Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.3 (Tools)

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)
Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.3 - Tools
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.3
TOOLS
ISO9001:2008Certified ForTrainingPurposeOnly
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/01 Rev. 00
7.3 Mar 2014

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Contents

INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------ 1

COMMON HAND TOOLS TYPES -------------------------------------- 1
COMMON POWER TOOLS -------------------------------------------- 46

OPERATION AND USE OF PRECISION MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS ----------------------------------------------------------- 54

LUBRICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT ------------------- 65
OPERATION, FUNCTION AND USE OF ELECTRICAL
GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT --------------------------------------- 70

7.3 i Mar 2014

INTRODUCTION The increment graduation marks are etched into the rule
surface providing a grooved recess. These grooves enable
Servicing of an aircraft, requires the dismantling, cleaning, dividers to be set to a greater accuracy, as the divider points
examination, adjustment and re-assembly of the parts in can be felt to drop in to the recess.
accordance with the maintenance schedule. Further aspects of
the work may require the manufacture of simple components
from metal or other materials, the drilling and tapping of holes,
removal of burrs and other operations. A reasonable degree of
skill, in the use of hand tools is, therefore, to be expected from
all trades-persons. This skill can only be obtained by practice,
but it may be stated, that the more efficient the tool, then the
better will be the finished work. Metric Scale
COMMON HAND TOOLS TYPES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
The best results are always obtained by using the correct tool 1 2 3 4 10 11 12
for the task. Care and maintenance of all tools is very important,
since damaged or inefficient tools can lead to injury of the user
Imperial Scale
or damage to the components. A range of common hand tools
is considered in this part of the course. Edge View
Engineers Rule
An engineers rule (refer to Fig. 1) is made from high-carbon

steel and is graduated in Imperial and Metric units. Rules are
classified by the length and width of their graduated portion, Grooves
must be kept free from rust and should not be subjected to
rough usage. The most common engineers rule has a length of
300mm (1ft) but rules can be obtained in lengths of up to
1,800mm (6ft).
7.3 1 Mar 2014

Scriber
A scriber (refer to Fig. 3.1) is used for marking lines on the

surface of metals. Scribers are made from high-carbon steel Key Seat Rule
and are classified by their length. One end of the scriber is
usually bent at right angles to enable lines to be scribed in
difficult places such as through a hole. Round Bar
All scribed lines, on soft materials, must only be cutting

(boundary) lines, and none must be left on the surface of the
metal on completion, as they can cause cracks. Other lines,
including bend lines and lines for the position of rivets must be
marked with a sharp pencil.
Scriber points must be kept sharp and fine by careful stoning,

with an oil stone, rather than an abrasive wheel (grindstone). Scriber
Using a wheel is likely to generate too much heat, which will
result in the temper being drawn from the steel and the point of
the scriber becoming soft and useless.
Scriber and Key Seat Rule
When not in use (and as with other tools with sharp points), Fig. 3.1
placing pieces of cork, plastic or similar material over their
points will protect them.
Key-Seat Rule
Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the

axis, on the surface of tubes or round bars (refer to Fig. 2).
Sometimes referred to as Box Squares, key-seat rules are
usually graduated and are classified by their length.
7.3 2 Mar 2014

Combination Set Scriber
The Combination Set (refer to Fig. 3.2), consists of a graduated Spirit Level
steel rule, which has a machined groove running along the Centre Head
centre of its entire length. The rule can be slid into three Square Head
different heads and secured, by a locking screw device, so that
the combination of rule and head will enable certain tasks to be
accomplished.
Groove
The Centre Head is used, with the rule, to locate the centre line
of bars or round tubes.
The Square Head has one working surface at 90 and another

at 45 to the locked rule. This allows the tool to be used, either
Protractor Head
in a similar manner to the Fitters Square (to check the
squareness of work), or it may be used for the marking out of
mitre joints and bevels.
A spirit level and scriber are, sometimes, accommodated in the

base of the Square Head, to permit a check to be done on the
horizontal or vertical accuracy of work pieces.
The Protractor Head also has a spirit level, which rotates with
the head, and allows the head to be used, singly, as a
clinometers or, in conjunction with the rule, it may be used to Combination Set
mark out and check angles on work pieces. Fig. 3.2
7.3 3 Mar 2014

Surface Plates and Tables lightly on to the surface plate and any high spots will show up as
blue spots on the test piece. These spots will be filed or scraped
Surface plates (and surface tables which are larger), while not until the whole surface shows blue. After use, a light film of oil
actually being classed as marking out or measuring tools, are should be applied to the working surface of the surface plates
simply blocks of grey cast iron with finely machined faces which and tables. They should, then, be protected with a wooden
can be used as a standard of flatness. They may also be used cover, to prevent the onset of corrosion.
to provide a true surface, from which marking out, measuring
and testing can be done. V Blocks
Surface plates are usually mounted on a bench and, normally, V Blocks are accurately machined, six-sided, rectangular blocks
only have three supports, or feet, to ensure steadiness, if the (generally made of cast iron), which may be used, on surface
surface of the bench were to be slightly uneven. plates and tables, to hold a round bar, which can then be
marked in a variety of ways, to give centres and lines parallel to
Surface tables are free standing, on the workshop floor, and its side. V blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of the
their sheer weight provides the required steadiness. work, which they can hold.
The standard of the surface finish varies. The better grades are All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel and all adjacent
scraped and the cheaper ones are merely planed. The accuracy faces are square to each other. A 90 groove (in the shape of a
of a planned table depends upon the accuracy of the machine V) is machined in two (longer) opposite faces, but the grooves
producing it. are cut at different depths, to cater for bars of different
diameters.
Surfaces of grade A standard would only be used in Standards The V-cut grooves have a small, square-cut, clearance groove
Rooms, grade B surfaces are for inspection work while grade in the bottom of the V. This ensures that any oil, or dirt runs off
C surface plates and tables would be found in typical the sides of the V and does not clog the bottom of the V,
workshops. causing an imperfect seating of any bar which were to be
placed in the blocks.
Surface plates and tables can be used to test for flatness,
providing the standards required are not too high. The surface
of the plate is lightly smeared with a mixture of engineers blue
and a few drops of oil. The piece to be tested has to be rubbed
7.3 4 Mar 2014

V blocks are made in (identified) matching pairs, which must
always be used together, so that a block of one pair should not
be used with one of another pair. Some V blocks also have
grooves machined along the other two longer, parallel, sides, to
locate specially designed clamps, which may be used to
securely hold work while it is being accurately marked out or
V Blocks
drilled.
Surface Gauge (Scribing Block)
A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block (refer to Fig. 3.3), is another

marking out tool, used, on a surface plate or table, in
conjunction with a scriber (and, occasionally, with V blocks), for
the marking of lines, which are parallel to a true surface.
Scribing Block
The scriber is clamped to a spindle, which can be accurately
pivoted, by means of a fine adjustment screw, on the heavy
base. The base, which is generally made from cast iron (or
hardened steel) is machined to be as flat as the surface plate on Surface Plate
which it slides, but it is also grooved (in a similar manner to the
V block) so that it can be used on round stock when required.
Two friction-fit pins, in the base, may be pushed down, to assist Scribing Block with V Blocks and Surface Plate
in drawing lines parallel to a true edge. Fig. 3.3
7.3 5 Mar 2014

Dividers
Dividers are used to set out distances and to scribe arcs and
circles. The legs are made of high-carbon steel, the spring
made of spring steel and the adjusting mechanism of mild steel.
Dividers are classified by the length of their legs. The points

should be kept sharp and of equal length by stoning only the
outside of the legs. If grinding is used to sharpen the points, it
must be done very carefully, as the temper of the points can be
drawn, leaving them soft.
The points of dividers should be protected, when not in use, in a

similar manner to those of scribers and such tools.
Callipers
Callipers (refer to Fig. 3.4) are a type of measuring device,

typically used to measure diameters and distances or for
comparing sizes. The three basic types of calliper are:
Outside Callipers: Used to measure the outside diameter of
an object and have legs that point inwards
Inside Callipers: Used to measure the inside of a hole and
have legs that point outwards
Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or Jenny Callipers): This
tool is really half callipers and half dividers. It may be used Outside Inside Oddleg
for scribing arcs on metal surfaces from an edge, for Calipers
scribing lines parallel to an edge or surface, (provided Fig. 3.4
accuracy is not of great importance), and for finding the
centre of a round bar.
7.3 6 Mar 2014

Hammers
Body Hammer: Little used in aircraft work, as they are
Hammers (refer to Fig. 3.5) are classified by their weight and primarily used to remove dents and blemishes from sheet
type of head. Steel heads are forged and manufactured from metal. They are also known as planishing hammers.
high-carbon steel. Most shafts are made from straight-grained
Ash or Hickory and are secured to the head by wedging. The weight of hammer required can be found with experience.
Before use, it must be ensured that the head is secure on the
As can be seen from Fig. 3.5, the main types of engineering shaft. The shaft should be gripped close to the end opposite the
hammers are the: head, as proper control is not possible if it is held close to the
head.
Ball Pein: The flat surface is used for most general-purpose
work whilst the ball pein is used primarily for riveting-type
operations
Straight Pein: Used for general work, the narrow, straight
pein being particularly suitable for use where access to the
work is limited
Cross Pein: As for the straight pein, but the axis of the pein
is at 90 to that of the shaft
Hide/Copper Face: The rawhide facing enables heavy blows
to be delivered without damaging the surface of the work,
while the copper face may be used for heavier types of work
than hide faced hammers
Rubber Head and Plastic Face: More modern versions of
the Hide Face hammer. Can often have one of each type of
face on each end of the head
Claw Hammer (not shown): More commonly used for
woodworking. The face is used for hammering nails whilst
the claw is used for removing nails
7.3 7 Mar 2014

Ball Pein Straight Pein Cro

Punches The first three punches are, usually, constructed from
hexagonal (or knurled, round) rods of tempered, cast steel with
Although punches are not pounding tools, they do allow the a length of approximately 127 mm (5 in), a gripping diameter of
force from a hammer blow to be concentrated in the immediate approximately 3.175 mm (0.125 in) and a smaller, driving end of
area of the punch tip. This in turn means that the pressure at the appropriate size.
the end of the punch is increased compared to a hammer blow
without a punch.
Centre Punches are relatively sharp-pointed tools, used to
Over a period of time, the hammered shank end of a punch, make an indentation in metal. The indentation aids in locating
tends to deform into the shape of a mushroom. To reduce the the centre of a hole and for starting a drill bit when drilling the
chance of a metal chip flying off and causing injury, during hole. The points may be ground at angles between 60 to 90,
punching operations, the deformation should be removed and depending on the hardness of the metal on which the punch is
the shank end returned to its original shape by the use of a being used. The softer the metal, then the larger will be the
bench grinder. angle of the punchs point.
Eye or face protection should always be used when using When using a centre punch, it must be struck hard enough to
punches of any type. give an indentation large enough for a drill bit to start, but not so
hard as to distort the metal.
The types of punches, more commonly found in an engineers
toolkit, include: Another form of Centre Punch is the Dot or Prick Punch (also
Pricker), which has a finer point and is used to make
Centre Punches indentations along a drawn line when the line is, otherwise,
Pin Punches difficult to see. The indentations may also be used, when
Hollow Punches sawing down to a line, as witness points, to show that the
Drifts cutting is accurate.
7.3 8 Mar 2014

Centre punches should not be used to drive out pins or rivets
from their holes.
Pin Punches, as their name implies, are the tools to be used for
the removal of pins and rivets from their respective holes. The
driving end of a Pin Punch is cut flat, and its diameter ground to
match that of the pin or rivet which is being driven from its hole.
Pin Punches may be found with parallel or tapered driving ends.
Hollow Punches are used to punch out bolt (or stud) holes in
soft, thin sheets, such as shimming or gasket materials, which
are difficult to cut with drills. The material being cut should be
supported by a wooden block, to avoid damaging the cutting
end of the Hollow Punch.
Drifts may be fashioned from aluminium alloy, copper or steel

bars (or tubes), and are used for driving out bearings, bushes or
shafts from their respective cages or housings.
Only steel drifts should be used on bearings, due to the

possibility of small metal chips, from the softer metals, breaking
off and fouling the bearing assemblies.
7.3 9 Mar 2014

Cross-Cut (or Cape) chisels are used to cut narrow, flat-
Metal-Cutting Chisels bottomed, grooves, such as keyways in shafts or where it is not
practical to use a flat chisel. These chisels are also used to
Metal-cutting chisels (also called Cold Chisels) are used in remove the heads of round-headed rivets during repairs.
conjunction with steel hammers. Chisels are forged, usually
using short lengths of hexagonal-sectioned, high-carbon steel Diamond-Point chisels are particularly useful for cutting in
bars, with the cutting edge hardened and tempered. corners, cutting small oil grooves and for rectifying an incorrect
start when drilling.
To prevent flying particles when hammering, the striking end is
not hardened and is, therefore, comparatively softer. Half-Round (and may, also, be called Round) chisels are
Periodically, the burr, that forms at the striking end of the chisel, general-purpose, grooving chisels, which are suitable for cutting
should (in a similar manner to punches), be removed by filing or half-round, bottomed, grooves. They are also suitable for
grinding. rectifying an incorrect start when drilling.
Alternatively, the chisels may be made of nickel-alloy steel,

specially heat-treated, to produce a long-lasting cutting edge.
Chisels are classified by their shape, overall length, cross-

Section of shank and width of cut. There are four principal
shapes of chisels (refer to Fig. 3.6), in general use. They are
the:
Flat
Cross-Cut
Diamond-Point
Half-Round.
Flat Cross-Cut Diamond-Point Half-Round
Flat chisels are used for general chipping work, such as parting
sheet metal or cutting flat surfaces, preparatory to filing. The
cutting edge is formed slightly convex. Chisel Types
Fig. 3.6
7.3 10 Mar 2014

When selecting a chisel for a specific task, consideration must Most types of bench vice have a quick-release mechanism,
be given both to the nature of the work and to the material that operated by a small lever. The jaws can then be slid either open
is to be cut. The nature of the work governs the choice of or closed until the correct position is reached. The lever
shape, whilst the angle formed by the cutting edge is influenced disengages the half nut from the thread to permit the sliding
by the hardness of the metal. action and it is driven back into engagement by a strong spring.
Bench vices are classified by the length of their jaws.
In general, it may be assumed that the softer the metal the more
acute should be the cutting angle. Table 5 shows some The height of the top of the vice above the ground is important,
suggested cutting angles for use on typical metals, found in and should ideally, be level with the technicians elbow when
aircraft engineering workshops. standing adjacent to the vice. With the vice at the correct height,
work will be less tiring and correct control of the tools, such as
Table 1 Suggested Chisel Cutting Angles files and saws, will be achieved.
Hard Steels 70 The vice must be secured firmly to the bench (with occasional
Mild Steels 60 checks of the holding-down nuts), and the screw should be kept
Soft Metals 40 clean and lubricated. The jaws must not be over-tightened as
the mechanism may be damaged or the work piece becomes
High-carbon, steel chisels should be sharpened by grinding on distorted.
an abrasive wheel, but nickel-alloy, steel chisels are sharpened
by filing. The cutting edge of the chisel must be kept cool, To protect soft materials from the hardened serrated, vice jaws,
during grinding, by frequent immersion in water, which will aluminium vice clamps (or clams) can be positioned over the
prevent the temper being drawn from the metal. jaws. Other, special holding devices, such as V blocks (made
out of wood to protect tubular items) can be manufactured
Bench Vice locally.
The bench vice (refer to Fig. 3.7) is used to firmly grip the
material or item upon which work is being done in a workshop.
The body of the vice is provided with detachable steel jaws. The
screw is made with a square or with a buttress thread.
7.3 11 Mar 2014

Hand Vice
A hand vice (refer to Fig. 3.8) is classified by its overall length

and can be used when splicing cables or holding small objects
that are to be shaped or drilled. The body and screw are made
of mild steel, with a wing nut provided for the operation of the
hand vice. Small vice clamps can also be used with these vices
when working with soft material.
Bench Vice
Fig. 3.7
Hand Vice
Fig. 3.8
7.3 12 Mar 2014

Hacksaws
The hacksaw is the most widely-used, metal-cutting, hand saw.

Hacksaws are used for parting off, or for cutting materials
approximately to size. They are designed primarily for cutting
metal, but may be used on other materials. The saw consists of
a mild steel frame, with a suitable handle and a replaceable,
serrated blade, which is made from high-carbon or alloy steel.
Fine-toothed blades have 24 or 32 teeth per inch and are used

for cutting thin material. Coarser blades, with 14 or 18 teeth per
inch are for thicker material. A rule of thumb is that at least two
teeth must be in contact, with the work being cut, at all times.
The blade mountings must be set in the most convenient

position with the teeth facing away from the handle. This allows
the blade to cut on the more efficient, forward stroke.
Hand pressure should be applied on this forward stroke and

relieved on the return stroke. The full length of the blade should
be used for each stroke, if at all possible. This action prolongs
the life of the blade, lessens the chance of teeth breaking away
from the blade and reduces the chance of the saw jamming
during use.
7.3 13 Mar 2014

Sheet Metal Shears and Snips Unlike hacksaws (and files), shears simply part the metal
without removing any material. This can, however, cause tiny
Shears are another type of cutting tool used on aircraft sheet fractures to occur along the severed lines and so, for this
metal. Long, straight cuts, across a piece of sheet metal, are reason, cuts should be made approximately 0.8 mm (0.03 in)
made on a guillotine, which may also be referred to as squaring from the marking out line and the metal then filed down to the
shears. line.
The fabrication of smaller parts requires hand cutting, followed

with further trimming to the final dimensions. This can be
achieved with different types of shears, known as Tinmans
Shears or Aviation Snips. They can vary in length from 175 mm
(7 in) up to 300 mm (12 in) and can be straight or curved
cutting.
Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for cutting straight or

wide radius curves whilst the curved shears are dedicated
solely to cutting curves.
Curved shears can be found in symmetrical form, which can be

used to cut curves in either direction, or they can be
asymmetrical and dedicated to cutting curves in one direction TIN SNIP
only. The handles of asymmetrically curved shears are usually
colour-coded (red and green), to indicate the intended cutting
direction. Left-cutting shears are coloured red while right-
cutting shears are coloured green).
7.3 14 Mar 2014

DIAGONAL CUTTER
AVIATION SNIPS
7.3 15 Mar 2014

Files
Files are cutting tools for removing metal from a surface and are
made of high-carbon steel. The blade is hardened, whilst the
tang (to which, a handle must always be attached, for safety
reasons, before the file is used), is left in a softer, tougher Tip Shoulder
condition and is, therefore, less brittle. Hand files are classified
by their: Parallel
Length
Shape Length Tang
Cross-Section
Cut
Grade. Tapered
The length of a file is measured from the shoulder to the tip of
the blade. Files are available, for special work, in lengths from
75 mm (3 in) to 350 mm (14 in). The most common sizes are
150 mm (6 in), 200 mm (8 in) and 250 mm (10 in).
Bellied
Files are available in a variety of shapes (refer to Fig. 3.9), and
the most common shapes are those which are:
Three Most Common Shapes of Files
Parallel Fig. 3.9
Tapered
Bellied.
7.3 16 Mar 2014

The various shapes and the cross-sections of files allow them to The Round section is used in association with bellied, parallel
be used on a wide range of tasks. The standard file cross- and tapered blade shapes, with the bellied being the one most
sections (refer to Fig. 3.10) are: commonly used. These files are suitable for filing small radii.
Hand Half-Round files are mostly associated with bellied-shaped

Round blades. Such files are suitable for use on work of irregular
Half-Round shape or for filing large internal radii.
Square
Three-Square. Square files may be bellied, tapered or parallel in shape. They
are used for internal work.
Three-Square (or Triangular) files are, usually, of the bellied

shape. They are particularly useful for filing internal corners.
Hand Round Half-Round Square Three-Square
File Cross-Sections
Fig. 3.10
The Hand is the most commonly used section for general filing;
and the blade is usually parallel in shape. One edge may be
without teeth, to permit safe working against a finished surface.
Such a file is called a Hand Safe Edge (HSE) file.
7.3 17 Mar 2014

The teeth of the Rasp are cut with a punch, while the metal is
The Cut of a file refers to the arrangement of the cutting teeth, hot, at the time of manufacture. This type of cut is used for filing
on the blade of the file. The pattern, in which the teeth are cut, very soft materials such as wood and leather.
will depend upon the type of material to be filed. The common
cuts of files (refer to Fig. 3.11) are the: Manufacturers will cut files to cater for a wide range of
specialised materials, such as encountered when working with
Single Cut aluminium and other non-ferrous alloys.
Double Cut
Dreadnought
Rasp.
The Single Cut file has its teeth cut parallel, in a single direction
and (for general engineering), usually, at an angle of
approximately 60 to the main axis of the blade. This type of cut
is relatively open and the teeth do not clog easily.
Sometimes referred to as Floats, single cut Hand files are,

chiefly, used for filing hard metals. Round files and the curved
surface of Half-Round files are usually single cut.
The Double Cut file also has one set of teeth cut at an angle of
60 to the centre line of the file, with another, crossing set, cut at
angle of approximately 75. This is the most widely used type of
file for general purposes. Single Cut Double Cut Dreadnought
The cut of the Dreadnoughts teeth, make this file especially File Cuts
suitable for heavy cutting on broad, soft metal surfaces. Its use Fig. 3.11
is generally restricted to the larger sizes of flat files.
7.3 18 Mar 2014

Filing Techniques
The Grade of a file refers to the depth and spacing (number of
teeth per inch) of the cutting teeth in a similar manner to the Good filing is not just a matter of removing surplus metal. The
size and spacing of the particles employed on abrasive papers correct amount of material, at each point on the surface of the
and wheels. The rate of cutting and the finish given to the work work piece, needs to be removed, so that the dimensions and
is determined, to a large extent, by the grade of the file. tolerances, set by the drawing, will be met.
While there are several more grades of files, available from Proficiency comes with practice. New files should, if possible,
manufacturers, the most common grades (or degrees of be first used on soft metal. This achieves tempering of the
coarseness) of the single and double cut files, found in a typical cutting teeth and will contribute to a longer life for the file.
aerospace technicians toolkit, are the:
Before starting work, it must be ensured that the work piece is
Bastard secure and correctly placed, as both hands are required for
Second-Cut filing tasks.
Smooth.
A file must never be used without a handle. The file will not be
The Bastard is a comparatively coarse grade of file and, though under full control and the risk of puncturing the wrist or palm is
the number of teeth per inch varies with each manufacturer, the very great.
Bastard file has approximately 30 teeth per inch. It removes
metal fairly quickly and is intended, primarily, for roughing out, Files must be handled carefully. File blades, being hard, are
but may be used for the entire work, if the finish is not important. also brittle and will break if dropped. After use, all files should
be returned to their respective racks or bandolier-type holdalls,
The Second-Cut files are finer (40 teeth per inch) and, to prevent them knocking together and being damaged.
consequently, give a better surface finish to the work, but are
slower cutting. The length and grade of file, appropriate to the shape (and
material) of the work piece, and to the quality of the desired
Smooth files (50 to 60 teeth per inch) enable a good finish to be surface finish, must always be used.
obtained, but such files cut comparatively slowly. They should,
therefore, be used for finishing work only.
7.3 19 Mar 2014

As mentioned previously, the height of the vice is important and Obviously, if attempting to file a flat surface, then it must be
platforms may be constructed, to ensure that the elbows of ensured that the file is kept level during the filing action and that
shorter persons are level with the top of the vice. Any platforms, regular checks are made to verify the accuracy of the
so constructed, should ensure that a correct stance be attained, dimensions.
by the work-person, in front of the vice.
During work (and particularly so with non-ferrous metals), the
It is recommended that the person stand, with feet apart and teeth of the file gradually become clogged (pinned) with small
(depending on whether the person is left- or right-handed), one particles. If these pinnings are ignored they will cause scratches
foot advanced, in a manner similar to a boxer (or a fencer) to the surface of the work piece with subsequent loss of surface
taking guard. The body weight should be taken on the balls of finish. To this end, pinnings should be regularly removed by the
the feet but, primarily, over the rearmost foot. use of a file card (also called a scratch card) or wire brush.
Again depending on the person, the handle of the file is gripped Chalk, rubbed along the face of the file, before starting the
in the appropriate hand, while the palm of the other hand is finishing work, will assist in minimising pinning.
placed, flat on the back of the file, near the tip, when the tip of
the file is resting on the work piece. Draw-filing, by grasping the file between the fingers and thumbs
of both hands, on either side of a work piece, and rubbing back
Using a rocking action, the body weight is transferred over the and forth on the surface, may be used to rectify any hollows,
forward foot while pushing the file forward (and, simultaneously, which may appear on a filed surface, due to incorrect filing
to the left or right) with the gripping hand, and exerting equal action. It may also be used, in conjunction with chalk, applied as
downward pressure, on the file, with both hands. previously described, to assist in creating a finer surface finish.
The full length of the file should be used for each stroke (which
should not be rushed) and, at the completion of the stroke, the
action is reversed, excepting that the downward pressure is
relieved on the backstroke, as the file does not cut in the
rearward direction.
7.3 20 Mar 2014

Hand Brace (Hand Drill)
Whenever it is necessary to cut accurate, circular holes in

materials, then, where possible, the material should be securely
clamped and the holes cut, using fixed, power-operated drilling
machines. These machines are usually found in workshops and
bays, bolted down to the floor (or to benches) and will be
discussed in later topics. Where it is impractical to do the work
with fixed machines, then the drilling is done, using either
portable power tools or hand-operated drills. Portable, power-
operated tools will also be discussed later.
The Hand Brace, or, as it is more usually called, the Hand Drill
(refer to Fig. 3.12), is, typically, only used to drill holes of up to
6.5 mm, ( in) diameter in thin and comparatively soft
materials. The device shown is similar to those most commonly
Hand Brace (Hand Drill)
found in the toolkits of aircraft technicians, though the actual
Fig. 3.12
design will depend upon each manufacturer.
Another hand-operated drill, the Breast Brace, being larger, is

designed to hold larger drills than the hand drill and is, normally,
used (in workshops etc.) for drilling holes between 6.5 mm and
12 mm ( and in).
The breast brace has one other advantage over the hand drill,
in that two running speeds can be selected, which will more
closely match the correct speed, required by the various sized
twist drills being employed.
7.3 21 Mar 2014

Twist Drills The helical flute (or fluting), formed in the drill body, provides a
rake angle for the cutting edges of the drill. The fluting also
While the range of tools, designed to create holes in metals and allows any lubricant to flow towards the cutting edges and
other materials is vast, the Morse-type (named after its inventor, provides a path for the waste metal (swarf), to move clear.
an American engineer) of Twist Drill (refer to Fig. 3.13) is the
one most commonly used in aircraft (and in general) The land of the drill actually touches the wall of the hole and
engineering. steadies the drill during rotation. Immediately behind the land,
metal is removed from the body of the drill, to reduce the friction
The shank is the part of the twist drill that is gripped and driven during rotation.
by the chuck of the drilling machine and it is on the shank that
the details of the type (grade) and diameter of the drill can
usually be found printed or engraved.
On drills up to 12.5 mm () diameter, the shank is parallel and

placed into the jaws of a self-centring chuck. On drills above Land
Flute
12.5 mm the shank is usually tapered (to a Morse Taper) of Point
1:20. The tapered shank fits directly into a matching tapered
housing in the drilling machine spindle.
The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement

provides a more positive drive, which is necessary to overcome
the higher forces when drilling with the larger diameter drills.
Body Shank
Twist Drill
Fig. 3.13
7.3 22 Mar 2014

It is essential that the drill point is central and that the cutting
In order that the drill will cut properly, the point must be ground angles of 59 are equal. An offset point or unequal cutting
to the correct shape (refer to Fig. 3.14). The cutting, angle of angles will cause an unbalanced rotation that will, in turn,
59 (118 inclusive), a clearance angle of 12 and a web angle produce an oversized hole.
of 130, are typical for normal metal cutting, such as aluminium
alloys, steels, cast iron and copper. These can be changed to To achieve the desired cutting and clearance angles (and
suit the cutting of different materials such as harder metals, resulting web angles), a drill grinding attachment may be found
softer metals or plastics. attached to a grinding wheel in a workshop.
Web or Point Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved (especially

Angle after practice), to an acceptable standard for general work. For
115-135 the high standard of hole, required to receive rivets, in the
Inclusive pressurised skins of aircraft, it is common practice to discard
drills, which have become blunt and to replace them with new
drills.
There are many different grades of metal, used in the

manufacture of twist drills, the most common being:
Carbon Steel
Cutting Clearance Angle High Speed Steel
Angle 12-15
Cobalt Steel.
59
Cutting
Edges
Typical Twist Drill Point Angles
Fig. 3.14
7.3 23 Mar 2014

Drill diameter sizes are also usually marked upon the shank of
Carbon Steel drills, in addition to iron and carbon, contain the drill and can be identified by the method used in their sizing.
various amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur and The most common methods of identifying the diameter of twist
phosphorus. The letters CS may be found on the shanks of drills are:
these drills.
Metric
High Speed Steel (HSS) drills contain a comparatively high Fractions of an inch
percentage of tungsten (8%-12%) with a lesser percentage of The Number/Letter range.
chromium (5%) and smaller amounts of vanadium and,
possibly, molybdenum added to the carbon and iron in this In the Metric range, the smallest, commercially available, drill
steel. has a diameter size of 0.35 mm. The full range proceeds in
increments of 0.05 mm up to 5.0 mm, and, for larger sizes, in
HSS drills retain their hardness at low red heat and can, thus, increments of 0.1 mm.
be used at much higher speeds than carbon steel drills. This
results in much less damage to the cutting edges and, although
HSS drills are more expensive than CS drills they can, over a
period of time, result in a greater economy in the purchase of
drills.
Cobalt Steel drills, contain up to 12% cobalt, with as much as

20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1%-2% vanadium and traces of
molybdenum combined with 0.8% carbon. These drills are
normally used on metals such as stainless steels, titanium and
other very hard metals.
Being extremely hard, Cobalt Steel drills are also quite brittle.
Because of this, the use of these drills can be very dangerous,
and, so, strict observance of the recommended cutting speeds
is essential.
7.3 24 Mar 2014

When drilling small holes, up to 6.0 mm () diameter, the

depth of the centre punch mark will, usually, accommodate the
non-cutting, chisel-like point of the drill, keeping it on centre and
guiding the drill until it is established in the metal.
When a hole larger than 6.0 mm diameter is to be drilled, the

centre punch mark is not large enough to accept the non-cutting
point of the drill. In this instance it will be necessary to employ
the use of a pilot drill (refer to Fig. 3.15) to provide a guide for
the larger drill.
Firstly the centre of the hole is marked out on the metal and
care must be taken to accurately centre punch the metal.
A small drill (the pilot drill), whose diameter is slightly larger than
the non-cutting point of the finished size drill, is selected and a
pilot hole is drilled in the metal (ensuring that the correct
lubricant, for the particular metal, is used).
The pilot drill is replaced by the finished size drill, which can,
then (and again using lubricant), be guided through the pilot
hole to complete the hole to the appropriate size. Using a Pilot Drill
Fig. 3.15
7.3 25 Mar 2014

Stop, and Press (Dimpling), Countersinking Tools The pilots can be changed, depending on the size of holes in
the material, leaving the remainder of the tool to be used for all
Two special tools, used during the riveting process, are the jobs unchanged. The stop may be held rigidly, during cutting, to
Stop countersinking bit and the Press countersinking, or (as it prevent marking the surface.
is more commonly known), the Dimpling tool. Both of these
tools have evolved as a result of the need for flush skins on
high-performance aircraft.
In order to have the rivet heads flush with the surface, the skin
must be prepared by either cutting away a portion of the metal
to match the taper of the rivet head, or by indenting (by Locknut Stop
pressing) the edges of the hole to accept the rivet head.
Fibre Collar
If the top sheet of the metal, being joined, is thicker than the Face
tapered portion of the rivet head, then the material should be
cut countersunk.
Whilst the standard countersink bit (or a twist drill, twice the
diameter of the rivet hole) can be used, in a hand or power drill, Pilot
to form a countersunk hole, the lack of accuracy and Drill Chuck
consistency means they are only useful for small jobs and Fitting
certainly they should not be used where pressurised skins are Chip Opening
concerned.
Where a large number of holes need to be countersunk to a Stop Countersink Tool

consistent depth, then the Stop Countersink tool should be used Fig. 3.16
(refer to Fig. 3.16). This tool can be adjusted to cut an exact
countersink repeatedly, regardless of the force applied to the
drill/tool combination.
7.3 26 Mar 2014

Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the sheets into a
Press countersinking or dimpling is done where the aircraft female die. The sides of the formed holes are not as smooth as
skin is too thin to countersink, and without the attendant risk of the coin dimpling method, but this less- precise operation is
enlarging the drilled hole. The edges of the hole are formed, to quicker and cheaper to achieve.
accommodate the head of the rivet, by using a set of dimpling
dies, using either coin dimpling or radius dimpling methods. With harder materials, such as magnesium and certain
aluminium alloys, a process called hot dimpling is used. This
Coin dimpling forces the sheets into the lower die, leaving a method involves pre-heating the metal, so that it forms more
sharply defined and parallel-sided hole. This process also easily and is less likely to crack when shaping takes place.
allows a number of sheets to be stacked together at the
expense of a complex pair of tools and leaves a neat, clean
dimpled hole with smooth sides (refer to Fig. 3.17).
Dimpled
Punch
Skin
Skin
After Rivet has

been Formed
Die
Dimpling Tool
Fig. 3.17
7.3 27 Mar 2014

Reamers Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to protect the fine,

vulnerable cutting edges, which run along the body of the tool
Reamers are precision-ground tools, which are used to enlarge and, to preserve the sharp edges, they should be kept in their
drilled holes to accurate dimensions and provide a smooth sleeves when not in use.
internal finish to accommodate precision-ground bolts and some
special types of rivets. Reamers are manufactured from high- The three most common types of hand-operated reamers are
carbon steel or alloy steel and are fluted to provide a series of the:
cutting edges.
Hand Parallel Reamer
They are available, either for use by hand, or for using with a Hand Expanding Reamer
suitable drilling machine. Machine reamers can usually be Hand Taper Reamer.
identified by the Morse tapered shank, which is inserted directly
into the spindle of a drilling machine. Hand Parallel Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.18) are fixed-size,
parallel-bodied reamers, possessing either straight or spiral
The use of machine reamers is, usually, the prerogative of flutes. The straight fluted reamer can be considered to be the
specialist machinists and not of line- or hangar-based aircraft general-purpose reamer, whilst the spiral fluted reamer is used
engineers so that only the hand-operated reamers will be for reaming holes which have keyways or grooves as the spiral
discussed here. flutes smoothly bridge the edges of the gap in the metal while
the reamer rotates.
Hand reamers are rotated, by means of the hand wrench, which
locates on the squared portion of the shank. They must always
be rotated only in the cutting direction, even when withdrawing
from a hole. The cutting lubricants, used on specific materials,
are those which are used for drilling procedures.
Reamers are used for removing only small amounts of material,

which, typically, for hand reamers, is approximately 0.2 mm-0.3
mm (0.008 in-0.012 in), so holes should be drilled with this fact
in mind.
7.3 28 Mar 2014

Hand Expanding Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.19) are used where
standard parallel reamers of the required dimension are not
available. This type of reamer has separate, replaceable blades
that slide, in tapering slots, and which are held in position by a
pair of circular nuts. The reamer blades can be adjusted to the
required cutting size by slackening one nut and tightening the
other.
The shape of each blade is such that, at any point along the
slot, its cutting edge is always parallel to the axis of the reamer.
Straight Fluted Reamer
The size range of each expanding reamer is stamped on its
shank. The actual size set during adjustment can be checked
using either a ring gauge or micrometer/calliper.
Spiral Fluted Reamer
Hand Parallel Reamers Hand Expanding Reamer

Fig. 3.18 Fig. 3.19
7.3 29 Mar 2014

Hand Taper Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.20), are used to produce a

tapered hole for the insertion of a standard taper pin. The two
types of tapered reamers are the:
Metric: This type, and its corresponding taper pins, has a

taper of 1:50. Its size is etched, or stamped, on the
shank, and refers to its smaller diameter
Imperial: The reamers and the taper pins, for which they
are used, have a taper of 1:48. The size of a reamer is Hand Taper Reamer
indicated by numbers (which range from 0 to 10), or by a Fig. 3.20
fractional designation. The size is etched or stamped on
the shank and refers to its larger diameter.
The difference between the Metric and Imperial tapers is very

slight, but it is sufficient to make the taper pins incompatible.
When replacement taper pins are required, particularly when
both types are available, then great care must be taken to
ensure that pins of the correct taper, size and type are installed.
7.3 30 Mar 2014

Internal Screw Thread, Cutting Taps The Plug (or Bottoming) Tap has no taper and its purpose is to
finish the threads in deep, through holes or to cut threads to the
Taps are used for the hand cutting of internal (female) screw bottom of blind holes.
threads of the common types, up to a maximum diameter of
approximately 25.4 mm (1.0 in). They are short, threaded bars Before the thread can be cut, a hole must be drilled in the work
of hardened and tempered steel, which are fluted to give cutting piece. This hole must be of the correct size and the drill that is
edges and the end of the shank is squared, to facilitate turning selected (the tapping drill), must have the same diameter as
with a wrench (refer to Fig. 25). Taps are normally made in sets the minor diameter of the thread needed to be cut. The correct
of three, with the exception of the BA thread tap sets, which tapping drill size can be obtained from workshop charts and
have only two taps to a set. A tap set, which all have the same reference books.
maximum diameter, normally consists of a:
Unfortunately, because taps are glass hard they are also brittle
Taper Tap and can, thus, be easily broken if due care is not given to their
Second Tap use. It is imperative that the taps location in the drilled hole be
Plug Tap constantly confirmed and that its main axis is maintained in
proper alignment with the corresponding axis of the hole.
The Taper Tap is used to start the thread cutting process. It is
tapered gradually from the point for about two thirds of the Adequate cutting fluid (as used in the drilling procedure) must
threaded length, so that it can enter the pre-drilled hole easily be applied, and the arms of the wrench should be of an
and assist in the correct alignment of the tap (which is very appropriate length (not too long) so that the possibility of the tap
important) before cutting commences. The last third of its length wobbling in the hole, or excessive turning force being applied to
has fully formed threads. the tap (and especially to the smaller diameter taps), is
minimised.
The Second (or Intermediate) Tap is used, following the taper
tap, to deepen the thread. This tap is tapered for the first two or If a tap jams, and snaps off in a hole, its removal can cause
three threads only and, where it is possible for the tap to pass serious difficulties.
the whole length through a hole, it is capable of cutting a fully
formed thread. The Intermediate is the tap that is not available
in BA thread tapping sets.
7.3 31 Mar 2014

Applying lubricant as required, the taper tap is inserted into the
hole and its correct alignment verified (by use, for example, of
an Engineers square), before it is rotated clockwise (for a right
hand thread), slowly and gently, until the initial threads are
established.
Plug Tap
Once the initial threads are established, the tap must not be
Full Length rotated continuously, otherwise the cuttings will not break off
Threads and the tap will, consequently, jam in the hole and, if forced, it
will shatter.
Second Tap
To this end, the tap, after each full turn, is rotated backwards,
approximately to of a turn, to break the cuttings off. The
2-3 Thread Full
Threads
forward rotation is then continued, with subsequent cutting
Taper
breaks, until the full thread portion of the tap has cut sufficient
Taper Tap full threads in the hole.
After the preliminary cut, the process is repeated, using the

Gradual Full second tap (if not a BA thread), and, if required, repeated again
Taper Threads Conventional Tap Set using the plug tap. The thread, and each end of the hole
Fig. 3.21 (where accessible), should be cleaned out if burrs or swarf are
present and, with blind holes, the swarf must be cleared out of
the hole regularly to prevent the tap binding at the bottom of the
hole.
Following the drilling of the correct sized hole, the tapping
procedure involves ensuring that the work piece is securely held In the event of a tap breaking in a hole, it may be necessary to
(firmly attached to another component or clamped in a vice) and resort to specialist procedures (spark erosion for example) for
that the taper tap is attached to the correct sized wrench. Taps, its removal without causing further, and, possibly, expensive
incidentally, may have right or left hand threads. damage, to the component or work piece.
7.3 32 Mar 2014

External Screw Thread, Cutting Dies
Dies are used for the hand cutting of external (male) threads on
round rods or bars of comparatively small diameters. While
there are several designs of dies (depending on the diameter of Split Die
the thread being cut), consideration is given here only to the
split circular or button dies (refer to Fig. 3.22), which are, Shoulder
typically, found in aircraft maintenance workshops and may be
used, by aircraft technicians, for the manufacture of studs and
similar items.
Stock
Circular dies consist of an internally threaded (right or left
handed) disc of hardened and tempered steel, which is fluted to
form several cutting edges. Dies also need to be rotated (in a
similar manner to the previously mentioned taps), in order to cut
threads but, unlike a tap and wrench, a die is rotated by the use
of a stock.
Outer Securing and
Die discs, within the smaller diameter ranges have a standard Adjusting Screws
outside diameter, which allows a range of dies, with different
internal sizes, to be used with the same, standard, stock. The Centre Adjusting Screw
discs are split, to allow for a degree of adjustment to the depth
of the thread being cut.
The manufacturers name, thread type, diameter and number of Circular Die and Stock
threads per millimetre (or inch) are marked on the face of the Fig. 3.22
die (Taps, incidentally, are similarly marked on their shanks).
7.3 33 Mar 2014

Ensuring that the die is set to cut the maximum diameter, as
Before external thread cutting is commenced, it is necessary to described previously, the die should be placed squarely onto
obtain a suitable length of rod, the diameter of which is equal to the taper of the rod and, with steady downward hand pressure,
the major diameter of the thread to be cut. Care needs to be and the die is carefully rotated (clockwise) to start the cut.
taken in this matter (and especially where closely sized Imperial
and Metric rods are available) because it is possible to create a It must be ensured that the die remains square to the rod at all
thread on slightly undersized or oversized rods. times during the cutting, which is continued in a series of small
arcs, reversing each time to sever the cuttings, in a similar
The undersized rod would, of course, be a looser fit with the manner as is done when using the taps.
corresponding female threaded item, which would not be
acceptable, while the oversize rod may cause damage to the When enough thread has been cut, the die is removed and the
other threaded device by being too tight a fit. thread checked, using a finished nut. If the thread proves to be
too tight, then, after backing off the centre adjusting screw and
The die should be placed in the stock with the tapered threads (carefully) turning the outer adjusting screws inwards another
(if any) away from the shoulder and the split aligned with the cut is made with the die.
centre adjusting screw. It is next necessary to set the die to the
maximum diameter, by slightly slackening the outer adjusting The procedure is repeated as often as necessary until a
screws and gently tightening the centre adjusting screw. This satisfactory fit is achieved between the two, mating, threaded
will ensure that the first cut will be shallow. Failure to do this will items.
invariably result in a poor quality thread.
As the internal tapped thread is NOT adjustable, the internal
A shallow taper, or chamfer, must be ground or filed onto the thread should be cut first. The external thread, which CAN be
end of the rod; to assist in the location of the die before cutting slightly adjusted, should always be cut last to ensure the
commences and the rod should be clamped firmly, and, desired degree of fit between the respective threads.
preferably, vertically in the bench vice with the tapered end
uppermost.
Once more, adequate lubrication must be used throughout the

procedure, again, using the same lubricants as used for the
drilling and tapping tasks.
7.3 34 Mar 2014

Screwdrivers The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in the slotted

head of the screw or bolt is most important. The most common
Despite the many shapes and sizes which may be met, it can faults can be seen in the illustration. The end of the blade
be stated that screwdrivers may be divided into two main should never be ground to a sharp chisel edge and a blade of
groups, which, basically, are: the correct thickness and width should always be chosen.
Blade Screwdrivers Screwdrivers of the wrong size can cause serious damage to
Cross-Point Screwdrivers. fasteners, surrounding aircraft structure and to the persons
using them.
Blade (or Common) screwdrivers consist of a high carbon or an
alloy steel blade, mounted into a wooden or composite handle.
The end of the blade is ground to engage the diagonal slot in
the head of the screw. If the blade is of high carbon steel, it will
be hardened and tempered.
Screwdrivers in this category are classified by type and by the

length of blade, which can be from approximately 35 mm (1.5
in) to 300 mm (12 in) long, although special screwdrivers can be
obtained with blade lengths of 500 mm (20 in).
Some variations may incorporate a reversible ratchet device in

the handle while others may also have an Archimedes drive (as
in a Pump screwdriver).
All of these features would form part of the classification of the

Blade too Small Blade Correct Blade too Large
screwdriver.
Correct Screwdriver Engagement

Fig. 3.23
7.3 35 Mar 2014

There is also a wide selection of other specialist screwdrivers,
Cross-Point Screwdrivers have been designed, by the several which have been made to allow certain tasks to be
manufacturers of the different types of screw heads (refer to accomplished. These can include:
Fig. 3.24).
Offset (or Cranked) Screwdrivers: which can reach screws
These screw heads allow greater torque to be applied to the with little clearance above their heads (and which may, also,
fasteners but, due to the variations in design, it is vital that the have a blade at one end and a cross-point at the other)
correct screwdriver be used with each type of screw head as Reversible Tip Screwdrivers: with hexagonal shanks, that
they are not compatible. allow the shank of the screwdriver to be reversed in the
handle to provide a different tip, with a blade at one end and
The accurate fit of cross-point screwdrivers into the recess in a cross-point at the other end of the hexagonal shank
the respective screw head is essential if damage is to be Interchangeable Tip Screwdrivers: which have a selection of
prevented. socket-like tips that can be interchanged to suit any
particular type of screw head.
Reed and Price Phillips Posidrive Triwing
Various Types of Cross-Point Screwdrivers

Fig. 3.24
7.3 36 Mar 2014

Pliers Wire-Locking Pliers: which are used for the specific task of
gripping wire, during the wire-locking of components. Due to
Pliers are classified by type and overall length and usually made their integral Archimedes screw, they are also able to spin
from alloy steel, with an insulated handle. They are designed for and so twist two wires, so that a neat and tight wire-locking
gripping, bending or moving small items that cannot be easily is obtained.
handled with the fingers. Some of the many types, that are
available for a variety of purposes, include: Circlip Pliers: these may be found in two basic forms
(Internal and External). Both types have pins on the ends of
Side-Cutting Pliers: which are the general-purpose type, and the jaws, which are used to install and remove circlips from
are useful for the installation and removal of split pins. They around (and from within) components. The mechanisms are
also have a facility for cutting wire designed so that, squeezing the handles together, either
results in the jaw pins coming together, (Internal), or
Round-Nosed Pliers: which are useful for putting small spreading apart (External).
radius bends into wire in addition to a variety of other tasks
There are other groups of gripping tools that could, loosely be
Flat-Nosed Pliers: which, because the jaws are much called pliers, but they usually go under the names of grips or
thinner, may be used for many small holding and bending clamps. These include Mole-type Grips: which can be locked,
tasks, that are not possible with the side-cutting pliers holding a component, freeing up the operators hand for other
work, Pipe Clamps, which can be used for gripping pipe unions,
Needle-Nosed Pliers: which have finely pointed jaws and and Slip-Joint (or Water Pump) Pliers that can have several,
can be used in electrical and electronic work, that involves different gripping ranges, due to their multi-pivot mechanisms.
holding small components and thin wires. Needle-nosed
pliers may, sometimes, have the jaws turned at right angles
to the handles, to allow the operator to see the work being
held
7.3 37 Mar 2014

Spanners, Sockets and Wrenches The British Standard system uses Imperial units (fractions of an
inch etc.) and embraces two of the three main thread systems,
The commonest spanners are those which are used on the used in British engineering, one of which is no longer used in
standard hexagonal heads of bolts, nuts, screws and similarly aircraft engineering.
shaped fastening devices.
The sizing, on BS spanners, relates to the nominal diameter of
Other spanners are often referred to as special or non-standard the nut, bolt or stud, upon which the spanner is to be used. For
spanners, and are used on different types of screw thread example, a spanner marked as BS indicates that the spanner
fastenings. Some of these special spanners have a limited is used on a " diameter bolt (nut, stud etc.), although the
application, whilst others are specifically produced for a actual distance across the jaws of this spanner would be 0.820".
particular component, and will only be found in special toolkits
applicable to that component.
Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened mild

steel, hardened and tempered high-carbon steel or alloy-steel,
though there are some which are made from copper alloys, BS and BA
where spark-resistant tools are required. (Imperial) Dimensions
The size of a spanner, is either marked on the jaw face, or on

the shank, in the units of the type of thread system being used
on the fastening device.
The units, shown on a particular spanner, however, relate to

different parts of the fastening devices (refer to Fig. 3.25), so a American/Unified (Imperial)
knowledge of the spanner sizing systems is necessary. The two and Metric Dimensions
main sizing systems are those of the:
British Standard Institution (BS) and British Association

(BA) Imperial system
American/Unified (Imperial) and the Metric system. Spanner Sizing Systems
Fig. 3.25
7.3 38 Mar 2014

In some instances the correct tool size may be quoted in the
Earlier BS spanners can be found with two figures stamped maintenance manual. This must be strictly followed.
adjacent to each other (e.g. 7/16 BSW 1/2 BSF). The BSW figure
relates to the Whitworth thread system, which is not used on
aircraft, due to its tendency to loosen when subjected to
vibration. The BSF refers to the British Standard Fine thread
but, to avoid confusion, the older system has now been brought
into line with the BS system, so that a " BS (BSF) spanner can
(for general engineering purposes) also be used on a "
Whitworth bolt/nut combination.
British Association (the third British thread system) sizes, also

use Imperial measurements, and, although they are in decimal
fractions of an inch, they are represented by a whole number
(2BA, 4BA, 6BA and so on) which again relates to the nominal
diameter of the fastening device.
The American Fine and Unified thread systems, also use

Imperial measurements. The sizes, stamped on spanners, refer (BOX END SPANNER)
to the dimensions across the spanner jaws (or across the flats
of the hexagon of the fastening device). A spanner marked "
A/F, would be used on a bolt with an actual diameter of 5/16".
Metric spanners are marked with a number also denoting the

width (millimetres) across the flats, of the hexagon shaped
fastener on which it is used.
It is important that the correct procedure is followed to avoid

incorrect tools being used to install or remove a nut, bolt, stud or (COMBINATION SPANNER)
any other fastening device.
7.3 39 Mar 2014

There are so many tool catalogues, crammed with a bewildering spanner. This aperture is usually bi-hexagonal, to facilitate the
range of tools that it is impossible to include so many in these use of the spanner when angular movement is restricted.
course notes. Some of the more common spanners and
wrenches (in addition to the previously-mentioned tools), which Ring spanners are usually supplied in double-ended form, to fit
are liable to be found in the average toolkit, of an aircraft nuts and bolts of consecutive sizes. The ends are normally
maintenance technician, include such general tools as: offset but straight (and also cranked) types of ring spanners can
be obtained.
Set (Open-Jaw) Spanners
Ring Spanners Flare Nut spanners are designed with a gap in the ring, which
Flare Nut Spanners. allows the spanner to be placed over a pipeline or electrical
Sockets loom, and then to be moved onto the hexagon of the union nut
Allen Keys or plug.
Torque Wrenches.
Sockets spanners (but, more commonly, simply referred to as
The Set or Open-Jaw spanners are usually made in double- sockets) typically, have a six- or twelve-pointed opening,
ended form, to provide two available sizes in one tool. designed to enclose different sized nuts and bolt heads in one
end, with a square hole, for the standard T bar driver (or an
The open jaws are set at an angle (usually 15) to the axis of alternative turning device), in the other end.
the shank, which is a useful feature, because (when replacing
nuts and bolts in restricted spaces), by turning the spanner Socket sets are available in a variety of drive sizes. However, in
over, the nut or bolt can be approached from a different angle. aircraft maintenance, the " square drive and the 3/8" square
They are not, however, totally satisfactory devices, as the jaws drive are the most popular. Other sizes available are the ", "
only bear against two of the available six flats of the hexagon. and 1" square drives.
There is always the tendency for the jaws to spring open when Sockets are available in both Imperial and Metric sizes (though
force is applied to the spanner. the drive sizes tend to be quoted in Imperial units) and can be
used with several accessories, which greatly facilitate the use of
Ring spanners are preferred to set spanners as they give full the sockets and extend the range of their application.
enclosure of the hexagonal head of the nut or bolt, each corner
of which engages snugly within an angle in the aperture of the
7.3 40 Mar 2014

The socket spanners are usually supplied in complete sets, of Speed braces can have a socket or screwdriver blade snapped
incremental sizes to suit various tasks. Deep sockets are used onto their ends. They are normally used to turn down nuts or
where a bolt extends further through a nut than normal, screws, which have many threads before they tighten-up. Final
preventing the use of a standard socket. They are also used to tightening is completed using either a T bar, a ratchet handle
remove spark plugs from piston-type aero engines. or (more usually) a torque wrench.
The main accessories, supplied with socket sets, can (in Extension bars are used where access for a standard drive
addition to the standard T bar driver) include: handle is restricted. Extension bars are made from forged alloy
steel and come in a range of nominal lengths from 50 mm (2 in)
Ratchet Handles to 1 m (39 in).
Drive Bars
Speed Braces Universal joints allow tightening of nuts, bolts and screws where
Extension Bars it is not possible to obtain access in a straight line. They
Universal Joints function better if the angle they are working through is not too
Converter/Adapters. great.
Ratchet handles allow the turning to continue, even if the space Converter/Adapters allow sockets from one type of drive to be
does not allow full rotation of the normal T bar driver. Most used with another type. For example, a 3/8" drive socket with a
1
ratchets are reversible, either by the use of a selector lever or /4" drive ratchet would use a step-up or step-down adapter.
by the square drive being able to be floated through the Care must be taken, when using larger drive equipment on
mechanism, to be available on both sides of the ratchet handle. smaller sockets, that the nuts or screws are not over tightened.
Drive bars are usually produced with long handles and so,
should normally be used only to break the stick of a tight nut
and not for tightening up. These are also known as breaker bars
or knuckle bars.
Universal Joint
7.3 41 Mar 2014

Extension Bar
Speed Brace
Ratchet handle
Drive Bar
7.3 42 Mar 2014

Converter/Adapter
Certain bolts and screws, are sunk (or set) below the surface of
a component and are used for locking purposes. These set- Allen Keys
bolts and set- screws have a hexagonal recess in their heads
and the tool used for tightening and loosening these bolts and The holding power, of a threaded fastener is greatly increased,
screws is the Allen Key (also called Allen Wrenches). when it is placed under an initial tensile load that is greater than
the loads to which the fastener is, normally, subjected. This task
Allen Keys are made from hexagonal-section, steel bar, suitably is accomplished, by tightening a bolt or nut, to a pre-determined
hardened and tempered and are cranked at 90 to give the torque or pre-load.
desired leverage. Allen keys are supplied in a variety of sizes to
locate with the recesses in the various screws and bolts. They If a fastener is under-torqued, there is danger of the joint being
are classified (in Metric or Imperial units), by the dimension subjected to unnecessary loads, leading to premature failure.
across the flats of the hexagon bar from which they are made. When a fastener is over-torqued then the threads are over
stressed and can fail.
7.3 43 Mar 2014

A Torque Wrench is a precision tool that governs the amount of There are, again, many different designs of torque wrenches, so
force applied to a fastener and allows accurate torque values to consideration is given here only to three basic types of torque
be applied consistently. Under controlled conditions, the amount wrench. They are the:
of force required to turn a fastener is directly related to the
tensile stress within the fastener. Deflecting Beam
Torsion Bar
The amount of torque is the product of the turning force Toggle Type.
multiplied by the distance between the centre of the fastener
and the point at which the force is applied (usually the length of The Deflecting Beam torque wrench, has a square drive, on one
the wrench handle). Table 4 shows various units of torque, end of an accurately-ground beam, with a handle, mounted on a
including Imperial, Metric and SI values. pivot, at the other end.
A pointer is attached to the square drive end of the beam, whilst

a scale is attached to the beam near the handle. When a force
Table 4 is applied to the handle, the beam bends and the pointer
Various Units of Torque deflects over the scale. The deflection is directly proportional to
the torque applied.
Imperial Metric SI
pound force foot kilogram force metre Newton metre The Torsion Bar torque wrench, uses the principle that a bar
(lbf.ft) (kgf.m) (Nm) accurately deflects in torsion, as well as bending, when a force
pound force inch kilogram force centi-Newton is applied. The square drive is accurately ground and has a rack
(lbf.in) centimetre metre gear on one end.
(kgf.cm) (cNm)
When the bar is twisted, the rack moves across a pinion gear in
a dial indicator, which shows the amount of bar deflection. The
dial is calibrated in units of torque.
7.3 44 Mar 2014

The Toggle type of torque wrench, is pre-set to the desired
torque before it is put on a fastener. When this pre-set torque is
reached, a sound (a click), is heard and the handle releases a
few degrees, indicating that the set torque value has been
exerted. Once this release occurs, then all force is removed.
Note; When a castellated nut is being torque loaded, it must, Deflecting Beam
first, be torqued to the lowest value of the given torque range.
The torque may then be increased until the holes are in line, but
before the maximum torque value is reached.
Torsion Bar
Toggle Type
7.3 45 Mar 2014

COMMON POWER TOOLS

Machinery is checked for any Warning notices
Powered tools have to be treated with respect because they can indicating it is unsafe for use.
injure, and in exceptional cases, can cause death if they are
incorrectly operated. Before using any powered machine/tool, Possibly the most common method of powering tools is through
personnel must make sure that: the use of electricity, which is readily available from the ac
mains supply and can also be provided from portable, dc
They have been properly trained and are currently batteries.
authorised to use it
However, because of the fire hazard, associated with the
All protective guards and fences are securely in operation of electrically powered tools, and where there is a
place possibility of flammable vapours being present, pneumatically
powered hand tools are provided for aircraft maintenance tasks,
No part of the body or clothing can come into contact such as drilling, cutting, shaping, screw driving, riveting, nut
with moving parts running and setting.
Protective clothing is fastened and neck ties (if worn) As previously mentioned, these pneumatic tools may be
tucked in or removed operated from a fixed air supply gallery, in a workshop or
hangar, or from a mobile air compressor.
All rings and other jewellery are removed
Electrically Powered Pillar Drills
Safety glasses/goggles are worn wherever there is a
debris risk Electrically powered, Pillar Drills are used for heavy-duty drilling
tasks, where larger drill sizes and rigid holding-down of the work
Where necessary, the appropriate fire extinguisher is piece are required.
readily to hand
Pillar drills also have an advantage in that they are equipped
A safety mat is available to stand on where electrical with a method of altering the speed of rotation (rpm) of the
machinery is used chuck to suit the material being drilled and the size (and type) of
the drill being used.
7.3 46 Mar 2014

This flexibility is needed to enable drills of all sizes to cut
efficiently and safely for different types of materials. If the rpm of These drills are useful in certain locations when work cannot be
the machine were constant, then the cutting speed of any drill taken to a fixed, pillar drill and where there is no risk of fire from
being used would be dependent upon the diameter of the drill. inflammable materials or vapour. They are quicker than the
Small drills would cut slowly and larger drills more rapidly. hand brace and, when used correctly, can be perfectly safe.
For example, at a constant rpm, a point, on the circumference of

a drill with a diameter of 10 mm, will travel twice as far, and cut The smaller electric drills have a 6.5 mm (") chuck, whilst
at a much faster rate, than a similar point on a drill, which has a other larger drills can be found with chuck sizes up to 13 mm
diameter of 5 mm. At this excessive rpm, the larger drill would (") and larger. This size classification simply indicates the
become very difficult to control and would, almost certainly, be largest size of twist drill that the chuck will hold.
damaged by over-heating.
Battery powered (cordless), drills offer more freedom than ac
The speed of rotation of most fixed drilling machines may be powered or pneumatically powered drills, but they should not be
changed, either by means of a gearbox or by a system of coned used in the vicinity of flammable vapours as they are not
pulleys. considered to be spark proof.
The work, being drilled, must be clamped in a manner that will Pneumatically Powered Hand Drills
prevent any movement during the drilling operation. Failure to
observe this precaution may result in spoilt work, a broken drill The type of pneumatic drill, used for a specific task, depends
and it may also cause serious injuries. very much on the access available. Three typical types of
pneumatic hand drills, in common use, are the:
Larger pieces of work are clamped directly to the drilling table of
the machine, whereas small items are usually held in a machine Straight Drills
vice, which has smooth jaws. Angled Drills
Pistol Grip Drills.
It is essential to ensure that the point of the drill aligns with the
centre punch mark and adequate cutting fluid (where required)
is applied before drilling starts.
ISO9001:2008Certified Electrically Powered Hand Drills ForTrainingPurposeOnly

7.3 47 Mar 2014

Straight Drills have conventional chucks and keys to accept
twist drills with diameters up to 5 mm (13/64) and have push-
button operation. These drills can be used for all conventional
drilling operations where direct access is possible.
Angled Drills are available for drilling holes in positions where

access is not possible with straight types. The most common
types of angled drills are the Angled and Offset Head drills
(refer to Fig. 3.26), both of which will accept twist drills with
diameters in sizes up to 4.8 mm (3/16). Each drill size requires
its own chuck collet, which is tightened into place with collet
spanners.
Pistol Grip Drills (refer to Fig. 3.26), have standard chuck and
key arrangements, accept twist drills of diameters up to 8 mm
(5/16) and have a trigger operation.
All drills may be found with built-in filters, pre-set compressed

air pressure- reducing devices and a requirement for lubrication.
The air supply is normally via a quick release, male and female
coupling (bayonet type), allowing the tool to be moved from Typical Angled and Pistol Grip Pneumatic Hand Drill
place to place, as the work requires. Fig. 3.26
7.3 48 Mar 2014

Pneumatically Powered Riveting Hammers
The two basic types, into which these hammers may be divided,
are:
Pistol Grip
Short-Stroke: fast-hitting hammers, which produce light
blows
Long-Stroke: slower-hitting hammers, which produce heavy
blows.
The short-stroke hammers are usually used for 3/32" or 1/8" rivets
and their bodies are made from light-weight, aluminium alloy
castings.
The long-stroke hammers may be of either the slow-hitting, Swan Neck

reciprocating type, or may be a one-shot type, that drives the
rivet set only one blow at a time, when the trigger is pulled.
These hammers are used to drive the larger rivets and are
much heavier than the fast-hitting hammers.
Different handle styles are provided for both types of hammers

(refer to Fig. 31). The Pistol Grip and Swan Neck are the most Push Button or
popular styles, with the Push Button (Straight) type being Straight
available for special applications where access is not possible
for either of the more popular styles of hammer.
7.3 49 Mar 2014

Nibblers
Pneumatic Miller (Microshaver)
Nibbler are tools used for rough cutting small-to-medium sized
Certain hollow rivets leave a mandrel projecting from the work holes in skins, radio chassis, instrument panels and other light
after the closing action. These are removed, leaving a flush alloy sheets. Whilst a hand- operated nibbler can, occasionally,
surface, by careful use of a Miller or Microshaver (refer Fig. be found in use, the powered nibbler (powered by either
3.27). The miller has an adjustable stop, to prevent the cutting electricity or compressed air), is the most common type of tool.
tool (which rotates at high speed), from damaging the aircraft
skin. Two rubber feet give the tool stability during the cutting The machine operates by using a reciprocating punch to cut a
operation. groove out of the metal, in small bites or nibbles. The holes,
that have been nibbled, have to be filed and cleaned
When the shank of the rivet is closed into a countersunk hole afterwards, to the limit marks of the true hole.
(where the rivet is installed from inside the aircraft skin), there
can be a small amount of metal projecting above the skin line. One limitation, of the powered nibbler, is that it can become
This excess metal is also removed using a miller. uncontrollable, if it is not held securely by the operator. Care
and skill will, thus, be required to take advantage of the benefits
of the tool, namely its fast removal of metal when hole cutting is
involved.
Unforme Formed Milled

d Rivet Rivet
Pneumatic Miller Nibbler

Fig. 3.27
7.3 50 Mar 2014

KETTS SAW
The electrically operated portable circular-cutting Ketts saw

uses blades of various diameters. The head of this saw can be
turned to any desired angle, which makes it very useful for
removing damaged sections on stringers and other
intricately designed parts.
Advantages of a Ketts saw include:
The ability to cut metal up to 3/16 inch thick.
A starting hole is not required.
A cut can be started anywhere on a sheet of metal.
The saw provides the capability to cut an inside or

outside radius.
Although the tool is fairly easy to operate, some basic operating

precautions are required. To prevent the blade from grabbing
and kicking back, keep a firm grip on the saw handle at all
times.
Ketts Saw
In addition, before installing any cutting blade on the tool,
the blade should be checked carefully for cracks. A crack
could cause the blade to fail during operation, thereby causing
parts to fly out, possibly causing serious injury to the
operator or bystanders.
7.3 51 Mar 2014

Pneumatic Tool Maintenance The two main types of abrasives, used for grinding wheels, are:
When used, maintained and stored correctly, air operated tools Aluminium Oxide or Corundum: next in hardness to
have a long and trouble-free life. They will not, however, tolerate diamond, the blue variety of which is the sapphire, while the
lack of lubrication, nor the entry of moisture and foreign particles red variety is the ruby
introduced via the air supply. These effects can be reduced by: Silicon Carbide: formed by the fusing together of silica (or
sand) with carbon, in an electric furnace.
Draining the oil and water traps in the air supply system at
least daily and more often if the tools are in prolonged use. Aluminium Oxide (Corundum), abrasive wheels are used for
Ensuring that both the male and female parts of the air steel and other ferrous metals of high tensile strength.
supply couplings are clean before the connection is made.
Before using a tool, introducing the specified lubricating oil Silicon Carbide (better known under the trade name of
into the air supply opening, in the correct quantity. Carborundum), wheels are used, primarily, for hard, brittle
Before the tool is stored, after use, repeating the lubricating metals such as cast iron, but may also be used for grinding
procedure and operating the tool as slowly as possible, to aluminium, brass, bronze or copper.
distribute the lubricant throughout the tool.
Wheels, which are designated for use with steels, must NEVER,
Abrasive Wheels under any circumstances, be used for the grinding of any other
materials, and in particular, NOT soft materials (light and copper
The most common types of Abrasive (or Grinding) Wheels, alloys, wood, plastics etc.).
found in workshops are the double-wheeled, bench-mounted
machines, with a coarse abrasive wheel, used for rapid metal These materials are liable to clog the wheel and, if ignited by a
removal, and a finer grade wheel, used for smoother work. spark, will cause the wheel to explode, with devastating
Protective guards are secured around the moving parts, for the consequences.
protection of the operator, and adjustable rests are provided for
the support of tools, during grinding operations.
A word of caution is necessary here, because of the terms that

are (carelessly) applied to the various abrasives, which may be
used in engineering procedures.
7.3 52 Mar 2014

Only authorised personnel are allowed to use abrasive wheels An uneven or grooved wheel will require dressing (and,
and, before use, it is mandatory to ensure that: possibly, need being trued) by a qualified dresser, using
special fixtures and extra-hard tools.
The machine is securely attached to the bench or
wall Care must be taken, during grinding, to ensure that tools do not
become overheated. Cutting tools (chisels, punches etc.) will
The wheels are secure, not chipped and have no have their temper drawn from them if they get too hot, so that it
excessive bearing play is necessary to ensure that the item is kept as cool as possible,
by the frequent use of water or, possibly, a directed jet of
The operators clothes are not loose or in danger of cooling air.
fouling the wheel
After completion of the grinding task, the machine should be
Suitable fire extinguishers are available switched off, but it should not be left until the wheels become
stationary, as this takes a little time and (particularly in a noisy
All guards are correctly attached and secure workshop), unattended, rotating wheels pose a danger to
unsuspecting personnel.
The tool rests are set at minimum distance, clear of
the wheels
Protective goggles, in addition to any safety screens,

are worn
The operator stands on an insulated mat, where

provided.
During grinding operations, the item, being ground, should be

moved in alternate directions, across the width of the wheel, so
that the grinding area of the wheel will remain flat and true and
will not become dangerously grooved.
7.3 53 Mar 2014

External Micrometers
OPERATION AND USE OF PRECISION MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS An External Micrometer (refer to Fig. 3.28), as the name
implies, is used for measuring (or testing the level of accuracy
Precision Measuring Instruments are provided to measure of) the external sizes of objects.
dimensions to a greater accuracy than can be obtained by the
use of a simple engineers rule. The standard (or common) external micrometer consists of an
appropriately shaped frame, to one end of which is attached an
Where the smallest graduation on a rule is usually either 1 mm internally threaded barrel (or sleeve).
or, perhaps, 1/64", precision instruments are available which
measure to 0.01 mm or to 0.0001.
Graduated Barrel with Fiducial Line
The precision instruments mentioned here would normally be
found either in a workshop environment or in a clean room,
which may be part of a companys Quality Department. Ratchet Stop
Spindle
It should also be noted that, whilst very basic forms of the
different instruments are described, in order that the principles Anvil
of operation be understood, the actual precision instruments,
found in workshops and clean rooms may appear quite
different and, in all probability, will possess digital readout Graduated Thimble
facilities.
Locking Ring
Frame
External Micrometer
Fig. 3.28
7.3 54 Mar 2014

The thimble is bevelled so that its graduations are brought close
A partially, externally threaded spindle, located in a hollow, to those on the fiducial line. The bevelling eliminates shadows
tubular thimble, is able to be screwed into (or out of) the sleeve and also lessens parallax error when reading the measurement.
by means of rotating the thimble. The body of the micrometer usually has a matt finish, which
serves to reduce glare and, thus, aids accurate readings.
The working tip of the spindle has an accurately machined face,
to match the equally accurately machined face of the anvil. The The locking ring (some micrometers have a locking lever) is
anvil is located at the opposite end of the frame and, with the used to lock the spindle, when the instrument is employed as a
spindle moved sufficiently, the object to be measured is placed fixed (or snap) gauge.
between the faces of the anvil and the spindle.
The mechanism of the external micrometer is arranged so that
The ratchet stop is used to rotate the thimble so that the spindle the spindle face can only move between 0 - 25 mm (or 0 1in)
moves until the object is held between the faces of the spindle from the anvil face and, thus, the standard micrometer has the
and the anvil. To prevent distortion of the frame and to ensure capability to measure items which are in this range.
that the reading is constant when taken by different users of the
instrument, the ratchet stop slips (3 clicks!) when sufficient For larger items, the size of the frame is simply increased in
pressure is applied to the object being measured. successive increments of 25 mm (or 1in). For example, the next
size of micrometer would be able to measure between 25 mm
The principle of the micrometer is based on the lead of the 50 mm (1 in 2 in), the next 50 mm 75 mm (2 in 3 in) and
screw thread. This is the distance the thread moves, either so on. While the frames increase in size to accommodate the
forwards or backwards, during one complete revolution of the larger items, the spindle movement (of external micrometers)
thimble. If the lead is known, together with the number of remains in the range of 0 25 mm (0 1 in).
revolutions, then the total distance the screw moves can be
calculated.
The circumference of the thimble and the length of the barrel

are graduated to indicate the measurement of the object that is
in contact with the faces of the anvil and the spindle. The barrel
also has a datum (fiducial) line, against which the
measurements are made, from the bevelled end of the thimble
as it uncovers the markings on the fiducial line.
7.3 55 Mar 2014

Both Metric and Imperial micrometers (while their units of

measurement are different), are operated in a similar manner.
The Metric micrometer uses a thread pitch and, thus, a lead, of

0.5 mm (two threads per millimetre), so that the thimble moves
over the barrel a distance of 0.5 mm per revolution. The fiducial Thimble (0.01 mm divisions)
line, on the barrel, is marked in increments of 0.5 mm and 1 Fiducial Line (0.5 mm divisions)
mm, with numerals at intervals of 5 mm (5, 10, 15, etc.) to 25
mm. Barrel
The thimble has a total of 50 markings, so that one thimble

division represents 1/50 of 0.5 mm, or 0.01 mm.
30
When reading a Metric micrometer (refer to Fig. 3.29) it is, first
of all, necessary to decide on the number of divisions, on the
fiducial line, which are exposed by the thimble and to note the 0 5 25
division on the thimble which also coincides with the fiducial
line.
The subsequent actions, to arrive at the dimension being

measured, are to: C A = 8.00 mm
B B = 0.50 mm
A C = 0.28 mm
Note the number of main divisions exposed (as shown at A
= 8.00 mm) Total = 8.78 mm
Note the additional number of sub-divisions (as shown at B Metric Micrometer Reading
= 0.50 mm) Fig. 3.29
Note the number of divisions on the thimble (as shown at C
= 0.28 mm)
Add all the numbers together to provide the total dimension
(8.78 mm).
7.3 56 Mar 2014

In this example the total dimension would be 0.400 + 0.075 +
Imperial Micrometers measure in decimals of an inch. Their 0.008 = 0.483.
screw threads have forty threads per inch, giving a lead of 1/40"
(0.025"), which is the length of each sub-division on the fiducial To ensure the integrity of any dimensions it is imperative that
line and represents one revolution of the thimble. the faces of the spindles and anvils of micrometers are kept
scrupulously clean.
The thimble circumference is, now, divided into only 25 equal
divisions, making one division read 1/25 of 1/40, which equals Micrometers should be stored in a protective case, preferably
1
/1000 (or 0.001") movement of the spindle. with a sachet of desiccant (or VPI paper) and not used in
extremes of temperature (the temperature of a standards room
Barrel markings are made at each tenth of an inch (1, 2, 3, 4, is usually maintained at 20C).
etc) with four sub-divisions between each main mark.
Never store a micrometer with its spindle and anvil in contact.
Again, in a similar manner to the Metric micrometer, when Changes in temperature will cause distortion of the frame, with
taking a dimension, it is necessary to deduce the number of the obvious consequences.
division, on the fiducial line, exposed by the thimble. Next note
the mark on the thimble which aligns with the fiducial line and Prior to use, the accuracy of a micrometer should be confirmed
follow similar actions to those employed with the Metric by doing a check on the zero setting (with the spindle and anvil
micrometer. faces in contact) and a sample check (using slip gauges or
similar, accurate standard test pieces), of measurements within
If, for example, nineteen divisions, on the barrel of an Imperial the range of the micrometer.
micrometer, were exposed, while the eighth mark on the thimble
aligned with the fiducial line, then the total dimension would It is possible to do adjustments with special tools, which are
consist of: provided with micrometers, but any adjustments should
normally, only be done by qualified personnel, who will then
Four 1/10 divisions (sixteen 1/40 divisions) on the barrel certify that the micrometer is accurate enough, to be used for
Three further 1/40 divisions on the barrel (making nineteen aerospace work.
in all)
Eight 1/1000 divisions on the thimble
7.3 57 Mar 2014

An Imperial, Stick micrometer, consists of a micrometer head,
Internal Micrometers with an overall closed length of only 1, a spacing collar
which has a length of " and ten extension rods. The lengths of
Internal micrometers are used for the precision measuring of the rods increase in increments of one inch, with the shortest
internal dimensions, using much the same principles as those length being and the longest 9 (e.g. , 1, 2 etc.).
used with the external types.
The internal micrometer differs from the external type in that the
While there are many designs for internal micrometers, to suit thimble travel is only half an inch and so, from closed, the
particular tasks, space (and time) dictates that consideration be micrometer is capable of measuring internal dimensions from
given here only to the type more commonly referred to as the 1 up to 2. For dimensions greater than 2 it is then
Stick micrometer (refer to Fig. 3.30), which is found in both necessary to close the micrometer and attach the smallest
Imperial and Metric versions. extension rod (), enabling dimensions up to 2 to be
measured.
Handle By adding the spacing collar () with the smallest extension
(replaced by a Grub Screw when
rod, measurements up to 3 can be made, then, by removing
the Handle is not required)
both collar and rod and using the next rod (length 1), it is
possible to measure dimensions up to 3.
With alternate use of extension rod and rod/collar combinations,
Collar the Imperial internal micrometer has a measuring range from
1 to 12.
With Metric internal micrometers, similar principles are used, but

the dimensions are, obviously, changed and are not directly
related to the measurements used with the Imperial type. The
closed body length is 50 mm, thimble range is 10 mm, the collar
Extension Rod length is also 10 mm and the seven extension rods are provided
Micrometer Head in a selection of lengths, which allow measurements (in
increments of 20 mm), from 50 mm to 210 mm to be made.
Internal Stick Micrometer

Fig. 3.30
7.3 58 Mar 2014

Micrometer Depth Gauge
Whilst only used in specialist applications, a micrometer depth

gauge is useful when the depth of a groove or recess needs to
be measured with precision.
The device (refer to Fig. 3.31) has a standard micrometer head

(but the scale, on the barrel, is reversed) mounted onto a
precisely ground base. When the spindle of the micrometer is
flush with the face of the base, then the depth gauge reads zero
and the thimble is at its maximum distance from the base.
To measure the depth of a recess, the base is placed over the

groove and the spindle screwed down until it contacts the
bottom of the groove. The reading on the micrometer head
indicates the groove depth.
Micrometer Depth Gauge

Fig. 3.31
7.3 59 Mar 2014

In the very basic example (refer to Fig. 37) ten divisions on the
Vernier Micrometers Vernier scale are made to equal nine divisions on the main
scale, so that one Vernier scale division equals one tenth of
Some micrometers (and other precision measuring nine millimetres (0.9 mm). The difference between one main-
instruments), have a Vernier scale, which enables the scale and one Vernier division is, therefore, 0.1 mm.
instrument to measure to a greater accuracy.
When the Vernier scale is moved (to the right in this instance),
The Vernier principle (inventor Pierre Vernier 1580 1637)) so that the first of the smaller Vernier divisions is aligned with
utilises two accurately graduated scales. The main scale may the first main-scale division, the zeros will be displaced by
be fixed, whilst the other (the Vernier scale), moves parallel to exactly one tenth of one millimetre. If this principle is continued
the main scale (refer to Fig. 3.32), or, depending on the until the second division of each scale is coincident, then the
instrument (such as with micrometers), it could be the other way zeros will have moved exactly two tenths of a millimetre apart.
round, where the main scale moves while the Vernier scale is
stationary. From this it can be seen that, whichever lines on the main and
Vernier scales align, then the zero (or datum) marks will be
displaced by the small amount shown on the Vernier scale.
0 10 Main Scale
mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Vernier Scale
Vernier Principle
Fig. 3.32
7.3 60 Mar 2014

Care must be taken that it is the Vernier number, which is
When the Vernier principle is applied to a micrometer (refer to added, and not the value of the main scale (thimble) reading
Fig. 3.33), the Vernier scale is engraved on the barrel and is, which aligns with the Vernier line. This is a common fault when
therefore, stationary. The Vernier graduations are scaled, reading Verniers.
usually, to represent one tenth of those on the thimble, which
enables a Vernier micrometer to read dimensions to an It may also be found advantageous, to use a magnifying glass,
accuracy of one tenth of that of a standard micrometer. to assist in the reading of the smaller Vernier scale and in
Consequently the graduations on the Vernier of a Metric deciding which lines are actually in alignment.
micrometer represent 0.001 mm, while those on an Imperial
micrometer represent 0.0001.
The example shows a Metric micrometer reading, where the

graduation on the thimble scale does not exactly coincide with Ten Vernier Scale
the datum line on the barrel. The procedure for reading the Marks on Barrel.
dimension is to:
0
Note the main and sub divisions visible on the barrel (8.5) 8
= 8.500 mm 35
6
Note the nearest thimble reading below the datum line (27) 4
= 0.270 mm 2 30
Note the Vernier line which aligns with a thimble line (6)
= 0.006 mm
0 5 25 Thimble Markings
Add the readings to provide the total dimension
= 8.776 mm.
Barrel Markings with
A similar procedure would be followed with an Imperial Fiducial Line.
micrometer.
Vernier Micrometer
Fig. 3.33
7.3 61 Mar 2014

Vernier Callipers
A Vernier Calliper (refer to Fig. 3.34), is a versatile precision Jaws for Internal
instrument, used to measure both inside and outside Measurement.
dimensions. In many situations, a Vernier calliper is faster to
use than a micrometer but, possibly, needs greater skill in Main Scale
manipulation in order to obtain the correct feel and to, thus,
ensure accurate readings. Callipers, furthermore, have a
working range of up to 150 mm (6 in) as opposed to the
micrometers more limited movement.
The Vernier scales on Imperial instruments are accurate to

0.001 inch, while Metric Verniers have an accuracy of 0.02 mm.
With some types of calliper, nibs are located at the end of both
jaws. The nib size, which is etched on the jaw, must be added Position Lock
Vernier Scale
to any internal dimensions that have been measured.
Two target points may also be found on some callipers, one on

the beam and one on the sliding jaw. These are used to set Jaws for External
spring dividers accurately, when they are being used in a Measurement
comparator mode. The target points are exactly the same
distance apart as the reading on the Vernier and main scale.
Vernier Calliper
Fig. 3.34
7.3 62 Mar 2014

Feeler Gauges
Feeler Gauges have a wide application and consist of a series

of thin, flexible, steel blades in varying thicknesses (normally
from 0.04 mm to 1.00 mm or from 0.0015 in to 0.015 in). The
blades are secured in a protective, metal scabbard, by a pin. It
is important that those blades not in use should be withdrawn
into the scabbard, to prevent accidental distortion, especially of
the thinnest blades.
Feeler gauges are used to measure very small, fixed gaps

between faces. The blades are chosen to comply with the Feeler Gauges
measurement given in the maintenance instructions. Sometimes
there will only be a need to use a single blade whilst, at other
times, a combination of blades may be required to achieve the
given dimension. Feeler gauges are classified by the length of
the blade.
Screw Pitch and Radius Gauges
These gauges are used to check the profiles of threads and

radii, by comparison with sets of blades held in a case much like
feeler gauges. The thread gauges are available in all thread
types and the radius gauges have both an internal and external
radius.
7.3 63 Mar 2014

Go/No-Go Gauges
Where a single dimension has to be repeatedly measured, a

comparator-type of gauge is used which checks, simply,
whether a component is within a pair of dimensions, usually GO NOGO
referred to as maximum and minimum dimensions.
These gauges are referred to as GO/NO-GO gauges (Fig 3.35)

and, providing the item being checked passes through one jaw Plug Type Gauge
of the gauge, (the GO dimension), and fails to pass through the
other jaw, (the NO-GO dimension), it is considered to be
satisfactory.
7.3 64 Mar 2014

NOGO
GO
LUBRICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT A large number of different greases and oils are in use in
aircraft maintenance. All lubricants should be kept clean and
Solid surfaces are never perfectly smooth, as the actual rubbing covered to keep out foreign objects. The correct quantity of the
contact (the friction), between two moving surfaces, is respective lubricant must, always, be used, as over-lubrication
concentrated on a number of high spots on the respective may cause all manner of problems, from contamination of
surfaces. Any load between the two surfaces tends to wear electrical and mechanical equipment, to dirt and dust collecting
away these high spots until the area of contact is large enough on the lubricant residue.
to support the load without further deformation.
Care must also be taken that lubricants do not remain in
During the wearing action fragments of the surface are broken prolonged contact with unprotected skin (and particularly eyes)
away and high local temperatures are generated. The effects as many of them are severe irritants and present serious
are potentially dangerous, in that the fragments can cause hazards to health. Hot oil also constitutes a danger to
serious damage to the surfaces while excess heat leads to personnel.
expansion of the materials.
Lubrication methods
The expansion is likely to cause higher frictional forces, leading
to further damage (due to more particles breaking from the Grease is the preferred lubricant, in certain circumstances, for
surface) and can possibly result in eventual seizure and the following reasons:
stoppage of movement. Seizure could have disastrous results in
any moving mechanism. Where conditions are dirty, dusty or wet, grease will
provide a sealing medium, which will tend to prevent the
Lubrication is a process for reducing friction and wear, through entry of foreign matter into moving parts
the introduction of an unguent between two moving surfaces. Grease will stay in vertical bearings, whereas oil will
The materials, commonly used for these purposes, are greases drain away
and oils and this topic discusses the various methods and Grease, packed into a bearing or housing, will provide
equipment used in the lubrication of aerospace mechanisms. sufficient lubrication for prolonged periods of time
Grease lubrication systems use much cheaper fittings,
and less complicated designs than those required for oil
systems.
7.3 65 Mar 2014

Grease, however, has limitations in certain situations, in that Oils are also required to remain chemically stable and to
grease: possess (and retain) a suitable viscosity during their useful life.
In general, every oil must:
Cannot replace oil when heat needs to be carried away
Cannot be used where contamination is likely to occur Adequately wet the surface needing lubrication
Cannot be used where debris and contaminants have to Not evaporate too much in service
be washed away. Not produce gum, sludge or carbon
Not damage the material with which it normally comes into
Greases (as with oils), are produced to a range of specifications contact.
that depend upon the applications for which they are used.
Some greases have to be water- resistant, while all have to In addition to protecting surfaces from corrosion, other
posses good storage characteristics and be of a specific properties of oils include the previously mentioned ability to
viscosity. A grease, generally, is required to: wash away small particles of debris and to remove heat from
system components. The heat can be as a result of the friction
Remain chemically stable when it is heated, and of motion, or from other sources such as the heat of combustion
especially if that grease is to be used in bearings that within a gas turbine or piston-type aero engine.
are running at high temperature
Be thin enough to flow into applicators and spaces, Oil provides lubrication in two distinct phases, which are
whilst having the ability to remain in the desired referred to as:
location
Resist the tendency to harden at the low Boundary lubrication
temperatures met at high altitudes Fluid lubrication.
Retain the limits, set on its alkalinity or acidity, to
prevent the onset of corrosion. Boundary lubrication occurs in a stationary engine, when the oil
tends to drain away from surfaces, leaving only an extremely
thin film of oil, clinging to the microscopically rough surfaces of
the metals.
7.3 66 Mar 2014

Boundary lubrication will assist in the initial movement of one Generally, lubricating oils do not deteriorate during storage, but
surface against another but, if it is not renewed, the surfaces will low-temperature greases can suffer and must be stored in a
slide until the film disappears and seizure follows. cool place. If water gets into either type of lubricant, the result
can be very serious. Water contamination can cause:
Fluid lubrication is a thin, but continuous, film of oil, separating
the moving surfaces, and so preventing metal to metal contact. Breakdown of normal properties under bearing loads
The oil also acts as a cushion between the surfaces. If, Oil additives rendered ineffective, giving a tendency to
however, the oil is driven from the space between the surfaces, sludge
possibly due to excess loading, the fluid film is reduced to Failure of normal properties due to oil emulsification
almost nothing and again, the surfaces will slide until eventual Frothing of engine oil, which can cause excessive loss of
seizure occurs. oil through the system vents.
A typical example of oil fluid lubrication would be as found in a Many contaminants, such as rust and dust in suspension, may
typical gearbox in which the gears are immersed in oil or are lead to blocking of oil passages or damage to moving parts. In
flooded with oil from pressure jets. grease, these solids produce a sort of grinding paste, which
wears moving parts very quickly.
Oils in a similar manner to greases, have specialised purposes
which include: When oils and greases are in storage, a number of precautions
will prevent subsequent problems. Good lubricant storage and
Normal Lubrication usage demands that:
High Pressure (Gearboxes)
Extreme High Pressure (Hydraulics) All containers have their lids firmly secured at all times when
Preservation and Inhibiting of components or systems. not in use
The majority of lubricants need to be stored in a cool place
As a general rule, the specification will identify the lubricant that Different types or groups of lubricants must be kept apart, to
is required for each application. It is not necessary for engineers prevent a risk of cross-contamination
to know the properties of every lubricant, as component All equipment must be kept totally clean.
manufacturers specify the lubricants approved for use on their
equipment.
7.3 67 Mar 2014

Lubrication equipment
Because of the numerous types of lubricants that are available,

the equipment used for applying those lubricants is vast and so
mention is made here of only some of the more typical
equipment, which includes; Pumping Handle
Grease Guns
Filling Point
Oil Cans
Risbridger Replenishing Rigs.
Adapter
Grease Guns cover a wide range of tools, which are all
designed to inject grease, under pressure, into bearings and
other components requiring greasing. One common Universal
model (refer to Fig. 3.36), - which can also be used to inject oil -
is usually supplied with four nozzles for use with different Grease Bleed Point
nipples. The four nozzles are the:
Standard: Tecalamit standard sized hexagonal nipples Various Hose Lengths Various Nozzles
Miniature: Tecalamit miniature sized nipples (Flexible and Rigid)
Push-on: Tecazerk and similar push-on nipples
Hydraulic: Used on hydraulic nipples for priming
Universal Grease Gun
Note: If it becomes necessary to change nozzles, it is advisable Fig. 3.36
to prime the new nozzle before its first use.
The gun consists of a barrel that is closed, at one end with a

spring type cap, and, at the other end, by a pump head.
7.3 68 Mar 2014

Risbridger Replenishing Rigs are a number of differently
The barrel houses a piston follower assembly. The pump head, designed, replenishing rigs, which are normally used to
which screws on to the barrel, houses a lever-operated piston replenish engine and hydraulic systems.
and a spring-loaded non-return valve. In addition, installed in
the front face of the head, is an adapter for attaching the various The basic principle of the rigs is that, by attaching a pump
nozzles. A pressure- relief valve is also incorporated into the assembly to normal cans of the correct oil, the pumping action
adapter. will draw the oil from the can and deliver the oil to the
tank/reservoir of the relevant system.
For oil filling, the cap is removed, to reveal a light chain. The
chain is attached to the piston follower assembly, which is One of the commonest rigs is attached to a can of oil by means
pulled out by using the chain. Once the pump is aligned head of integral clamps, which seal the pump and hose assembly to
down, the barrel is filled to approximately 40 mm (1 in) from the top of the can. A sharp blow will puncture the top of the can,
the top, then the piston is replaced and the cap secured. depositing the collector pipe into the oil and the pump is then
ready for action.
For grease filling, the pump head is, firstly, removed. Next the
cap is removed and the piston is pulled down to the cap end. The hose end will have one of a variety of connectors (such as
Grease is loaded from the head end until the barrel is full. The bayonet and push-on). These will be of the correct type to
pump head is replaced before the cap is finally secured to the enable connection to the relevant system requiring
opposite end of the barrel. replenishment, and so avoid refilling with the incorrect oil.
Note: All guns must be clearly marked with their contents and, Note: All engineers must be careful not to attach the incorrect
most importantly, a check must be made to ensure that the gun can to the replenisher, although most tool stores will employ a
is refilled with the same grease or oil as stated on its label. system of labels and colour- coding, to minimise the risk of this
happening. On completion, it is normal practice to leave the can
Oil Cans are often used to apply oils, in smaller quantities, to attached to the pump (even if it is empty), as an additional
parts and areas which require more exact lubrication than is precaution against attaching the incorrect can at the next
possible with a general spray. Cans are able to apply oil in replenishment.
droplets, without spillage, just where the oil is wanted. Oil cans
must also be clearly labelled to show the type of oil that they
contain.
7.3 69 Mar 2014

OPERATION, FUNCTION AND USE OF ELECTRICAL
GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Electrical measurements
The basic quantities need to be measured in electrical systems

are:
1 Current
2 Potential difference
3 Resistance
4 Power
Current is measured with an ammeter. Potential difference or

voltage is measured with voltmeter. Basic resistance measuring
instrument is the ohmmeter. However measuring high
resistances require specific types of ohmmeters. Power is
measured with a wattmeter. Ammeter
The electrical measuring instruments broadly fall into two

categories: analog and digital, and in each category there are
various meter operating principles, constructional features, and
specific application instruments which are explored here in the
discussions to follow.
7.3 70 Mar 2014

Analog meter operation
The rotation of the moving system under the deflecting torque
An analog direct-reading instrument consists of moving system should be stopped when the pointer indicates a reading equal to
whose rotational movement is proportional to the measured the measured quantity. This requirement is fulfilled by control
quantity. This amount is indicated by the position of a pointer torque, which opposes the deflecting torque.
attached to the moving mechanism against a calibrated scale.
Typically the control torque comes from a phosphor-bronze
The moving system is pivoted in jewel bearings that minimize spiral hairspring. The torque produced by the spring is
the frictional forces against its movement. proportional to its angular deflection. If the spring constant is k,
for a movement of , the control torque will be:
Precaution: The instruments should not be dropped or
subjected to impact loads. The shaft of the moving system has
got fine pointed ends that rest on the bearings. Even for a
seemingly moderate impact, the pointed ends may suffer When the pointer is at rest, the deflecting torque and the control
damage owing to the high pressure they experience. torque will be equal and opposite.
The moving system is subject to three types of torques:
1 Deflecting torque or operating torque (TO) Damping torque (td)

2 Control torque (TC)
3 Damping torque (TD) When the deflection torque is applied, the pointer moves away
from the zero reading and as a result the control torque will be
Deflecting torque (to) generated by a compressed spring or some other control
mechanism. However the inertia of the rotor will cause the
The deflecting torque, which is also known as the operating pointer to overshoot and oscillate about the balanced position. A
torque, necessary to move the pointer away from zero reading. damping torque is necessary to reduce the amplitude of
oscillations and bring the pointer to steady position quickly.
ISO9001:2008Certified Control torque (tc) ForTrainingPurposeOnly

7.3 71 Mar 2014

The damping torque is proportional to the speed of the rotor
deflection and it is in the opposite direction to the movement. If the instrument is under-damped, the oscillations will take a
long time to decrease sufficiently. If it is over-damped, the
If denotes the rotational speed of the rotor, damping torque, pointer movement will be slow.
DT
7.3 72 Mar 2014

General construction of electrical instruments
One type of liquid friction damping system has got a disk

submerged in a fluid pot. As the disk turns with the moving
system, the fluid friction on the disk causes a damping effect.
Another construction has got a vane arrangement submerged in
a fluid. In this arrangement, the plane of a vane is perpendicular
to the plane of rotation; hence increased damping torque can be
obtained.
Damping mechanisms
Eddy current damping
The following methods are used in producing damping torque:
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an electromotive
Fluid friction damping force is induced in it and if a closed path is provided, a current
flows. When this phenomenon occurs in a conductive block or a
Eddy current damping disc without a clearly defined circuit marked by conductive paths
and insulation between them, such currents are known as eddy
Fluid friction damping currents. In a damping system, these currents will interact with a
magnetic field to produce a torque opposing the movement.
Fluid friction damping depends on air friction or liquid friction.
Air friction damping consists of a light aluminum piston attached

to the moving system, and moving in a fixed air chamber with
one end closed. The clearance between the piston and the
chamber walls is uniform and small. As the piston moves in or
out, the air should escape through the narrow gap between the
piston and the wall of the chamber to equalize the pressure on
the two sides. Because the passage of air is restricted, the
differential pressure created by the movement of the piston will
apply a damping force against the movement. This mechanism
is popularly known as a dash pot.
7.3 73 Mar 2014

7.3 74 Mar 2014

4 Hall effect
5 Magnetic effect
Heating or thermal effect
In this technique, the current to be measured creates some heat

in a resistive element connected in series. The hot junction of a
thermocouple is placed next to the heating element and the cold
junction is formed by a highly sensitive galvanometer. The
galvanometer reading is calibrated to indicate the measured
current.
Electrical principles Hall effect
Electrical instruments can be divided into the following When electrons flow across a magnetic field, they experience a
categories based on the electrical principles they use to force perpendicular to the direction of the current. As a result,
measure physical quantities: there will be a charge polarization in the medium in a direction
mutually perpendicular to the directions of the electron flow and
1 Heating or thermal effect the field. This phenomenon is known as the Hall Effect.
2 Electrostatic effect The potential

Damping Mechanisms
3 Induction effect
7.3 75 Mar 2014

difference created by the Hall effect is proportional to the
applied field strength and the current. Semiconductor materials
can be used a as Hall Effect sensors measuring a current flow
as a Hall voltage (V Hall).
Thermal Effect
7.3 76 Mar 2014

Hall Effect
Operating principles of electrical instruments

This principle is applied for rotational deflection in quadrant
electrometers.
Induction effect
Electrostatic effect When a metallic disc is placed in an alternating magnetic field,

eddy currents are induced on it. The eddy currents in turn
When two plates of a capacitor are charged, there is a force produce a magnetic field. The interaction of the two fields
mutually exerted upon them. This effect can be utilized in an creates a torque on the disk.
electrical instrument by fixing one plate rigidly and providing
freedom of movement to the other plate restrained with a control In induction type instruments, non-magnetic (typically aluminum)
spring. disk is applied with two out-of-phase fields by inserting a copper
shading band in a part of the magnetic circuit. Operation of
these
7.3 77 Mar 2014

instruments is quite similar to a single-phase induction motor.
The damping torque is provided by a permanent magnet.
Magnetic effect
This principle is widely used in general-purpose electrical

measuring instruments.
A broad classification of magnetic effect techniques is as

follows:
1 Moving coil meter
a) Permanent magnet type

b) Electrodynamometer type
c) Ratio meter type
2 Moving iron meter
a) Attraction type
b) Repulsion type
Electrostatic Effect
These techniques will be discussed in detail together with the
applications later in this module.
7.3 78 Mar 2014

Induction effect
Operating principles of electrical instruments

A moving coil meter can be adapted to measure AC quantities
by incorporating a rectifier to convert an AC current to DC. The
deflecting torque will be proportional to the average value of the
pulsed DC waveform.
The calibration of the AC scale assumes a form factor of 1.11,

which is true for pure sine waveforms. Any distortion of the AC
Rectifier type meter waveform will result in errors.
7.3 79 Mar 2014

Symbol
Schematic
Moving Coil Rectifier Type Meter
Electrodynamometer
7.3 80 Mar 2014

An electrodynamometer is an instrument used for measuring When the moving coil and the field are connected in
the electric power. The basic principle was laid out in an 1848 series, both the coils pass the same current I.
paper by Wilhelm Weber (1804-1891): when the same current
passes through two concentric coils placed at right angles to The magnetic field from the fixed coil being proportional to the
each other, the resulting torque depends on the square of the current I, the torque Td on the moving coil carrying the
current. same current is now proportional to I2. Thus the instrument
can measure both DC and AC currents, but a non-linear
The fixed coil is in two parts typically, and it can be built scale will appear on the indicator dial.
with an air core to prevent hysteresis losses.
Similarly, a voltmeter can be constructed by connecting the
The controlling torque is provided by a spring while the damping coils in parallel. As the measured voltage V drives a
torque comes from air friction. current in each coil according the coil resistance, it can be
derived that the deflecting torque
Electrodynamometer instruments are less costly and free from
hysteresis loss. The disadvantages are the poor sensitivity and Td is proportional to V2. The meter thus measures DC and AC
the susceptibility to be affected by stray magnetic fields. voltages.
Wattmeter
The most common application of electrodynamometer principle

is the wattmeter. In the wattmeter, the voltage coil is connected
in parallel and the current coil is connected in series to the load.
So the deflecting torque is proportional to the product of
the voltage and current in the circuit.
Ammeter and voltmeter
7.3 81 Mar 2014

Ammeter
Watt meter
Electrodynamometer
7.3 82 Mar 2014

Ammeter
If the ammeter resistance is R, the current for maximum
Ammeter is used for measuring current. It is series connected in deflection is Im, and the maximum current to be measured is I,
the circuit where current needs to be measured.
But,
Effect of the meter on the circuit
Ammeter being connected in series, resistance of its coil adds

up to the total resistance of the circuit. An ideal ammeter will
have zero resistance, and will not affect the reading. However in Therefore,
reality, ammeter resistance will be a non-zero, small value.
In the illustrated measurement of current, a 1.5 V DC source is

expected to drive a 1.5 A current in a circuit with 1.0
resistance. If the ammeter resistance is 0.05 , the total
resistance of the circuit will be 1.05 , and the current will be
1.5/1.05 =1.429 A. thus the influence of the meter on the circuit The multi-range ammeters use this technique to offer a number
is [(1.5-1.429)/1.5] X100 = 5%. of ranges on the same instrument.
Extension of the ammeter range Sensitivity
The measuring capacity of any instrument is limited by the Sensitivity of an analog measuring instrument is related to the
maximum current it can admit. However, the measuring range current required to produce full-scale deflection of the pointer.
can be increased by appropriately incorporating resistances in The lower the current, the higher is the sensitivity.
the meter circuit.
By adding a parallel resistor across the sensing element of the

ammeter, some amount of current can be made to bypass it,
and this could be accounted for, knowing the ratio between the
ammeter internal resistance and the shunt resistance.
7.3 83 Mar 2014

Measurement of Current
A multi range ammeter
Extension of Ammeter Range
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical

potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion
to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
ISO9001:2008Certified Ammeter Shunt ForTrainingPurposeOnly

7.3 84 Mar 2014

It is connected in parallel across the two points where the
potential difference is to be measured. If the voltmeter internal resistance is R, the current for maximum
deflection is Im, and the maximum voltage to be measured is V,
Effect of the meter on the circuit
An ideal voltmeter will have infinite resistance and hence will not
draw any current for its operation from the circuit it is applied The multi-range voltmeters use this technique to offer a number
upon. Usually a practical voltmeter has got a high internal of ranges on the same instrument.
resistance.
In the illustrated measurement of voltage, a 1.5 DC voltage is to

be measured with a voltmeter with 20 k internal resistance.
When there is no other resistance in the circuit, the voltmeter
draws a current of 1.5/2X104= 7.5X10-5 A. A current of this
magnitude seems quite harmless. However, situation drastically
changes when some resistance 10 k in this example is
connected in series with the 1.5 V supply. The total resistance
now being 30 k, when the voltmeter is connected, the current
drawn from the source is 1.5/3X104=5X10-5 and the measured
voltage is 1 V instead of 1.5 V.
Extension of meter range
The current entering the sensing element of a voltmeter can be

limited by adding a series resistor when a higher voltage
is measured.
7.3 85 Mar 2014

Voltmeter
ISO9001:2008Certified Ohmmeter ForTrainingPurposeOnly

7.3 86 Mar 2014

An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical
resistance, the opposition to an electric current. Micro-
ohmmeters (microhmmeter or microohmmeter) make low
resistance measurement. Megohmmeters (aka megaohmmeter
or in the case of a trademarked device Megger) measure large
values of resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is
ohms (). The mechanical movement of an ohmmeter is quite
the same as that of an ammeter or a voltmeter. But in the
ohmmeter an internal battery provides the electromotive force
(emf) required to drive the current in the mechanical movement.
The principle of measurement of resistance is simply the

application of Ohms law. As the circuit emf remains fixed, the
current through the circuit is inversely proportional to the total
resistance of the circuit.
Ohmmeter
7.3 87 Mar 2014

Series ohmmeter
In measuring low resistances, the unknown resistance is
In the illustrated series ohmmeter, the meter movement, the connected in parallel to the meter movement and the internal
fixed resistance, and the adjustable resistance together produce resistance. Now the maximum deflection comes when the meter
3000 . When the test prods are shorted together, the meter switch is closed and the test prods are open circuited. When
experiences the maximum possible current and hence they are shorted together, the meter movement will be short-
maximum deflection. The maximum deflection in this case is circuited and the entire current in the circuit will pass through
marked as zero ohms. Similarly, the open circuited prods the shorted contacts. This indicates that the minimum deflection
produce zero deflection, which is equivalent to infinite of the pointer is equivalent to zero volts. The meter movement
resistance. If the measured resistance is equal to the internal having a resistance of 5 , a measured resistance of 5 will
resistance of 3000 , the deflection will be half the full produce half of the full-scale deflection. In this method, half the
deflection. The rest of the scale can be calibrated accordingly. scale is available for indicating resistances between 0 and 5 .
The adjustable resistance is used as the zero adjustment,

which compensates for the battery voltage variations.
If the measured resistance is much smaller than the total fixed

resistance, the variation of current for a variation in measured
resistance will not be that significant. Therefore a separate
arrangement is necessary for measuring low values of
resistance.
ISO9001:2008Certified Shunt ohmmeter ForTrainingPurposeOnly

7.3 88 Mar 2014

Series ohmmeter Shunt Ohmmeter
Ratiometer movement
Ohmmeter Circuit
7.3 89 Mar 2014

In an ohmmeter, resistance is measured as a current, which is If the test leads are open-circuited, no current flows in coil
directly or inversely proportional to the measured resistance. B. However, current flows internally through coil A, and deflects
However the current is sensitive to the variations in the supply the pointer to infinity, which indicates a resistance too large to
voltage. A decrease in voltage may attribute a false increment measure. When a resistance R is connected between the
to the measured resistance. The ratio meter movement test leads, a current flows in coil B, trying to move the
produces a deflection, which is proportional to a current ratio, pointer clockwise. At the same time, coil A still tends to move
removing the effect of voltage variations from the indication. the pointer counter clockwise. Therefore, the moving element,
composed of both coils and the pointer, comes to rest in a
Ratio meter is an extension of the moving coil principle, position at which the two forces are balanced. This position
where two moving coils, with currents flowing in mutually depends upon the value of the external resistance, which
opposite directions, are wound on the same former. controls the relative amount of current in coil B. Because
changes in voltage affect both coil A and coil B in the same
The magnetic circuit is constructed with some eccentricity so proportion, the position of the moving system is independent of
that the coil carrying the larger current will move into an the voltage.
area with weaker field, and vice versa. This is equivalent to
applying a control torque to stop the movement at an If the test leads are short-circuited, the pointer rests at
angle, which is proportional to the deflecting torque. This zero because the current in coil B is relatively large. The
arrangement precludes the necessity for a control spring in the instrument is not damaged under these circumstances because
moving mechanism. the current is limited by R2.
The illustrated ratio meter circuit consists of two parallel

resistance arms: one with coil A and fixed resistance R1, and
the other with coil B, fixed resistance R2 and the external
resistance to be measured R. The coils are so wound that the
currents flow in opposite directions. Therefore the torque
produced by one coil will oppose that form the other coil.
7.3 90 Mar 2014

Symbol
Circuit
Construction
Ratiometer
7.3 91 Mar 2014

Parallax error
Analog multimeter
In reading the scale against the pointer of an analog meter, the
A multimeter, also known as AVO meter, can measure reading depends on the viewing angle, owing to the finite
current (Ampere), potential difference (Volt), and resistance gap between the pointer and the dial. For an accurate
(Ohm). It is basically a combination of three multi-range meters. reading, the scale should be read keeping the eye right
The meter movement is switched to various circuits using the above the pointer with the line of sight perpendicular to the
multimeter switch. A typical multimeter can be used for both surface of the dial. A mirror is incorporated in analog meters to
DC and AC measurements. help in taking a proper reading. When taking the reading, the
pointer should cover its image in the mirror. At this position
In the illustrated schematic diagram, there are separate the alignment of the viewers eye is perpendicular to the dial.
switches for function selection (ampere, volt, ohm) and range
selection. However, typically there is only one knob, known as
multimeter switch, on the front face of the meter,
controlling both internal switches.
The multimeter test leads, or probes, should be connected to

the input jacks on the multimeter appropriately for
measuring electrical parameters. A red probe is connected at
the input jack, and a black one at the ground input jack.
Note that there is a separate input jack position for
measuring high currents. This must be used whenever a
current in the range of 3~10 A is measured. Resolution of
analog multimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer,
vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero
calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal
use of the mechanical display.
7.3 92 Mar 2014

Probes
7.3 93 Mar 2014

Insulation tester
Megaohmmeter
Instead of hand-cranked insulation testers, battery powered
A megaohmmeter is a high resistance meter dedicated to ones are commonplace now.
measure an ohmic value under direct voltage of great stability.
To measure a high value resistance, techniques for measuring The test voltage can be applied continuously or as and when
a low value current are used. A constant voltage source (DC required with a switch. In some testers, the continuous mode
Voltage) is applied to the resistance to be measured and the comes with a timer.
resulting current is read on a highly sensitive ammeter circuit
that can display the resistance value (in M, G, T). A The normal precautions and practices stated under
Megaohmmeter is also called a high resistance tester, a measurement of resistance and megger operation should be
teraohmmeter , a megger, a high insulation tester. observed in using the battery-powered insulation tester.
Megaohmmeter is also known as the megger. The illustrated insulation tester has got an additional AC voltage
measurement feature too.
Megaohmmeter has got a hand-cranked generator that
can deliver a voltage of several hundred volts. The generated
voltage is limited to typically 500 V by a slip clutch. The meter
movement is of ratio meter type.
Like in a normal measurement of resistance, the equipment

under test should not be powered during the measurement of
insulation resistance.
Precautions should be observed to avoid electric shock from the

high voltage generated by the megger. Proper condition of
probe insulation should be assured before starting the test.
Never touch the test leads when the megger is cranked.
7.3 94 Mar 2014

Megohmmeter
Hand-cranked Megohmmeter
7.3 95 Mar 2014

Bonding tester
Bonding tester is intended primarily for testing the continuity of

equipotential bonding connections of aircraft. It can also be
used for continuity testing of other circuits.
This is a ratio meter type ohmmeter with an internal battery. It

comes with a pair of standard test leads, one 60 ft long with a
single spike, and the other 6 ft long with a double spike.
The low resistance coil A is in series with the battery and

the resistance under test through the single spike and the right
hand spike of the double probe.
The high resistance coil B is connected parallel across the

resistance under test; therefore it will carry a current
proportional to the voltage across the bond.
The position taken up by the pointer is determined by the ratio

between opposing torques, that is, by the ratio:
7.3 96 Mar 2014

Meter and test leads
Meter schematic and test circuit
7.3 97 Mar 2014

Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.3 (Tools)

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PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)

Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

COMMON HAND TOOLS TYPES

An engineers rule (refer to Fig. 1) is made from high-carbon

A scriber (refer to Fig. 3.1) is used for marking lines on the

All scribed lines, on soft materials, must only be cutting

Scriber points must be kept sharp and fine by careful stoning,

Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the

Combination Set Scriber

The Square Head has one working surface at 90 and another

A spirit level and scriber are, sometimes, accommodated in the

Surface Gauge (Scribing Block)

A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block (refer to Fig. 3.3), is another

Dividers are classified by the length of their legs. The points

The points of dividers should be protected, when not in use, in a

Callipers (refer to Fig. 3.4) are a type of measuring device,

Ball Pein Straight Pein Cro

Drifts may be fashioned from aluminium alloy, copper or steel

Only steel drifts should be used on bearings, due to the

Alternatively, the chisels may be made of nickel-alloy steel,

Chisels are classified by their shape, overall length, cross-

A hand vice (refer to Fig. 3.8) is classified by its overall length

The hacksaw is the most widely-used, metal-cutting, hand saw.

Fine-toothed blades have 24 or 32 teeth per inch and are used

The blade mountings must be set in the most convenient

Hand pressure should be applied on this forward stroke and

The fabrication of smaller parts requires hand cutting, followed

Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for cutting straight or

Curved shears can be found in symmetrical form, which can be

Hand Half-Round files are mostly associated with bellied-shaped

Three-Square (or Triangular) files are, usually, of the bellied

Hand Round Half-Round Square Three-Square

Sometimes referred to as Floats, single cut Hand files are,

Hand Brace (Hand Drill)

Whenever it is necessary to cut accurate, circular holes in

Another hand-operated drill, the Breast Brace, being larger, is

On drills up to 12.5 mm () diameter, the shank is parallel and

The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement

Web or Point Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved (especially

There are many different grades of metal, used in the

Cobalt Steel drills, contain up to 12% cobalt, with as much as

When drilling small holes, up to 6.0 mm () diameter, the

When a hole larger than 6.0 mm diameter is to be drilled, the

Where a large number of holes need to be countersunk to a Stop Countersink Tool

After Rivet has

Reamers Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to protect the fine,

Reamers are used for removing only small amounts of material,

Spiral Fluted Reamer

Hand Parallel Reamers Hand Expanding Reamer

Hand Taper Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.20), are used to produce a

Metric: This type, and its corresponding taper pins, has a

The difference between the Metric and Imperial tapers is very

After the preliminary cut, the process is repeated, using the

External Screw Thread, Cutting Dies

Once more, adequate lubrication must be used throughout the

Screwdrivers The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in the slotted

Screwdrivers in this category are classified by type and by the

Some variations may incorporate a reversible ratchet device in

All of these features would form part of the classification of the

Correct Screwdriver Engagement

Reed and Price Phillips Posidrive Triwing

Various Types of Cross-Point Screwdrivers

Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened mild