MIG Welding

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
WELDING
CONTENTS LIST
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Safety Precautions
Chapter 3 Power Pack Requirements
Chapter 4 Modes of Transfer
Chapter 5 Weld ID and Terms used in welding
Chapter 6 MIG Defects
Chapter 7 MIG Fault Finding
Chapter 8 Shielding Gases for MIG Welding
Chapter 9 MIG Welding Aluminium
Chapter 10 Identification of Aluminium & Its Alloys
Chapter 11 Filler Wires Used for MIG WELDING
Chapter 12 Distortion
Chapter 13 Welding Symbols

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
1.1 General Description ....................................................................... 1

1.2 Gases ............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Data............................................................................................... 2
1.4 Technique ...................................................................................... 2
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig Page
1.1 Example of a MIG Layout ........................................................... 3
1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) and Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding is a non-pressure fusion type of welding, the
heat being supplied by a high temperature arc (in some cases as high as 15,000k).
The arc is formed between an electrode in the form of continuous wire and the work to be welded. A high
temperature current is passed into the wire, which is automatically fed into the arc column. The electrode is
consumed in the process, and the rate of feed is adjusted so that a constant arc length is maintained.
By adjusting the equipment controls it is possible to obtain four means of metal transfer across the arc, they
are:
SHORT CIRCUIT (DIP)
SEMI-SHORT CIRCUITING (GLOBULAR)
FREE FLIGHT
SPRAY
1.2 GASES
A number of gases, both active and inert, can be used for shielding the arc, CO2, Argon, Helium, Nitrogen
and mixes of these gases are commonly used.
The choice of shielding gases will depend on many factors:
Type of mode of transfer

Type of material to be welded
Thickness of material
Welding position
Welding wires, which act as the electrode and filler metal, are available for most of the metals.
Depending on the equipment being used it is supplied on reels generally of 300mm or 100mm in diameter.
Reels need to be handled with care to prevent damage.
Chapter 1
Page | 1
1.3 DATA
The equipment consists of a welding gun or torch through which the consumable wire is fed, a wire feed unit
which drives the wire at a governed speed, a constant potential power pack which provides power for
welding and ancillary equipment, and the appropriate shielding gas.
A DC current is used for welding, which is obtained from either an AC/DC transformer/rectifier or a DC
generator. The electrode is always connected to +VE.
Working volts 14 - 60
Welding amps 40 - 900
1.4 TECHNIQUE
Welding is carried out in the leftward or forward direction; the angle of the torch to the work should be 80
approximately.
The relationship of the contact tip to the nozzle differs depending on the mode of transfer:
DIP the contact tip should be level with the end of the nozzle or no more than 3mm
proud.
Spray the contact tip should be approx 6mm down inside the nozzle.
The nozzle is held 12mm from the work on DIP and 18mm on Spray.
NOTES:
Chapter 1
Page | 2
Chapter 1
Page | 3
CHAPTER 2
Safety Precautions
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 Introduction To Safety ................................................................... 1

2.2 Shop Layout ................................................................................. 1
2.3 Hazards .......................................................................................... 2
2.4 Electric Shop ................................................................................. 2
2.5 Arc Radiation ................................................................................ 2
2.6 Heat And Hot Metal ...................................................................... 3
2.7 Fumes ............................................................................................ 3
2.8 Protective Clothing ....................................................................... 4
2.9 Chapter Revision ........................................................................... 4
Fig Page
2.1 Damage To Eyes............................................................................ 3
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY
Safety at the work place is governed by the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.
Safety is the responsibility of each person at work, and part of his/her everyday activities, Therefore each
individual at work must be committed to following safe systems of work and achieving adequate standards
of safety.
In addition they must be alert, using all their senses to identify hazards and risks and either correct the
problem or report it to their immediate supervisor.
2.2 SHOP LAYOUT
When first reporting to a new workshop, find out as soon as possible the nearest location of the following:
Exits
Fire fighting equipment
Telephones
Water tap
First aid kit and attendant
With the above information, should there be an emergency, it can be dealt with quickly.
Details on what action to take in the event of a Fire Alert or Explosion are prominently displayed within
the welding complex.
READ AND REMEMBER THEM
Chapter 2
Page | 1
2.3 HAZARDS
There are many hazards associated with MIG welding very similar to that of MMA welding. These include:
Electric shock.
Arcs.
Enclosed spaces.
Fumes.
Fire and explosion.
Hot metal.
Cylinders.
Mechanical hazards.
Noise.
2.4 ELECTRIC SHOCK
As little as 2ma of current can be fatal. In a confined space or damp, humid conditions the risk of electric
shock is increased. Follow the safety precautions and stay alive.
There are two types of electric current used for welding. Alternate Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC).
DC flows in one direction only, i.e. negative (-) to positive (+), whereas AC has no definite polarity as the
current flows from the positive to the negative and then reverses and flows from the negative to the positive. This
change of direction takes place 100 times per second in a normal 50- cycle supply.
DC supplied machines are considered safer than AC supplied as the open circuit voltage required to establish
the arc is normally less than when using AC. Moreover, when a shock is received from an AC supply there may
be difficulty in letting go of a live conductor, not normally experienced with DC.
2.5 ARC RADIATION
When an electric welding arc is established, three types of radiation are released:
Bright Light Radiation is within the visible spectrum having wavelengths between 4000 and 7500
angstroms. Bright light radiation does not cause permanent injury but has a dazzling effect on the eyes.
This can lead to temporary blindness, which disappears shortly after the arc has been extinguished.
Infra-Red Radiation is beyond the visible spectrum at the red end, having wavelengths greater than 7500
angstroms. These rays can cause cataracts on the eyes and deep burns. It gives off a feeling of warmth and
because of this discomfort will usually prevent over exposure.
Ultra-Violet Radiation is again beyond the visible spectrum at the Violet end having wavelengths less
than 4000 angstroms. Short exposure to this ray (seconds) can result in painful red areas on the skin and
can cause arc eye (eye flash) in the eyes. The effects from exposure to ultra-violet radiation usually take
8-12 hours to manifest it. Prolonged exposure can cause skin cancer.
Chapter 2
Page | 2
Fig 1.1 Damage To Eyes
Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation

Eyes. When the eyes are exposed to ultra-violet radiation a painful condition known as "arc eye" may
result.
Signs and Symptoms. Intense pain in the eyes, eyes may feel gritty. Affected eyes may be red,
watering and sensitive to light.
Actions on. Bathe eyes with cold water. Lightly dress the eyes with eye pads or similar pads of clean,
non-fluffy material. Seek medical aid.
Skin. If the skin is exposed to the radiation a condition similar to severe sunburn may result.
Signs and Symptoms. The skin will be red and feel sore and very painful.
Actions on. Bathe with cold clean water. Cool down as necessary.
2.6 HEAT AND HOT METAL
All hot metal should be marked "hot" in a conspicuous position. This will prevent unsuspecting people
handling the item and burning themselves. On larger structures the time and date are also advantageous. Spatter
and globules of molten metal can cause small but painful bums. In order to protect the welder from these hazards
the correct protective clothing should be worn.
2.7 FUMES
Due to the fumes given off during the welding process, it is important that adequate ventilation and
extraction is provided.
When welding using the TIG process it is important to be aware of the higher UV radiation. The UV
radiation has a severe affect on the atmosphere; some of the Oxygen is transformed into OZONE which is
highly toxic further to Ozone, Oxygen and Nitrogen react together to form Nitrous Oxides. Both Ozone and
Nitrogen Oxide can cause long term health problems if the correct extraction and individual protection are not
used.
Particulate Fumes are another hazard. Metal oxides in particular have a greater danger in the long term, most are
accumulative within the body, and some have a marked detrimental effect on some body functions. Fumes and
Particulate fumes are categorised into the following groups:
GROUP ONE: Cadmium, Beryllium, Lead, Cobalt, Copper, Nickel, Tin, Zinc, Chromium and
Manganese.
GROUP TWO: Aluminium, Magnesium, Molybdenum, Low Carbon Steels, Titanium, Tungsten and
Chapter 2
Page | 3
Zirconium.
GROUP THREE: Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Phosgene.
GROUP FOUR: Argon, Argon/hydrogen, Helium and Nitrogen.
The extraction requirements for the above groups are as follows:

GROUP ONE: The fumes when welding these metals even as an alloy are highly toxic and great care is required
to properly site the fume extractor so as to prevent the fume escaping into the workshop. Full protection is
always required when welding Cadmium, Beryllium and Lead. When welding in an open shop general
extraction is required, for welding in confined spaces local and general extraction is required.
GROUP TWO: The fume from this group is generally non-toxic and general extraction is all that is required
supplemented by local extraction when necessary in confined spaces.
GROUP THREE: Ozone and Nitrogen dioxide as previously stated are highly toxic, local extraction is
required to remove them, it should be sited above the weld, in the heat/plume, normally 450mm - 600mm clear
of work piece. Breathing zone protection may be additionally required. Phosgene is produced when heat breaks
down chlorinated hydrocarbons (trichlorocthylene, carbon tetrachloride, and trichlorethane) degreasing fluids.
These fluids should never be left in the welding area. Metal to be welded should be completely dry of any
degreasing fluid prior to welding.
GROUP FOUR: These gases are asphyxiates. Argon is one of the main shielding gases in TIG welding. Argon
is heavier than air so precautions need to be taken when welding in confined spaces. When welding in the shop a
low volume extractor set at floor level is necessary to remove this hazard.
Fig 2.2 Fumes
2.8 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
A suitable head screen with the correct filter lens fitted that conforms to BS 679 should be used.
Chapter 2
Page | 4
Leather gloves with cuffs should be worn. These are to protect not only from heat spatter, and burns but also
prevent prolonged exposure to ultra-violet radiation.
Coveralls should be flameproof and be in a serviceable condition. They should be clean and free from grease
and oil.
A leather apron can be worn to give added protection, when doing heavy welding and cutting.
Leather boots should be worn, ideally with steel toecaps. These give the welder protection from falling and hot
metal.
2.9 CHAPTER REVISION
1. List three types of arc radiation.
2. Which Act of Parliament covers Health and Safety?
3. Welding cable connections should conform to which British Standard?
4. What is meant by the term "Arc Eye"?
5. List 9 different hazards.
6. Fumes and Particulate fumes are broken down into how many groups?
7. List the ten materials in "group one".
8. How is Phosgene formed?
9. When welding in a confined space what are the extraction requirements?
10. How is Ozone formed when welding?
Chapter 2
Page | 5
CHAPTER 3
Power Pack Requirements
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1

3.2 Constant Current ............................................................................ 1
3.3 Constant Potential.......................................................................... 2
3.4 Controlled Arc ............................................................................... 3
3.5 Self Adjusted Arc .......................................................................... 4
Fig Page
3.1 Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) ................................ 1

3.2 Constant Potential .......................................................................... 2
3.3 Controlled Arc (Variable Motor Speed) ........................................ 3
3.4 Self Adjusting Arc ......................................................................... 4
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to understand MIG welding better, it is necessary to realise that the requirements from the power
source is considerably different from other Arc welding processes.
There are two methods for controlling the arc in MIG welding. These are known as:
1. Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic)
2. Constant Potential (Self-adjusting Arc)
Constant Potential is usually employed in MIG welding, but Constant Current may be used occasionally with
larger diameter wires (greater than 2.4mm).
3.2 CONSTANT CURRENT
Fig 3.1 Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic)
Chapter 3
Page | 1
From Fig 3.1 it can be seen that when the arc is to be struck a 100 volts (Open Circuit Voltage) is available
but no current, as soon as the arc is struck the voltage fails very rapidly and the current rises until an
equilibrium point is reached where the current and voltage stabilise.
The Stabilised current will be one that the welder has chosen, exactly as in MMA.
The thing to note here, is that if the arc length increases the voltage goes up, if the arc length decreases the
voltage goes down, but the overall difference in voltage is small only about 6 volts and if the graph is
consulted we can see that for changes in the voltage very little change in current occurs.
In practice, the heat in the arc stays more or less the same regardless of arc length.
3.3 CONSTANT POTENTIAL
Fig 3.2 Constant Potential
With this type of power pack a relatively low open circuit voltage (OCV) is used. This is usually about 1 - 2
volts per 100 amps higher than the working voltage.
By consulting the graph we can see that any changes in voltage will result in a large change in current
(amps).
Another thing to consider is that the Open Circuit Voltage is set by the welder unlike the MMA plants where
the manufacturer sets the Open Circuit Voltage.
If we look at the table below, we can compare the two different power packs and you can see the differences
in the Volts and Amps and the resulting heat output (Watts)
Constant Current Constant Potential
ARC LENGTH
VOLTS AMPS WATTS VOLTS AMPS WATTS
IN mm
1 17 148 2482 18.5 199 3682
2 20 140 2800 20 140 2800
3 23 129 2967 21 86 1806
As you can see the results show that the Constant Current machine had larger voltage changes than the
Constant Potential machine, but the heat output had only little changes compared to that of the Constant
Potential.
Chapter 3
Page | 2
TO SUMMARISE:
When using a constant current power pack changes in the voltages cause small changes in current.
When using a constant potential power pack changes in voltage cause large changes in current
So why is a constant potential power pack preferred?
3.4 CONTROLLED ARC
In MIG welding the maintaining of the correct "ARC LENGTH" for the setting selected is a function of the
machine.
A Constant Current machine has the following layout:
Fig 3.3 Controlled Arc (Variable Speed Motor)
From the diagram we can see that there are two power leads, the +VE always goes to the torch and the -VE or
return lead is connected to the work. There are also two ARC SENSING leads connected from the wire feed
motor. One is between the +VE terminal on the motor and the welding torch contact tip; the other is between
the -VE on the motor and the parent metal.
The Arc sensing leads would be part of the Torch and the Return Cable.
If the arc length increases then the arc voltage increases, which causes the motor to go faster, to which more
wire is fed thus correcting the arc length.
If the arc length decreases then the arc voltage decreases, which cause the motor to slow down, less wire is fed and
the correct arc length is restored.
This wire feed unit is said to be a "VARIABLE SPEED MOTOR".
The problem using this type is that the thinner the wire the faster it has to be fed. In some cases anything up to
25 metres per minute and because the method of correcting the arc length is part electrical and part mechanical,
the response would be too slow and the wire would end up stubbing on the plate.
Chapter 3
Page | 3
However with the large MIG welding wires (over 2.4mm) this method is acceptable because of the slower
welding speeds, which allows time for the correction of the arc length.
3.5 SELF ADJUSTING ARC
3.4 Self Adjusting Arc
With this power pack the electrical forces within the arc control the arc length. If the arc length increases,
the heat goes down drastically, less wire is melted and the arc length is restored to the correct length. If the
arc length decreases then the heat increases melting more wire thus re-establishing the correct arc length.
From all this you can see that the setting of the correct condition is the important thing, but once done
unless there is some other malfunction the machine will control the arc length.
TO SUMMARISE:
When using a Constant Current power pack a controlled arc using a Variable Speed Motor is essential.
When using a Constant Potential power pack a self-adjusting arc is used with a fixed speed motor.
These two wire feed units are not inter-changeable.
1. What are the differences between Constant Current and Constant Potential?
2. What is the Open Circuit Voltage when using a Constant Potential power pack?
3. Explain how the arc is controlled when using a variable speed motor and what size wire would you
generally use with it.
4. Explain what is meant by the term Self Adjusting Arc.
Chapter 3
Page | 4
CHAPTER 4
Modes of Transfer
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1

4.2 Short Circuiting (DIP) ................................................................... 2
4.3 Inductance ..................................................................................... 2
4.4 Spray.............................................................................................. 3
4.5 Pulse .............................................................................................. 4
4.6 Semi-Short Circuiting (Globular) .................................................... 5
4.7 Free Flight ...................................................................................... 5
4.7a Synergic Pulse ................................................................................. 6
4.8 Welding Conditions Summary......................................................... 7
Fig Page
4.1 Short Circuiting (DIP)..................................................................... 2
4.2 Inductance ...................................................................................... 3
4.3 Spray.............................................................................................. 3
4.4 Pulse............................................................................................... 4
4.5 Semi-Short Circuiting (Globular) .................................................... 5
4.6 Free Flight ...................................................................................... 5
4.7 Synergic Pulse ................................................................................ 6
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The MIG welding process is increasing in use and is slowly replacing more traditional welding processes such
as Oxy-acetylene and MMA. To that end we will take a closer look at the various modes of transfer and there
applications and the shielding gases used with them.
There are five modes of transfer:
MODE OF TRANSFER SHIELDING GAS
Short Circuiting (DIP) CO2 or ARGON/ACTIVE
Spray ARGON or ARGON RICH
Free Flight CO2
Semi-Short Circuiting (Globular) CO2 or ARGON or ARGON RICH
Pulse ARGON or ARGON RICH

Chapter 4
Page | 1
4.2 SHORT CIRCUITING (DIP)
Short Circuiting (Dip) is a low current condition, which is used on ferritic materials.
The filler wire must have considerable resistance before "Dip" is successful, for this reason aluminium and
copper are not welded using "Dip".
Steel is the most common material welded using DIP, in particular thin material up to 2mm thick, making it a
favourite in the car industry, because of the reduced heat input and narrower HAZ thus less distortion, compared
with Oxy/Acetylene welding.
The wire used in DIP vary in size, the car industry tends to use 0.6mm wire, Pipe work 1.0mm and for
general purpose 0.8 or 1.2mm wire.
In order to weld using the DIP mode of transfer the settings on the machine must give conditions within the
following parameters:
CURRENT 30 - 200 Amps

WORKING 15 - 23
VOLTAGE
GAS CO2 or Argon rich
GAS PRESSURE 1.4bar(20psi)
10-15 Litres per minute
GAS FLOW 20 - 30 cubic feet per hour
INDUCTANCE Low - Medium
When this mode of transfer is used the wire actually dips into the molten pool and the arc is completely
extinguished.
This dipping occurs at approximately 130-180 times per second with 0.8mm wire and 70 - 100 times per
second with 1.2mm wire.
So when welding takes place the following occurs:
Fig 4.1
The wire is being fed at a constant speed and electrical forces control the welding:
Wire touches the plate, Current rises (in 1.2mm wire as high as 1500 amps), and wire heats rapidly and
melts.
Gap appears between wire and plate, arc is initiated and the plate heats.
Chapter 4
Page | 2
Arc length decreases, voltage decreases, current increases.
Wire touches the plate, Current rises (in 1.2mm wire as high as 1500 amps), and wire heats rapidly and
melts and so on.
4.3 INDUCTANCE
The main problem in the early years of MIG welding (1956 to 1963) was the fact that when welding
conditions were spot on the sudden rise in current to such high peaks caused an explosion rather than a melt and
molten metal was thrown from the wire and the weld pool, causing large amounts of spatter.
This meant that the weld metal was suspect and the weld area had to have excessive spatter removed.
Experiments showed that this problem could be overcome by introducing INDUCTANCE.
Inductance takes the form of a choke, which sets up a magnetic field, which slows the rate at which the
current rises, it can still reach the same peak but takes longer to arrive at it.
The function of inductance is to control spatter. Too little inductance causes spatter. Too much inductance causes
the wire to stub on the plate.
There are basically two types of inductance that you might come across. Tapped Choke is where the earth return
lead is plugged into various tap's depending on the amount of inductance required. Usually Low Medium and
High.
Another form of choke is in the form of a Saturable Reactor type choke; this is where the amount of
inductance is controlled by the electrical conditions set by the welder. Settings within 20% accuracy can be set but
in the hands of a very experienced welder an accuracy of 5% can be achieved.
As a general rule of thumb the thinner the diameter of wire there less inductance will be required. 0.8mm will
need a low setting and 1.2mm wire a medium setting.
4.4 SPRAY
In order to use this mode of transfer it is necessary to have Argon or an Argon Rich shielding gas.
All aluminium is welded using spray mode of transfer and in all positions. Mild steel can be welded using the
spray mode of transfer, but only when using an Argon Rich gas. Spray cannot be achieved using a CO2 shielding
gas.
When setting a condition for spray we have certain parameters. These parameters start with what is called the
"threshold level" and rise up to the "Maximum level".
Chapter 4
Page | 3
As the above diagram shows, at the threshold the size of the globules is approximately three times the diameter
of the wire and the frequency is about 1 to 2 globules per second, as we change the condition by increasing the
current and voltage, the size of the droplets decrease and the velocity at which they transfer across increases.
If we keep on increasing the condition we will eventually arrive at a setting where welding is no longer
possible and cutting occurs instead or puckering occurs.
The appearance of puckering is very distinctive. When it happens the weld looks black with a very rough
surface. If puckering does occur the weld metal must be completely removed and the welding settings lowered
until sound weld metal is obtained.
Inductance should be set to medium to give a soft start. Although in theory choke is not required in practice it
helps the arc to ignite without an explosion.
WIRE SIZE THRESHOLD MAXIMUM

0.8MM 100 - 110 AMPS 250 - 280 AMPS
1.2 MM 140 - 150 AMPS 430 - 450 AMPS
1.6 MM 170 - 180 AMPS 430 - 450 AMPS
GAS ARGON/ARGON RICH
GAS PRESSURE 2.1 bar (30 psi)
GAS FLOW 15-30 litres/min
INDUCTANCE MEDIUM
4.5 PULSE
Pulse arc welding is a modified form of spray mode of transfer in which there is a controlled and periodic
melting off of the droplets followed by projection across the arc.
A pulse of voltage is applied for a brief duration and at regular frequency. This results in a lower heat output
compared with that of normal spray mode but a higher heat input of Dip transfer.
Chapter 4
Page | 4
To obtain these conditions of transfer it is necessary to have two currents fed to the arc:
1. A background current, which keeps the gap, ionised and maintains the arc.
2. The pulsed current which is applied at 50 or 100Hz and which melts off the wire tip into a droplet, which
is then projected across the arc.
Fig 4.4
4.6 SEMI-SHORT CIRCUITING (GLOBULAR)
This mode of transfer lies between Short Circuit (DIP) and spray transfer ranges and is an intermediate
range in which the frequency of droplet transfer is approaching that of spray yet at the same time short-
circuiting is taking place, however the rapid rise in current causes an explosion but because of the
relatively large amounts of molten metal, spatter is thrown over a wide area. Putting in very high
inductance can reduce the spatter.
Fig 4.5
Semi-short Circuiting arc has certain applications, for example the automatic welding of steels between
4mm and 10mm thick using a CO2 shielding gas.
MINIMUM MAXIMUM
0.8 mm 150 - 160 240 - 250 amps
CURRENT 1.2 mm 280 - 300 600 amps
1.6 mm 320 - 350 900 amps
WORKING VOLTAGE 23-30
GAS C02
GAS PRESSURE 2.1 bar (30 psi)
GAS FLOW 15 - 20 Litres per minute
INDUCTANCE HIGH
Chapter 4
Page | 5
4.7 FREE FLIGHT
This type of a transfer is obtained when using high currents with a CO2 shielding gas and a working voltage of
over 28 volts.
It is called "Free Fight" because the metal being transferred across the arc does so mainly under gravity and not
with a directional velocity as in "Spray".
4.7a SYNERGIC PULSE
In the first generation of pulsed MIG units the output waveform consisted essentially of a half or full
rectified sine wave, with a pulse frequency of either 50 or 100Hz.
In order for the welder to set a condition, he had to set four variables:
1. Peak current or Voltage
2. Pulse frequency
3. Background current
4. Wire feed speed
Although Pulse had many good qualities for the welding industry the level of skill required from the welder
made it unacceptable for use in the industry.
Research work carried out in the early 70's found that the wire diameter and the optimum metal transfer
were related, in other words the size of the droplets were equal to the size of wire when an optimum
condition was selected.
As electronics advanced it made it possible to generate wave shapes that were rectangle instead of
sinusoidal.
Chapter 4
Page | 6
Fig 4.7
So what does this all mean, well we now set the frequency in relation to the size of wire, for example the
frequency will be automatically set when I tell the set that I am using 1.6mm wire. The Pulse frequency is
set automatically via the wire feed speed
4.8 WELDING CONDITIONS SUMMARY
SHIELDING GAS
VOLTS AMPS INDUCTANCE GAS FLOW
GAS PRESSURE
SHORT
0.8 LOW C02 10-15LPM
CIRCUITING 15 - 23 30 - 200 20 psi
1.2 MED ARGON RICH 20 - 30 Cu Fph
(DIP)
ARGON 15-30LPM
SPRAY 19 - 35 100 - 450 MED ARGON RICH 30 - 60 Cu Fph 30 psi
FREE 15-22LPM
FLIGHT 28 - 60 200 - 900 NIL CO2 30 - 45 Cu Fph 30 psi
GLOBULAR 15-20LPM
SEMI-SHORT 23 - 30 150 - 350 HIGH CO2 30 psi
CIRCUITING 30 - 40 Cu Fph
Chapter 4
Page | 7
CHAPTER 5
Weld Identification and Terms used in Welding
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
5.1 Types of Joints.................. ................................................................... 1

5.2 Positions of Joints................................................................................. 1
5.3 Weld Identification........... ................................................................... 3
5.4 General Welding Terms....................................................................... 7
Fig Page
5.1 Types of Joints..................................................................................... 2

5.2 Positions of Joints............. ................................................................... 2
5.3 Weld Identification............................................................................... 3
5.4 Weld Identification................................................................................. 4
5.5 Weld Identification............. ................................................................... 5
5.5 Root of Preparation............................................................................... 5
5.7 Types of Fillet Welds............................................................................... 7
5.1 TYPES OF JOINTS
Fig 5.1 shows various types of joints.
5.2 POSITIONS OF JOINTS
Fig 5.2 shows positions of different joints.
Chapter 5
Page | 1
Fig 5.1 Types of Joints
Fig 5.2 Positions of Joints
Chapter 5
Page | 2
5.3 WELD IDENTIFICATION
a. See Fig 5.3
Fig 5.3 Weld Identification
(1) Weld Metal. All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
(2) Weld Zone. The zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.
(3) Weld Width. The shortest distance between the out toes of the weld face.
(4) Parent Metal. Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding or bronze welding.
(5) Fusion Penetration. The depth to which the parent metal has been fused.
(6) Weld Junction. The boundary between the fusion zone and the HAZ.
(7) Root (of weld). The zone on the side of the first run farthest from the welder.
(8) Fusion zone. The part of the parent metal that is melted into the weld metal.
(9) Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). The part of the parent metal that is metallurgically affected by
the heat of welding or thermal cutting, but mot melted.
(10) Toe. The boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs.
NOTE: The term toe should always be qualified according to whether it applies to the complete
weld or to individual runs.
Chapter 5
Page | 3
b. See Fig 5.4
(1) Weld Face. The surface area of the last run closest to the welder.
(2) Reinforcement. Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes.
(3) Actual Throat Thickness. The perpendicular distance between two lines each parallel
to a line joining the outer toes, one being a tangent at the weld face and the other being
through the furthermost point of fusion penetration.
(4) Design Throat Thickness. The minimum dimension of throat thickness used for
purposes of design.
(5) Leg Length. The distance from the actual or projected intersection of the fusion faces
and the toe of a fillet weld, measured across the fusion face.
(6) Fusion Face. The portion of a surface, or of an edge, that is to be fused, in making a
fusion weld.
c. See Fig 5.5
Chapter 5
Page | 4
(1) Included Angle. The angle between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be
welded.
(2) Root Face. The area of preparation in the root before the angle of bevel.
(3) Gap Root. In fusion welding. The minimum distance at any cross section between the
edges, ends or surfaces to be joined.
(4) Angle of Bevel. The angle at which the edge of a component is prepared for making a
weld.
d. Root (of Preparation). See Fig 5.6
Fig 5.6a Root (of Preparation)
Chapter 5
Page | 5
(1) In the preparation of V, U, J and bevel butt welds . In the zone of the neighbourhood
of, and including, the gap.
Fig 5.6b Root (of Preparation)
(2) In a square butt weld with backing bar or strip. The zone between the prepared edges adjacent to a
backing bar or strip.
Fig 5.6c Root (of Preparation
(3) In parts assembled for fillet welding. The zone in the neighbourhood of the actual or projected
intersection of the fusion faces
e. Types of Fillet Welds. See 5.7
(1) Flat Face Fillet Weld. A fillet weld in which the weld face is approximately flat.
Chapter 5
Page | 6
(2) Mitre Fillet Weld. A flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the
agreed tolerance.
(3) Convex Fillet Weld. A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex.
(4) Concave Fillet Weld. A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave.
Fig 5.7 Types of Fillet Welds
Chapter 5
Page | 7
5.4 GENERAL WELDING TERMS
Terms common to more than one welding process.
Automatic Welding Welding in which all the welding parameters are controlled and may be
automatically varied during welding by mechanical and/or electronic
means to maintain the required welding conditions.
Building Up The deposition of metal on a surface until required dimensions are

obtained.
Closed Joint Preparation A preparation in which the components to be joined are substantially in
contact before welding.
Covered Filler Rod A filler rod having a covering of flux.
Deposited Metal Filler metal after it becomes part of a weld or joint.
Deposition Rate The mass of metal deposited in a unit of time.
Dilution The alteration of composition of the metal deposited from a filler wire
electrode due to mixing with the melted parent metal. It is usually
expressed as the percentage of melted parent metal in the weld metal.
Preparation The surface prepared on the edge of a component to be welded.
Effective Length The length of continuous weld of specified dimension.
Filler Metal Metal added during welding, bronze welding or surfacing.
Filler Rod Filler metal in the form of a rod.
Filler Wire Filler metal in the form of a coil of wire.
Flux Material used during welding or bronze welding to clean the surfaces
of the joint chemically, to prevent atmospheric oxidation and to reduce
impurities.
Hard Facing The application of a hard, wear resistant material to the surface of a
component by welding, bronze welding or spraying.
Joint Preparation A connection where the individual components, suitably prepared and
assembled, are joined by welding.
Layer A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs.
Leg The width of a fusion face in a fillet weld.
Open Joint Preparation A preparation in which the components to be joined are separated by a
specific gap before welding.
Root Radius The radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component
prepared for a single. J, single U, double J or double U weld.
Chapter 5
Page | 8
Run The metal melted or deposited during one passage of an electrode, torch
Blowpipe.
Semi-Automatic Welding Welding in which some of the welding parameters are automatically
controlled, but manual guidance is necessary.
Surfacing The deposition of metal on a surface to provide a layer giving properties

different from those of the parent metal.
Surface Fusion Welding Gas welding in which a carburising flame is used to melt the surface of
the parent metal, which then unites with molten metal from a suitable
filler rod
NOTE: This application is used for hard facing, building up and the like.
Tack Weld A weld used to assist assembly or to maintain alignment of edges, ends
or surfaces to be joined.
Weld A union of pieces of metal made by welding.
Welder The operator who performs the welding.
Welding An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat or
pressure or both in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of
the metal between these parts. A filler metal - the melting temperature of
which is of the same order as that of the parent metal may or may not
be used.
Welding Plant The entire apparatus for providing and controlling energy. and movement
if necessary. for making a weld.
Welding Procedure A specific course of action followed in welding, including a list of

materials and, where necessary, tools to be used.
Welding Process A particular method of welding. involving the application of certain

metallurgical, electrical, physical. chemical or mechanical principles.
Welding Sequence The order and direction in which joints, welds or runs are made.
Welding Technique The manner in which an operator manipulates an electrode, a blowpipe

or a similar appliance
Chapter 5
Page | 9
CHAPTER 6
MIG Defects
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1

6.2 Porosity ......................................................................................... 2
6.3 Lack of Penetration ....................................................................... 2
6.4 Lack of Fusion ............................................................................. 2
6.5 Cracking ........................................................................................ 2
6.6 Undercut ....................................................................................... 2
6.7 Spatter ........................................................................................... 3
6.8 Testing Of Welds .......................................................................... 3
6.9 A sound weld ................................................................................ 3
6.10 Shape of profile ............................................................................. 3
6.11 Penetration .................................................................................... 6
6.12 Lack of Fusion/Interun fusion....................................................... 6
6.13 Undercut........................................................................................ 7
6.14 Overlap.......................................................................................... 7
6.15 Cracking..................................................................................................... 8
6.16 Porosity, Blowholes and Pipes ................................................................ 9
6.17 Lack of Reinforcement ............................................................................. 10
6.18 Surface Defects ......................................................................................... 10
6.19 Disposition of Runs .................................................................................. 12
6.20 Miscellaneous Defects.............................................................................. 12
6.21 Inspection & Testing of welds ................................................................. 13
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Visual inspection of the weld will give a guide to the correct choice of welding conditions and will
indicate many of the following points:
Has fusion been achieved between weld metal and parent metal?
Is there any indentations, suggesting undercut along the line where the weld metal joins the parent
metal?
Has penetration been obtained right through the joint?
Has the joint been built up with sufficient reinforcement?
Has spatter occurred, indicating too low a voltage?
Are the dimensions of the weld correct?

A good knowledge of defects mixed with experience will ensure the correct conditions are set producing a
sound weld every time.
Chapter 6
Page | 1
6.2 POROSITY
DEFECT PROBABLE CAUSES
POROSITY 1. GAS FLOW TOO LOW OR TOO HIGH

2. BLOCKED NOZZLE
3. LEAKING GAS LINES
4. DRAUGHTY CONDITIONS
5. NOZZLE TO WORK DISTANCE TOO LONG
6. PAINTED, PRIMED, WET OR OILY WORK
7. WET OR RUSTY WIRE
6.3 LACK OF PENETRATION
LACK OF PENETRATION 1. CURRENT TOO LOW

2. PREPARATION TOO NARROW
3. ROOT FACE TOO THICK
4. ROOT GAP TOO SMALL
5. WORN CONTACT TIP (irregular arcing)
6. IRREGULAR WIRE FEED
7. INCORRECT TORCH MANIPULATION
8. MISMATCHED JOINTS
6.4 LACK OF FUSION
LACK OF FUSION 1. VOLTAGE TOO LOW

2. CURRENT TOO LOW OR TOO HIGH
3. IRREGULAR SURFACE
4. WRONG TORCH ANGLE
6.6 CRACKING

CRACKING 1. INADEQUATE PREHEAT ON HIGH TENSILE AND LOW
ALLOY STEELS
2. INCORRECT METALLURGICAL COMPOSITION OF
ELECTRODE FILLER WIRE
3. ROOT PASS TOO SMALL IN RESTRAINED JOINTS
4. SPRAY TRANSFER WELDING WITH CURRENT TOO HIGH
5. DEEP NARROW WELD BEAD (centre line cracking)
6. INADEQUATE FILLING OF CRATER
6.6 UNDERCUT

UNDERCUT 1. SPEED TOO HIGH
2. CURRENT TOO HIGH
3. INCORRECT TORCH MANIPULATION
Chapter 6
Page | 2
6.7 SPATTER

SPATTER 1. INADEQUATE CHOKE
2. VOLTAGE TOO LOW
3. RUSTY OR PRIMED PLATE
6.8 TESTING OF WELDS
It would be difficult to talk about defects without mentioning the different forms of testing. Consider welding a
joint with "Double-Vee" edge prep, it would be impossible to ascertain root penetration without some form of
testing either destructive or non-destructive being carried out.
6.9 A SOUND WELD
A sound weld has adequate reinforcement, penetration and fusion into the parent metal. It has th e correct
profile, is of the proper size and metallurgical properties, and is free from internal defects.
The dimensions of the weld deposit, where specified, should be in accordance with the requirements of the
particular weld, and the final weld should be slightly over, rather than under the specified size.
Fig 8.1 A Sound Weld
Chapter 6
Page | 3
6.10 SHAPE OF PROFILE
a. Butt Welds. The profile of the weld should be uniform and slightly convex.
b. Fillet Welds. The profile of the weld can be flat, concave or convex, according to the
type of filler material, the welding position and technique.
Fig 6.2 Weld Profiles
Chapter 6
Page | 4
6.11 PENETRATION
a. Lack of Root Penetration. Defects are most likely to occur at the root of the weld and in
this position they are liable to have the maximum effect in reducing the strength of the weld.
This fault is readily shown by an etch test in the case of fillet welds, and by visual inspection with butt
welds.
The size of the penetration bead will vary according to the type of joint, the welding process and the
skill of the welder, and. in the case of metal arc welding, to the type of electrode used.
Generally the causes for lack of penetration are incorrect preparation, lack of experience, wrong
technique and, in the case of butt welds, the fear of blowing holes in the joint.
No additional amount of reinforcement will make up for poor penetration.
Fig 6.3 Lack of Root Penetration
(1) Causes:
Root gap too narrow.

Root face too thick.
Included angle too steep.
Speed of travel too fast.
Nozzle size too small.
Filler rod too large.
Poor manipulation (unequal heating, torch angle, etc).
Chapter 6
Page | 5
b. Excessive Penetration. Excess penetration shall be regarded as unsatisfactory, although an
occasional slight excess is allowable.
Fig 6.4 Excessive Penetration
(1) Causes:
Root gap too wide.
Root face too thin.
Speed of travel too slow.
Nozzle size too large.
6.12 LACK OF FUSION/INTERRUN FUSION
Fusion should be complete over the whole area of the fusion faces and inter-fusion of the runs of weld
metal should have been obtained.
To test for fusion a fracture or etched specimen shall be inspected. Lack of fusion may occur at the fusion
faces and/or between layers of weld metal. Lack of fusion at the joint surface is indicated by the retention
of the original form and surface markings, between layers of weld metal it will appear as lines.
Lack of fusion can lead to ADHESION.
Adhesion is a defect caused by incomplete melting of the parent metal. This allows molten filler wire to fall
onto unmelted parent metal, so the metals simply stick together instead of fusing.
Adhesion is a common fault of beginners, who try to deposit metal too quickly, by melting the welding rod
with the blowpipe flame, and then drop it on to the parent metal before the material is ready. The heat of
the molten pool and not the blowpipe flame should always melt the welding rod. The welding rod is fed
into the forward edge of the molten pool, and the flame worked around the rod and not directly onto it. It is
of the utmost importance when fusion welding to deposit, or flow, molten metal onto metal already molten.
Chapter 6
Page | 6
Fig 6.6 Lack of Fusion
Fig 6.6 Lack of Interrun Fusion
a. Causes of Lack of Fusion.

Insufficient heat.
Nozzle too small.
Filler rod too large.
b. Causes of Lack of Interrun Fusion.
Insufficient heat.
Nozzle too small.
Failure to clean previous runs properly.
Many of the causes apply to both.
Chapter 6
Page | 7
.13 UNDERCUT
Excessive undercut can severely weaken a joint, and when present it is evident as a notch parallel and
The welded joint should be free from undercut, but slight intermittent occurrences may be disregarded.
adjacent to the sides of the weld or run.
Fig 6.7 Undercut
a. Causes.
Torch angle wrong.
Filler rod fed into wrong place.
Excessive heat (nozzle too large).
6.14 OVERLAP
An imperfection at a toe of a weld or run, caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal
without fusing to it.
Chapter 6
Fig 6.8 Overlap Page | 8
a. Causes.
Torch angle wrong.
Too much filler rod added to the weld.
Insufficient heat.
Speed of travel too slow.
6.16 CRACKING
A defect produced either by tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition or by fracture when cold.
Fig 6.9 Cracking
a. Hot Cracking. Hot or solidification cracking is caused in the weld metal itself by tearing
of the grain boundaries before complete solidification has taken place, and while the metal
is still in the plastic state. The crack may be continuous or discontinuous and often extends
from the weld root but may not extend to the face of the weld. Hot cracks usually appear
down the centre of the weld.
(1) Causes.
The distribution of heat and hence stress in the weld itself.
Joint restraint and high thermal severity.
Dilution of the weld metal.
Impurities in the weld such as Sulphur (see 'Hot shortness').
Steels with high carbon or nickel content.
b. Cold Cracking. Cold cracking occurs in both the weld metal and the Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ), cracks in the latter may not occur until the weld is subject to stress in service, and
since they are often below the surface they cannot be seen, so that the first indication of
their presence is failure of the joint.
Chapter 6
Page | 9
Fig 6.10 Cold Cracking
(1) Causes.
The composition of steel being welded. The
presence of hydrogen. The rate of cooling of the
welded joint. The degree of restraint on the joint.
c. 'Cold Shortness'. Phosphorus has a very injurious influence on steel, making it very brittle,
and as a result it is never found in greater percentages than 0-03 to 0-04 for steels which
have to stand heavy impacts and shock, while for less important steels, 0-06% may be
allowable. Phosphorus produces 'cold shortness', ie liability to crack when cold worked.
d. 'Hot Shortness'. Sulphur is also injurious because it produces 'hot shortness', that is
liability to crack when hot. For this reason, the maximum sulphur percentage allowed in
a steel is approximately the same as that of phosphorus.
6.16 POROSITY, BLOWHOLES AND PIPES
During the course of welding, defects may occur which are really minute pockets of gas. During
solidification, the liquid weld metal may be releasing gases in the form of gas bubbles. If there is
insufficient time for the gas to reach the surface of the weld before solidification occurs, then these gas
bubbles will be trapped in the solid weld metal. Sometimes these defects can be seen on the surface of the
weld.
Upon fracture, or in an etched specimen, the weld should have a clean appearance and the weld metal
shall be free from:
a. Porosity a group of gas pores.
NOTE: This term is applied to cavities not exceeding 1.6 mm in diameter.
Chapter 6
Page | 10
b. Blowholes A large cavity due to entrapped gas.
NOTE: This term is applied to cavities exceeding 1 -6 mm in diameter.
c. Pipes An elongated or tubular cavity in weld metal due to entrapped gas.
Fig 6.11 Porosity, Blowholes and Pipes
(1) Causes.
Damp Welding material.
Dirty welding material (oil, grease, rust, etc.)
Loss of shield.
Using a flame with an excess of acetylene.
Trying to deposit too much metal at one time.
6.17 LACK OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement should be approximately 10% of the thickness of the parent metal for a butt weld, and
10% of the actual throat thickness for a fillet or lap weld.
The reinforcement must be uniform along its entire length, properly fused and blended in neatly at the
toes. Lack of reinforcement may be caused by the addition of too little filler rod to the weld pool, because
the speed of travel is too fast or the filler wire is of too small a diameter.
6.18 SURFACE DEFECTS
a. Freedom from Surface Defects. The surface of the weld should be free from porosity, cavities
and burnt on scale.
Surface cavities in a weld deposit may be caused by lack of fusion or gas bubbles due to the use of
unsuitable materials or incorrect technique. Unless they are caused by the use of unsuitable
materials, they are attributable to the quality of the workmanship.
Chapter 6
Page | 11
b. Uniformity of Surface. The weld face should be uniform throughout its length. The shape and
appearance of the ripples in the weld surface will vary according to the welding process, the
technique adopted and the skill of the welder.
6.19 DISPOSITION OF RUNS
a. Disposition of runs. Where multi-run welds are deposited, each run should, at the surface.
be of approximately equal width and there should be no deep notch or groove between
adjacent runs, nor should the edge of one run produce a sharp ridge or recess in the surface
of another run.
The disposition of the lower runs in a multi-run weld can only be ascertained by examination of an
etched cross section of the weld.
b. Smoothness of Joint where Weld is recommenced. The join in the weld runs where
welding has been recommenced, should be as practicable, and should show no pronounced
hump or crater in the weld surface.
The joins at the ends of the weld runs are liable to have poor strength due to stress
concentrations caused by crater cracks, overlap and lack of fusion. Particular care should,
therefore, be taken when welding these portions of the joints.
6.20 MISCELLANEOUS DEFECTS

a. Grinding.
b. Chipping.
c. Hammer marks.
d. Torn surfaces.
e. Stray arcing.
f. Spatter.
Chapter 6
Page | 12
6.21 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF WELDS
During the process of welding, faults of various types may occur, and in order to minimise the risk of weld
failure, it is evidently necessary to have means of inspection and testing of welds, so as to indicate the
quality, strength and properties of the joint being made.
Visual inspection, both while the weld is in progress and afterwards, will give an indication to anyone with
experience as to what quality of weld is being produced.
a. Inspection During Welding
(2) MIG Welding The chief items are:
(a) Rate of burning of rod, and progress of weld.
(b) Amount of penetration and fusion.
(c) The way the weld metal is flowing (no slag inclusions).
(d) The sound of the arc, indicating correct current and voltage for the particular
work.
b. Inspection after Welding
(1) Has correct fusion been obtained between weld metal and parent metal?
(2) Is there an indentation, denoting undercutting along the line where the weld joins
the parent metal?
(3) Has penetration been obtained right through the joint.
(4) Has the joint been built up on its upper side (reinforced), or has the weld a concave
profile, denoting lack of metal and thus weakness?
(5) Does the metal look of close texture or full of pinholes and burnt, denoting incorrect
flame?
(6) In arc welding has spatter occurred, indicating too high a current or too long an arc?
(7) Are the dimensions of the weld correct?
A study of the points listed will give some indication as to what faults, if any, exist in the work.
Visual inspection however has several drawbacks, eg it will be impossible to observe by visual
means whether penetration has occurred in a fillet weld, or whether there has been lack of interrun
fusion, etc.
To observe these and other faults, we need to test the weld. A variety of methods for testing welds
are available, and we can divide them into two classes:
NON-DESTRUCTIVE
DESTRUCTIVE
Chapter 6
Page | 13
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
i. Visual inspection (including use of penetrant fluid).
ii. Magnetic,
iii. X-Ray.
iv. Ultrasonic.
i. Visual Inspection (Penetrant Fluid). Surface defects can be identified by painting or

aerosol spraying on a penetrant fluid, wiping clean, and then a developer which shows
up, visually or by ultra-violet light, defects found by the fluid.
The equipment required far dye penetrant testing consists of three aerosol cans as follows
1. Dye penetrant spray (usually red).

2. Cleaning fluid spray.
3. Developing spray (powdered white chalk in a solvent).
The component to be tested is sprayed with the liquid dye penetrant which then soaks into any cracks
that may be present in the surface. The surplus liquid is then removed using the cleaning fluid and the
surface is then sprayed with the developer. The white developer dries onto the surface and any red dye
that may have entered a crack is now soaked up by the developer. This stains the developer red and the
crack is easily located by visual examination.
Where a large number of components require testing a tank containing dye penetrant nay be used to
immerse the components.
Scratches and rough surfaces may make it difficult to obtain satisfactory results as the dye is difficult
to remove and may indicate a crack where none exists. Surfaces that have been ground may have the
crack covered by metal, making it impossible for the dye to penetrate into it.
Defects are not readily repaired by welding as the penetrant

contaminates the weld.
ii. Magnetic Tests. Very fine iron filings are mixed in paraffin (often
termed magnetic fluid). The specimen under test is highly
magnetised usually by magnetising coils, or by being placed in a
strong magnetic field, and the fluid is then painted on the weld
metal, which must have a machined or polished surface. If there is
any crack in the metal, an alteration in the magnetic field occurs
at the crack, which is in reality a minute air gap. As a result, the fine particles of iron cling to the edges
of the crack and show it up as a dark hair line.
Chapter 6
Page | 14
iii. X-Ray. X-Rays are electro-magnetic radiations of short wave
length and they can penetrate solid substances, but, in doing so, a
certain proportion of the ray is absorbed. The amount of
absorption depends on the thickness of the substance and on its
density. The denser and thicker the substance, the smaller the
proportion of rays which get through. Certain substances, such as
calcium tungstate and barium platino-cyanide, become fluorescent
or luminous when X-Rays strike them. If a screen is coated with
one of these substances and the rays fall on it, the sensitised
screen becomes brightly illuminated. If now an object,
such as a piece of steel, is placed in the path of the rays in front
of the screen, a shadow of the object will be thrown on the screen, and if the object is of the same
thickness and density throughout, the shadow will also be of the same degree of darkness over all its
surface. If, however, any holes or cavities exist in the steel, the rays will be less absorbed at these
points and the shadow will be more brightly illuminated at these spots.
Thus if an X-Ray film is put in place of the sensitive screen, a 'shadowgraph' of the object will appear when
the film is developed. Films are used more than the screen method, because they provide a permanent record
of the shadow which can be carefully studied.
Practice is necessary to interpret the X-Ray films of welds correctly and to distinguish between various
defects shown up as shadows. Gas holes causing porosity are usually regular in shape, while included slag is
usually very irregular. In this way, we can determine whether penetration to the full depth required has been
obtained, whether correct fusion between parent metal and weld metal or between layer and layer in a
multi-layer has been obtained, and whether there are regions of entrapped slag, blowholes or other porous
defects. In addition, any defects, such as contraction cracks, will also be shown up clearly.
iv. Ultrasonic. Ultrasonic testing employs waves above the frequency limit of human audibility and
usually in the frequency range 0.6 to 6 MHz. A pulse consisting of a number of these waves is projected into
the specimen under test. If a flaw exists in the specimen an echo is reflected from it and from the type of
echo the kind of flaw that exists can be deduced.
Chapter 6
Page | 15
DESTRUCTIVE TEST
(1) Bend.
(2) Nick Break.
(3) Macroscopic Examination.
(4) Tensile.
(1) Bend Test Consists of bending the joint around a former. Since the weld metal is
almost always harder or softer than the parent metal the bending will not occur, therefore,
equally in the weld and parent metal, and as a result the chief value of this test is to determine
whether any flaws exist in the weld. Otherwise its value as a test of ductility of a welded
specimen is very limited.
If the weld is placed so that its face is under a central applied load, fracture will occur at the
root of the weld if the penetration is imperfect.
Fig 6.12 Bend Test on Butt Weld Specimen
Upper and lower surfaces are ground or machined flat. The specimen is approximately 36 mm
wide. The bending should be through an angle of 180 over a former with a diameter three times
that of the plate thickness.
Tests should be made:
i. Against the face of the weld.
ii. Against the root of the weld.
(2) Nick-Break Test. A useful test when operators are learning to weld, because as a rule the weld
contains many defects, and when broken open these can be quickly pointed out.
We can ensure that the specimen breaks in the weld by making a nick with a hacksaw along the weld to a
depth of approximately 2 - 3 mm.
Chapter 6
Page | 16
The specimen is held in a vice and a force is applied until the weld breaks.
Fig 6.13 Nick-Break Test
(3) Macroscopic Examination. When a polished cross section of the weld is observed with the
eye, it will look completely uniform if no large blowholes or trapped slag are present.
In order to bring out the structure of the section of metal clearly the surface must be etched. This
will show up any cracks, entrapped slag, pin size gas holes, penetration in fillet welds, sidewall fusion
and interrun fusion in multi-run welds.
Etching consists of coating the polished cross sectional area of the weld with a chemical, which will
eat away and dissolve the metal. Since the section consists of distinct parts, some are more easily
dissolved than others, and thus the etching liquid will bring up the pattern of the structure very clearly.
The length of time the etching liquid remains on the specimen depends on the metal, and the detail
required. After etching is complete, the liquid is washed off the surface of the specimen with water
to prevent further action.
The etching fluids most suitable for macroscopic examination are:
i. Steel 10 to 20% nitric acid in water.
ii. Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys 10% solution of hydrofluoric acid in water.
iii. Copper, Brass and Bronze 26% solution of nitric acid in water.
SAFETY
When using/storing etching liquids, penetrant fluids, etc. COSH regulations must be adhered
to.
(4) Tensile Test. A tensile testing machine is used to grip a specimen, cut from a welded joint,
and exert a pulling force to test the weld for tensile strength. When this test is applied the following
considerations must be taken into account.
Chapter 6
Page | 17
After completion and cooling of the weld. the weld metal itself may be strong yet brittle and hard.
When tested in a machine, the specimen could break outside the weld, in the parent metal, whereas in
service due to its brittleness failure might easily occur in the weld itself.
If the weld metal is softer than the parent metal, the weld metal, when tested, will yield and
fracture will probably occur in the weld.
Care must be taken to study carefully the results and to interpret them correctly.
Chapter 6
Page | 18
CHAPTER 7
MIG Fault Finding
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
7.1 Loss Of Shielding Gas ................................................................... 1

7.2 Failure To Strike An Arc ............................................................... 2
7.3 No Wire Feed ............................................................................... 3
7.1 LOSS OF SHIELDING GAS
The symptoms of losing the shielding gas are:

1. Porosity or heavy oxidation on the surface of the weld.
2. Poor metal transfer.
Chapter 7
Page | 1
7.2 FAILURE TO STRIKE AN ARC
The symptoms are, the arc will not strike when the end of the electrode touches the plate after pressing the trigger.
Chapter 7
Page | 2
7.3 NO WIRE FEED
Symptoms:
1. Wire will not feed when the trigger is pressed.
2. A Burn Back may have occurred.
Chapter 7
Page | 3
CHAPTER 8
Shielding Gases for MIG
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
8.1 Introduction................................................................................... 1
8.2 Protection ...................................................................................... 1
8.3 Mode of Transfer .......................................................................... 2
8.4 Heat Input .................................................................................... 3
8.5 Chapter Revision .......................................................................... 4
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The shielding gas serves three distinct functions:

IT PROTECTS THE WELD ARC AND SURROUNDING WELD AREA
IT INFLUENCES THE MODE OF METAL TRANSFER
IT AFFECTS THE HEAT INPUT
During this chapter we discuss the three functions in more detail also we will look at the different gases and
the materials that use them.
8.2 PROTECTION
The protection from the atmospheric contamination is the main consideration when selecting a shielding gas,
to the exclusion of all others and if the gas chosen fails to do this it is unsuitable. For example Argon,
Helium and Nitrogen can be used to weld copper. Argon or Helium can be used to weld aluminium and its
alloys, but Nitrogen cannot because although chemically inert to copper and therefore suitable, it is not to
aluminium and its alloys and is therefore unsuitable.
Another important factor in protecting the weld is the gas flow and gas pressure. The gas flow rate will need
adjusting to suit the job in hand. Too little pressure and you will not get enough coverage; too much pressure
will cause turbulence in the weld pool, and also cool the weld metal too fast. Both of these are likely to
produce unsound welds.
If welding in the field or onsite the prevailing wind will have to be taken into account so some form of
shelter to protect the job.
All gases have different densities, for example Argon and CO2 are heavier than air and can be poured like
water. Helium is lighter than air. The point being made here is that depending on the position of the work,
overhead, vertical, or flat the choice of gas and the pressure set for that gas is all important.
Chapter 8
Page | 1
MATERIALS
SHIELDING GASES
M/S S/S AL CU NI TI
ARGON NO NO YES YES YES YES
ARGON/HELIUM NO NO YES YES YES YES
HELIUM NO NO YES YES YES NO
ARGON/HYDROGEN NO NO NO NO YES NO
ARGON/NITROGEN NO NO NO YES NO NO
NITROGEN NO NO NO YES NO NO
CARBON DIOXIDE YES NO NO NO NO NO
ARGON/5% CO2 YES YES NO NO NO NO
ARGON/20% CO2 YES NO NO NO NO NO
ARGON/5% OXYGEN YES YES NO NO NO NO
ARGON/2% OXYGEN NO YES NO NO NO NO
8.3 MODE OF TRANSFER
Metal transfer is dealt with more in Chapter 3, but we need to recap. When using Argon, metal transfer across the arc takes
place in a straight line where the velocity and size of droplets depends on the factors or wire size, voltage and current,
however if we use CO2 in free flight mode of transfer, molten globules form at right angles and spin round until gravity
takes over and the globule detaches itself. Increasing the current has no effect on the size of the globules.
Pure Argon cannot be used to weld steels because a stable arc column cannot be obtained and wetting of the parent metal
does not occur, however if we mix CO2 with Argon (usually 5% or 20% CO2) we get suitable condition for spray mode of
transfer. This gas mixture has a lower purity of Argon and sometimes can contain up to 2% oxygen, and goes by the trade
name of Argoshield 5 or 20.
Using Helium gives a transfer of the globular type and some spatter results from this.
Nitrogen causes the metal to be transferred in the form of coarse droplets giving rise to poor weld shape and excessive
spatter.
Chapter 8
Page | 2
Most commonly used, gives a smooth spray arc condition and
ARGON
ALUMINIUM effective cleaning action.
AND ITS
ALLOYS Helium addition, usually up to 10% to increase heat input on
ARGON + HELIUM
thick sections.
Suitable for Dip, Globular and Free Flight conditions. Limited

CO2
on certain alloy steels where weld composition is important.
ARGON + 1 - 5% oxygen addition for good spray arc where weld

MILD AND OXYGEN composition is critical.
LOW ALLOY
STEELS 2% Oxygen + 5% CO2 additions used to facilitate spray and
Pulse welding. 2% Oxygen + 20% CO2 for smooth spray arc
ARGON +
and dip conditions. Especially suited for welding thin sheet,
OXYGEN + CO2
using dip. Can be used without the oxygen where a mixer is
used.
ARGON + 1 - 5% oxygen usually this gives good spray and pulsed arc
OXYGEN condition.
2% oxygen + 5% CO2 improved dip and pulse arc condition.
STAINLESS ARGON + Possibility of carbon pick-up where conditions are critical.
STEEL OXYGEN CO2
May be used where corrosion conditions are not likely to be

CO2
encountered.
Good spray arc condition, but pre-heat necessary on thick

ARGON
sections over 6.5mm.
50 - 70% helium gives greater heat input reducing the level of

ARGON + HELIUM
pre-heat required.
COPPER AND ITS
ALLOYS
Good heat input but real problems with spatter, fumes and
NITROGEN
porosity.
ARGON +
20% nitrogen gives superior heating but still some spatter.
NITROGEN
8.4 HEAT INPUT
The heat available in the arc is controlled by the number of WATTS (W) developed, WATTS (W) are VOLTS (V)
times AM PS (A).
W = V*A
For example 20 volts at 200 amps = 4000 watts (equivalent to a 4 bar electric fire).
Chapter 8
Page | 3
The current or amps are dependent on wire feed speed and as the current that can be used is limited by:
The mode of transfer

The maximum current each size of wire can take
This only leaves the voltage that can be changed in order to increase or decrease the wattage. Increasing or
decreasing the voltage at given current setting in a specific gas has the effect of lengthening or shortening
the arc length, this can be detrimental to the weld and only limited changes can be made anyway.
Each gas has a different voltage drop across it, some high, some low; the only way to change voltage from
specific settings is to change the gas being used.
Argon is the gas most commonly used for the welding of non-ferrous materials, it is classified as a "Cold Gas",
the voltage drop across it being only 13-17 volts, this makes it suitable for thinner section (25mm) but thicker
sections pose some difficulty because the high current setting necessary to obtain sufficient watts for successful
welding, the alternative being a fairly high pre-heat which is not always acceptable or practical.
Helium with a voltage drop of 18 - 24 gives a much hotter arc and by using an Argon/helium mixture up to
30%/70%, hotter conditions are obtained and the welding of thicker sections becomes practical, without pre-
heating. Helium is rarely used in this country because:
It is too costly
It is too light to provide adequate gas coverage
CO2 is a hotter gas than Argon having a voltage drop of 17 - 22, which means better penetration than the argon
rich mixtures. Argon CO2 mixture has the advantage particular when welding thin sheet and in the car industry is
used to a considerable extent because it gives a colder condition, which makes welding easier.
An example where this information is of advantage is when welding copper. If a plant is set to give the 30V
working at 300 amps we get:
GAS WORKING VOLTAGE AMPERAGE WATTAGE

ARGON 30 300 9000
HELIUM 36 300 10800
NITROGEN 50 300 15000
With each voltage increase, the heat available is also increased without having to increase the wire feed
speed.
When using Argon it is possible to weld up to 6.5mm without pre-heating. By using Helium it is possible to
weld up to 10mm without a pre-heat. Using Nitrogen we can weld up to 12mm without a pre-heat, but water-
cooled backing bars are required or the weld pool collapses causing real problems.

1. The shielding gas, serves three distinct functions, list them.
2. Name two shielding gases that are heavier than air.
3. How do we calculate "Heat Input"?
4. Argoshield 5 is a trade name for what mixture of gases?
5. When welding steel what would the advantage be of using an Argon Rich gas opposed to CO2?
Chapter 8
Page | 4
CHAPTER 9
MIG Welding Of Aluminium
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1

9.2 Paint Removal ............................................................................... 1
9.3 Cleaning ........................................................................................ 1
9.4 Conditions ..................................................................................... 2
9.5 Burn Backs ................................................................................... 3
9.6 Chapter Revision .......................................................................... 3
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Before welding can take place on Aluminium it is necessary to prepare the material. With aluminium
surface oxides are always present and must be removed prior to welding. In the MIG process the cleaning
process is achieved electrically from forces within the arc.
POSITIVE IONS clean the surface of the Electrode
NEGATIVE ELECTRONS lift the oxide off the plate
9.2 PAINT REMOVAL
All equipment in the army is painted, obviously before welding can take place, the paint will have to be
removed, using a safe method and by following all necessary safety precautions. The method advised for
paint removal is by using an authorised paint stripper. Once the paint is removed all surfaces that require
welding are to be thoroughly rinsed of all residue and any flakes removed from the weld area.
9.3 CLEANING
Cleaning is covered in phases. These phases are:

1. Paint removal
2. Abrasive clean and Edge preparation (if required)
3. First de-greasing
4. Brushing (stainless steel wire brush only)

5. Second de-greasing
Abrasive cleaning will remove any traces of impurities left on the surface; it will also aid the breakdown of
the surface oxides. All abrasive used must be Aluminous Oxide (Sanding discs and grinding discs). Once the
abrasive cleaning and edge prep is finished the whole area should be brushed down with a soft brush or
blown over with dry compressed air to remove all traces of dust.
De-greasing should then be carried out. The only de-greasing agents to be used are:
1. White spirits
Chapter 9
Page | 1
2. Paraffin (used if the weld area is in the hull area and covered in oil or fuel) a further de-
grease with Lotoxane will be necessary.
3. Lotoxane
All safety precautions and COSH regulations are to be complied with.
Under no circumstances are the following substances to be used:
1. Trichloroethane
2. Trichloroethylene
3. Carbon tetrachloride
4. Petrol
5. Cellulose thinners
6. Benzine
Wire brushing is then carried out using a stainless steel wire brush only.
A second de-grease is then carried out to remove any grease left by the welder by handling the work.
94 CONDITIONS
The shielding gas will be mainly Argon and the flow will be between 30 - 60 Cu Fph or 15 - 30 Lpm
according to the conditions.
Wire tension must be less than used for steel wire. Once welding is completed the wire should be stored in
a clean and dry environment and be free from any oils and grease. If possible avoid handling the wire with
bare hands in order to prevent any grease or contamination on the wire.
Anti spatter is not to be used when welding Aluminium. If you are experiencing spatter it usually means
that your volts are too low.
Arc conditions can vary depending on the job, but here are a few points to note and observe:
A soft sounding arc with just the occasional crackle is required.
If the voltage is too low the arc sound will be a harsh crackle and there will be some spatter.
Voltage too high especially on starting may cause burn backs.
With the current high there may be a background whistling noise to the arc.
With the current too high and if the plate has become too hot "Puckering" may
occur.
Current too high can also cause centre line cracking.
Current too low will produce linear porosity and a faulty weld.
When adjusting or "Turning in" for the correct condition it is best to start with the voltage slightly low and
the current slightly high, and then bring the two together, by increasing the voltage and decreasing the
current until the correct condition is met.
Chapter 9
Page | 2
Inductance should be set to medium in order to give a soft start.
Stick out length; as for spray the contact tip should be down inside the nozzle approximately 6mm and the
nozzle to work distance should be 18mm.
Wherever possible it is advisable to use "run on" and "run off' plates. This will help alleviate the problem
of cold starts and end of run crater cracking.
The different types of wire used in the MIG welding of aluminium and their composition are listed below.
G1B NG2 NG21 NG6 NG61

1050A 5556A
PURE 10% -12% Si 5% Si 5% Mg 5.3% Mg
9.5 BURN BACKS
To prevent burn backs taking place carry out the following:
Purge the liner at the start of each working day.
Cut the wire at the nozzle at a sharp angle before re-commencing welding each time.
Where possible connect the welding return lead direct to the work.
Ensure that the voltage setting is not too high.
Ensure that the inductance is set to medium.
1. List three substances used to de-grease aluminium prior to welding.

2. When welding Aluminium using spray, how do the electrical forces within the arc break up the oxides?
3. What kind of abrasive can be used to sand or grind Aluminium?
4. Why is inductance set to medium?
5. What is the composition of NG61 wire?
6. What does it mean if there is a harsh crackle sound when welding?

7. When welding using Argon shielding gas and spray mode of transfer what would the gas flow be?
8. What is meant by the term "tuning in"?
9. If there is a lot of spatter during welding, what does this indicate?
10. To prevent burn backs you would do what?
Chapter 9
Page | 3
CHAPTER 10
Identification of Aluminium and Its Alloys
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
10.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1

10.2 Identification Codes....................................................................... 1
10.3 Temper Conditions ........................................................................ 2
10.4 Selection of Welding Wire ........................................................... 3
10.5 Alloy Applications ........................................................................ 5
10.6 Aluminium Castings ..................................................................... 5
10.7 Aerospace Standards ..................................................................... 5
10.8 Ordnance Issue Materials .............................................................. 6
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Aluminium is available in a range of purities. British standards specify three "Pure" grades. Pure Aluminium
has a low strength varying from 60 MN/M 2 to 140 MN/M2 depending on purity and the amount of cold
working the metal has received. By alloying with other elements, and cold working or heat treatment the
strength of the aluminium alloy can be increased.
The main alloying elements are:
1. Copper
2. Magnesium
3. Manganese
4. Silicon
5. Zinc
Other elements such as: Chromium, Cobalt, Iron, Nickel and Titanium are used in small quantities.
It is therefore important that before welding an aluminium alloy; it is identified so that the appropriate filler
wire is used. All aluminium and its alloys are supplied in sheet, plate or bar is usually stamped with its
identification code.
10.2 IDENTIFICATION CODES
Until 1980 most of the industrialised nations had their own method of identifying the various alloys. This
could cause confusion and problems in getting foreign alloys identified.
Prior to 11080 the identification codes were as follows;
UK N4
Australia C5152
France A-G2M
West Germany 3.3525 (werstoff No) or Al Mg2 Mn 0.2 (Din specification)
Switzerland Al Mg 2
USA 5251
In 1980 the system used by the USA was accepted throughout Europe, Australia and Japan. In Britain the
relevant BS, for wrought Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys were amended with affect from 30th June 1980.
Chapter 10
Page | 1
These are:
BS 1470 PLATE, SHEET, STRIPS

BS 1471 DRAWN TUBE
BS 1472 FORGING STOCKS
BS 1473 RIVET, BOLT AND SCREW STOCK
BS 1474 BARS, EXTRUDED ROUND TUBE SECTION
BS 1475 AND
WIRE
These British Standards classify wrought aluminium and its alloys by chemical composition using a four-
digit system. The first of the four digits in the designation indicate the alloy group according to the major
alloying element as follows;
1XXX ALUMINIUM 99% PURITY OR HIGHER

2XXX COPPER
3XXX MANGANESE
4XXX SILICON
5XXX MAGNESIUM
6XXX MAGNESIUM AND SILICON
7XXX ZINC
8XXX OTHER ELEMENTS
9XXX NOT USED
In the 1XXX group the last two digits indicate the minimum Aluminium percentage. For example 1050
indicates a minimum purity of 99.5%. The second digit indicates modifications in impurity or the additions
of alloying elements. If it is zero the metal is unalloyed and contains only natural impurities. For example
1100 indicates 99% purity but has either an alloy added or a reduction in the amount of impurities. 1200
indicates 99% purity but a second modification to the original specification has been made.
In the other groups (2XXX - 9XXX) the last two digits only serve to identify a different alloy in the group
and that the alloy specification is registered with the Aluminium Association in Washington DC. The second
digit indicates alloy modification. A zero indicates the original alloy, a number 1 the first modification
of the original specification and so on.
Some of the Aluminium or Aluminium Alloys available under British standards 1470-75 have
specifications that vary slightly from the international specifications. These are known as National
variations. To denote these variations a letter follows the four digit code. A letter "A" denotes the first
National modification "B" the second and so on. The letters I, O and Q are omitted.
10.3 TEMPER CONDITIONS
As mentioned earlier the strength of aluminium and its alloys can be improved either by cold working or
heat treatment or by a combination of both. The heat treatment process can be quite complex, the
temperature to which the alloy is heated and the time for which the temperature is held depends on
the alloy composition, the thickness of the material to be treated and also the final condition required.
This is known as the TEMPER CONDITION. With most alloys the temper condition is only marginally
affected by welding, with others care has to be taken in following correct welding procedures to prevent
permanent loss of strength. For example with the 2XXX series of Aluminium and Copper alloys welding
is generally not recommended because the heat treatment is permanently destroyed and the only way for it
to regain its strength is to be given the original heat treatment, which would be virtually impossible in the
workshop environment.
Chapter 10
Page | 2
The temper conditions covered in BS 1470 - 75 and code letters are;
TB Solution heat-treated, naturally aged to a substantially stable condition.

TD Solution heat-treated, cold worked, naturally aged to a substantially stable condition.
TE Cooled from elevated temperature shaping process, artificially aged.
TF Solution heat-treated, artificially aged.
TH Solution heat-treated, cold worked, artificially aged.
Aluminium and its alloys that have had their strength increased by cold working only, have their temper
condition denoted by a letter H and a number 1 - 8 ( 1 being the lowest strength). Tempers H2, H4, H6, H8 are
often referred to as quarter, half, three quarters, or fully hard respectively.
The letter "0" denotes aluminium in the annealed, fully soft condition and aluminium that has received no
heat-treatment or cold working has the letter "M" (as manufactured).
The following examples show how the system works; 1200
H4 denotes;
1 Aluminium with 99% Min purity or higher.

2 Second modification of original specification.
00 In this case that the minimum purity is only 99%.
H4 Temper condition in this example is half hard.
6082 TF denotes;
6 Major alloying elements Magnesium and silicon

0 Original specification
82 Alloy identification
TF Temper condition (Solution heat-treated, artificially aged).
2014ATB denotes;
2 Major alloying element Copper.
0 Original specification.
14 Alloy identification.
A National modification to the Internationally agreed specification.
TB Temper conditions (Solution heat-treated, naturally aged)
10.4 SELECTION OF WELDING WIRES
When welding Aluminium and its alloys care must be taken to use the appropriate filler wires. Failure to do so
could result in weld failure with damage to equipment or persons being injured.
Chapter 10
Page | 3
SELECTION OF WELDING WIRE
Aluminium welding wire is to British Standard 2901 PT4 (1990).
6061
Parent 1050A 3103
5251 5154A 5454 6101A 6063 7020
Metal 1200 3105
6082
5556A 5556A 5056A 5556A 5556A NR NR 5556A
7020 5556A 5556A 5056A 5058A 5056A NR NR 5556A
5556A 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NR NR 5556A
6061 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A
6063 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A
6082 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A
4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A
6101A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A
4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5454 5154A 5154A 5154A 5554 5554
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5154A 5056A 5154A 5154A 5154A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5056A 5056A 5056A
5251 5154A 5154A 5554
5056A 5058A 5056A
4043A 4043A
3103
3103 3103
3105 4043A 4043
4043A
1050A
1050A
1200 4043A
The Top line indicates Maximum weld strength
The Middle line Maximum corrosion resistance
The Bottom line freedom from persistent cracking
NR indicates that these parent metal combinations are NOT RECOMMENDED
Chapter 10
Page | 4
10.5 ALLOY APPLICATIONS
The following are examples of the uses of several of the more commonly used alloys and an indication of their
welding qualities.
ALLOY USE WELDING

O/A MIG
General purpose engineering alloy where high strength is not V
1200 V
required. (Very good)
High strength alloy used extensively in Aircraft and Defence NR
2014A (Not NR
industries recommended)
General purpose alloy slightly stronger than 1200. Used
3103 in sheet metalwork, vehicle bodies, building products. V V
Low - Medium strength ally. Used in manufacture of caravans

3105 and mobile homes. V V
Medium strength, good corrosion resistance. Uses for

5251 vehicle bodies, e.g. Landrover, and marine purposes. V V
Medium strength, good ductility, high corrosion resistance. F E

5154A Uses in auto body panels, marine environments. (Fair) (Excellent)
Medium strength alloy used in heavy vehicle bodies. Resistant
5454 to stress corrosion environments. F E
Medium strength, heat treatable, good general corrosion

6061 resistance. Used in engineering structures. F V
Most commonly used extrusion alloy, commonly used for

6063 window frames and similar sections. Medium strength. F V
Medium strength alloy used in structure applications, such

6082 as bridge members. Good strength and corrosion resistance. F V
7020 Medium to high strength, heat treatable alloy used in defence

industries. NR V
10.6 ALUMINIUM CASTINGS
Aluminium alloy castings are specified in BS 1490. They are numbered 0 - 30 with some omissions due to the
alloys being withdrawn from use. The numbers have a prefix of LM, which originally meant Light Metal.
Most Aluminium Castings contain over 4% Silicon, in some cases considerably more (LM 29 contains 22 -25%
Silicon) as a result the recommended filler wires in most cases is either 4043A or 4047A. An exception is
LM 5 where the filler wire recommended is 5056.
Chapter 10
Page | 5
10.7 AEROSPACE STANDARDS
Aluminium Alloys produced to British Aerospace Standards in the BS "L" series use a different system of
alloy identification. In this case a different number is used if;
1. The alloy specification
2. The temper condition
3. The section or shape
4. The use for which the section is produced
Or combinations of the above factors are changed. Below are some examples with the BS 1470 - 75
equivalents:
L16 Sheet and strip (temper half hard)

L17 Sheet and strip (temper annealed)
BS 1470-75
ALLOY 1200 L34 Forging stock and forging
L54 Tube (Hydraulically tested)
L116 Tube
L111 Bars and section

BS 1470 -75 L112 Forging stock and forging
ALLOY 6082 L113 Sheet and strip
L114 Tube
L115 Plate
L37 Rivet stock

L63 Tube
L87 Bars and sections
BS 1470 - 75 L93 Plate
ALLOY 2014A L102 Bars and sections
L105 Tube
L156 to L159 Sheet and strip
L163 to L167 Clad sheet and strip (Clad 1050A)
L168 Bars and section
Some materials are still produced uses pre 1980 designations for the various alloys. This used a system that
worked as follows using as an example HE30 TF 9 (now 6082 TF).
The first letter was either an "N" or "H" which indicated that the alloy was either Non-heat treated (N) or
heat-treated (H).
The second letter gave the shape of the material e.g. S = sheet, P = Plate, E = Extruded section, G = wire.
General use and welding filler wire, the number identified the alloy.
Chapter 10
Page | 6
The last two numbers/letters related to temper conditions or in non-heat treated alloys the strain hardening
condition.
Therefore we have;
H Heat treated
E Extruded section
30 Alloy Identification number
TF Temper conditions
Another example is NS4 H6 which means:
N non-heat treated
S Sheet
4 Alloy Identification number
H6 Strain hardening condition (% hard)
The "pure" Aluminium's were available in 4 grades of purity
Grade 1 99.9% purity

Grade 1A 99.8%
Grade 1B 99.5%
Grade 1C 99.0%
Pure Aluminium material did not have the N or H prefix but went straight into the "shape" letter, for example
S1C H4 that means
S Sheet
1C 99% purity
H4 Strain hardening condition ('A hard)
Pre 1980 code Post 1980 code

1C 1200
N4 5251
N8 5083
H15 2014A
H30 6082

1. British standard 1470 covers what?
2. Aluminium welding wire is covered under which British standard?
3. Using the four digit system, identify the main alloying elements for 1XXX, 3XXX, 5XXX and 9XXX.
4. The code 1200 H4 denotes what?
5. If I was welding two pieces of 1050A and wanted maximum weld strength, what filler wire would I use?
6. LM 29 is an Aluminium Casting, how much silicon does it contain?
7. What would the main uses be for Alloy 6063?
8. If a material had TF in its identification code what would the temper condition be?
9. (Pre 1980 codes) what is the purity of aluminium graded "1 A"?
Chapter 10
Page | 7
CHAPTER 11
Filler Wires Used For MIG/C02 Welding
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
11.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1

11.2 Handling ........................................................................................ 1
11.3 De-Oxidants .................................................................................. 1
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the filler wires used for the MIG/CO2 process conform to BS 2901 which prior to 1970 was divided
into two parts. BS 2901 part 1 1957 "gas shielding tungsten arc welding" dealing with wires used for TIG
and BS 2901 part 2 1960 "Wires for gas shielded metal arc welding" covers MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding.
Since November 1970 when BS 2901 was first revised it has been divided into five parts each covering a
different metal rather than the welding process, they are broken down as follows;
BS 2901 Part 1 Ferritic steels

BS 2901 Part 2 Austenitic stainless steels
BS 2901 Part 3 Copper and copper alloys
BS 2901 Part 4 Aluminium and aluminium alloys
BS 2901 Part 5 Nickel and nickel alloys
The second revision occurred in 1983 and brought the material designations into line with an agreed
international code as well as changing all the imperial measurements to metric.
11.2 HANDLING
The wire is wound on to various size spools or reels, these are made of plastic, steel, plywood or hardboard,
and the two most common sizes of reel are 300mm diameter and 100mm. The 300mm reel holds
approximately 6.5Kg of aluminium wire and the 100mm reel - 0.5Kg of aluminium wire.
When steel is wound on to the 300mm they hold about 20Kg of wire and because of the weight of wire
unless handled carefully the plastic reels will break, this is particularly true if the cardboard boxes containing
the reels are thrown about, either in transit or when being stored. The reels should not be removed from
their packing until required for welding, after welding the reels should be repacked in a plastic bag to prevent
deterioration of the wire due to contact with the atmosphere.
Chapter 11
Page | 1
The 100mm reels are used with the "reel on gun" type of equipment. The wire should be precision layer
wound and not random wound as random winding tends to lead to feeding problems and poor quality welds.
Most wires are precision layer wound, steel wires being the main exception.
11.3 DE- OXIDANTS
Because it is necessary to use an active gas (CO2, Argon/Oxygen or Argon/CO2) when welding steels, (the
inert gases Argon or Helium will not give satisfactory transfer) oxygen is released from the shielding gas and
has to be removed, otherwise the weld metal would have gross porosity. All of the oxygen present in the
weld area comes from the shielding gas; none of the atmosphere should impinge into the shielding gas. To
remove this oxygen de-oxidents are included in the filler wire, Manganese, Silicon and Aluminium being
the ones normally used, all of these materials have a great affinity for the oxygen that Iron, thus preventing
the formation of Iron Oxide. The oxides that are formed (Manganese Oxide, Silicon Dioxide and Aluminium
Oxide), float to the surface of the weld leaving a glass like deposit which is easily removed, this deposit can
shoot off during cooling of the weld and care is needed when viewing as eyes and face can get burnt.
The following table sets out the types of steel filler wires that are most used with the names by which
various manufacturers call them.
Chapter 11
Page | 2
Table 1. Chemical compositions* for Ferritic steels.
Carbon Silicon Manganes Phosphor Sulphur Chromium Copper Molybdenu Nicke Aluminiu
e us m l m
Type min. max. min. max. min. max. max. max. min. max. max. min. max. max. min. max.
A15 0.12 0.30 0.90 0.90 1.60 0.040 0.040 0.4 0.04 0.40
A16 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.50 1.30 1.60 0.040 0.040 0.4
A17 0.12 0.20 0.50 0.85 1.40 0.040 0.040 0.4
A18 0.12 0.70 1.20 0.90 1.60 0.040 0.040 0.4
A19 0.08 0.12 0.30 0.50 1.00 1.30 0.040 0.040 0.4 0.35 0.75
A30 0.12 0.20 0.90 0.40 1.60 0.030 0.030 0.4 0.45 0.65
A31 0.14 0.50 0.90 1.60 2.10 0.030 0.030 0.4 0.40 0.60
A32 0.12 0.20 0.90 0.40 1.60 0.030 0.030 1.10 1.50 0.4 0.45 0.65
A33 0.12 0.20 0.90 0.40 1.60 0.030 - 0.030 2.00 2.70 0.4 0.90 1.10
A34 0.12 0.20 0.90 0.40 1.60 0.030 0.030 5.00 6.00 0.4 0.45 0.65
A35 0.10 0.50 0.6 0.040 0.030 8.0 10.5 0.5 0.8 1.2 0.5
*% by weight.
t Titanium or zirconium may be added singly or together up to a maximum of 0.15% each.
Attention is drawn to note 2 in clause 2.
Chapter 11
Page | 3
This limit eludes both the copper content of the wire or rod itself and that of any coating which may be present.
Table 2. Chemical compositions* for Aluminium and aluminium alloys

Silicon Iron Copper Manganese Magnesium Chromium Zinc Titanium Beryllium Other Elements Aluminium Former
designation
Unspecified
Elements
Type min max max max min max min max min max max min max max Specified Each Total
Elements max. max.
1080A 0.15 0.15 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.0008 0.03 0.02 99.80 1A
max gallium
min.
1050A 0.25 0.40 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.0008 0.03 99.50 1B
min.
3103 Remainder
0.50 0.7 0.10 0.9 1.5 0.30 0.10 0.20 0.0008 0.10 0.05 0.15 N3
max Zirconium
& titanium
4043A Remainder
4.5 6.0 0.6 0.30 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.0008 0.05 0.15 N21
4047A Remainder
11.0 13.0 0.6 0.30 0.15 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.0008 0.05 0.15 N2
5147A 0.10 0.50 Remainder

0.50 0.50 0.10 0.10 0.50 0.10 3.9 0.25 0.20 0.20 0.0008 manganese &
0.05 0.15 N5
chromium
5554 Remainder
0.25 0.40 0.10 0.50 1.0 2.4 3.0 0.05 0.20 0.25 0.05 0.20 0.0008 0.05 0.15 N52
5056A 0.10 0.6 Remainder

0.40 0.50 0.10 0.10 0.6 4.5 5.6 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.0008 manganese &
0.05 0.15 N6
chromium
5356 Remainder
0.40 0.40 0.10 0.05 0.20 4.5 5.5 0.05 0.20 0.10 0.06 0.20 0.0008 0.05 0.15
5556A Remainder
0.25 0.40 0.10 0.6 1.0 5.0 5.5 0.05 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.0008 0.05 0.15 N61
5183 Remainder
0.40 0.40 0.10 0.50 1.0 4.3 5.2 0.05 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.0008 0.05 0.15
*% by weight. t Silicon content should be less than that of Iron
Chapter 11
Page | 4
A15 A triple deoxidised wire containing manganese, silicon and aluminium as
the deoxidisers. It is used for welding mild and low alloy steels particularly
structural steels that have been subjected to weather. The BOC wire
Bostrand MS65 contains titanium and Zirconium as well as the above
deoxidants and should only be used with CO2 or Argon/5% Oxygen shielding
gas. All the other wires in the table can use any of the shielding gases
recommended for steel welding.
A18 A double deoxidised wire containing manganese and Silicon, and is used
for general purpose welding of mild steels and can be used with any of the
shielding gases recommended for steel.
A 31 A double deoxidised wire besides containing manganese and Silicon
contains 0.4 - 0.6% molybdenum and is intended for welding higher
tensile strength steels, either C02 or Argon/CO2 mix is recommended.
A 32 A double deoxidised wire containing manganese and Silicon with1.10 -1.5%
chrome and 0.45 -0.65% molybdenum. CO2 or Argon/CO2 mix is
recommended.
A 33 A double deoxidised wire containing manganese and Silicon with 2.0 -
2.7% chrome and 0.9 -1.1% molybdenum. C02 or Argon/CO2 mix is
recommended.
A 34 A double deoxidised wire containing manganese and Silicon with 5.0 - 6.0%
chrome and 0.45 -0.65% molybdenum. CO2 or Argon/CO2 mix is
recommended.
A32, A33 and A34 wires are intended for welding creep resistant steels. Creep being defined as the
extension that takes place under sustained loading over long periods. This is more pronounced at elevated
temperatures and leads to lower tensile strengths that are encountered when tested over short periods of
time and load. To counteract creep, Molybdenum and Chrome are added to the steels.
1. What is the British standard that covers Ferritic steel welding wires?
2. What is the British standard that covers Aluminium and Aluminium alloy welding wires?
3. After use, what should be done with the welding wire?
4. Why are deoxidants added to welding wire used on steel?
5. List three materials added to the wire to act as deoxidants?

6. What is the purpose of adding Chrome and Molybdenum to the wire?
7. What is Bostrand LW1 wire used for?
Chapter 11
Page | 5
CHAPTER 12
Distortion
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
12.1 Stresses Set up in Welding 2

12.2 Angular Distortion 3
12.3 Transverse Shrinkage 5
12.4 Longitudinal Shrinkage 7
12.5 Bowing 7
12.6 Use of Design to Help Control Distortion 9
12.7 Joint Preparation 9
12.8 Assembly Procedure 10
12.9 Jigs 10
12.10 Welding Procedure 12
12.11 Welding Sequence and Technique 14
12.12 Correction of Distortion 18
12.1 Angular Distortion - Butt Weld 2

12.2 Angular Distortion - Fillet Weld 3
12.3 Presetting 4
12.4 Fixed Plates to offset Distortion 4
12.5 Transverse Shrinkage 5
12.6 Wedge to offset Transverse Shrinkage 5
12.7 Tack Weld to Offset Transverse Shrinkage 6
12.8 Free Edge Welding to Offset Transverse Shrinkage 6
12.9 Longitudinal Shrinkage 7
12.10 Bowing 7
12.11 Stiffeners to Offset Transverse Shrinkage 8
12.12 Stiffeners to Offset Transverse Shrinkage with Thicker Plate 8
12.13 Joint Preparation 9
12.14 Jig and Chill Combined 11
12.15 Jig for Tacking Lengths of Pipe together 11
12.16 Use of Strongbacks to prevent peaking in flat butt joint and butt joint 12
in cylindrical shell
12.17 Use of wedges to compensate for peaking of thin plates 12
12.18 Back-Step Welding 14
12.19 Skip Welding Butt 14
12.20 Skip Welding T' Joint 15
12.21 Intermittent Welding Fillet welds (plan view) 16
12.22 Balanced Welding 17
12.23 Back-to-back Assembly 17
12.24 Clock Welding 18
Chapter 12
Page | 1
12.1 STRESSES SET UP IN WELDING
Distortion is a problem which is pronounced in welding because of the concentrated nature of the heat
source.
In the welding process, whether electric arc or oxy-acetylene, we have a molten pool of metal which
consists partly of the parent metal fused from the side of the joint, and partly of the electrode or filler
rod.
As welding proceeds this pool travels along and heat is lost by conduction, and radiation, resulting in
cooling of the joint. The cooling takes place with varying rapidity, depending on many factors such as size of
work, quantity of weld metal being deposited, thermal conductivity of the parent met al and the melting
point and specific heat of the weld metal.
As the weld proceeds, we have areas surrounding the weld in varying conditions of expansion and
contraction, and thus a varying set of forces will be set up in the weld and parent metal. When th e weld
has cooled, these forces which still remain, due to varying conditions of expansion and contraction, are
called RESIDUAL STRESSES and they are not due to any external load but to internal forces.
The stresses will cause a certain deformation of the joint. This deformation can be of two kinds:
a. Elastic Deformation.
b. Plastic Deformation.
If the joint recovers its original shape upon removal of the stresses, it has suffered elastic deformation. If,
however, it remains permanently distorted, it has suffered plastic deformation. The process of removal of
these residual stresses is termed STRESS RELIEVING.
Stresses, with their accompanying strains, caused in the welding process, are thus of two type s:
c. Those that occur while the weld is being made, but which disappear on cooling.
d. Those that remain after the weld has cooled.
Chapter 12
Page | 2
12.2 ANGULAR DISTORTION
Two plates, prepared with a 'V joint, are welded as shown. There will be more contraction at the face of
the weld than at the root, and because the contraction is not equal the plates will be found to have
distorted by bending upwards.
Fig 12.1 Angular Distortion Butt Weld
Again we can set one plate at right angles to the other, and produce a fillet weld as shown. On cooling, it will
be found that the plates have pulled over as shown, and are no longer at right angles to each other.
Fig 12.2 Angular Distortion Fillet Weld
This type of distortion is very common and can be countered by:
a. Setting the plates at a slight angle to each other, in the opposite direction to that in which
distortion will occur so that when cool, the plates are in correct alignment. PRE-SETTING.
Chapter 12
Page | 3
b. Clamping the plates firmly in a jig or vice so as to prevent their movement.
Since the amount of distortion depends on several factors, such as speed of welding and number of layers,
the amount of PRE-SETTING to be given to the plates in the opposite direction will be purely a matter of
experience.
Chapter 12
Page | 4
Fig 12.3 Pre-Setting
If the plates are fixed in a jig, vice or tacked, so as to prevent movement, the weld metal or parent metal
must stretch or give, instead of the plates distorting. Thus there is more danger in this case that residual
stresses will be set up in the joint.
Fig 12.4 Fixed Plates to Offset Distortion

Chapter 12
Page | 5
12.3 TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
If two flat plates are being butt welded together, as shown, after having been set slightly apart to begin
with, it is found that the plates will tend to come together as the welding proceeds.
Fig 12.5 Transverse Shrinkage
This type of distortion may be offset by:
a. Clamping the plates in a jig to prevent them moving. (See Angular Distortion, para 12.2).
b. Placing a wedge between the two plates to prevent them coming together.
c. Tack welding the plates before commencing welding operations.
d. Free edge welding, using no restraint of any kind on the joint.
A wedge, if used, may have to be adjusted as the weld proceeds to maintain the correct root gap.
Fig 12.6 Wedge to Offset Transverse Shrinkage Chapter 12

Page | 6
Tack welds in a butt joint can, in general, only resist transverse shrinkage if they are in sufficient numbers.
Too few tacks may allow closing of the gap and eventual overlapping of the plate edges. When a long run of
weld is to be put down on sheet 37 mm between tacks can be used as a guide, but normally spacings is a
matter of experience.
Alternative methods of tacking butts are:
a. Tack weld at each end of the joint.
b. Tack weld one end and then use a 'back step' technique for tacking the rest of the joint.
c. Directional tacking can be used for closing a gap that has become too wide.
Fig 12.7 Tack Weld to Offset Transverse Shrinkage
With free edge welding no tacks are used and the correct taper for the root gap must be found by
experiment, and should be such as to ensure that the seam closes to the specified root gap immediately ahead
of the weld pool.
Fig 12.8 Free Edge Welding to Offset Transverse Shrinkage
Chapter 12
Page | 7
12.4 LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE
After butt welding two flat plates together as shown, it can be found that the overall dimension along the
weld has been reduced by shrinkage.
NOTE: Longitudinal shrinkage tends to be more of a problem when long runs of weld have been
deposited (shrinkage value for butt welds - 3 mm per 3 metres of weld).
Fig 12.12 Longitudinal Shrinkage
This distortion can be reduced by the use of jigs or stiffeners (see bowing).
12.5 BOWING
a. This can be the direct result of forces set up by longitudinal shrinkage.
b. If we take a steel plate and deposit a straight run of weld metal onto its upper surface, this will
result in a much higher temperature of the weld on the upper side of the plate. On cooling,
therefore, the upper side contracts more than the lower, the plate distorts and bends upwards
with the weld on the inside of the bend.
Fig 12.10 Bowing
This distortion can be minimised with the use of jigs or

stiffeners.
Chapter 12
Page | 8
c. The longitudinal shrinkage of butt welded joints may cause bowing, particularly in thin plates,
and to overcome this, longitudinal stiffeners consisting of flat bar or angle can be tack
welded along each side of the seam, and a short distance from it.
Fig 12.11 Stiffeners to Offset Longitudinal Shrinkage
d. With thicker plate, where heavy deposits of weld metal are used, eg with reinforcing where
multiple layers are deposited, more substantial stiffeners may be required.
Fig 12.12 Stiffeners to Offset Longitudinal Shrinkage with Thicker Plate
NOTE: Tacks should be removed without damage to component parts.
Chapter 12
Page | 9
12.6 THE USE OF DESIGN TO HELP CONTROL DISTORTION
For economic reasons it is generally an advantage to use the minimum number of welded joints in a
fabrication. This practice also assists in reducing distortion, and consideration should always be given to
the possibilities of incorporating folded components and rolled sections, instead of built-up section in the
design. The problem of distortion becomes more troublesome with decrease in plate thickness, and is
most pronounced in light structures.
When designing a fabrication, no matter how simple, always keep the following points in mind:
a. The minimum number of welded joints is both economic and reduces distortion.
b. The use of corrugated stiffeners instead of welded stiffeners.
c. The use of the longest and widest plates within the working capacity of the workshop to
be used for fabrications.
d. The use of rolled sections instead of welded girders.
e. Joints located for easy and quick welding so as to minimise the heat input.
12.7 JOINT PREPARATION

Joint preparation can have a direct influence on the amount of distortion sustained in a welded joint.
For economic reasons it is general practice to use single preparation for plate thicknesses up to and
including 15 mm, in such cases welding is unbalanced and angular distortion is a factor. For material over 15
mm double preparation is useful, and the welding may be designed to balance out the distortion.
(Balanced welding see Chap 12, para 12.10).
Distortion Decreasing
Fig 12.13 Joint Preparation
Chapter 12
Page | 10
12.8 ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
There are two chief methods of assembly for welding, namely:
Pre-Setting Assembly Method Restrained

Assembly Method
a. The pre-setting assembly method involves the assembly of the fabrication with the
components pre-set to compensate for the distortion, so that the fabrication will be
dimensionally correct after welding, this method is attractive insofar as the parts have almost
complete freedom to move during welding. This means that there will be less residual stress in the
fabrication than with the restrained method. It is, however, a difficult method to apply except
to relatively simple assemblies. When using this method for fabrications comprising a large
number of parts, the work must generally be divided into sub-assemblies that can be welded without
restraint. The sub-assemblies are then fitted together to complete the fabrication.
b. The restrained assembly method is more generally used, because of its comparative
simplicity. The restraint may be applied by means of clamps, jigs, or fixtures, etc or by
adequately tack welding the component parts together before welding.
The degree of restraint which is imposed on the components during welding influences the
distortion obtained. This method may produce a relatively high residual stress, but in many
fabrications this is not important. Under conditions of very high restraint cracking of the weld
metal may occur, but this can generally be avoided by the use of a suitable welding sequence
and, in the case of thick sections, by pre-heating. However, where the service requirements of the
fabrication demand the removal of the residual stress, a stress relieving heat treatment must be
applied after welding.
12.9 JIGS
Welding jigs can be relatively simple in construction, but it has to be considered as to whether they are
necessary, bearing in mind the number of fabrications which are to be welded, and the other methods of
distortion control which are available.
The principle requirements of welding jigs are:
a. To locate the parts accurately.

b. To be simple to operate.
c. To remain accurate and undistorted when subject to heat and the forces caused by the
shrinkage of the welds.
d. To ensure easy removal of the fabrication after welding.
When using jigs for gas welding thin sheet metal, which has a tendency to buckle with the application of
heat, certain additional factors must be considered.
e. To hold the joint rigidly along its complete length.
f. To provide protection from the waste heat of the blowpipe flame.
Chapter 12
Page | 11
Holes drilled to allow for the free running of water to increase the chill effect, if necessary.
Fig 12.14 Jigs and Chill Combined
A chill is normally made from thick section plate, and of a metal that will conduct excess heat away from
the area adjacent to the weld. Chilling of the weld itself must be avoided in all forms of jigging.
Fig 12.15 Jig for tacking lengths of pipe together

Chapter 12
Page | 12
Strongbacks the restraining arrangement known as a strongback is designed to prevent 'peaking in butt
welded joints, whilst leaving the joint free to shrink transversely. The strongback should never be welded
rigidly to the plates on both sides of the joint.
a. Flat Butt joint
b. Butt Joint in Cylindrical Shell
Fig 12.16 Use of Strongbacks to prevent peaking in Flat Butt Joint and Butt
Joint in Cylindrical Shell
Fig 12.17 Use of Wedges to compensate for Peaking of Thin Plates
Unless the work is of a repetitive nature, the jig should be simple and inexpensive, but for repetitive work
which demands a distortion free product needing little or no after treatment, the cost of more elaborate
and better made jigs may be justified.
12.10 WELDING PROCEDURE
The term 'welding procedure' covers, for the purpose of this handout, the following variables:
Type and size of welding rod and electrode
Number and sequence of runs Size of deposit
and welding position
Welding process
Blowpipe size, welding current and welding speed
Welding sequence
Chapter 12
Page | 13
Each of these has an influence on distortion, but it may not always be possible to consider them from this
standpoint, as the welding procedure is frequently influenced by other considerations, such as the weld
quality desired.
a. Type and size of Welding Rod and Electrode. It is desirable to deposit the required
volume of weld metal in the shortest possible time, in order to minimise the heat input.
(1) Welding Rods. Care must be taken to select the correct rod size for gas welding. If too
large in relation to the thickness of the parent material, it may cause adhesion, a heavy top
deposit and possible lack of penetration. Too small a rod, however, usually causes overheating
and 'burning' of the deposited metal, together with a very heavy under-bead.
(2) Electrodes. The use of the heaviest gauge electrode, consistent with producing a sound
weld, is an advantage, as it makes possible the deposition of the weld with the minimum
number of runs.
In most cases the type of electrode used is determined by factors other than distortion.
However, in cases where distortion is the chief consideration, as for instance in welding thin
sheets, the selection of an electrode which gives the lowest heat input for a given length of
weld is of value.
b. Number and Sequence of Runs. The amount of angular distortion of both butt and fillet
welded joints may, except where the joint is rigidly restrained during welding, be considered to be a
direct result of the number of runs for a given cross-sectional profile of the joint.
The number of runs on both sides of the joint should be the same, within practical limits
irrespective of the size of the runs.
Constant attention by the welder to the balancing of his runs, and to correcting angular
distortion before it becomes excessive, is very important.
c. Size of Deposit and Welding Position. It has been shown that a single run deposit will, in
general, cause less distortion than an equivalent deposit built up with a number of runs. For this
reason, on multi-run welds, a vertical weld usually causes less distortion than an equivalent
horizontal weld which is deposited under identical conditions, because the vertical weld is
made with fewer runs.
d. Welding Process. The selection of a welding process is rarely governed by its influence on
distortion, hi general, of the two manual processes, the gas welding process will produce more
distortion than the arc welding process, because the heating is slower and more diffuse.
e. Blowpipe Size, Welding Current and Welding Speed. In gas welding, the blowpipe size is
directly related to material thickness and the use of a nozzle larger than recommended will, in
general, increase the distortion obtained. In order to reduce the heat input to the work, the weld
should be completed as quickly as possible.
Welding current and speed are related factors, and are linked to the size of the electrode used.
The largest practicable gauge of electrode operating at its specified current will enable the weld to
be completed in the shortest time and with a minimum number of runs, as already stated, these
conditions reduce distortion.
f. Welding Sequence. A welding operation; or technique, performed in a manner so as to help
reduce distortion. (See Chap 12, para 12.10).
Chapter 12
Page | 14
12.11 WELDING SEQUENCE AND TECHNIQUE
a. Back-Step Welding. It is preferable that the general direction of welding should be towards the free
end of the joint.
Fig 12.18 Back-Step Welding
The joint is divided into equal parts and numbered, length and number of divisions is usually
governed by the experience of the welder.
Welding proceeds in section one from right to left as shown, when completed, section two is then
welded in the same manner, then section three, and so on, working towards the free end of the
joint until welding is complete.
It will be noted that the general direction of welding is opposite the direction of deposition of weld
in each division.
b. Skip Welding. This consists of depositing the weld metal in evenly spaced divisions, keeping
the sections as far away from each other as possible, thus localising the heat.
Fig 12.19 Skip Welding Butt
The joint is divided into equal parts and numbered, the length and number of divisions governed by
the experience of the welder.
Chapter 12
Page | 15
The welding proceeds numerically in each section until the joint is complete. The direction of
each deposition of weld metal within a section should be the same, but does not necessarily
have to be opposite the general direction of welding.
Fig 12.20 Skip Welding T Joint
To avoid distortion during fillet welding, the welds can be done in short lengths alternately on
either side of the leg of the T, as shown, the welds being either opposite each other as in Fig
12.20a. or alternating as in Fig 12.20b.
c. Intermittent Welding Fillet Welds. These methods of distortion control can be used where
less strength is required, or a waterproof joint is not a factor. They reduce the amount of weld
metal used, therefore they reduce:
(1) Heat input into the fabrication.
(2) Time spent welding.
(3) Weight of the fabrication.
(4) Cost of manufacture.
Chapter 12
Page | 16
Fig 12.21 Intermittent Welding Fillet Welds
d. Balanced Welding. A technique of laying down runs of weld metal in a sequence to balance the heat
input about the neutral axis of a joint, and therefore balancing out the distortion.
Fig 12.22 Balanced Welding

Chapter 12
Page | 17
e. Back-to-Back Welding. If two identical fabrications have to be welded it is sometimes possible to
tack weld or clamp them together and to balance the welding about the neutral axis of the combined
assembly.
Fig 12.23 Back-to-Back Assembly
If stress relieving is not employed after welding, it may be necessary to insert wedges between the two
fabrications before clamping them together, so that each fabrication will be of the correct shape on
separation.
Fig.24 Clock Welding
Chapter 12
Page | 18
f. Clock Welding. In the case of building up a round bar or shaft, it is essential to keep the shaft
as straight as possible during and after welding so as to reduce machining operations.
In this case distortion can be reduced to a minimum by first welding a deposit on one side of the
shaft, and then turning the shaft through 180 and welding a deposit on the opposite diameter. Then
weld on two diameters at right angles to these. The contraction due to layer 2 will counteract that due
to layer 1, layer 4 will counteract layer 3, and so on.
12.12 CORRECTION OF DISTORTION
It is not always possible to control distortion within acceptable limits, especially when dealing with a new
type of fabrication for the first time, and in certain cases it is either more practical or more economic to
allow distortion to occur and correct it after welding. Also there are bound to be instances where intolerable
distortion occurs in spite of the thought and planning put into the job before work is started. In such
circumstances, it is usually possible to rectify the distortion provided that the produce has not shrunk so much
that it will be too small to meet the dimensional requirements.
Parts of a fabrication which have been affected by stresses due to welding may be corrected by:
Mechanical means
Heat
a. Mechanical Means.
(1) Pressed sometimes an entire fabrication which has bowed can be straightened on
a press, provided that it is not too large.
(2) Peening consists of lightly hammering the weld and/or the surrounding parent
metal in order to relieve stresses present and to consolidate the structure of the metal.
It may be carried out while the weld is still hot or immediately the weld has cooled.
b. Heat. Flat fabrications that have become distorted may sometimes be corrected by
clamping them to a heavy base plate or some other strong structure with a flat surface,
and stress relieving the fabrication whilst it is clamped. It is of course, important to make
sure that the base plate is strong enough to hold the fabrication flat. For stress relieving,
the fabrication should be heated slowly to 650 = C and maintained at that temperature for
a period of one hour per inch of thickness of the material. It should then be allowed to
cool, free from draughts.
Chapter 12
Page | 19
CHAPTER 13
Welding Symbols
LIST OF CONTENTS
Para Page
13.1 Introduction to Welding Symbols BS 499............................................ 2

13.2 Arrow and Reference Lines.................................................................. 2
13.3 Elementary Symbols........ ................................................................... 3
13.4 Use of Elementary Symbols................................................................ 6
13.5 Combination of Elementary Symbols.................................................. 10
13.6 Symbols of Compound Joints.............................................................. 12
13.7 Supplementary Symbols... ................................................................... 13
13.8 Application of Supplementary Symbols............................................... 13
13.9 Combinations of Elementary and Supplementary Symbols................ 14
13.10 Dimensions of Elementary and Supplementary Symbols................... 15
13.11 Main Dimensions................................................................................. 16
13.12 Complementary Indications................................................................. 18
13.13 Numerical Indication of Process.......................................................... 20
Fig Page
13.1 Arrow and Reference Lines................................................................... 2

13.2 Position of the Arrow Line.................................................................... 2
13.3 Symbols Relative to the Reference Line Above Line....................... 3
13.4 Symbols Relative to the Reference Line Below Line........................ 3
13.5 Elementary Symbols.......... ................................................................... 4
13.6 Use of Elementary Symbols................................................................... 6
13.7 Combination of Elementary Symbols.................................................... 10
13.8 Symbols of Compound Welds.............................................................. 12
13.9 Supplementary Symbols....................................................................... 13
13.10 Application of Supplementary Symbols............................................... 13
13.11 Combinations of Elementary and Supplementary Symbols................ 14
13.12 Dimensions of Elementary and Supplementary Symbols.................... 15
13.13 Main Dimensions.................. ............................................................... 16
13.14 Plan View showing use of symbol for a Peripheral .Weld................... 18
13.15 Site Welds............................................................................................. 18
13.16 Non Destructive Testing......................................... ............................. 19
13.17 Welding Process.................................................................................... 19
Chapter 13
Page | 20
13.1 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING SYMBOLS BS499
BSS 499 specifies requirements for the symbolic representation of welds on drawings. For the most
common types of weld the standard provides basic indication regarding the welds to be made without
overburdening the drawing with notes or showing an additional view.
The various types of weld are each characterised by a symbol which, in general, is representative of
the shape of the weld to be made or the edge preparation to be used.
13.2 ARROW AND REFERENCE LINES
The symbols used in welding are always used in conjunction with the arrow line and a reference line.
Fig 13.1 Arrow and Reference Lines
a. Position of the Arrow Line.

The position of the arrow line with respect to the weld is generally of no special significance, but
in the case of joints in which only one part is prepared the arrow shall point towards that part.
Fig 13.2 Position of the Arrow Lines
b. Symbols Relative to the Reference Line. The symbol or symbols are either above or below
the reference line.
Chapter 13
Page | 21
(1) If the symbol is above the line the weld face is on the same side of the joint as the
arrow.
Fig 13.3 Symbols Relative to the Reference Line Above Line
(2) If the symbol is below the line the weld face is on the opposite side of the joint from the arrow.
Fig 13.4 Symbols Relative to the Reference Line Below Line
13.3 ELEMENTARY SYMBOLS (see Fig 13.5)
The type of weld shall be indicated by the appropriate elementary symbol, and the symbol shall apply
to the respective welds regardless of the number of runs to be deposited, whether or not there is a root
gap and whether or not there is a backing material, as such details should be given on a welding
procedure sheet.
Chapter 13
Page | 22
13.5 Elementary Symbols
Chapter 13
Page | 23
13.5 Elementary Symbols (continued)
The vertical portions of the symbols for single bevel butt, single J butt and fillet welds shall
always be on left hand side of the symbol irrespective of the orientation of the weld metal.
Chapter 13
Page | 24
13.4 USE OF ELEMENTARY SYMBOLS
Fig 13.6 shows examples of the use of elementary symbols.
13.6 Use of Elementary Symbols
Chapter 13
Page | 25
13.6 Use of Elementary Symbols (continued)
Chapter 13
Page | 26
Fig 13.6 Use of Elementary Symbols (continued)
Chapter 13
Page | 27
Chapter 13
Page | 28
Fig 13.6 Use of Elementary Symbols (continued)
13.5 COMBINATIONS OF ELEMENTARY SYMBOLS
For welds made from two sides, combinations of elementary symbols shall be used.
Fig 13.7 Combinations of Elementary Symbols
Chapter 13
Page | 29
Fig 13.7 Combinations of Elementary Symbols
Fig 13.7 Combinations of Elementary Symbols (continued)
Chapter 13
Page | 30
13.6 SYMBOLS FOR COMPOUND WELDS
In the case of compound welds eg a fillet weld superimposed on a single-bevel butt weld, the
appropriate combination of symbols shall be used.
Chapter 13
Page | 31
Fig 13.8 Symbols for Compound Welds
13.7 SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
When the external surface of the weld is required to be of a particular shape, the appropriate
supplementary symbol shall be used in conjunction with the relevant elementary symbol.
Fig 13.9 Supplementary Symbols
13.8 APPLICATION OF SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
Fig 13.10 shows examples of application of supplementary symbols
13.10 Application of Supplementary Symbols
Chapter 13
Page | 32
13.9 COMBINATIONS OF ELEMENTARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
Fig 13.11 shows examples of combinations of elementary and supplementary symbols.
13.11 Combinations of Elementary and Supplementary Symbols
Chapter 13
Page | 33
13.10 DIMENSIONS IN RELATION TO WELD SYMBOLS
a. Where a symbol is accompanied by a certain number of dimensions, expressed in millimetres,

the indications of these dimensions shall be as follows:
(1) Dimensions relating to the cross section of the weld shall be given on the left hand side
of the symbol A.
(2) Longitudinal dimensions shall be given on the right hand side of the symbol, distances
between adjacent weld elements shall be indicated in brackets B.
13.12 Dimensions In Relation To Weld Symbols
The dimensions that locate the weld in relation to the edges of the parts being welded shall be given
on the drawing.
b. Butt Welds In the absence of any dimension indications to the contrary, it shall be
taken that butt welds are intended to have full penetration and to be continuous along the entire
length of the joint.
c. Fillet Welds In the absence of any dimension indications to the contrary, it shall be
taken that fillet welds are intended to be continuous along the entire length of the joint.
The cross sectional dimension to be indicated for a fillet weld shall be the leg length. When it is
also desired to indicate the design throat thickness, then the leg length dimension shall be
prefixed with the letter B and the design throat thickness dimension shall be prefixed with the
letter A.
In the case of a fillet weld having unequal legs, both leg length dimension shall be given,
separated by a multiplication sign.
Chapter 13
Page | 34
13.11MAIN DIMENSIONS
See Fig 13.13
Fig 13.13 Main Dimensions
Chapter 13
Page | 35
Fig 13.13 Main Dimensions (continued)
Chapter 13
Page | 36
13.12 COMPLEMENTARY INDICATIONS
a. Peripheral Welds. Where a weld is to be made all round a joint, this shall be indicated by
a circle placed where the arrow line joins the reference line.
Fig 13.14 Plan View showing the Use of Symbol for a Peripheral Weld
b. Site Welds. Welds to be made on site shall be differentiated from shop welds by the
indication of a flag where the arrow line joins the reference line.
Fig 13.15 Site Welds
Chapter 13
Page | 37
c. Non-Destructive Testing. When it is desired to indicate that non-destructive testing, other
than visual examination of a weld is required, the symbol shown shall be placed near to the end
of the reference line.
Fig 13.16 Non-Destructive Testing
d. Welding Process. Information regarding the welding process to be used is given on the
welding procedure sheet. When it is also desired to indicate the process as part of the symbolic
representation, the appropriate numerical indication of process shall be placed within a 'fork' at
the end of the reference line.
Fig 13.17 Welding Process
Chapter 13
Page | 38
13.13 NUMERICAL INDICATION OF PROCESS
No Process No Process
1 Arc Welding 47 Gas pressure welding

11 Metal-arc welding without gas protection 48 Cold welding
111 Metal-arc welding with covered electrode
112 Gravity arc welding with covered electrode 7 Other welding processes
2 Bare wire metal arc welding 71 Thermit welding
114 Flux cored metal-arc welding 72 Electroslag welding
115 Coated wire metal-arc welding 73 Electrogas welding
118 Firecracker welding 74 Induction welding
12 Submerged arc welding 75 Light radiation welding
121 Submerged arc welding with wire electrode 751 Laser welding
122 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode 752 Arc image welding
13 Gas shielded metal-arc welding 753 Infrared welding
131 MIG welding 76 Electron beam welding
135 MAG welding, metal-arc welding with non inert gas 713 Percussion welding
shield 78 Stud welding
136 Flux cored metal-arc welding with non-inert gas shield 781 Arc stud welding
14 Gas-shielded welding with non-consumable 782 Resistance stud welding
electrode
141 TIG welding 9 Brazing, soldering and braze welding
149 Atomic-hydrogen welding 91 Brazing
15 Plasma arc welding 911 Infrared brazing
18 Other arc welding processes 912 Flame brazing
181 Carbon arc welding 913 Furnace brazing
185 Rotating arc welding 914 Dip brazing
915 Salt bath brazing
2 Resistance welding 916 Induction brazing
21 Spot welding 917 Ultrasonic brazing
22 Seam welding 918 Resistance brazing
221 Lap seam welding 919 Diffusion brazing
225 Seam welding with strip 923 Friction brazing
23 Projection welding 924 Vacuum brazing
24 Flash welding 93 Other brazing processes
25 Resistance butt welding 94 Soldering
29 Other resistance welding processes 941 Infrared soldering
291 HF resistance welding 942 Flame soldering
943 Furnace soldering
3 Gas Welding 944 Dip soldering
31 Oxy-fuel gas welding 945 Salt bath soldering
311 Oxy-propane welding 946 Induction soldering
312 Oxy-hydrogen welding 947 Ultrasonic soldering
313 Air fuel gas welding 948 Resistance soldering
32 Air-acetylene welding 949 Diffusion soldering
321 Air-propane welding 951 Flow soldering
952 Soldering with soldering iron
4 Solid phase welding; Pressure welding 953 Friction soldering
41 Ultrasonic welding 954 Vacuum soldering
42 Friction welding 96 Other soldering processes
44 44 Welding by high mechanical energy 97 Braze welding
441 45 Explosive welding 971 Gas braze welding
45 Diffusion welding 972 Arc braze welding
This table complies with International Standard ISO 4063
Chapter 13
Page | 39

MIG Welding

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

MIG Welding

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Chapter 2 Safety Precautions

Chapter 3 Power Pack Requirements

Chapter 4 Modes of Transfer

Chapter 5 Weld ID and Terms used in welding

Chapter 6 MIG Defects

Chapter 7 MIG Fault Finding

Chapter 8 Shielding Gases for MIG Welding

Chapter 9 MIG Welding Aluminium

Chapter 10 Identification of Aluminium & Its Alloys

Chapter 11 Filler Wires Used for MIG WELDING

Chapter 13 Welding Symbols

1.1 General Description ....................................................................... 1

1.1 Example of a MIG Layout ........................................................... 3

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The choice of shielding gases will depend on many factors:

Type of mode of transfer

2.1 Introduction To Safety ................................................................... 1

2.1 Damage To Eyes............................................................................ 3

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY

2.2 SHOP LAYOUT

READ AND REMEMBER THEM

Fire and explosion.

2.4 ELECTRIC SHOCK

2.5 ARC RADIATION

Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation

2.6 HEAT AND HOT METAL

GROUP THREE: Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Phosgene.

GROUP FOUR: Argon, Argon/hydrogen, Helium and Nitrogen.

The extraction requirements for the above groups are as follows:

Fig 2.2 Fumes

2.8 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

2.9 CHAPTER REVISION

1. List three types of arc radiation.

2. Which Act of Parliament covers Health and Safety?

3. Welding cable connections should conform to which British Standard?

4. What is meant by the term "Arc Eye"?

5. List 9 different hazards.

7. List the ten materials in "group one".

8. How is Phosgene formed?

9. When welding in a confined space what are the extraction requirements?

10. How is Ozone formed when welding?

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1

3.1 Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) ................................ 1

3.2 CONSTANT CURRENT

Fig 3.1 Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic)

3.3 CONSTANT POTENTIAL

Fig 3.2 Constant Potential

Constant Current Constant Potential

3.4 CONTROLLED ARC

A Constant Current machine has the following layout:

Fig 3.3 Controlled Arc (Variable Speed Motor)

This wire feed unit is said to be a "VARIABLE SPEED MOTOR".

3.5 SELF ADJUSTING ARC

3.4 Self Adjusting Arc

These two wire feed units are not inter-changeable.

3.6 CHAPTER REVISION

4. Explain what is meant by the term Self Adjusting Arc.

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1

There are five modes of transfer:

MODE OF TRANSFER SHIELDING GAS

Short Circuiting (DIP) CO2 or ARGON/ACTIVE

Spray ARGON or ARGON RICH

Free Flight CO2