CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER
1 Introduction To
Communication
What is Ethics
LE ARNI NG OUTC OMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define communication;

2. Identify elements of communication;

3. Explain a model of communication;

4. Discuss the importance of communication in organisation;

5. Describe communication barriers in organisation;

6. Explain types and form of interorganisational relationship;

7. Discuss the environmental dimensions.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Communication is crucial for organisational managers and their work. In modern companies,
communication from lower to higher members in the hierarchy is critical for organisational
success. The sharing of accurate information is critical to organisational success. The sharing
of accurate information between superiors and subordinates affects not only the satisfaction and
attitudes of organisational members, but also the organisational performances.

ORGANISATION

COMMUNICATION

AFFECTS

Satisfaction

Attitudes of
SUPERIORS organisation members
SUBORDINATES

Organisational
performances

Thus, in this chapter we will discuss about:

Communication.

Communication models.

The importance of communication in organisation.

Communication barriers.

Interorganisational relationship.

Environmental dimension.

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

1.1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

How do we define the term communication? Most dictionaries include the following three
words somewhere in their definitions: Transmit, transfer, and transact (Bittner, 1988). Other
words in addition to transmit, transfer, and transact frequently creep into definitions of com-
munication as shown in the figure 1.1.

Among those words are:

Ideas

Intentions

Codes

Words

Face to face

Meaning

Message

Receiver

Sender

Channel

Information

Interact

Figure 1.1: Communication terms

Communication is a dynamic, ongoing, transactional process (Verdeber, 1984). According to

Verdeber (1984), communication is dynamic because it is constantly in motion, it is ongoing
because it has no fixed beginning or end, it is transactional because the elements occur simulta-
neously and the people communicating are interdependent.
Katz (1978) state: Communications -the exchange of information and the transmission of
meaning-is the very essence of a social system or an organisation (p. 428). Communication
is most important, therefore, in organisation and organisational segments that must deal with
uncertainty and complex. Figure 1.2. describes the process of communication.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

Encode message Encode message Decode sound Decode words

as word as sound to words to meaning

Pressure
changes in air

Message to send Message received

Sender Receiver

Figure 1.2: Communication process

The communication process is by definition is a relational one; one party is the sender and the
other the receiver at a particular point in time. The relational aspect of communication obvi-
ously affects the process. The social relations occurring in the communication process involve
the sender and receiver and their reciprocal effects on each other as they are communicating
(Hall, 1996).
For the purpose of this module, we shall define communication as the act of sharing symbols.
Symbols can be verbal and nonverbal and are the components that comprise the messages of
the communication process.

SELF-CHECK Can you identify some of the communication activities in the picture below?

SELF-CHECK
1. Provide two definitions of communication
2. Why communication is dynamic?

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

1.2 Communication Elements

Communication is a dynamic process. It is constantly in motion, constantly changing, and con-

stantly being adapted by both sender (encoder) and receiver (decoder) of communication. Each
participant in the process of communication affects and is affected by the other people involved.
Among important elements in communication process is as shown in the figure 1.3.

Sender
(Encoder)

Constantly in motion
Communication Constantly changing
Constantly being adapted

Receiver
(Decoder)

Figure 1.3: Elements of communication process

1.2.1 Sender

Sender is the source of communication process. Contemporary communication scholars have

systematically analysed what constitutes a credible speaker. Results indicate that people tend to
evaluate a communication source on at least five specific dimensions: competence, characters,
composure, sociability, and extroversion (Burgoon, Hunsaker & Dawson, 1994). People make
judgments about competence along a variety of dimensions, such as level of education, acces-
sibility to current or pertinent information, or direct experience with the subject of interest. The
dimension of character has strong influence on a receivers perception of source credibility.
When people believe a communicator to be a low character or trustworthiness, they less likely
to listen to, let alone be influenced by, the message. A person, who is composed, especially un-
der conditions of considerable stress, is perceived to be more credible than a person who lacks
composure. Sources that project likableness to their receivers are regarded as sociable. People
who like each other tend to spend more time communicating with each other and are more
likely to be influenced by each other.
The outgoing person who engages readily in communication situations is considered to be an
extrovert. The person who is talkative and not timid in communication activities is sometimes
said to be a dynamic speaker-and may be an effective communicator. A person who is too ex-

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

troverted, however, may talk too much and take over conversations. figure 1.4 shows a sender
passes a message to a receiver.

Sender Message Receiver

Accurate information

Figure 1.4: Communication process

1.2.2 Receiver

Face-to-face communication provides a good perspective for viewing the transactional nature
of the relationship between a source and a receiver. In communication process, receivers will
greatly influence communication transactions. The receivers help determine the topic, level of
interaction and decide whether or not the interaction will proceed any further. Receiver will also
shape the interaction by deciding how much attention to give to the source or content of the
message (Burgoon, Hunsaker & Dawson, 1994).
Each receiver is unique in terms of demographic variables such as age, sex, social status, intel-
ligence, personality and experiences. Accommodation between source and receiver is essential
if an interaction is to be effective. Accommodation made by the source, based on receiver char-
acteristics, can foster feeling of trust and mutual sharing between the interactants.

1.2.3 Channel

The channel is both the route travelled by the message and the means of transportation as shown
in the figure 1.5.

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Facial expressions Gestures

Channel of
Communication

Movement by light waves Air waves

Figure 1.5: Channels of communication

1.2.4 Feedback

Mental or physical response to the messages and it is the response of the receiver that often
enables us to determine whether sharing of meaning really took place. Feedback tells the person
sending a message whether that message was heard, seen, or understood. If the verbal or non-
verbal response tells the sender that the communication was not received or was received incor-
rectly or was interpreted, the person can send the message again, perhaps in a different way, so
that the meaning the sender intends to share is the same meaning received by the listener.

1.2.5 Noise

A persons ability to interpret, un-

derstand and respond to symbols
is often effect by noise. Noise is
any stimulus that gets in the way
of sharing meaning. External nois-
es are distractions such as sounds,
sights and other stimuli that draw
peoples attention away from in-
tended meaning. Internal noises
are the thoughts and feelings that
Figure 1.6: Day dreaming
interfere the meaning such as day

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

dreaming. Semantic noise are those alternate meanings aroused by certain symbols that inhibit
meaning such as decode a word or phrase differently from the way you intended as shown in
the figure 1.6 refers some of the internal noises such as day dreaming.

1.2.6 Messages

Communication takes place through the sending and receiving of messages. These messages
have at least three elements: the symbols used to communicate the meaning and form or or-
ganisation. Meanings are ideas or feelings communicated. These ideas or feelings are expressed
through symbols such as words, sounds or actions that represent meaning. Symbols can be
communicated with both voice and body as shown in the figure 1.7 describes the definition of
encoding and decoding.

Encoding:

The process of transforming ideas and feelings into symbols is called

encoding.

Decoding:

The process of transforming symbols and the accompanying nonverbal

cues into ideal and feelings ideas and feeling is called decoding.

Figure 1.7: Definition of encoding and decoding

1.2.7 Context

Context is the physical or social setting in which communication takes place. Examples of
context variables are location, seating arrangements, time, light, temperature, distance between
communicators and any seating arrangements. Each of these variables affects communication

Communication in Cafeteria Communication in Meeting Room

Figure 1.8: Variables in communication

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

effectiveness. For example, a conversation that takes place in a cafeteria is likely to be different
from a conversation in a meeting session as shown in the figure 1.8.

1.2.8 Historical or Previous Experience

Another important aspect of context is historical or previous experience. The previous commu-
nication episodes that have occurred affect the meanings currently being shared. For example,
this morning Sue tells Sam that she is going to the clinic before going to the office. As Sam en-
ters the office in the afternoon, she sees Sue and says Did you go to the clinic? Another person
listening to the conversation would have no idea of what Sam is talking about. Yet Sue may well
reply, They give me few medications that I need to take. The subject was determined in a dif-
ferent context but still affects the nature of this communication event. figure 1.9 demonstrates
the important aspect of context.

Morning Afternoon

I am going to They gave me few

clinic before going Did you go
medications that i
to the office to the clinic?
need to take

Figure 1.9: Important aspect of context

1.2.9 Psychological

Finally, psychological set each person brings to an episode. The way in which people perceive
themselves, as well as how they perceive those with whom they communicate at the time of the
communication event, will affect the meaning that is shared.

SELF-CHECK
1. What are the three characteristics that define communication?
2. Give five examples of communication elements.
3. What is the role of sender in communication process?

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

1.3 Communication Model

Because the process of communication is so dynamic, we will need a model of communication.

Communication model is a pictorial representation of the communication process. A communi-
cation model helps us to analyse communication situations, help us both to analyse those situa-
tions and to solve communication problems. We can take a first step in solving communication
problems because the model will indicate where things may go wrong or where misunderstand-
ings may occur. figure 1.10 illustrates an example of communication model.

A Communication Model

Message
(where are you?)

Channel

Sender/Encoder Receiver/Decoder

Feedback
(I am in my house)

Figure 1.10: A communication model

In 1948, Harold Laswell, a social scientist, proposed a model of communication that analyzed
the process in terms of the functions performed by it in human societies. According to Lasswell,
one vital function of communication is to provide information about other world powers be-
cause we as a nation depend on communication as a means of preserving our own strength. He
suggested that a simple way to describe the communication process was to answer the following
questions as shown in the figure 1.11 shows questions involved in communication process.

Who says what?

In which channel?

To whom?

With what effects?

Figure 1.11: Communication process

Many models of communication have been concerned with how information passes from one
point to another. Probably the best known models was developed by Shannon and Weaver
(1949). A key concept introduced in the Shannon-Weaver model is noise-unwanted stimuli that
can disrupt the accuracy of the message being transmitted as shown in the figure 1.12.

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model, 1949

Information Transmitter Receiver Destination

Channel
Source (Encoder) (Decoder)

Received
Message Signal Message
Signal

Concepts:
Entropy
Redundancy
Noise Noise
Channel Capacity Source

Figure 1.12: Shannon-Weaver mathematical model

ACTIVITY
Using the concepts discussed in the chapter, develop your own communication
model.

WEBSITE

Refer to http://www.shkaminski.com to learn the details about communication

model.

1.4 The importance of communication

According to Hall (1996, 170), there are four factors which determine the importance of com-
munication or intelligence for the organisation as shown in the figure 1.13.

The degree of conflict or competition with the external environment-typically related

to the extent of involvement with the dependence on government.

The degree of dependence on internal support and unity.

The degree to which internal operations and external environment are believed
to be rationalized, that is, characterised by predictable uniformities and therefore
subject to planned influence; and affecting all of these.

The size and structure of the organisation, its heterogeneity of membership and
diversity of goals, its centrality of authority.

Figure 1.13: Importance of communication

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

Many organisations are placing emphasis on oral communication skills. The ability to interact
positively with coworkers is not only critical to success of the individual but is also critical to
the success of the organisation (Bittner, 1988). The ability to present information effectively to
groups can also be a key opportunity in a professional career.

NOTES Do you know?

In a national survey of 1000 human resources managers, oral communication
skills are identified as valuable for both obtaining employment and successful
job performance. Executives with Fortune 500 companies indicate that college
students need better communication skills, we well as ability to work in teams
and with people from diverse background.

Figure 1.14 illustrates the purpose of communication.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE

OF COMMUNICATION?

To get your listener to HEAR what you tell

them or SEE what you show them.

To get your listeners to UNDERSTAND

what they have heard or seen.

To get your listeners to AGREE with what

they have heard or seen.

To get your listeners to take ACTION which

accords exactly with your overall objectives,
and which they find acceptable.

To receive FEEDBACK from your listeners.

Figure 1.14: Purpose of communication

SELF-CHECK

What are the purposes of communication activities?

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

1.5 communication barriers

In the sections that follow, the factors that contributing to the impossibility of perfect com-
munication systems is examined. These factors range from individual factors to organisational
factors. The focus of this discussion is primarily on communication within organisations. Com-
munication with the environment of organisations will be considered at a later point.
Organisations are information-processing systems. Thus, communication plans very important
roles in organisation. According to Rosenblatt, Cheatham and Watt (1992), the problem of busi-
ness. Figure 1.15 shows the factors affecting communication process.

Communication will increase because of such factors as:

Attitudes and needs of employees are changing.

Business is growing larger.

Business organisation is growing more complex.

The quantity of data and information is exploding.

Competitive pressures are increasing.

Society is demanding improvement of the quality of life.

Governmental regulations are increasing.

Figure 1.15: Factors affecting communication

Communications in organisations overtones to all members who need the communication con-
tent (Hall, 1996). This assumes that neither too much nor too little information is in the system
and that it is clear from the outset who can utilize what is available. Indeed, organisations gather
more information that they can use but also continue to ask for more (Hall, 1996). Barriers to
effective communication may exist between departments in a business, between managers and
subordinates, or between individuals at the same level of operations in the organisation. Figure
1.16 describes the existence of effective communication.

Department in a Business Managers

Effective Communication

Individuals at the same

Subordinates
level of operations

Figure 1.16: Effective communication

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

1.5.1 Individual Factors

Communications in organisations are basically transactions between individuals. The role that
the individual plays in the organisation affects how communication are perceived or sent. Com-
munications behaviors differ according to ones position in a role set. All of these factors are
further complicated by the well-known phenomenon of stereotyping. Stereotyping is your pre-
conceived ideas of what something is about or stands for. This predisposition to judge can occur
before any interaction at all has taken place. It can be involved labels such as minority groups
or any other such group membership.
Other factors that enter the communication process is the halo effect or the use of only one or a
few indicator to generalize about a total situation; projection or a persons assuming that the
other members of a communication system have the same characteristics as the persons own;
and perceptual defense, or altering inconsistent information to put it in line with the concep-
tual framework already developed.

1. Vocabulary Deficiencies
Vocabulary or words is often an index
to a persons education, culture, and
intelligence. However, the use vocab-
ulary of a communicator may include
a large number of words not within
the recognition vocabulary of the lis-
tener (Rosenblatt, Cheatham & Watt,
1992). Such vocabulary deficiencies
are magnified by the ever-increasing
use of jargon. Figure 1.17 shows the
effect of Vocabulary Deficiencies.
Communication breakdown occurs
when we assume that we understand
meaning of a word that in reality is
outside our recognition vocabulary.
Rather than admit that we do not
know what a particular word means,
we frequently try to deduce a mean-
ing from an examination of the con-
Figure 1.17: Vocabulary deficiencies tent in which the word occurred and
Source: http://www.oneyearbibleimages. from nonverbal clues such as facial
com/mouth_tape.jpg expression or intonation.
2. Bipolar Thinking
Bipolar thinking is one illogical oversimplification that frequently interferes with effective
communication. It is the reduction of complex phenomena to simple, either-or, good-or-bad
conceptualizations. The world is not simple enough to allow reduction to a two-value system
as shown in the figure 1.18.

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

I think there are only

two types of person
in this world...
good or bad!

Figure 1.18: Bipolar thinking

3. The Tendency to Evaluate
Rogers (1952) claims that the major barrier to mutual interpersonal communication may be
defined as our very natural tendency to judge, to evaluate, to approve (or disapprove) the
statement of the other person or the other group from our point of view or our own frame of
reference.

1.5.2 Organisational Factors

Organisations develop their own cultures, with language, rituals, and styles of communications.
Organisations contain the seeds of communication problems when their vertical and horizontal
components are considered (Figure 1.19).
1. Vertical Communication

Vertical communications in organisations involve both downward and upward flows.

1. Downward communication takes place at all levels from the top down. Elements of down-
ward communication in organisation are job instruction: directives from management on
what is to be done, how it is to be achieved, rationale for a task, rules and regulations:
information regarding procedures and practices within the organisation, performance ap-
praisal: feedback to individual regarding their performance, and management philoso-
phy: attempts to indoctrinate subordinates into accepting and believing in the organisa-
tions or subunit goals. Figure 1.19 demonstrate the concept of downward communication.

Too much downward communication can overload the system to the point that much of the

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

Downward Communication

Branch Manager

Marketing Manager Finance Manager Operation Manager

B.D.O Cashier Officer

Figure 1.19: Downward communication

communication goes unheeded (Bittner, 1988). A lack of sensitivity to timing can also de-
stroy the effectiveness of communication.

2. Upward Communication Organisations sensitive to employee feelings and opinions en-

courage every opportunity for upward communication as shown in the figure 1.20.

Upward Communication

Branch Manager

Marketing Manager Finance Manager Operation Manager

B.D.O Cashier Officer

Figure 1.20: Upward communication

Figure 1.21 refers some examples of upward communication.

Examples of upward communication are self appraisal:

Employees communicate to supervisors how they feel about their success on the
job, appraisal of others.

Communicating to supervisors about the performance of subordinates and

organisational policy.

Opinions of how things should or do operate and of normal and abnormal policies
and procedures.

Figure 1.21: Examples of upward communication

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

2. Horizontal Communication
Communications in organisations go in more directions than up and down. Horizontal or
lateral communication is a regular and important facet of organisational life. Interaction
among peers is only one form of horizontal communication. The other major form, obviously
vital for the overall coordination of the operations, occurs between members of different
organisational subunits. It can be used to form some of the strongest relationships between
employees. In a simple example, problems between production and sales are supposed to be
resolved through either the office or the individual in charge of both activities. Figure 1.22
demonstrate the concept of horizontal communication.

Horizontal Communication

Branch Manager

Marketing Finance Operation

Manager Manager Manager

B.D.O Cashier Officer

Figure 1.22: Horizontal communication

Horizontal communication is sometimes difficult to monitor. This is one of the reasons man-
agement should be receptive to upward communication. If management places a lid on up-
ward communication, that communication can be diffused horizontally within the organisa-
tion. This can cause serious problems if the horizontal communication is negative and cre-
ates tension and loss of morale within the organisation.
3. Lack of Communication Policy
Few companies have clean-cut and stated policies dealing with intra-or interorganisational
communication. For such a policy to be effective, there must be a climate conducive to
communication within the organisation. There must be free and permissive attitudes for the
exchange of ideas and information in all directions.
The organisation chart may not show where the true authority and responsibility is vested
(Rosenblatt, Cheatham & Watt, 1996). Communications may bypass individuals or levels
by design or through lack of understanding. Individuals often become communication or
power-centers as a result of their technical knowledge, access to information or leadership
abilities.
Although some firms have a formal communication training program, or lectures dealing
with the subject as part of management or supervisory training, for the most part, communi-
cation training has been a trivial portion of another program as shown in the figure 1.23.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

Work flow Management

Scheduled Tasks
Assign Actors
Synchronize Activities
Track Information Flows
Business Partners Employees

Customers

Figure 1.23: Formal communication training program

4. Hierarchy
The most obvious contribution of a hierarchy is coordination. Hierarchies give some people
power and authority over other people and prevent some people from gaining power. How-
ever, there are several specific dysfunctions of hierarchy for the communication process.
Some of the factors related to the hierarchy are filtering, distortion and refusal to communi-
cation.
Such differences in term of power and authority inhibit effectiveness communication. For
example, there is a common tendency for people at the same status level to interact more
with one another than with those at different levels. At the same time, there is a tendency for
those in lower-status positions to look up to and direct friendship overtures toward those in
higher-status positions. This situation is further complicated by the fact that those in higher-
status positions also direct such communications upward rather than reciprocating to their
subordinates, thus reducing the amount of satisfaction derived for all parties.
Upward communication is important to management as it reveals how well ideas, policies,
and work rules have been accepted. However, circumstances and inabilities on the part of
subordinates can contribute to the problem. Often, subordinates barriers to upward commu-
nication are freedom to contact supervisors, lack of ability to articulate or get the message
across and unfamiliarity with the supervisors job.
The more levels of management through which a message must be transmitted, the more
chances for distortion, delays, or failure of message to reach its destination. Filtering occurs
when people intentionally or unintentionally leave out some of the details of a message, such
as reluctant to tell supervisor or negatively leave out negatives associated with out job per-
formance as shown in the figure 1.24.

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Message must be
transmitted

More changes Level of management Delay

for distorion

Failure of message to reach

its destination

Figure 1.24: Levels of management

5. Horizontal Communication
Communications between subunits inevitably contain elements of conflict. The conflict will
be greater if the units involved invest values in their understanding and conceptualizations.
Horizontal communications across organisational lines thus contain both the seeds and the
flower of conflict (Hall, 1996). Such conflict will contribute to distortion of communications.
Actually, horizontal and vertical aspects of organisations both create complications for com-
munication. Communication works across ranks and organisational divisions.
6. Omission and Distortion
The problem of distortion arises when messages must travel up or down five to six different
hierarchical levels which is unavoidable. Distort of information intentionally to serve their
own purpose such as placing individual goals ahead of those of the organisation. In hierar-
chies, the refusal to communication in an organisation when members decides that someone
else should have certain information, due to conscientious or conflicts between constraints of
hierarchy and the human desires.
Distortion refers to altered meanings of messages as they pas through the organisation. People
are selective, intentionally or unintentionally, about what they receive as messages. At any
given moment we are being bombarded by physical and psychological stimuli competing for
our attention. With similar disparities between each of the other senses and the brain, it is
easy to see that we must select the visual, audible, or tactile stimuli that we wish to compute
at any specific time.
Omission involves the deletion of aspects of messages (Hall, 1996). It occurs because the
recipients may not be able to grasp the entire content of the message and only receive or
pass on what they are able to grasp. Omission may be intentional, as when certain aspects of
information are deleted from the information passed through particular segments of the or-
ganisation. Omission can occur simply as a removal of details, with the heart of the message
still transmitted upward.
7. Overload
All the communication problems discussed derive from the fact the communications in or-
ganisations require interpretation. If there is a case of extreme overload, the interpretive pro-
cess becomes inundated with so much material that it becomes inoperative. Thus, interpreta-
tion occurs regardless of whether or not priorities are set in advance or simply as messages
received.
Receivers must contend with many competing stimuli in addition to the sources nonverbal

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

cues. There are internal psychological stimuli such as hunger, sleepy as well as psychological
stimuli (anxiety, happiness, anger) that compete for our attention.

SELF-CHECK
1. Provide five types of organisational communication barriers.
2. Explain the statement, Words dont mean. People mean.

ACTIVITY Attend a lecture with two of your friends. At the conclusion of the lecture, ask
your friends to write down the most important idea expressed by the speaker, the
things that impressed them most about the entire communication event, and the
things that impressed them least. How do the lists differ? What does this tell you
about the phenomenon of selective perception?
The Distortion Barriers
Follow these instruction carefully:
1. The instructor will a selected member of the group a copy of a short newspa-
per article. This article will be read and absorbed by the selected person for
a maximum of two minutes. It will then be returned to the tutor. The selected
person will then go out of the room in company with a second member of the
group. Outside and so as not to be heard by the others, the first person will
explain the contents of the article to the second person, the second person
will listen but not to ask questions.
2. The first person will now return to the group and a third person will join the
second person outside the room. The second person will tell the third person
the contents of the news item as it was told to him/her. Again, the third per-
son will listen but not ask questions.
3. The second person will now rejoin the main group and a fourth person will
join the third person outside. The process will be repeated as before.
4. Meanwhile, the tutor will now give copies of the article to the remainder of
the group for study.
5. The third and fourth persons now return to the room. The third person re-
joins the main group. The fourth person sits facing them and explains to
them the contents of the article. The remainder of the group then ask ques-
tions designed to discover just how much of the original message has been
received and understood by the last link in the communications chain.

What did you learn about communication from this experiment? How do you
think the message could have been transmitted more effectively? Bearing in
mind that there are often four levels of management in organisation, what do you
think are the implications?

Adapted from: Chilver (1884)

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Organisational Environments and

1.6
Interorganisational Relationships

Interorganisational Relationship (IOR) refer to the cooperative arrangements which are devel-
oped between individuals or between organisations to enable the participants in these arrange-
ments to share and receive skills and/or knowledge as to improve their current positions.
All organisations have relationships with other organisations. Figure 1.25 shows the relation-
ship between police department and other organisations as an example of interorganisational
relationship. Thus, IOR brings groups of individuals and organisations together to work with
one another to find solutions to large problems, or to share their knowledge with one another in
order to improve and survive.

Figure 1.25: Interorganisational relationship

Source: http://www.rmp.gov.my

The Environment and Development of

1.7
Organisations/Environmental Dimensions

The environmental factors or dimension can also be called external factors which influence the
outcome of a communication within organisation. Among environment factors that influence
organisations are politic, economic, social and technological as shown in the Figure 1.26.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

Tec
ho
ics
lit

no
Po

log
y
Environmental
Facts
Eco

al
m
no

ci
So
ics

Figure 1.26: External factors of communication

Political dimension covers individual or group preference. It does affect the communication ef-
fectiveness within an organisation. Poor coordination and goals within an organisation control
will lead to personnels to bring in unproductive political matter into the working place. This
will lead to unstable condition within the workplace. Group and alliances will emerge based on
individual political preferences. People will not have a dynamic communication flow within the
organisation. Unhealthy criticism and comments made by different political idealism groups or
individual will lead to argument.
In term of economic dimension, organisations with healthy revenue stream can have the leisure
to invest in more channels of communication. New technology can be introduced to ensure fast
and prompt information transfer. Besides having to delegate information faster, upward, down-
ward, and horizontal communication can also be improved to be more effective.
Social dimension involve culture. Culture also affects communication within organisation. How
the executives and senior management interact with the rest of the organisation set the tone of
an organisations communication flow. The importance of the internal culture or organisational
climate factor has received varying degrees of attention by organisational scholars and practi-
tioners. Internal organisational cultures are stable and hard to change (Hall, 1996). Figure 1.27
shows some of the technologies used in Communication.

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Figure 1.27: Technology in communication

Technology is one of the important elements in organisation

In term of technological dimension, technology plays one of the most significant roles within
organisations communication effectiveness. The most significant impact that we can see is the
emergence of the Internet. Internet has transformed our lives, the way we communicate, how
we learn, work and spend free time. Information transfer is faster and more efficient with the
help of technology.

1.7.1 The Perceptions of the Environment

An organisation selects those aspects of the environment with which it is going to deal (Star-
buck, 1976). The selection process is affected by the selection processes of other organisations
with which it is in contact. At the same time, interorganisational linkages are affected by envi-
ronmental pressure (Provan, Beyer, and Kruytboisch, 1980).
Organisational theory has stressed the importance of perceived uncertainty in the environment.
The environment thus contains elements of certainty and uncertainty. Even when an environ-

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

ment is quite certain, of course, there is no guarantee that it will be perceived as such (Miliken,
1990). Universities, for example, face certain demographic profile of the number and distribu-
tion of potential students.

1.7.2 The Impact of Environment on the Organisation

What all of these environmental factors do to the organisations? Organisations vary in their
vulnerability to environmental pressures. The more dependent an organisations is on its envi-
ronment, the more vulnerable it is. For example, cigarette companies are attempting to manage,
regulate, and reduce damage of the anti-smoking movement.
When organisation is vulnerable, it reacts to the environment. Among the strategies that or-
ganisations develop for dealing with their environments, a critical one is to attempt to shape
the environment itself. It might appear that in situations of scare resources, organisations might
resort to illegal acts such as price fixing or other activities to restrain trade.
Organisations compete with each other for technological, political, economic, legal and other
such advantages. This competition takes place in overlapping dimensions of the environment.
Organisational environments are thus subject to actual, attempted, and perhaps even uninten-
tional manipulation by the organisations within them.

Interorganisational Relationships (IOR):

1.8
Forms and Levels

Barringer and Harrison (2000) distinguishes the most common types of IOR:

1.8.1 Joint Venture

Joint ventures are most commonly seen in matured industries where companies wishing to cap-
ture economics of scale will expand their geographical market. Under this arrangement, two or
more firms pool a portion of their resources to form a separately owned ventures. Traditionally,
one firm will have the products, marketing capabilities, and financial resources. It then seeks to
enter a foreign market. To do this, it teams up and enters into a joint venture with a local firm;
the latter usually providing the venture with local legitimacy, market knowledge and contacts.
For new industries, joint ventures enable a firm to get their products to the market faster, and to
capitalise on opportunities for innovation and learning.

1.8.2 Network

A network is established along social lines, rather than by legally binding contracts. The links
resembles a hub-and-wheel configuration. One firm will assume the focal position in the centre.
Participating firms in this arrangement are positioned around the central firm. In this way, the
central firm is authorised by the group of participating firms to coordinate their interdependent
activities. Through this cooperation, each member in the group can focus on their particular

24
 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

specialisation. Subsequently, their combine their efforts to produce a product, service or a new
technology-creating a value for the benefit of all firms in the networkas shown in the Figure
1.28.

Figure 1.28: Interorganisational network

1.8.3 Consortia

The firms share a similar need, and they come together in this cooperative arrangement to form
a new entity which would then engage in activities that will satisfy the needs of the participat-
ing firms.

1.8.4 Alliance

This is an arrangement between two or more firms to establish an exchange relationship, but,
has no joint ownership involved. The relationship is informal, no new entity is formed, and
there is no central administrative authority and the relationship tends to be short term because
of its informal nature.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

1.8.5 Trade Association

This is formed by firms in the same industry. Its primary functions are to collect and dissemi-
nate trade information and technical advice, furnish industry-related training, and provide a
platform for collective lobbying. Through collective lobbying, the group is represented by one
voice to raise their concerns to the governing activities.

1.8.6 Interlocking Directorates

This cooperative arrangement arises when directors of a company sit on the boards of various
companies with an objective of spreading innovation among the companies. Direct interlock
is when a director of one firm sits on the board of another firm. Indirect interlock is when two
firms have directors who sit on the board of the third firm.

A Framework for Interorganisational

1.9
Relationships Analysis

The study of interorganisational relationships (IOR) as per figure 1.29 takes place at 2 levels:

Study of IOR

Micro Level Analysis Macro Level Analysis

This involves the analysis of interpersonal
links between individuals. The links
offer the opportunity for the individuals
to share and learn the skills that will
improve their personal lives.
All the macro level, the study analyses
the cooperative arrangement between
professionals of the organisations
concerned. The cooperative arrangement
provides a platform for the professionals
to share and receive knowledge which may
result in improving their organisations
competitiveness and profitability.

Figure 1.29: A framework for IOR analysis

Outcomes of Interorganisational
1.10
Relationships

IOR brings groups of individuals and organisations together to work with one another to find
solutions to large problems, or to share knowledge with one another to improve and survive.
Through this cooperation, it adds values to the participating organisations. It provides possibil-
ity for the firms innovation and enhancement.
For the employees of these organisations, the cooperative arrangement offers them the opportu-
nity and avenues to discuss current professional practices with others in the related fields. Thus,

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 CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

it enables the employees to perform better in their various tasks as shown in the Figure 1.30
shows an outcome of interorganisational relationship.

Figure 1.30: Interorganisational relationship

SELF-CHECK
1. Provide three forms of IOR.
2. What are the outcomes of IOR?

SUMMARY
1. The communication process in organisations is complicated by the fact that we as indi-
viduals have our idiosyncrasies, biases, and abilities and complicated by organisational
characteristics such as hierarchy or specialisation. Nonetheless, communications within
organisations are central for the other processes of power, leadership, and decision mak-
ing.

2. Communication breakdown occurs for many reasons. At times the breakdown results
from vocabulary deficiencies. Since our brains are not capable of computing the thou-
sands of bits of information picked up by our five senses, the phenomenon of selective
perception frequently becomes another source of communication breakdown. Oversim-
plification of complex phenomena into simple bipolar conceptualisations also signifi-
cantly reduced the options available to participants in a communication transaction.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION l CHAPTER 1

3. To have efficient organisational communications, there must be upward as well as

downward channels. Some barriers to this are lack of freedom to contact superiors, in-
ability to communicate ideas with superiors, and failure to understand the role of the
supervisors job.

4. Thus, in this chapter we have discussed the definition of communication, communi-

cation models, the importance of communication in organisation, and communication
barriers. We also examined some of the impacts of the environment on organisations.
We also noted the impact of the environment on the development of organisations and
considered various dimensions of the environment.

glossary
Appraisal - The classification of someone or something with re-
spect to its worth.

Credible - Capable of being believed.

Day dreaming - Absent-minded dreaming while awake.

Decoder - The kind of intellectual who converts messages from

a code to plain text.

Extroversion - (psychology) An extroverted disposition; concern

with what is outside the self.

Gestures - The use of movements (especially of the hands) to

communicate familiar or prearranged signals.

Halo effect - An indication of radiant light drawn around the head

of a saint.

Idiosyncrasies - A behavioral attribute that is distinctive and peculiar

to an individual.

Intentions - An anticipated outcome that is intended or that guides

your planned actions.

Lobbying - Detain in conversation by or as if by holding on to

the outer garments of; as for political or economic fa-
vors.

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CHAPTER 1 l INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Perceptual - Of or relating to the act of perceiving.

Predictable - Possible to foretell.

Projection - Someone who transmits a message.

Sender - An assistant subject to the authority or control of an-

other.

Subordinates - Someone who transmits a message.

Transmit - Transmit or serve as the medium for transmission.

reference

Books
Schaffert, Richard, W. (1992). The Medias Influence on the Publics Perception of Ter-
rorism and the Question of Media Responsibility. Media Coverage and Political Terror-
ists (61-79). New York: Praeger Publishers.
Carey, James, (1989). Communication as Culture. New York: Routledge Ellis, Russell
& Ann McClintock.
Fiske, John, (1982). Introduction to Communication Studies. London press.
Kress, Gunther, (1988). Communication and Culture. In Gunther Kress (Ed.), Commu-
nication and Culture. Kensington, NSW: New South Wales University Press.
Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson, (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
McQuail, Denis amp & Sven Windahl, (1993). Communication Models for the Study of
Mass Communication. Longman press.
Web Links
http://www.bbc.co.uk/keyskills/comms/1.shtml
http://www.web.cba.neu.edu/~ewertheim/interper/commun.htm
http://www.communicationskills.co.in/types-of-communication-skills.htm
http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html/text/6-2-1frame.html
http://www.directarticles.org/moto-importance_of_communication_in_
organization;22107.html

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multiple choice questions

1. Communication is constantly in motion, changing, and being adapted by both

__________.
A. sender and receiver
B. sender and speaker
C. receiver and gestures

2. A persons ability to interpret, understand and respond to symbols is __________.

A. effect by expression
B. effect by message
C. effect by noise

3. The process of transforming ideas and feelings into symbols is called __________.
A. decoding
B. encoding
C. receiving

4. Barriers to effective communication may exist __________.

A. between sender and receiver
B. between managers and subordinates
C. between superior and receiver

5. The environmental factors or dimension can also be called __________.

A. external factors
B. internal factors
C. economic factors

Discussion Questions
1. Select several common words. Write out definitions of what you think the word mean.
Now, look up the dictionary definitions and compare dictionary definitions with your
own definitions. What are the similarities? What are the differences? How do you ac-
count for the differences?
2. What suggestions would you have to a manager for improving upward communica-
tion?

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