northern Tombs would seem
to be a sign that they were for the benet of those buried
in them.
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
[2] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts
I and II, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-159-1
[3] The Pharaohs Lost City. Retrieved 2008-01-29.

247
248 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

[4] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts V

and VI, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-161-3

96.4.2 Further reading

N. de G. Davis - The Rock Cut Tombs of El
Amarna. Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiq-
uities, 2004 (ISBN 0-85698-160-5).
Owen, Gwil - The Amarna courtiers tombs. Egyp-
tian Archaeology Autumn 2000

96.5 External links

City of Amarna, including all Tombs

Northern tomb no. 1 of Huya

Northern tomb no. 3 of Ahmes/Ahmose

Northern tomb no. 4 of Meryra/Meryre I

Northern tomb no. 6 of Panhesy
96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 249

{{int:Coll-attribution-page|

Akhenaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten?oldid=630628347 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Andre Engels, Youssef-

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shJustin, Pandora, Rambot, Wwwwolf, Bobby D. Bryant, Kalki, AlexR, Looxix, Ahoerstemeier, Muriel Gottrop, TUF-KAT, Error, Uri,
Andres, Media lib, Jonik, Es02, Vroman, RodC, Andrevan, RickK, Reddi, JCarriker, Scherzo triste, WhisperToMe, Wik, Tpbradbury,
Maximus Rex, Grendelkhan, Ffabris, Jnc, Thirdreel, Lord Emsworth, JonathanDP81, Mackensen, Hjr, Dimadick, Robbot, Altenmann,
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Markh, Pevernagie, Cookn4evar, Sodin, Butros, Chobot, Visor, Metropolitan90, YurikBot, Phantomsteve, RussBot, RadioFan, Gaius
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bot 1, Skill 4 cash, Winterst, I dream of horses, DefaultsortBot, Jonesey95, Spidey104, Tomcat7, A8UDI, Jschnur, Gingermint, Tashery,
Jim Fitzgerald, Plasticspork, Rakkenaten, Reconsider the static, Uhf123, Tim1357, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Mono, MikeAllen, Tibetan
Prayer, Lotje, Idontcareanymore, Tabledave, Miracle Pen, Stroppolo, Reach Out to the Truth, WillNess, Stringence, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, NeferWj13, Karamuu, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Domesticenginerd, Helbe, Ricomcico, Mr-
RandomPerson, Ibbn, Racerx11, GoingBatty, RA0808, Cornicularius, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Everything Else Is Taken, Qwerty201003,
Whuup, Josve05a, Bollyje, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Skaterchic1011, H3llBot, AndrewN, Wayne Slam, Jb312, Tolly4bolly, Ben Ammi,
Talkinghorse, Thine Antique Pen, Y-barton, L Kensington, MonoAV, Donner60, Chewings72, Concert Interruptus, Herk1955, Wiki-
knowledgesource, Dexter Bond, Condommaster123, ClueBot NG, Cash78, StephenDearborn, Aristitleism, Aliathabit, The inconceivable
ham, Braincricket, EauLibrarian, Robertm1, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, DBigXray, Edward Wong George, ShiningCrayon, Lower-
case sigmabot, Plankto, BigEars42, BG19bot, CMKKCM, Keivan.f, The Mark of the Beast, Jasonnewyork, Wiki13, Dan653, Mark Ar-
sten, Gorthian, PapoGurn, Readworld, Tyler6360534, RemJester, Glacialfox, Tkelava, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, XXRANGAXx,
Crossroads057, Al2037, TheJJJunk, EuroCarGT, Iry-Hor, JYBot, LucianoRamalho, JalenV, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Webclient101, Mar-
clawand1, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Theatenist, Jamarei, Ubertragung, RotlinkBot, Chewbacca0913, Plutonix, Epicgenius, Peter Jackson Bid-
dulph, Sdgegewgd, Starkillar, Stelot40, Chris troutman, EREWON777, Fidowil10, Tahitilink, IreGui, 7Sidz, Angelgreat, St170e, Monkbot,
Poepkop, Cayelr, Vieque, Tyrannosaurus rex, Kaitlyn153, EditThatJunk, Amenhotep0082 and Anonymous: 792
Akhenaten Temple Project Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_B._Redford?oldid=616520272 Contributors: Llywrch,
Pjamescowie, Alensha, Quadell, Rd232, Ricky81682, Colin Kimbrell, Netkinetic, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Etacar11, Twthmoses,
RomeW, BD2412, Mayumashu, Markh, YurikBot, SmackBot, Thorsen, Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, Mathsci, Joseph Solis in Australia, Doug-
weller, Nishidani, Thijs!bot, Tstrobaugh, Shawn in Montreal, Johnuniq, Camboxer, Humaniorum, MystBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, The
Amendment, NathanoNL, Taam, Piano non troppo, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Nitpyck, Ps3fan93, Kukkulanum, DefaultsortBot, Wisdom-
power, RjwilmsiBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1, VIAFbot, MontyCircus, OccultZone and Anonymous: 6
Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten,_Dweller_in_Truth?oldid=622019325 Contributors: Si-
monP, Hajor, DavidA, Edcolins, JPX7, Aecis, Colonel Cow, Pearle, NekoDaemon, Misza13, Tony1, Garion96, That Guy, From That
250 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

Show!, SmackBot, Zerida, Kevinalewis, JennyRad, AKMask, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cydebot, Dr. Blofeld, Exiledone, Balthazarduju, Go-
liadkine, Henry Merrivale, Fadesga, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Lightbot, Contributor777, Filtered Light, CobraBot, Alison22, Look2See1,
GoingBatty, ClueBot NG, Edward Wong George, OccultZone, Unician and Anonymous: 10
Akhenaten: Son of the Sun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten:_Son_of_the_Sun?oldid=622729169 Contributors: Mac-
GyverMagic, Mfolkes, Pearle, Improv, Twthmoses, CalJW, DanMS, Misza13, SmackBot, Kevinalewis, AKMask, John, Gizzakk, Cydebot,
Lots42, Fadesga, Lightbot, CobraBot and OccultZone
Amarna Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna?oldid=631466853 Contributors: Imran, PaulDSP, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow,
Llywrch, Gene Poole, Pjamescowie, Error, RickK, DJ Clayworth, Hyacinth, Ffabris, Jnc, Wetman, Slawojarek, Dimadick, Robbot, Rur-
sus, Xanzzibar, TOO, DocWatson42, Folks at 137, RScheiber, Alensha, Utcursch, J d noonan, Rich Farmbrough, Gadykozma, Bneely,
Murtasa, Dbachmann, Grutter, CanisRufus, Sietse Snel, Prsephone1674, Cmdrjameson, Nk, Jumbuck, Dalinian, Collounsbury, Garzo,
Dave.Dunford, Japanese Searobin, Nefertum17, Twthmoses, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Koavf, Captmondo, Kerowyn, Markh, Chobot, Diogenes00,
Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Sir48, Bota47, RG2, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus,
SmackBot, Elonka, Delldot, Kintetsubualo, Monkeytail39, Chris the speller, MK8, Leoboudv, John D. Croft, MichaelBillington, Bej-
nar, SashatoBot, AlbertHerring, Gryphon922, Naphureya, Srdjan Vesic, A. Parrot, DabMachine, JLCA, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Meno25,
FireV, Dmitri Lytov, Dr. Blofeld, Danny lost, JAnDbot, VoABot II, The Anomebot2, STBot, Fconaway, J.delanoy, Lanternix, Jevansen,
DorganBot, Jarry1250, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Derekbd, TXiKiBoT, John Carter, Cremepu222, Jeeny, Jamelan, Kaikhosru, Anneke-
Bart, PericlesofAthens, Krawi, Flyer22, Mimihitam, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Florentino oro, ClueBot, Fadesga, Jusdafax, Sun Creator,
Gundersen53, Versus22, Badgernet, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Nohomers48, Jim10701, Download, Lightbot, Xenobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Ptbotgourou, AnakngAraw, Eric-Wester, Killiondude, Nika 243, Bob Burkhardt, Valhkah, LilHelpa, Xqbot, - ), Ri-
botBOT, MLauba, GhalyBot, AlexanderVanLoon, Hirpex, RedBot, Tahir mq, Sat Ra, Vovchyck, Stringence, DASHBot, EmausBot, John
of Reading, Gfoley4, Finn Bjrklid, K6ka, Sinuhe20, H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, Y-barton, Incognitos, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Gilderien,
Jasonnewyork, Meatsgains, ZuluKane, Chris troutman, Luna92, Kaitlyn153 and Anonymous: 94
Ankhesenamun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankhesenamun?oldid=629939870 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Dimadick, Pashute,
RScheiber, Alensha, SarekOfVulcan, PFHLai, Trevor MacInnis, Dr.frog, Poccil, Kwamikagami, Alansohn, FeanorStar7, Dmol, Kerowyn,
Chobot, Garion96, Allens, Katieh5584, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Errarel, Rmosler2100, Sadads, Colonies Chris, Rrburke, Leoboudv,
A. Parrot, Beetstra, The.Q, Cydebot, JustAGal, Ybgursey, Terrek, Miskwito, Thismightbezach, Satseshat, Anna Lincoln, Dr. Hannibal
Lecter, BlueTyson, AnnekeBart, Macdonald-ross, SieBot, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Fadesga, Addbot, Fluernutter, John Sauter, Tide
rolls, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Setnakhamwas, HRoestBot, Yahia.barie, Trappist the
monk, WandaRMinstrel, Weijiya, The Utahraptor, EmausBot, John of Reading, Sinazita, Feanor0, ZroBot, Chewings72, Whoop whoop
pull up, ClueBot NG, Haleybaby14, Frietjes, Widr, BG19bot, Keivan.f, Autumncomet, AnishReddevil, Renisance, BattyBot, Ellebelll303,
MadGuy7023, JalenV, Webclient101, Jamarei, Thundersnow, Epicgenius, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, I am One of Many, Jamesmcmahon0,
Tentinator, Djidjiii, TheAmazingWindrider, Monkbot, Tyrannosaurus rex and Anonymous: 77
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankhesenpaaten_Tasherit?oldid=622087746 Contributors: Delirium,
Jni, Dimadick, Robbot, Alensha, Deadlock, John Vandenberg, FeanorStar7, Markh, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Igin, That Guy, From That
Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cydebot, Therealmikelvee, Andi d, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, AnnekeBart, G.-M. Cuper-
tino, Fadesga, Roxy the dog, Addbot, Lightbot, Xenobot, AnomieBOT, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, Amenhotep0082 and
Anonymous: 8
Colossal Statues of Akhenaten at East Karnak Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossal_Statues_of_Akhenaten_at_East_Karnak?
oldid=626540358 Contributors: Malcolma, Tom Morris, Racklever, Nick Number, Avicennasis, Wilhelmina Will, Fadesga, Addbot, Yobot,
Ulric1313, ClueBot NG, Saalspaugh and Anonymous: 3
The Egyptian Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Egyptian?oldid=627323907 Contributors: Awahlbom, Llywrch, Wwwwolf, John
K, Scherzo triste, Silvonen, Ffabris, Robbot, Fredrik, Kizor, LGagnon, ManuelGR, Home Row Keysplurge, Bluejay Young, Andycjp,
MakeRocketGoNow, Rich Farmbrough, Uppland, Rotimar, Alan Oldeld, Saga City, JIP, Margosbot, CiaPan, Agamemnon2, Kinney-
boy90, Tavilis, Grafen, JamesMadison, Zwobot, Haemo, Drboisclair, Whobot, SmackBot, Grey Shadow, Mikko-Petteri, Kevinalewis,
Hibernian, Sadads, AKMask, Cybercobra, Arreatplateau, Pinktulip, Thanatosimii, Boomshadow, Norm mit, Timi tampere, Martin Kozk,
Dave Runger, Zarex, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Lugnuts, Al Lemos, Mentisto, Trezjr, JAnDbot, Petska, Simon Peter Hughes,
Tgeairn, Idioma-bot, AlnoktaBOT, Rei-bot, Movedgood, SieBot, Polbot, Correogsk, Owenfw, Henry Merrivale, Fadesga, SilvonenBot, Ad-
dbot, Czeczma, Proxxt, Lightbot, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Erik9, FrescoBot,
TobeBot, WandaRMinstrel, CobraBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Italia2006, Evanh2008, ZroBot, AvicAWB, ClueBot NG, Helpful
Pixie Bot, OccultZone, Prof. Mc and Anonymous: 39
The Egyptian (lm) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Egyptian_(film)?oldid=626036699 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Kizor,
David Gerard, Alensha, Bluejay Young, Andycjp, Kuralyov, Nutmegger, Erik, Fdewaele, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Thefourdotelipsis,
MoRsE, T.E. Goodwin, Epipelagic, Pegship, SmackBot, Rbreen, HDS, Dpwkbw, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Colonies Chris, Cybercobra, Or-
bicle, Euchiasmus, Davidatwikip, Grandpafootsoldier, Nonexistant User, Clarityend, Zarex, AlbertSM, Cydebot, Ntsimp, UncleBubba,
After Midnight, Thijs!bot, Darev, Dr. Blofeld, VoABot II, Vlad b, Adavidb, WFinch, Skier Dude, Rei-bot, Pmarshal, DavidRayner, Prof
.Woodru, JGG59, Android Mouse Bot 3, Lisatwo, Polbot, ImageRemovalBot, Wedineinheck, Fadesga, MovieMadness, Matthew Dil-
lenburg, Savolya, Bilsonius, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Tassedethe, Florin40, Xqbot, Tad Lincoln, Byoudou, Erik9, FFlixx7481, FrescoBot,
WandaRMinstrel, BCtl, Jg2904, ZroBot, Polisher of Cobwebs, ClueBot NG, AnotherDomitian, Dutchy85 and Anonymous: 38
Great Hymn to the Aten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hymn_to_the_Aten?oldid=627001334 Contributors: Leandrod,
Paul Barlow, DopeshJustin, Csernica, Alex S, Ffabris, Jnc, Rursus, Jfdwol, Alensha, Gzornenplatz, Tagishsimon, Andycjp, Grm wnr,
Jenlight, Dbachmann, Sunborn, Mairi, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, Rd232, Kdau, Suruena, Alai, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Toussaint, Markh,
YurikBot, Pigman, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Das Baz, A. Parrot, MikeWazowski, JLCA, Cydebot,
Vanished user 2340rujowierfj08234irjwfw4, Echad, Synergy, Dougweller, Thijs!bot, Bravehearted, Feeeshboy, DorganBot, Halayman,
John Carter, AnnekeBart, AlleborgoBot, Ptolemy Caesarion, Ptr123, Fadesga, Niceguyedc, Drawn Some, Catalographer, Addbot, Some
jerk on the Internet, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, LucienBOT, Craig Pemberton, Elockid, Jschnur, Forenti, Yt95, Hillerm1945,
Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Iry-Hor, Mogism, Salim e-a ebrahim, Monkbot and Anonymous: 42
The Greatest Pharaohs Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Greatest_Pharaohs?oldid=626352695 Contributors: Vanished user
5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Alensha, Bobblewik, MacGyverMagic, Rich Farmbrough, Summer Song, Pharos, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ),
Woohookitty, Twthmoses, Markh, Lowe4091, Pegship, Igin, Nikkimaria, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cattus, Mark7-2, Last Av-
enue, Orbicle, J. Tittu hobo II, Redeagle688, Cydebot, Otto4711, Poiuytre, KConWiki, Lilac Soul, Shawn in Montreal, Fadesga,
96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 251

MichaelQSchmidt, XLinkBot, Lightbot, Yobot, Schuym1, Kristen Eriksen, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, Waynesker, John of Reading, H3llBot,
ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 10
Kiya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiya?oldid=627268334 Contributors: Olivier, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Delirium, RickK,
Andrewman327, Doradus, Ffabris, Hjr, Dimadick, Alensha, Chowbok, Rd232, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, Kerowyn, Str1977,
Markh, Butros, YurikBot, Igin, Roy Lees Junior, CWenger, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, OrphanBot, Leoboudv,
John D. Croft, A. Parrot, Gholam, JLCA, JohnCD, FinFangFoom, Cydebot, Dougweller, Therealmikelvee, Dexter 12, PIrish, DrKiernan,
Eliz81, 83d40m, Idioma-bot, Rei-bot, Zimbardo Cookie Experiment, AnnekeBart, Monty845, SieBot, Phe-bot, Oxymoron83, President-
man, ClueBot, Fadesga, Puchiko, PixelBot, Human.v2.0, Aitias, Addbot, Ka Faraq Gatri, LaaknorBot, Tide rolls, PlankBot, Yobot, Thu-
van Dihn, Jim1138, LilHelpa, Xqbot, 4twenty42o, TechBot, Grace321, D'ohBot, Sat Ra, PleaseStand, Mychele Trempetich, ClueBot NG,
Nowle66, Mark Arsten, Ffnm, Theatenist, , Monkbot, Amenhotep0082 and Anonymous: 59
KV55 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV55?oldid=621626350 Contributors: Heron, Paul Barlow, Tpbradbury, Ffabris, Jnc, Hajor,
Jmabel, Rich Farmbrough, Inebriatedonkey, DeAceShooter, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Captmondo, FlaBot, Markh, Xtine66, YurikBot,
GusF, Dysmorodrepanis, Igin, Joshmaul, Mmcannis, John Broughton, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, Midway, Leoboudv,
DCB4W, Bendybendy, A. Parrot, KyraVixen, Thijs!bot, Therealmikelvee, The Anomebot2, Botz, R'n'B, MishaPan, VolkovBot, Jackfork,
L!nus, WereSpielChequers, PolarBot, Lightmouse, G.-M. Cupertino, Myrvin, Fadesga, Tmbk2, Boneyard90, Excirial, Diaa abdelmoneim,
Addbot, Tassedethe, Frehley, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jesielt, Thuvan Dihn, Schmittz, Cdw1952, Citation bot 1, Bluebliss, Hanay, Pando98,
BrokenAnchorBot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Iry-Hor, R.F.Morgan, Monkbot and Anonymous: 25
Meketaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meketaten?oldid=621785733 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Alensha, Kwamik-
agami, FeanorStar7, Captmondo, FlaBot, JiFish, Markh, YurikBot, Welsh, Asarelah, That Guy, From That Show!, Chris the speller,
OrphanBot, Kajk, KyraVixen, Cydebot, Tiger cub, AsgardBot, TXiKiBoT, AnnekeBart, SieBot, PolarBot, Fadesga, Addbot, LaaknorBot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, Incognitos, Helpful Pixie Bot, Khazar2 and Anonymous: 9
Meritaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritaten?oldid=627269166 Contributors: Delirium, Ugen64, Dimadick, Neferuaten,
Alensha, Deeceevoice, Peter Greenwell, Rd232, AndreasPraefcke, FeanorStar7, Str1977, Markh, YurikBot, Igin, That Guy, From That
Show!, Gilliam, Sbharris, Leoboudv, Kajk, Reade, JLCA, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Tawkerbot4, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Ludde23, Gate-
mansgc, Madmarigold, AsgardBot, DrKiernan, 83d40m, DorganBot, TXiKiBoT, AnnekeBart, SieBot, ClarkSavageJr, ImageRemovalBot,
ClueBot, Fadesga, Jusdafax, Addbot, Desoleil, AkhtaBot, Favonian, SpBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, LucienBOT, BenzolBot, Ver-bot,
A8UDI, Tashery, Tim1357, EmausBot, WittyMan1986, Concert Interruptus, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Hmainsbot1, Theatenist,
and Anonymous: 25
Neferneferuaten Tasherit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferneferuaten_Tasherit?oldid=621785206 Contributors: Delirium, Di-
madick, Alensha, Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Str1977, Bgwhite, Leoboudv, Cydebot, Tiger cub, AsgardBot, 83d40m, L!nus,
AnnekeBart, SieBot, Phe-bot, PipepBot, Fadesga, Addbot, Voodoopoodle, LaaknorBot, Ptbotgourou, John of Reading, ZroBot, Frietjes,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 3
Neferneferure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferneferure?oldid=621785187 Contributors: Delirium, Ijon, Dimadick, Alensha,
Kwamikagami, Markh, Grafen, Colonies Chris, Cydebot, Tiger cub, AsgardBot, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Phe-bot, PipepBot, Fadesga, Addbot,
Ptbotgourou, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1
Nefertiti Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti?oldid=631690845 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Css, Zoe, Olivier, Frecklefoot,
JohnOwens, Vaughan, Paul Barlow, Oliver Pereira, Dante Alighieri, Menchi, Ixfd64, Delirium, Minesweeper, Egil, Ahoerstemeier,
Notheruser, Error, Netsnipe, Evercat, Vroman, Bemoeial, JCarriker, Mw66, Selket, Haukurth, Furrykef, Ffabris, Jnc, Rei, Wetman, Ha-
jor, Dimadick, Modulatum, Academic Challenger, Bertie, Mervyn, Wikibot, Neferuaten, TOO, Obli, Everyking, Bkonrad, Miya, Beardo,
Gilgamesh, Alensha, Zhen Lin, Mboverload, Bluejay Young, Tipiac, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Mgream, Gscshoyru, Picapica, Deeceevoice,
Moxfyre, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, HeikoEvermann, LindsayH, Ivan Bajlo, JPX7, SpookyMulder, Joepearson, Flapdragon, Tezkah,
Furius, MBisanz, DS1953, Shanes, Oniongirl, RoyBoy, Keane4, Bobo192, Reinyday, Jericho4.0, Jojit fb, DCEdwards1966, Dopl-
gangr, Knucmo2, Storm Rider, Keenan Pepper, ArbiterOne, Andrew Gray, Lectonar, Suruena, Evil Monkey, BlastOButter42, Heida
Maria, Adrian.benko, Dejvid, Issk, Fred Condo, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), FeanorStar7, LOL, Zrenneh, Qaddosh, MONGO,
Cy21, Twthmoses, Macaddct1984, Koavf, Captmondo, Kazrak, HappyCamper, Erkcan, Bhadani, DoubleBlue, Olessi, Yamamoto Ichiro,
Pvc.mermaid, FlaBot, Nivix, Novium, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, Chobot, DVdm, Dj Capricorn, The Rambling Man, Mercury McKinnon,
YurikBot, SpikeJones, Sceptre, Pigman, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Astral, Tailpig, Nutiketaiel, Moe Epsilon,
Mugwump2, Chewyrunt, Beanyk, Syrthiss, DeadEyeArrow, Wknight94, Johnsemlak, Igin, Wikilackey, Imperial avis, Denisutku, So-
takeit, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Redgolpe, GraemeL, DaltinWentsworth, Tiria, Garion96, Philip Stevens, That Guy, From That Show!,
SmackBot, Tobias Schmidbauer, KnowledgeOfSelf, Zerida, Pgk, Zserghei, Jab843, Frymaster, Kintetsubualo, Alsandro, Yamaguchi ,
Gilliam, Skizzik, Gorman, Lubos, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, Oreos, Kungming2, Zinneke, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Aremith, Shalom Yechiel, AP1787, Thisisbossi, TheKMan, Parent5446, Leoboudv, Flyboy Will, John D. Croft, Geor, Hgilbert, EdGl,
Jklin, DavidJ710, Ceoil, SashatoBot, AlbertHerring, Thanatosimii, Kuru, Bydand, Onlim, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, SMasters, A.
Parrot, Stilleon, Doczilla, Neddyseagoon, MTSbot, Nectanebo, Meraloma, Iridescent, IvanLanin, Dp462090, Tawkerbot2, Ghaly, Ab-
solutDan, Gypsy2006, Neferneferu, CmdrObot, Comrade42, Asdf01, KyraVixen, Cbdeandc, Orannis, Gurthnar, Moyerjax, FilipeS,
Cydebot, Slp1, Mike Christie, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Dusty relic, Tawkerbot4, Dougweller, Chrislk02, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Dechastelaine, Coelacan, Gaijin42, Welsh4ever76, S Marshall, Sendbinti, John254, Amelie poulain, BehnamFarid, Charlot-
teWebb, Haleth, Pie Man 360, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, GeoWPC, Seaphoto, Modernist, Stemoko, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Hespers,
Janejellyroll, Hello32020, Novaguy1968, Dream Focus, Geniac, Connormah, ZPM, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Je Dahl, JNW, Vikas Ku-
mar Ojha, Zioroboco, Waacstats, Froid, Avicennasis, Catgut, ClovisPt, Rmeyermn, Breandandalton, Glen, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes,
WLU, RebDrummer61, Gun Powder Ma, Robin S, Seba5618, Pinudjem, MartinBot, STBot, Iluvbukakke, Rettetast, Mike6271, Anaxial,
CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, Tgeairn, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Sp3000, Rhinestone K, Ginsengbomb, Extransit, WarthogDemon, Kata-
laveno, Seftsirag, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Cooldude7273, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, 83d40m, Jevansen, Endlessmike 888, MishaPan,
Robors, DraxusD, Redtigerxyz, Wikieditor06, 28bytes, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, DDSaeger, Meaningful Username, Je G.,
FergusM1970, TXiKiBoT, Mosmof, Charbroil, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, LeaveSleaves, Bob f it, Cre-
mepu222, Master Bigode, Jeeny, L!nus, AnnekeBart, Enviroboy, Anjingbuduk, Chainedwind, Only hot g, Adamboy555, SMC89, SieBot,
Yoda317, BotMultichill, Winchelsea, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Yintan, Keilana, Flyer22, Doughnutshbutt, Ptolemy Caesarion, Steven Zhang,
IdreamofJeanie, OKBot, Reneeholle, Janggeom, JL-Bot, Everjung, Lethesl, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Fadesga, Madshortmad, Meisterkoch,
Airwaveovercali, Parkwells, Bob bobato, Neverquick, Skteosk, Excirial, Coralmizu, NuclearWarfare, Iohannes Animosus, Matthew Dillen-
burg, Bleubeatle, Dekisugi, Ron nizamov96, Thingg, Jtle515, Aitias, X0elanaaaaaaxox9, 101KingdomHearts101, DumZiBoT, TattooedLi-
brarian, Surtsicna, Anticipation of a New Lovers Arrival, The, Thebestofall007, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Non-dropframe, Hot200245,
252 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

TutterMouse, Shirtwaist, Damiens.rf, NjardarBot, Ccacsmss, AndersBot, Favonian, Dudejames66, Casey75965, Godfather21, Tassedethe,
Tide rolls, Lightbot, Smeagol 17, Jan eissfeldt, Hairylegs, Legobot, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Tuxraider
reloaded, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, IW.HG, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Sagaci, Gurgen818, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Geroldford, Ma-
terialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, SciGuy013, Gabrielletrussler, GenQuest, Tad Lincoln, ProtectionTaggingBot, Mathonius, MuedThud,
Tamabat45, TroyHoran, Whynowagain, Polyxeros, Trueshow111, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, Yahia.barie, Jauhienij, Kgrad, Trappist the
monk, TimothyDexter, OWAIS NAEEM, Kohir-gabr, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Slon02, DASHBot, John of Reading, Wiki-
tanvirBot, NinjaTazzyDevil, RA0808, Sillybillypiggy, K6ka, Doddy Wuid, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Donner60, Chewings72, Orange Suede
Sofa, Popculturegeek, Karixma, DASHBotAV, Dexter Bond, ClueBot NG, MotorBootyBaby, This lousy T-shirt, Baseball Watcher, Friet-
jes, Widr, Md.altaf.rahman, Miamimario, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Keivan.f, Solar Police, ElphiBot, Atomician,
Mbardwell, Paris182, DMAZLPDGtrooper, ImhotepBallZ, RemJester, EuthanasiaEnthusiast, ZuluKane, TJIMLILOVANDRWE!:), Iry-
Hor, MadGuy7023, Deathlasersonline, Belteatrera, JalenV, Dexbot, Webclient101, Lone boatman, Masterpeace3, Lugia2453, VIAFbot,
Jamarei, Kasper.Fossland, LedaJune, KayaLily, Littlelokilost, Kenyaalee, Raybobisawsome, Cutiepie55766, DavidLeighEllis, MarkRox-
Wiki, Ginsuloft, DemolitionTurtle, AnapaulPrince, JaconaFrere, G S Palmer, Nefertitipowerful, Andrew J.Kurbiko, Nefertiti01, Poison-
challis, EgyptRawFactsOrFiction, Tyrannosaurus rex, FayeClark1, Ashkayath, TheTNLStudio, Sandwich de patatas and Anonymous: 698
Parennefer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parennefer?oldid=621711044 Contributors: Delirium, Markh, Igin, Curpsbot-
unicodify, That Guy, From That Show!, Cydebot, Tirk, Waacstats, Andi d, Rosenknospe, AnnekeBart, Fadesga, Addbot, Msmarmalade,
FrescoBot, Kibi78704, RjwilmsiBot, ChuispastonBot and Anonymous: 1
La Reine Soleil Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Reine_Soleil?oldid=626259528 Contributors: Paul Barlow, GrahamHardy,
Bovineboy2008, Krikke, Fadesga, MystBot, Addbot, Yobot, Fortdj33, ZroBot, BG19bot, Autumncomet and Anonymous: 3
Royal Tomb of Akhenaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Tomb_of_Akhenaten?oldid=621715074 Contributors: Warof-
dreams, Utcursch, Twthmoses, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, Fuhghettaboutit, Cydebot, Odie5533, The Anomebot2, CrystalFor-
mosa, DorganBot, Fadesga, Addbot, Lightbot, Xqbot, Ebrambot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 16
Setepenre (princess) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setepenre_(princess)?oldid=621785778 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha,
Kwamikagami, Theelf29, Magioladitis, Waacstats, AnnekeBart, Moonriddengirl, CorenSearchBot, Fadesga, Addbot, ChrisGualtieri and
Anonymous: 3
Smenkhkare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smenkhkare?oldid=631732969 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Llywrch, JCarriker, Wik,
Ffabris, Jnc, Rei, Lord Emsworth, Wjhonson, Lzur, Michael Devore, RScheiber, ZeroJanvier, Deeceevoice, Perceval, Rd232, Ynhockey,
Binabik80, Garzo, Ghirlandajo, Avram Fawcett, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, WBardwin, Captmondo, FlaBot, Str1977, Markh, LeCire,
Chobot, Bullzeye, Thane, Knyght27, Dysmorodrepanis, Douglasfrankfort, Grafen, Nigel Campbell, Bota47, Wknight94, That Guy, From
That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Jicannon, Valley2city, Comrade Che 1, HoodedMan, Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Monotonehell, Ericl,
Bejnar, Thanatosimii, Green Giant, A. Parrot, Brerbunny, MTSbot, Xionbox, Ghaly, Cydebot, Dougweller, Thijs!bot, Antony the genius,
.anacondabot, Je Dahl, T@nn, Balloonguy, Giggy, Lord Pheasant, Cliau, Jeendan, CommonsDelinker, Vandriel1325, 83d40m, STBotD,
Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, JhsBot, Jeeny, L!nus, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Witchzenka, ClarkSav-
ageJr, Yintan, Digwuren, Mjk3ntr, G.-M. Cupertino, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Fadesga, Parkwells, Joe Baker, Drag-
onBot, PixelBot, Life of Riley, Addbot, Merqurial, Jim10701, Favonian, Lightbot, Yobot, Jayhayman, AnomieBOT, Ramarren, Xqbot,
Tad Lincoln, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Zumalabe, Eugene-elgato, Dailycare, FrescoBot, Smenkhkare, HRoestBot, RedBot, Yutsi, Plastic-
spork, EmausBot, John of Reading, Cornicularius, WittyMan1986, Whuup, R.azz.miligi, Chewings72, Concert Interruptus, ClueBot NG,
Snotbot, DenseFog, BattyBot, Iry-Hor, Smalleditor, Plutonix, Epicgenius, Rsuracollins, Jake 422 and Anonymous: 68
Stela of Akhenaten and his family Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stela_of_Akhenaten_and_his_family?oldid=626258432 Con-
tributors: Furius, Dl2000 and Fadesga
Temple of Amenhotep IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Amenhotep_IV?oldid=623657174 Contributors: Warof-
dreams, Alensha, Grm wnr, Twthmoses, JIP, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, Eskimbot, Cush, A. Parrot, Iridescent, CmdrObot,
Cydebot, Nick Number, Escarbot, The Anomebot2, LordAnubisBOT, Rmih, Ptolemy Caesarion, Fadesga, Addbot, Citation bot, Emaus-
Bot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 4
Thutmose (sculptor) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_(sculptor)?oldid=621715381 Contributors: Ubiquity, Paul Barlow,
Llywrch, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Jnc, TOO, Alensha, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, YurikBot, Tlevine,
Igin, 2fort5r, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Bouette, Tobias Schmidbauer, Sbharris, Dreadstar, Wizardman, Aleenf1, A. Parrot,
JMK, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Modernist, Andi d, Redtigerxyz, WOSlinker, AnnekeBart, Shakko, KoshVorlon, ImageRemovalBot, Fadesga,
DragonBot, Stepshep, BOTarate, Ltmboy, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Neurolysis, Gumruch, Khruner, DixonDBot, Sat Ra,
Jaba1977, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Spongie555, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, RscprinterBot, CaptianC3, The-
atenist and Anonymous: 11
TT188 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TT188?oldid=621711073 Contributors: Warofdreams, D6, FeanorStar7, Markh, Thiseye,
That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, VolkovBot, AnnekeBart, Fadesga, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Erik9bot,
JMCC1 and ChrisGualtieri
3199 Nefertiti Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3199_Nefertiti?oldid=621785234 Contributors: Merovingian, Rich Farmbrough, Alai,
BillC, RussBot, Ospalh, Theanphibian, Cydebot, Coyets, T@nn, TXiKiBoT, Fadesga, ClueBot II, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot,
Amirobot, KamikazeBot, Xqbot, MastiBot, EmausBot, ZroBot, DarafshBot and Anonymous: 1
Nefertiti Bust Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti_Bust?oldid=626963344 Contributors: Frecklefoot, Paul Barlow, Oliver
Pereira, Tpbradbury, Mervyn, Waltpohl, Bcameron54, Redroach, Caeruleancentaur, Wtmitchell, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Noclador, Kordas,
Johnsemlak, JDspeeder1, Edgar181, Carbonix, Gilliam, Smallbones, Ceoil, A. Parrot, SQGibbon, Dl2000, Clarityend, Maima, Cyde-
bot, Reywas92, Dougweller, Nick Number, QuiteUnusual, Rothorpe, Simon Burchell, Magioladitis, Hamiltonstone, Khalid Mahmood,
WLU, Analytikone, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, Johnbod, Olegwiki, KylieTastic, Redtigerxyz, Philip Trueman, Anonymous Dissident,
Aymatth2, Itemirus, Yohlanduh, Martarius, Fadesga, Kafka Liz, RafaAzevedo, Khateeb88, Yomangan, Bilsonius, Mm40, Jhendin, Ad-
dbot, LaaknorBot, LinkFA-Bot, Smeagol 17, Legobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, JackieBot, Materialscientist,
Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jezhotwells, Dougofborg, LucienBOT, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Moonraker, Sat Ra, Le temps perdu,
RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, ZroBot, F, Mystichumwipe, ClueBot NG, RakiSykes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Regulov, George
Ponderevo, Klilidiplomus, BattyBot, Iry-Hor, Dexbot, Chris troutman, Monkbot, Batmankid152, Patrickgallagher, Claudia.byrne, Tran-
quilHope and Anonymous: 55
96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 253

Aten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aten?oldid=628243540 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Rickyrab, Stevertigo,
Rbrwr, Llywrch, Dante Alighieri, Menchi, TakuyaMurata, Looxix, Ellywa, TUF-KAT, Andres, Charles Matthews, RickK, Reddi, Ffab-
ris, Jnc, Hajor, Robbot, Henrygb, Brw12, Wikibot, ManuelGR, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Alensha, Eep, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann,
Aranel, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, BlueNovember, Alansohn, Wiki-uk, Rd232, Suruena, Garzo, TShilo12, Borderer, -Ril-, Tutmosis, Way-
ward, Mandarax, Koavf, Kalogeropoulos, Ttwaring, FlaBot, Gurch, Markh, Saraal, Roygbiv666, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RussBot,
Semolo75, Lexicon, Irishguy, Alex43223, BOT-Superzerocool, Ozaru, Lt-wiki-bot, Garion96, Mmcannis, Dzonko, That Guy, From That
Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Reedy, McGeddon, KocjoBot, Eskimbot, Flameeyes, Gilliam, Jicannon, Cush, Stevenwagner, DHN-bot,
Pa-merynaten, OSborn, Rrburke, Leoboudv, King Vegita, Radagast83, Engwar, Dreadstar, Das Baz, BlackTerror, OneTopJob6, Nrgdo-
cadams, Saerain, Bjankuloski06en, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, TheSoggyStick, MTSbot, Galactor213, Noctifer, Iridescent, Joseph Solis
in Australia, JLCA, CmdrObot, Rosaecruz, Lazulilasher, FilipeS, Dougweller, Moheroy, Therealmikelvee, Escarbot, Dr. Blofeld, Al-
phachimpbot, Rnolst, WANAX, MER-C, Bravehearted, Acroterion, Andi d, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, Gun Powder Ma, Robin S,
FisherQueen, Anaxial, SlowJog, Stammer, McSly, 83d40m, DorganBot, CardinalDan, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, MenasimBot, TXiKiBoT,
Apepch7, Rei-bot, Z.E.R.O., John Carter, Khabs, Seb az86556, Galandor, Isis4563, Falcon8765, Ottarvendel, PericlesofAthens, Bentogoa,
JetLover, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Ptolemy Caesarion, ClueBot, Descartes1979, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ryoutou, CharlieRCD,
DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Drawn Some, Thehelpfulone, Nimavojdani, Vanished User 1004, Budelberger, XLinkBot, Addbot, Some
jerk on the Internet, Vatrena ptica, Cst17, Names of gods, Josh Keen, TheSuave, Yobot, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
ArthurBot, Xqbot, Kaelbu, 4twenty42o, GrouchoBot, GhalyBot, Thewillowinmyheart, Pinethicket, RedBot, Impala2009, Kataryna, Tahir
mq, Phearson, VenomousConcept, Dmthoth, NickVertical, Tibetan Prayer, Javierito92, KI6ZON, Hyarmendacil, Minkin9, Timtemple-
ton, Immunize, Wikipelli, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Akutra, Drift chambers, Haymouse, Iry-Hor, JYBot, GreenGoldsh17 and
Anonymous: 152
Atenism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenism?oldid=618581827 Contributors: SimonP, Michael Hardy, Ashley Y, Rursus, Hadal,
UtherSRG, Lethe, Home Row Keysplurge, Sharavanabhava, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, SamEV, Bennylin, (aeropagit-
ica), Pearle, Jonathunder, Ranveig, Rd232, Bdwilliamscraig, Dr Fell, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Notcarlos, Fred Condo, BD2412, Koavf,
Str1977, LeCire, Saraal, Michael Slone, Sjb90, Nutiketaiel, Igin, Richardcavell, Eduard Gherkin, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That
Show!, SmackBot, Bkawcazn, Pa-merynaten, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Proofreader, Leoboudv, Zvar, Radagast83, John D. Croft,
Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, NJMauthor, Judgesurreal777, Lonyo, LadyofShalott, Kosunen, Synergy, Dougweller, Epbr123, Escarbot, Al-
phachimpbot, Bravehearted, Mrld, Simon Peter Hughes, Textorus, Lord Pheasant, Arjun01, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Sparkzy, Satseshat,
Wingedsubmariner, Michaeldsuarez, Digwuren, Elcobbola, Lightmouse, PipepBot, Niusereset, Place Clichy, Wikistoriographer, Wertuose,
Addbot, Gyonis, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Jo3sampl, Xqbot, TPaineTX, Kelvin Samuel, Ladnavfan, MrArifnajafov, Thegeebox, Emaus-
Bot, ZroBot, OnePt618, The Dark Peria, ClueBot NG, Zakteh, Zakteh2, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Nathanielrst, Mogism, JPerseus
and Anonymous: 81
Great Temple of the Aten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Temple_of_the_Aten?oldid=623656944 Contributors: Delirium,
Warofdreams, Alensha, Utcursch, D6, Twthmoses, Captmondo, Markh, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Leoboudv,
A. Parrot, Marysunshine, CmdrObot, KyraVixen, Cydebot, JamesAM, V79benno, Misibacsi, Jalo, L!nus, Jan1nad, Addbot, Wikipelli,
ZroBot, Fpan020 and Anonymous: 13
Meryre Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meryre?oldid=623657629 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha, Deanos, Markh, Igin,
Curpsbot-unicodify, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Rory096, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, Cydebot, RobJ1981, Croton, Waacstats,
Andi d, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Addbot, Qkowlew, Yobot, RjwilmsiBot and Anonymous: 1
Neferneferuaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferneferuaten?oldid=631421909 Contributors: Llywrch, Csernica, Dimadick,
Bearcat, RScheiber, Alensha, Echuck215, Fdewaele, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Str1977, Markh, Xtine66, Bgwhite, Bachrach44, Asarelah,
Mmcannis, SmackBot, Chris the speller, DHN-bot, Colonies Chris, Leoboudv, Adrigon, Cydebot, Dougweller, Magioladitis, Je Dahl,
R'n'B, 83d40m, Squids and Chips, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, L!nus, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Yintan, LKNUTZ, Mild Bill Hiccup, Sun Creator,
HarrierVI, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Yobot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Taam, PauAmma, FrescoBot, Thinking of Eng-
land, Plasticspork, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Emad97, Italia2006, Chewings72, Whoop whoop pull
up, CactusSeed, BG19bot, Hispaniensis, Hergilei, Iry-Hor, Smalleditor, Dodsona402, Plutonix, Jodosma and Anonymous: 16
Small Aten Temple Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Aten_Temple?oldid=623656995 Contributors: Delirium, Warofdreams,
Alensha, D6, Twthmoses, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, A. Parrot, Cydebot, V79benno, The Anomebot2, Hugo999, AlleborgoBot,
Addbot, RedBot, Primergrey and Anonymous: 1
Tutankhamun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun?oldid=631663550 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Vicki Rosenzweig,
Mav, Bryan Derksen, Jeronimo, Sjc, Andre Engels, Gianfranco, Karen Johnson, Zoe, Imran, Hephaestos, Frecklefoot, Edward, Infrog-
mation, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Oliver Pereira, Nixdorf, Ixfd64, Gaurav, GTBacchus, Egil, Looxix, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Derek davis,
Kricxjo, Julesd, Bogdangiusca, Andres, JamesReyes, Hashar, RodC, EALacey, JCarriker, Doradus, Tpbradbury, Nv8200p, Ffabris, Jnc,
Tempshill, Ed g2s, Bevo, Lord Emsworth, JonathanDP81, Wetman, Hajor, Dimadick, Robbot, Naddy, Tim Ivorson, Timrollpickering, To-
bycat, Bkell, Mervyn, Hadal, MykReeve, Ruakh, TOO, DocWatson42, Lethe, Everyking, Jacob1207, Gro-Tsen, Cantus, Beardo, Alensha,
Bluejay Young, Iceberg3k, Bobblewik, Bookcat, Utcursch, Antandrus, Jossi, MacGyverMagic, Rdsmith4, Euphoria, PFHLai, Jawed, Ce-
sarFelipe, Neutrality, Ensrifra, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Deeceevoice, Valadius, Fanghong, Trevor MacInnis, Freakofnurture,
MattKingston, CALR, Jrp, Discospinster, Clawed, Wk muriithi, Moki80, Xezbeth, Ratatosk, Dbachmann, Paul August, MarkS, Jnestorius,
Furius, Brian0918, El C, Shrike, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Kaveh, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Thuresson, Bobo192, Dralwik, Dysto-
pos, Adraeus, Mfolkes, BrokenSegue, ZayZayEM, Elipongo, Jguk 2, Midas, Irrawaddy, TheProject, Flammifer, Pschemp, MPerel, Sam
Korn, Espoo, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Wendell, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Qwe, Polarscribe, Guy Harris, Rd232, Ricky81682,
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Adrian.benko, Bastin, Feezo, Nuno Tavares, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, TigerShark, Havermayer, Nugget-
boy, PoccilScript, Miaow Miaow, E. Brown, MrWhipple, Vynce, Before My Ken, Nefertum17, Chochopk, Tabletop, Twthmoses, Hb-
dragon88, SCEhardt, Alcoved id, Pfalstad, Graham87, WBardwin, BD2412, David Levy, Pmj, Edison, Josh Parris, Pentawing, Rjwilmsi,
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rett, Nihiltres, Fragglet, Hottentot, Kerowyn, Hellznrg, RexNL, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, Ben Babcock, Spikebrennan, BradBeattie, CJLL
Wright, WillMcC, VolatileChemical, Gwernol, Lo, Brandmeister (old), Jschultz, AlV, RussBot, Michael Slone, Nicander, Jumbo Snails,
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Irishguy, Nick, D. F. Schmidt, Dmoss, CaliforniaAliBaba, Adam Rock, Felsir, Zagalejo, Xgu, Aaron Schulz, Foofy, Morgan Leigh, Bota47,
254 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

Andropolis, Gsherry, Tuckerresearch, FF2010, Wikilackey, Sotakeit, E Wing, Seventy-one, BorgQueen, DGaw, Rlove, Jim Apple, Here-
ToHelp, Petrograd, Ilmari Karonen, Extreme Unction, Extension, Allens, Bluezy, Kungfuadam, Mmcannis, DearPrudence, Samuel Blan-
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Cydebot, Iamnotgeorge, Ntsimp, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Kanags, Reywas92, Treybien, LordHuNPu, Steel, Scottiscool, SyntaxEr-
ror55, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Dreadpiratetif, Anthonyhcole, ST47, Stupid guy, Retired user 0002, Kozo, Tawkerbot4, Dougweller,
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Hut 8.5, Magioladitis, Connormah, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Je Dahl, T@nn, Davidjk, JNW, SineWave, Tedickey, Britney901, Takhay,
Cilstr, Avicennasis, Animum, ArthurWeasley, Allstarecho, Schumi555, Glen, Chris G, Simon Peter Hughes, Cillas001, A2-computist,
Valerius Tygart, Punktuator, White43, Ciccarelli, FriendsofBorges, Cliau, MartinBot, GoldenMeadows, Kwabena1041, Poeloq, Rettetast,
Yegg13, CommonsDelinker, Zack Holly Venturi, Verdatum, Fconaway, StarX, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Rachelskit, Rgoodermote, Neilwith-
thedeal, SteveLamacq43, Athaenara, Fleiger, Dantepo, Neonmario, Jerry, DragonSoul, ThutmoseIII, Slixster, Acalamari, Bot-Schafter,
Johnbod, Eheinr007, McSly, Vandriel1325, Church Of Christ, Minimoto, Sisu99, Diatrko, Monique34, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Real-
man208, Belovedfreak, Kalongo2895, Hennessey, Patrick, DadaNeem, Bobianite, 83d40m, Sjmawson, Prhartcom, Joshua Issac, Dobo101,
DorganBot, Donmike10, Bonadea, MishaPan, WLRoss, TheNewPhobia, Robors, Thismightbezach, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Redtigerxyz,
MeltStyles, Ariobarzan, Littleolive oil, Deor, VolkovBot, CWii, DrMicro, ABF, Floppydog66, Je G., Jmrowland, VasilievVV, Barneca,
Philip Trueman, Martinevans123, Harioris, TXiKiBoT, Keeg bob, Sandman09, EricSerge, A4bot, Hqb, T-bonham, John Carter, Erik
Kok, Xelene, Ansset, Sirkad, Mzmadmike, Ripepette, Egyptzo, Chriscooperlondon, PDFbot, Vgranucci, Bearian, Pigslookfunny, Cosmi-
cos, Greswik, L!nus, Lastwill, Happyme22, Comrade Tux, AnnekeBart, Sedmison, DisassemblyOfReason, Coolanu, Falcon8765, Envi-
roboy, E-Carl, Djmckee1, Bporopat, Sanchez67, Sue Rangell, Akashnprithvi, Onceonthisisland, Lee Cheah, Solicitr, Kylelu, Glennklock-
wood, Cosprings, SieBot, Nubiatech, Sharapovis, Tresiden, Rlendog, Nihil novi, Spinnercat, Scarian, Sophos II, Rmiller3, Buckeye1776,
Gerakibot, EH Holden 1964, Sephiroth storm, Yintan, Keilana, Digwuren, Joe Gatt, Belinrahs, Stonyboyjr, Tp07127, Oxymoron83,
Smilesfozwood, Baseball Bugs, Redmercury82, HolmesEsq, Tohfa2, IdreamofJeanie, James Haughton, Inspiron8000, G.-M. Cupertino,
Maelgwnbot, CJMiller, Wuhwuzdat, R011ingthunder, WikiLaurent, Florentino oro, Myrvin, ImageRemovalBot, Church, Loren.wilton,
Martarius, Spader101, ClueBot, Victor Chmara, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Champiness, Ukabia, Satyanarayan Mo-
hapatra, Rowanmilesashe, Tjliles2007, Parkwells, Starelda, Neverquick, Rzwiefel345, Puchiko, MindstormsKid, Vdrj2, Excirial, Nymf,
Crywalt, Wikiscribe, Cgsportsfreak902, Freddyvoorhees, Sw2046, Changedis, Sun Creator, Mindstalk, Calikid54, Hiiiiiyyytt11, Hud-
gensgal, Ngebendi, NaPPy12489, CowboySpartan, Wdford, Redthoreau, Muro Bot, Pie053, BOTarate, Aus Chia, Sparta300xps, Mjgroll,
Nwa4life1900, Shaddow777, Connordumguy2, Aitias, Njchessboy, SoxBot III, Party, DumZiBoT, Arkkeeper, Sage of twilight, XLinkBot,
Oilyjoe, TattooedLibrarian, Gwandoya, Charles Sturm, WikHead, PhoenixMourning, Weareallone, Blue ange 14, ZooFari, Clintonb2,
Luckynumbers, Bob826, Sasbig, Surtsicna, Albambot, Pacic Werx, Pyfan, Some jerk on the Internet, Rollingdaniel, Queenmomcat,
DougsTech, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Merqurial, Jim10701, Nickrds09, Debresser, SammyD123, Doniago,
LinkFA-Bot, W99, Numbo3-bot, Energicko, Nabaati, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, LuK3, AchillesLastStand, Kevarrisb, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Ptbotgourou, Cm001, Geshrwh, Yngvadottir, Redranger241, Reenem, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Thuvan Dihn,
Kerfuer, Jim1138, Crash Cove, Taam, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Jordyhen, Materialscientist, Hhcaas, Citation bot, E2eamon, Maxis ftw,
Hlebz, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Zad68, Sionus, Intelati, Krhestir21, Alexlange, Capricorn42, Boongie, Teddie Edwards, , Wot-
WotW, ITSENJOYABLE, Gilo1969, Tyrol5, Mlpearc, Tiller54, AbigailAbernathy, GrouchoBot, Earlypsychosis, RibotBOT, Bellerophon,
Henin42, Moxy, Clabinger, Erik9, R153nm, Who then was a gentleman?, Moneymunz, Dailycare, FrescoBot, Barry Wom, Wikiy2k,
Wikipe-tan, Lothar von Richthofen, Recognizance, Bka9, Polyxeros, Ag97, AnwarSadatFan, Meishern, Gourami Watcher, Fiddler on
the green, Drew R. Smith, Citation bot 1, The kicker, Pshent, Snit607, Harold Helmsley, Redu, SpedeX, Supreme Deliciousness,
Yahia.barie, Moon cows, Jazr, Greatambo, XRDoDRX, Niciscoolio, Darrien333, Robert j13, Sngahehe, Hdrub, Snuzzelpuzzle, Ham-
bacher, Felix yim, Plasticspork, Slimmon, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Rarsy burgo, Lotje, Comet Tuttle, Sat Ra, Vrenator, KatelynJo-
hann, BurtonH0123, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Lady Meg, Minimac, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon, Salvio giuliano, Letterwing,
EmausBot, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Haon 2.0, Ibbn, Yt95, Thirstforknowledge6000, Codiack2430, RenamedUser01302013, Mychele
Trempetich, Lovelovelm, Wikipelli, ZroBot, PS., Misty MH, F, Jenks24, Consciouslee, Wackywace, Fdr2001, Alpha Quadrant, Up-
perPuppy, AnneBerlyne MaKenzie, Stephen C Wells, H3llBot, Eniagrom, Doctoris Scientia, L1A1 FAL, Brandmeister, Tc06rtw, Republic
of Texas, Jdillonf, Stickandpuck, Saharsaleem1, Nigel the second, Sup jack141, JanMic0347, Alicesmith053, Mlane1, Odensraven09,
Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Alexcoldcasefan, CocuBot, Sleddog116, Name Omitted, SunCountryGuy01, TruPepitoM, Frietjes,
S.V.Taylor, Md.altaf.rahman, Bob House 884, Haidar360, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alice697, Tommyb13, Vommette, Saharnsaleem, Tholme,
Chrisdaycheese, ReturnH, DBigXray, Lowercase sigmabot, Darouet, Dlampton, Tommy2215, Dan653, Mark Arsten, DarkHalo02, FoxCE,
MattSoave, Snow Blizzard, Alessandra Napolitano, Guanaco55, Riley Huntley, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, W.D., Fluxray1, EnzaiBot,
Icequibe, Iry-Hor, Rinkle gorge, JalenV, Lukebray32, Robert Keiden, Paxti, Smalleditor, Paledw01, Theeditorrocks, Dexbot, Mikiruss88,
PhilipOsborne, Vignesh33, Ben012000, ShannieCakes, Silvercowman, Webclient101, Mufasa100, Mogism, Rockersammib, Makecat-bot,
EditAnonona, Phenomenomal, Masterpeace3, VIAFbot, Theatenist, Jamarei, Thetacoishere, Derp121212, Santurwoman, Hipiediw, Fog-
gyBeard, Royroydeb, PetersGal, Nera456, Janellwashere, Niuwrldorder, Monkbot, Goodwin56, Tyrannosaurus rex, NQ, WikiKing14
and Anonymous: 1007
96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 255

Amarna Period Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_Period?oldid=623995418 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Robbot, Dis-

cospinster, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Markh, Chris the speller, NickPenguin, Iuio, JustAGal, Nick Number, Magioladitis, JaGa, VolkovBot,
TXiKiBoT, PericlesofAthens, Fadesga, EoGuy, Burner0718, Addbot, West.andrew.g, Xqbot, LucienBOT, PigFlu Oink, MKFI, Rjwilm-
siBot, Ineverheardofhim, Beyond My Ken, ClueBot NG, Ecozart2, ChrisGualtieri, Cml5911pl, Iry-Hor, , Luna92 and Anonymous:
23
Abdi-Heba Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdi-Heba?oldid=626391637 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Thue, FeanorStar7,
Briangotts, Rjwilmsi, Noon, OpenToppedBus, Allens, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Prodego, Rhollenton,
Nehrams2020, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Dougweller, Nishidani, Srose, JaGa, ArnoldPettybone, Banano03, Sumerophile, Addbot, Lightbot,
Xenobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, NSH002, DefaultsortBot, Skyerise, WillNess, Rarevogel, Lamashtu2006, Login-
nigol and Anonymous: 13
Ahatmilku Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahatmilku?oldid=629735488 Contributors: Asarelah, Gobonobo, Trappist the monk,
Mychele Trempetich and Peaceingalaxy
Alashiya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alashiya?oldid=576914085 Contributors: Timwi, Wetman, Neutrality, Dbachmann, Grut-
ter, Sortior, Flammifer, Instantnood, Briangotts, Nefertum17, Josh Parris, Mike s, YurikBot, RussBot, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That
Show!, Attilios, SmackBot, Hmains, KRBN, DabMachine, Picaroon, Doctormatt, Cydebot, Kupirijo, Thijs!bot, Dmitri Lytov, Darklilac,
Andi d, Shooba, Patrick Rogel, Sun Creator, Catalographer, Sumerophile, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, BlueSalo, Alexikoua, FrescoBot,
Hanay and Anonymous: 12
Amarna art Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_art?oldid=631370307 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Alensha, Arthena, Twth-
moses, Bkwillwm, Rjwilmsi, Markh, YurikBot, Manicsleeper, Welsh, Morgan Leigh, That Guy, From That Show!, Reedy, Zerida, Orphan-
Bot, A. Parrot, Ryulong, JLCA, CmdrObot, Keithh, Epbr123, RobotG, Modernist, Textorus, Johnbod, TXiKiBoT, Satseshat, AnnekeBart,
Moonstruck705, Ptolemy Caesarion, Stepheng3, Aus Chia, Qwfp, Phocealms, Addbot, Neustrelitz, Vatrena ptica, Babug, AnomieBOT,
Hirpex, Stolengood, Orenburg1, Sat Ra, Y-barton, ClueBot NG, Rosemoulton, Elongated, DavidSights, WilliamDigiCol, Simone Freeman
and Anonymous: 37
Amarna succession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_succession?oldid=626572458 Contributors: Llywrch, Alensha,
Rjwilmsi, Markh, Leoboudv, Reade, RjwilmsiBot, Ineverheardofhim, H3llBot and Anonymous: 1
Amarna Tomb 1 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_Tomb_1?oldid=580666971 Contributors: Markh, Cydebot, Cynwolfe,
The Anomebot2, Jalo, AnnekeBart, Ashashyou, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT and Jesse V.
Amarna Tomb 3 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_Tomb_3?oldid=546028492 Contributors: Bearcat, AnnekeBart, Addbot
and SamatBot
Amarna Tomb 5 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_Tomb_5?oldid=531336191 Contributors: GoodDay, AnnekeBart, Clue-
Bot and Bobski101
Amarna Tomb 7 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_Tomb_7?oldid=610149270 Contributors: Thomprod, AnnekeBart,
Ashashyou, Y-barton and Anonymous: 1
Amenhotep III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_III?oldid=629642326 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Andre Engels, Llywrch,
Liftarn, Mic, Looxix, Hashar, The Warlock, RickK, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Hjr, Dimadick, Robbot, Hadal, Wikibot, TOO, Hel-
gihg, Everyking, Alensha, Architeuthis, Wiml, Bk0, Hkpawn, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Jaberwocky6669, CanisRufus, Shanes,
Bobo192, HasharBot, Jumbuck, Ricky81682, Binabik80, Garzo, BLueFiSH.as, Adrian.benko, FeanorStar7, Nefertum17, Twthmoses,
Stancollins, G.W., Palica, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Erebus555, Captmondo, FlaBot, Airunp, Str1977, Markh, CJLL Wright, Bgwhite, Yurik-
Bot, Gaius Cornelius, MaxVeers, Botteville, Igin, Dspradau, ArgosDad, Mmcannis, FyzixFighter, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!,
BomBom, SmackBot, Iacobus, Jhnmurphy, Shoy, Betacommand, Skizzik, Bluebot, Cush, Robertissimo, Hibernian, Gutworth, Colonies
Chris, Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Blake-, Harryboyles, Thanatosimii, Redmosquito720, Minna Sora no Shita, Mgiganteus1, A. Parrot, Beet-
stra, Archiesteel, MTSbot, JLCA, Ghaly, JiriK, KyraVixen, Keithh, Cydebot, David A. Victor, Lugnuts, Dougweller, Kozuch, Epbr123,
VKemyss, Sakkout, Danger, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Karlhahn, Je Dahl, Ling.Nut, Tedickey, Simon Peter Hughes, Cliau, Shimwell, Com-
monsDelinker, Wiki Raja, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Bot-Schafter, Junafani, Colchicum, 83d40m, DorganBot, Robors, Squids
and Chips, Ariobarzan, Cireshoe, Jennavecia, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Satseshat, UnitedStatesian, Vgranucci, Ben Ward, An-
nekeBart, Pmarshal, Gprince007, VVVBot, Gerakibot, Lightmouse, HolmesEsq, Prof saxx, H1nkles, Myrvin, ClueBot, Fribbler, Fadesga,
CounterVandalismBot, RafaAzevedo, Auntof6, Ipathshoes1981, Maxmills37, 1ForTheMoney, Buyamy24, SoxBot III, Addbot, Canadian-
LinuxUser, Nickrds09, Glane23, Chzz, SpBot, Numbo3-bot, Rave, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Thuvan Dihn, Materialscientist, Maxis ftw, Xqbot,
Anna Frodesiak, Mhotep, JayJay, Adlerbot, DefaultsortBot, MondalorBot, Plasticspork, Trappist the monk, Hanay, Chasuble, Specs112,
Diannaa, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, Akhilan, Italia2006, ZroBot, F, H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, Y-barton, Chewings72, ClueBot
NG, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Arnavchaudhary, Vagobot, Themisbalan, Mmovchin, Iry-Hor, Mlitwa1, JYBot, BrightStarSky, Dexbot,
Lugia2453, Epicgenius, Debouch, Recordstraight83, Pietro13, Duniyaduniya, KierraF, Salmaislambd, Tyrannosaurus rex and Anonymous:
148
Amurru kingdom Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amurru_kingdom?oldid=617223973 Contributors: Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi,
Sodin, Ndouchi, PamD, The Anomebot2, I JethroBT, Til Eulenspiegel, Stepheng3, Addbot, AnomieBOT, HRoestBot, RedBot, Hanay,
ZroBot, Oncenawhile and Mentibot
Archers (Egyptian ptati) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archers_(Egyptian_ptati)?oldid=605997297 Contributors: Dbachmann,
Woohookitty, BD2412, Mmcannis, Fusion7, Squids and Chips, SwordSmurf, AnnekeBart, Muhandes, Berean Hunter, Jncraton, J04n,
DrilBot, The inconceivable ham and Anonymous: 1
Ay Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ay?oldid=623872598 Contributors: Olivier, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Menchi, Timwi, JCarriker,
Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Hjr, Dimadick, Robbot, Fredrik, TOO, Snowdog, ZeroJanvier, Alensha, Ularsen, Bobo192, Gatta, Viridi-
tas, Zidel333, Irrawaddy, Flammifer, Pearle, HasharBot, Alansohn, Rd232, Ricky81682, Snowolf, Binabik80, Guthrie, Japanese Searobin,
Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Palica, Mandarax, Magister Mathematicae, Clapaucius, BD2412, Maros, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Capt-
mondo, DoubleBlue, FlaBot, Master Thief Garrett, Markh, YurikBot, RussBot, Epolk, Gaius Cornelius, Schnauf, That Guy, From That
Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Zaqarbal, Jab843, Betacommand, Bluebot, Elagatis, Salmar, Laslovarga, Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Lus
Felipe Braga, Yom, SashatoBot, Thanatosimii, Reade, A. Parrot, MarkSutton, Rkmlai, Beetstra, JLCA, KyraVixen, Cydebot, Doug-
weller, Thijs!bot, Therealmikelvee, Baville, Tsukiakari, JAnDbot, Leuko, Dsp13, Andonic, Natureguy1980, .anacondabot, VoABot II, Je
Dahl, Waacstats, ClovisPt, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, Cliau, Vigyani, Jerry teps, Beit Or, J.delanoy, 83d40m, STBotD, Dorgan-
Bot, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Malinaccier, Satseshat, Jakewinkel, AlysTarr, Egyptzo, BotKung, AnnekeBart, Why Not A Duck, Brianga,
256 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

Aquasabre, SieBot, Digwuren, Mimihitam, G.-M. Cupertino, ClueBot, Fadesga, Rmg12, Alexbot, Zuzzerack, Feliciaxo, Tomuk53, Ad-
dbot, Willking1979, TutterMouse, CanadianLinuxUser, Zanthorp, Lightbot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Ramarren, IRP, Rtyq2,
ArthurBot, Tad Lincoln, Schamps, RibotBOT, Wtf.trina, Aylovesyooh, Thejadefalcon, FrescoBot, Barry Wom, HRoestBot, Edderso, De-
faultsortBot, Plasticspork, Kibi78704, Trappist the monk, Jorehll1, Stringence, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, John
of Reading, WikitanvirBot, KhAnubisproductions, WittyMan1986, Ocaasi, Donner60, Chewings72, ClueBot NG, Wrathkind, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Muzhank, GoShow, Iry-Hor, Ducknish, JalenV, Jamarei, Rendellv, Nera456, DarcySaakyan, Aluce261, Tyrannosaurus rex and
Anonymous: 132
Aziru Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziru?oldid=585920961 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, FeanorStar7, Briangotts, Rjwilmsi,
G Clark, Sodin, Gaius Cornelius, Aldux, Igin, Josh3580, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, DRahier, Leoboudv, Naphureya,
Nehrams2020, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, DorganBot, Jalo, Sumerophile, Addbot, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, Y-
barton, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 3
Bek (sculptor) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bek_(sculptor)?oldid=619363565 Contributors: The Anome, Bearcat, Alensha,
FeanorStar7, Mmcannis, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, Aus Chia, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Michael Metzger, Pokbot and Anonymous: 1
Beketaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beketaten?oldid=621708805 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Robbot, Alensha,
Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Bouette, Colonies Chris, Leoboudv, Reade, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Missvain, VolkovBot, Vgranucci, Anneke-
Bart, PipepBot, Fadesga, CapnZapp, Addbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, LilHelpa, MacMed, DefaultsortBot, Tim1357, Mychele Trempetich,
ZroBot, Sinuhe20, Frietjes, HMSSolent, Hmainsbot1, Max Overton and Anonymous: 4
Biridawa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biridawa?oldid=624261193 Contributors: Delirium, FeanorStar7, BD2412, Bgwhite,
Mmcannis, Cydebot, Waacstats, AnnekeBart, Muhandes, Sumerophile, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 1
Burna-Buriash II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burna-Buriash_II?oldid=627180547 Contributors: Delirium, Vsmith, Bjones,
FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Brighterorange, Valentinian, Ravenswing, Mmcannis, Udimu, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, Bluebot, Chaldean, Na-
phureya, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Picus viridis, JAnDbot, David Eppstein, DrKiernan, STBotD, VolkovBot, SieBot, MystBot, Addbot,
Ehrenkater, IansAwesomePizza, Meisam, Yobot, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Talskubilos, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, Zoeperkoe, RjwilmsiBot,
EmausBot, ZroBot, BigEars42, BattyBot and Anonymous: 5
Coregency Stela Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coregency_Stela?oldid=573721530 Contributors: Alensha, Markh, Mmcannis,
Robosh, L!nus, Addbot, Nfr-Maat and Khazar2
Dakhamunzu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakhamunzu?oldid=624632429 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Dimadick, Alensha,
Markh, Grafen, BomBom, JAnDbot, Andi d, TXiKiBoT, Corvus cornix, L!nus, Auntof6, Addbot, Karl gregory jones, Yobot, Legobot
II, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, DrilBot, Dexbot, Luna92 and Anonymous: 2
Gath (city) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gath_(city)?oldid=625523868 Contributors: DopeshJustin, IZAK, Ugen64, Cimon
Avaro, Emperorbma, Zero0000, Altenmann, Mervyn, Folks at 137, Jayjg, Susvolans, Bobo192, Jheald, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Sega381,
Funhistory, Cuchullain, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, MLRoach, Fischersc, NekoDaemon, Rune.welsh, Foscolo, Codex Sinaiticus, Malhonen,
Haldrik, YurikBot, Kordas, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Number 57, Mikeblas, Avraham, Blacksand, Mmcannis, Hylogaut89, Huldra,
Chris the speller, Tewk, JonHarder, Skydiver, Arenmaeir, Eliyak, JHunterJ, Viv Hamilton, Cyphunk, Nehrams2020, Gilabrand, Cyde-
bot, Gnewf, Thijs!bot, Marek69, Tiamut, WinBot, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, CommonsDelinker, Menant, Brother Ocer, Davecrosby uk,
Hugo999, VolkovBot, Brando130, TXiKiBoT, Steven J. Anderson, EJF, StAnselm, Gerakibot, Prof .Woodru, Alecoz, AMbot, Martarius,
ClueBot, TIY, Rockfang, Alexbot, PixelBot, SchreiberBike, Sumerophile, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, 5 albert square,
Yobot, AMuseo, Adrianlw, Historicist, Addihockey10, TheCuriousGnome, Shadowjams, Hope&Act3!, PigFlu Oink, DrilBot, Edderso,
Poliocretes, Hstryboy, Dusty777, Obsidian Soul, Amckeehan, Finn Bjrklid, Sreifa, ZroBot, Yosoy66, SporkBot, RaptureBot, Qumran-
hhle, Y-barton, Venus999, Andrew Mathias, , JohnThorne, Monstermanual, BattyBot, Fraulein451, Davidbena and Anonymous:
37
Horemheb Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemheb?oldid=628596787 Contributors: Hephaestos, Llywrch, Hashar, RodC, JCar-
riker, Denni, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Hjr, Dimadick, Humus sapiens, TOO, Alensha, Bluejay Young, Manuel Anastcio, Rich
Farmbrough, Robotje, Nullstein, Binabik80, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Garzo, Japanese Searobin, FeanorStar7, Nefertum17, Twthmoses,
Mandarax, Maros, Koavf, Captmondo, FlaBot, Margosbot, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, YurikBot, BOT-Superzerocool, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Mmcannis, Fabian Boudville, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Zerida, Zaqarbal, Delldot, Eskimbot, Bluebot,
DHN-bot, Leoboudv, Fuhghettaboutit, Nakon, Das Baz, SashatoBot, Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, Drieakko, Rpab, Ghaly, KyraVixen, Ba-
sawala, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Kathovo, Therealmikelvee, AntiVandalBot, Dr. Blofeld, KonstableBot, Je Dahl, Waacstats, Andi d, Simon
Peter Hughes, Beit Or, DorganBot, Natl1, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Harioris, BotKung, L!nus, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Keilana, Mimihi-
tam, G.-M. Cupertino, ClueBot, Fadesga, TheMathemagician, Sun Creator, Zuzzerack, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Legolas2186, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Xqbot, Ashershow1, Jean-Jacques Georges, GhalyBot, FrescoBot, LucienBOT,
Masterknighted, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Kataryna, Meaghan, Plasticspork, Trappist the monk, WandaRMinstrel, 777sms, Reaper
Eternal, Mean as custard, Xabbeyroad, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, WittyMan1986, , Y-barton, Donner60, Llightex,
ClueBot NG, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, Iry-Hor, Jamarei, 8ty3hree, Rendellv, Harmaha, Jungannpark and Anonymous: 71
Huya (noble) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huya_(noble)?oldid=603889818 Contributors: Alensha, Anthony Appleyard,
FeanorStar7, Markh, SmackBot, Cydebot, Waacstats, Wehemesut, AnnekeBart, Addbot, Shamrockman455, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot,
ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, MadGuy7023 and Anonymous: 2
Labaya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labaya?oldid=625617384 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Llywrch, IZAK, Delirium, John Cross,
Rursus, Mboverload, SamEV, Ben Standeven, Dave.Dunford, Woohookitty, Briangotts, -Ril-, GregorB, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, Texas-
Android, Theelf29, Rktect, Rob117, Tuckerresearch, Mmcannis, Nekura, That Guy, From That Show!, Shilkanni, SmackBot, Bluebot,
Leoboudv, Das Baz, Nehrams2020, Vanisaac, Cydebot, Dawnseeker2000, Mdotley, Fayenatic london, Adavidb, David Rohl, Lisa, OKBot,
Martarius, PixelBot, Editor2020, Sumerophile, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, IansAwesomePizza, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Hanay,
Evanh2008, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mogism and Anonymous: 11
Maya (Egyptian) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_(Egyptian)?oldid=619673157 Contributors: JCarriker, Gidonb, StargateX1,
Mel Etitis, FeanorStar7, Markh, Garion96, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Colonies Chris, Leoboudv, Cydebot, The Anomebot2,
Cosprings, MystBot, Addbot, Wazzim, Xqbot, R0pe-196, DefaultsortBot, Robk361, KLBot2, and Anonymous: 8
Meritaten Tasherit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritaten_Tasherit?oldid=544629744 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha,
Guthrie, FeanorStar7, BomBom, Tiger cub, Waacstats, SieBot, G.-M. Cupertino, Addbot, Umbertoumm and Anonymous: 3
96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 257

Meryre II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meryre_II?oldid=544524920 Contributors: FeanorStar7, Markh, Yoninah, Closedmouth,

Mmcannis, SmackBot, Oo7565, Khatru2, Therealmikelvee, AnnekeBart, Sapphic, Addbot, SamatBot, H3llBot and Anonymous: 1
William L. Moran Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_L._Moran?oldid=595761479 Contributors: Everyking, Klemen Koc-
jancic, CALR, Larryjhs, Briangotts, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Markh, RussBot, T. Anthony, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Chaldean, Neddyseagoon,
Mattbr, Ntsimp, Lopakhin, Waacstats, Johnpacklambert, Artene50, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, MerlLinkBot, RjwilmsiBot, VIAFbot
and Anonymous: 3
Mutbaal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutbaal?oldid=541027226 Contributors: Briangotts, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That
Show!, Das Baz, Reade, Nehrams2020, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, PresN, David Rohl, Lisa, Editor2020, PMLawrence and Anonymous:
2
Mutnedjmet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutnedjmet?oldid=629732704 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Alensha, Rich
Farmbrough, Vsmith, Sicherlich, Deacon of Pndapetzim, FeanorStar7, Markh, Asarelah, Igin, That Guy, From That Show!, Smack-
Bot, Laslovarga, OrphanBot, Leoboudv, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Therealmikelvee, Mutodjment, DrKiernan, STBotD, McM.bot, AnnekeBart,
SieBot, Goustien, Fadesga, GoddessOtome, Addbot, Dactilografa, Yobot, CeresVesta, JMCC1, TobeBot, Keivan.f, LurganShmith,
and Anonymous: 28
Nakhtpaaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhtpaaten?oldid=622598800 Contributors: Alensha, Magioladitis, Waacstats, An-
nekeBart, Addbot, Kibi78704, RjwilmsiBot and Anonymous: 1
Neferkheperuhesekheper Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferkheperuhesekheper?oldid=546266025 Contributors: Alensha,
MystBot and Addbot
Panehesy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panehesy?oldid=611280134 Contributors: Alensha, Deanos, Markh, Igin, Curpsbot-
unicodify, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Leoboudv, Dougweller, Therealmikelvee, Waacstats, Andi d, AnnekeBart,
Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, RjwilmsiBot and Anonymous: 1
Penthu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penthu?oldid=616221392 Contributors: Delirium, Alensha, Deanos, Markh, Yoninah, Igin,
Curpsbot-unicodify, Mmcannis, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, JHunterJ, Cydebot, Waacstats, AnnekeBart,
Ashashyou, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, RjwilmsiBot, ZroBot and Anonymous: 2
Pihuri Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pihuri?oldid=517345372 Contributors: Delirium, Briangotts, Twthmoses, Mmcannis, Cyde-
bot, Arch dude and Anonymous: 2
Ramose Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramose?oldid=629820306 Contributors: Andrewman327, Alensha, Discospinster, Drbrezn-
jev, FeanorStar7, Valentinejoesmith, Markh, CambridgeBayWeather, Zerida, Bluebot, Leoboudv, Tomtom9041, A. Parrot, Noah Salzman,
KyraVixen, Cydebot, Meno25, Alaibot, JustAGal, Chipdawes, Waacstats, Wehemesut, MartinBot, Lights, LeaveSleaves, AnnekeBart,
Twirling, Ptolemy Caesarion, DragonBot, Zuzzerack, Addbot, HRoestBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Chewings72, KLBot2 and Anony-
mous: 11
Ramose (TT55) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramose_(TT55)?oldid=540680566 Contributors: Delirium, Alensha, Markh, Mm-
cannis, Cydebot, Waacstats, Phe-bot, Addbot, Vishnava, Tide rolls, Amirobot, Xqbot, AhMedRMaaty and Anonymous: 3
Rib-Hadda Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rib-Hadda?oldid=591807535 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Jastrow, Vsmith, Dbach-
mann, Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Briangotts, BD2412, Gurch, Sodin, RussBot, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot,
Leoboudv, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Nick Number, Widefox, Rei-bot, SwordSmurf, Elie plus, Sumerophile, Good Olfactory, Addbot, ZroBot
and Anonymous: 2
Suteans Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suteans?oldid=565795434 Contributors: Kwamikagami, Mmcannis, Tamfang, Ben MacDui,
Muhandes, SchreiberBike, Sumerophile, Yobot, Glatisant, AnomieBOT, Thehelpfulbot, KLBot2 and Anonymous: 2
Tadukhipa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadukhipa?oldid=629734247 Contributors: Wik, Jnc, Topbanana, Dimadick, Alensha,
Rich Farmbrough, Alansohn, Binabik80, Iustinus, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Marudubshinki, Bbullot, FlaBot, Brookshawn, Asarelah, Caer-
wine, Igin, Tropylium, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, Tsca.bot, Leoboudv, Runcorn, Naphureya, SMasters, Hawkestone,
Cydebot, Meno25, Dsp13, 83d40m, Ariobarzan, Ruodnane, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Fadesga, Sumerophile, Addbot, SamatBot, Lightbot,
IansAwesomePizza, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ramarren, RjwilmsiBot, ChuispastonBot and Anonymous: 11
Tiye Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiye?oldid=622593375 Contributors: Danny, Zoe, Olivier, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Pandora,
Vzbs34, RodC, JCarriker, Wik, Falkue, Kaal, Ffabris, Dimadick, TOO, Everyking, Alensha, Taka, Kate, Furius, RoyBoy, Smalljim, Free
Bear, Binabik80, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, FlaBot, Markh, YurikBot, Jaymax, Shell Kinney, Igin, Niankhsekhmet, 2over0,
Open2universe, Garion96, SailorAlphaCentauri, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Gnarlodious, Tsca.bot, Smallbones, OrphanBot,
Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Gobonobo, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, JoeBot, Hawkestone, Igoldste, JLCA, Ghaly, CmdrObot, Cyde-
bot, Dougweller, Thijs!bot, Therealmikelvee, JAnDbot, VoABot II, Je Dahl, JNW, Waacstats, Alleborgo, Fconaway, 83d40m, Molybdo-
mancer, Alchemistjikan, MishaPan, WWGB, Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, Taharqa, AnnekeBart, Why Not A
Duck, SieBot, Purbo T, TubularWorld, SlackerMom, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Fadesga, Plastikspork, Wysprgr2005, Ukabia, SekhmetDesign,
Maxmills37, Foxxy parka, Addbot, Favonian, Lightbot, Trotter, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Poutza,
Capricorn42, Dan6hell66, Bejinhan, MastiBot, Irbisgreif, FoxBot, Lotje, Weijiya, Updatehelper, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Mychele
Trempetich, WittyMan1986, Brandmeister, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, Keivan.f, Vagobot, PhnomPencil, DenseFog, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2,
Masterpeace3, Theatenist, Epicgenius, Duniyaduniya, 7Sidz, Monkbot, Demoniccathandler and Anonymous: 78
Tomb of Meryra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Meryra?oldid=577178764 Contributors: FeanorStar7, Markh, Smack-
Bot, Sadads, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, VolkovBot, AnnekeBart, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addbot, ZroBot, Sinuhe20, RisingSonnn and Chris-
Gualtieri
Tushratta Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tushratta?oldid=564617550 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Alensha, Chameleon, Rich
Farmbrough, Chammy Koala, YUL89YYZ, AABell, Briangotts, Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, .marc., Mmcannis, SmackBot, MalafayaBot,
Leoboudv, Cydebot, Dmitri Lytov, GCL, Crispus, SieBot, 3rdAlcove, Sumerophile, MystBot, Addbot, IansAwesomePizza, Luckas-bot,
RibotBOT, Erik9bot, HRoestBot, Jaba1977, ZroBot, Y-barton, ChuispastonBot, Iry-Hor, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 12
Zemar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemar?oldid=622456935 Contributors: Folks at 137, SamEV, Briangotts, BD2412, FlaBot,
334a, Theelf29, Aelfthrytha, Cydebot, Albmont, The Anomebot2, WeeWillieWiki, Ksanyi, VirtualDelight, Adavidb, Jeepday, Jordi Roqu,
Sumerophile, Addbot, Dawynn, Zozo2kx, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Erik9bot, LucienBOT, HRoestBot, Supreme Deliciousness,
Hanay, Paul Bedson, Moto53, Lennart97, YFdyh-bot, LightandDark2000, ., Motique and Anonymous: 8
258 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_Stelae_of_Akhenaten?oldid=603997418 Contributors:

Charles Matthews, Warofdreams, Utcursch, Grm wnr, Water Bottle, Twthmoses, Markh, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, Smack-
Bot, Colonies Chris, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Danny lost, The Anomebot2, Andi d, Katharineamy, Jalo, Da Joe, Addbot, Yobot, JMCC1,
FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, ZroBot, Akerans, Stevesykes, BattyBot, Khazar2, Dodsona402, Luna92 and Anonymous: 3
Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Correspondence_of_Pharaoh?oldid=
405275239 Contributors: Markh, Mmcannis and Ptolemy Caesarion
Kom el-Nana Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kom_el-Nana?oldid=543352627 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Alensha, Mandarax,
Jalo, Addbot, Tassedethe and LilHelpa
Maru-Aten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maru-Aten?oldid=544263137 Contributors: Warofdreams, Alensha, Utcursch, Twth-
moses, Markh, Welsh, That Guy, From That Show!, CmdrObot, Cydebot, FastLizard4, The Anomebot2, Andi d, Da Joe, ClueBot, Cymene,
Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot and Anonymous: 2
Northern Palace (Amarna) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Palace_(Amarna)?oldid=576182646 Contributors: Arping-
stone, Alensha, Markh, Addbot, Werieth, Nbec2043 and Anonymous: 1
Workmens Village, Amarna Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workmen's_Village,_Amarna?oldid=541699472 Contributors:
Warofdreams, Folks at 137, Utcursch, Twthmoses, Markh, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Cydebot, The Anomebot2,
Kyle the bot, Rei-bot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Erik9bot and Anonymous: 1
Mahu (noble) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahu_(noble)?oldid=428727865 Contributors: FeanorStar7, Markh, Stormbay,
SmackBot, The Anomebot2, Wehemesut, AnnekeBart and DefaultsortBot
Royal Wadi and tombs Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Wadi_and_tombs?oldid=572213913 Contributors: Alensha, Mbover-
load, Utcursch, Twthmoses, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, Bouette, Verne Equinox, PseudoSudo, The Anomebot2, Bdmccray,
Koudal, ClueBot, Addbot, RedBot, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 3
Southern Tomb 11 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Tomb_11?oldid=544826393 Contributors: Dcljr, Alensha, Markh,
Hmains, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, VolkovBot, AnnekeBart and Addbot
Southern Tomb 23 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Tomb_23?oldid=371995242 Contributors: Warofdreams, Utcursch,
Rd232, Twthmoses, Markh, Curpsbot-unicodify, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, Wehemesut and
FrescoBot
Southern Tomb 25 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Tomb_25?oldid=621714935 Contributors: Warofdreams, Hajor,
Utcursch, Grm wnr, Twthmoses, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Fuhghettaboutit, Cydebot, The Anome-
bot2, Fadesga, Erik9bot, Fikusfail, Sat Ra and Pwdob
Southern Tombs Cemetery Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Tombs_Cemetery?oldid=430413906 Contributors: Rjwilmsi,
Markh and Tassedethe
Tomb of Meryra II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Meryra_II?oldid=556877966 Contributors: FeanorStar7, Markh,
Mmcannis, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, AnnekeBart, Truthanado, Materialscientist, H3llBot and Anonymous: 1
Tombs of the Nobles (Amarna) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombs_of_the_Nobles_(Amarna)?oldid=544066532 Contributors:
Robbot, Alensha, Utcursch, Klemen Kocjancic, Arthena, Twthmoses, Gurch, Markh, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, That Guy, From That
Show!, SmackBot, Bouette, Iridescent, KyraVixen, The Anomebot2, Wehemesut, AnnekeBart, Anchor Link Bot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addbot,
AHbot, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot and Anonymous: 1

File:14_century_BC_Eastern.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/14_century_BC_Eastern.png License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work, data taken from: History Year by Year, Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2011, pages: 32-33, ISBN
1405391057, 9781405391054. Topography taken from DEMIS Mapserver, which are public domain, other wise self-made. Original artist:
Alexikoua,
File:3daughters-Akhenaten.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/3daughters-Akhenaten.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Lepsius Denkmahler Original artist: Lepsius
{{int:Coll-image-attribution|File:951_Gaspra.jpg|http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg|Public
domain|Cropped from TIFF image from [http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspra3.htm Solarviews.com|NASA}}
File:Aker.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Aker.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Je Dahl
File:Akhenaten,_Nefertiti_and_their_children.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Akhenaten%2C_
Nefertiti_and_their_children.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:AkhenatenFamily1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/AkhenatenFamily1.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Amarna tomb of Huya Original artist: Unknown
File:AkhenatenFamily3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/AkhenatenFamily3.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Amarna tomb of Huya Original artist: Unknown
File:Akhenaten_TwoFragmentaryShabtis_BrooklynMuseum.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/
Akhenaten_TwoFragmentaryShabtis_BrooklynMuseum.png License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: Own work (photo) Original artist:
Keith Schengili-Roberts
File:Akhenaten_as_a_Sphinx_(Kestner_Museum).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Akhenaten_as_
a_Sphinx_%28Kestner_Museum%29.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/menesje/2212492438/ Origi-
nal artist: Hans Ollermann
File:Akhenaten_trial_piece.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Akhenaten_trial_piece.jpg License: ?
Contributors: http://www.egyptarchive.co.uk/html/cairo_museum_35.html Original artist: Jon Bodsworth
96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 259

File:Akhenaten_with_blue_crown.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Akhenaten_with_blue_crown.

jpg License: ? Contributors: http://www.egyptarchive.co.uk/html/cairo_museum_34.html Original artist: Jon Bodsworth
File:AkhnatonCairoCast.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/AkhnatonCairoCast.png License: Public
domain Contributors: The Outline of History, Being A Plain History of Life and Mankind. New York: The Macmillan Company. Original
artist: Wells, H. G.
File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-2.0 Contributors: All Gizah Pyramids Original artist: Ricardo Liberato
File:AmarnaLetterOfMarriageNegotiation-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/aa/AmarnaLetterOfMarriageNegotiation-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg License: CC-BY-2.5 Contributors: Own work
(photo) Original artist: CaptMondo
File:Amarna_Akkadian_letter.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Amarna_Akkadian_letter.png Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Amarna_North_Palace_02.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Amarna_North_Palace_02.JPG
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Einsamer Schtze
File:Amarna_boundary_stela_U_01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Amarna_boundary_stela_U_
01.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Einsamer Schtze
File:Amarna_boundary_stela_U_02.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Amarna_boundary_stela_U_
02.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Einsamer Schtze
File:Amarna_map_large.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Amarna_map_large.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Amarnamap.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Amarnamap.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ambox_content.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/Ambox_content.png License: ? Contributors:
Derived from Image:Information icon.svg Original artist:
El T (original icon); David Levy (modied design); Penubag (modied color)
File:Amenhotep.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Amenhotep.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Paul Mannix; Original uploader was Muntuwandi at en.wikipedia
File:AmenhotepIII-FaienceCartoucheDecorationFromPalace_MetropolitanMuseum.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/31/AmenhotepIII-FaienceCartoucheDecorationFromPalace_MetropolitanMuseum.png License: CC-BY-2.5 Con-
tributors: Own Work (photo) Original artist: Keith Schengili-Roberts
File:Amenhotep_III_and_Sobek1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Amenhotep_III_and_Sobek1.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Leoboudv. Original
artist: Original uploader was Markh at en.wikipedia
File:Amenhotep_IV.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Amenhotep_IV.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Con-
tributors: Photo by Juan R. Lazaro source Original artist: Juan R. Lazaro
File:Amnophis_III.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Am%C3%A9nophis_III.JPG License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ancient_Egypt_Wings.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Ancient_Egypt_Wings.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape by Je Dahl. Original artist: Je Dahl
File:Animation_disc_film.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Animation_disc_film.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work, self made using with File:Animation_disc.svg and File:Video-x-generic.svg. Original artist: Jj98
File:Anuk.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Anuk.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Trans-
ferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Closedmouth. Original artist: Original uploader was Tiger cub at
en.wikipedia
File:Aten.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Aten.svg License: CC-BY-2.5 Contributors: [//commons.
wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aten.JPG&action=edit&redlink=1 Image:Aten.JPG] Original artist: User:AtonX
File:Aten_disk.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Aten_disk.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Aten_temple,_Meryre{}s_tomb.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Aten_temple%2C_Meryre%
27s_tomb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Amarna tomb of Meryre Original artist: Unknown
File:Aten_temple,_Panehsy{}s_tomb.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Aten_temple%2C_
Panehsy%27s_tomb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Amarna tomb of Panehsy Original artist: Unknown
File:Aten_worship_-_Great_Hymn_to_Aten2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Aten_worship_-_
Great_Hymn_to_Aten2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sofiatopia.org/equiaeon/davies.htm (greater contrast) Origi-
nal artist: Amehotep IV (Akhenaten), found in N. de G. Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amarna, part VI, The Egypt Exploration Fund
(London, 1908)
File:Ay_receiving_the_Gold_of_Honor.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Ay_receiving_the_Gold_
of_Honor.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ddenisen/7179205803/in/photostream/ Original artist:
ddenisen (D. Denisenkov)
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C. Bezold
260 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

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262 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

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264 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

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96.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 265

File:Stela_of_the_Great_temple_of_Aten_at_Akhetaten2008.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/

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266 CHAPTER 96. TOMBS OF THE NOBLES (AMARNA)

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