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MEASURING VOLUNTEER MOTIVATION IN MEGA-SPORTING EVENTS

CHRYSOSTOMOS GIANNOULAKIS,* CHIEN-HSIN WANG, and DIANNA GRAY*

*School of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA
Department of Leisure, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taiwan

Volunteers are a core component of sport service delivery and an important element of the Olympic Games
culture. However, little research has addressed the specific characteristics and experiences of individuals
who dedicate their time and effort to volunteer at mega-sporting events, more specifically at the Olympic
Games. The current study aims to contribute to the literature so that more effective volunteer recruitment and
management strategies can be fostered. The purpose of the study was to investigate motives of volunteers at
the Athens 2004 Olympics and examine the factorial structure of the Olympic Volunteer Motivation Scale
(OVMS). Data were gathered from a volunteer sample of 146 individuals who offered their services in the
Olympic Aquatic Center and the Olympic Village. Scores from the 18-item OVMS demonstrated satisfactory
validity and reliability. The extracted factors (Olympic related, Egoistic, and Purposive) were well defined
and interpreted in terms of the items included. Given the fact that volunteers at the Olympic Games might
be motivated by reasons that differ from those at local sporting events, the OVMS will provide information
that could further support the Olympic volunteer movement in terms of effective volunteer recruitment and
satisfaction.

Key words: Sport volunteer management; Volunteer motivation; Olympic Games

Introduction ships, national and international sport organizations,

The importance of volunteers in sporting events
has been extensively acknowledged during the past
decade. Volunteers are a core component of sport ser-
vice delivery (Daly, 1991) and an important element of
sport event management, because they provide sport
administrators with the ability to offer, sustain, or even
expand the quantity, quality, and diversity of sport or-
ganizations services (Strigas, 2003). Sport volunteers
perform several roles such as coaches, administrators,
and fund-raisers. Volunteers work in local community
and sport programs, world or continental champion-
as well as event production. Blanc (1999) noted that
volunteers remain essential to the viability of the sport
system and many community-based and sport organiza-
tions would have difficulty surviving without volunteers
(Auld & Cuskelly, 2001). It is important to mention
that the Turin organizing committee recruited 18,000
volunteers for the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Italy
(International Olympic Committee, 2006). Furthermore,
40,000 candidates applied for the 2006 FIFA World Cup
volunteer program and a total of 15,000 volunteers were
ultimately recruited to support the soccer tournament
(FIFA World Cup, 2006). Finally, it is estimated that

Address correspondence to Chrysostomos Giannoulakis at his new address: Department of Recreation & Sport Management, William F. Harrah
College of Hotel Administration, University of Nevada Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 453035, Las Vegas, NV 89154-3035, USA.
Tel: 970-324-5785; E-mail: cgiannoulakis@gmail.com

191
192 GIANNOULAKIS, WANG, AND GRAY
70,000 Games-time volunteers will be needed for the
2008 Beijing Summer Olympic Games and 30,000 for
the Paralympic Games (Beijing Olympic Games Volun-
teer Work Coordination Group, 2006, p. 129).
Utilizing volunteers to complement paid employees
and offset rapidly increased labor costs is not new in
the field of social service. Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen
(1991) concluded volunteers enable administrators to
sustain current services and expand both the quantity
and diversity of services without exhausting the agen-
cys budget (p. 270). However, recruiting volunteers
to operate various functional areas in sporting events
is merely a recent phenomenon. Most of the studies in
sport volunteer research have focused on special events
and regional sporting events (Caldwell & Andereck,
1994; Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam, 1998; Johnston,
Twnam, & Farrell, 2000; Strigas, 2003; Strigas &
Jackson, 2003; Williams, Dosa, & Tomkins, 1995).
With the tremendous demand on various event logistics
at the Olympic Games, volunteers are undoubtedly
one of the most essential resources involved in Games
logistics (protocol reception, transportation, security,
medical aids, game operation support, venue operation
support, news operation support, cultural activity orga-
nization support, etc.). Without the contribution from
the thousands of volunteers, the Olympic Games would
simply not be possible. To date, studies addressing the
specific characteristics and experiences of individuals
who dedicate their time and effort to volunteer at elite
sporting events, and more specifically at the Olympic
Games, are limited. Elstad (1996) stressed in spite of
the large numbers and the importance of volunteers
during mega-events there has been limited research
on this topic (p. 76) and there is a need to clarify the
differences between causes, effects, and determinants of
volunteers satisfaction and performance (p. 82).
The current study aims to examine the concept of
volunteer motivation so that more effective volunteer
recruitment, management, and retention strategies can
be implemented by Olympic organizing committees.
The purpose of the present research is to better under-
stand the factors that primarily motivate volunteers at
the Olympic Games by examining the factorial structure
of an entirely new scale that can effectively be utilized
to assess Olympic volunteer motivation. The following
major research question was developed to support the
purpose: What is the factorial structure of the Olympic
Volunteer Motivation Scale (OVMS)? This article ex-
plores attributes of volunteer motivation at the Athens
2004 Olympic Games by presenting the importance of
Olympic volunteerism to the viability of the Olympic
Movement and discussing the outcomes of the study
with respective recommendations for future research
within the field of Olympic volunteerism.
Importance of Olympic Volunteerism
The area of Olympic volunteerism is fairly new for
researchers and the Olympic Movement. Karlis (2003)
noticed that it was not until the 1980 Lake Placid Olym-
pics that the Olympic volunteer movement commenced.
At later Games, such as those of Los Angeles, Calgary,
and Seoul, the voluntary element was to become a
basic link in the organization of the Games. At pres-
ent, this volunteer element is seen as essential to the
sustainability of the Olympic Games. The concept of
Olympic volunteer is relatively young and has been
defined (cited in Moragas, Moreno, & Paniagua, 1999)
as a person who makes an individual, altruistic com-
mitment to collaborate, to the best of his/her abilities in
the organization of the Olympic Games, carrying out the
tasks assigned to him/her without receiving payments
or rewards of any other nature (p. 134).
The Olympic volunteer movement has rapidly evolved
during the past two decades. Approximately 29,000 vol-
unteers participated in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic
Games. This figure doubled at the Athens 2004 Olympic
Games with a combined amount of 60,000 volunteers
for both the Olympics and Paralympics (International
Olympic Committee, 2004). The concept of the Olympic
volunteer went through a process of evolution parallel
to that of the development of the social volunteer and
the growing importance of sports. As a social volunteer,
Olympic volunteers have as a purpose to act for the ben-
efit of the society, of his or her own free will, without the
aim of economic or other benefits (Moragas et al., 1999).
In the case of the Olympic Games, the organization of
the volunteer tasks is primarily based on the occasional
status of the organization or the organizing committee.
Therefore, individual Olympic volunteer programs are
developed based on the distinctive history and features
of the volunteer concept of the country that will host the
Olympic Games. According to Clary, Snyder, Ridge,
Miene, and Haugen (1994):
The implementation of a functional strategy for engaging
volunteer attitudes and intentions would involve tailoring
or matching an appropriate persuasive message to specific
functions important to particular recipients, with the mes-
 MEASURING VOLUNTEER MOTIVATION
sage communicating how the recommended course of
actions could satisfy motives and goals important to the
individual. (p. 1132)
In the development of the awareness campaign, the
Athens Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games
(ATHOC) recognized that besides individual reasons for
participation, volunteers would be attracted by certain
factors that are specific to the Olympic and Paralympic
Games, such as sense of national pride, uniqueness of
experience, the chance to contribute to the success of
the Games, as well as promotion of the Olympic spirit
and value of cooperation (Kikou, 2001). It is evident
that the uniqueness of the Olympic Games as a mega-
sporting event requires a different approach to recruiting
participants, as well as motivating and retaining them
over the course of the Olympic Games.
Although the concept of Olympic volunteerism
is fairly young, organizing committees and the host
countries have started to realize the significant contri-
bution of the volunteers to the success of the Olympic
Games. The involvement of volunteers in the staging of
the Olympiads recognizes the increased importance of
volunteers to the Olympic Movement; it recognizes that
community ownership of the Games is instrumental
to their success; and it recognizes that post-Games
legacies to volunteering and to communities is vital
(Brettel, 2001).
In 2001, Jacques Rogge, the President of the Interna-
tional Olympic Committee (IOC), stated that govern-
ments and organizing committees should also recognize
the importance of the Olympic volunteer movement as
a strategic means of sustainable development and social
capital. In addition, Rogge noted that there is an obvious
need within the Olympic Movement to train and increase
the number of volunteers, as one must draw from culture,
local traditions, and the experience acquired by volun-
teers to build up experience (Rogge, 2001). It is evident
that within the changing requirements for retaining
Olympic volunteers, the rewards have also undergone
changes, including the trend toward the professionaliza-
tion of volunteer tasks. Fairley, Kellett, and Green (2007)
found that sharing and recognition of expertise was found
to be one of the key motives for travel to volunteer at the
Athens Olympic Games. Moragas et al. (1999) noted that
participation in the organization of the Olympic Games
may also be seen as an opportunity to gain professional
experience, which could play a significant role when
volunteers are seeking employment.
193
With the immense growth of the Olympic volunteer
movement, several questions arise. However, the most
important question that still needs to be analyzed ex-
tensively is why individuals are involved in Olympic
volunteerism; namely, what are the motives behind the
volunteers commitment and dedication to a mega-
sporting event as the Olympic Games?
Motivational Studies in Special Events Volunteerism
In spite of the large numbers and the importance
of volunteers during special events such as sporting
events and mega-events as the Olympic Games, limited
research has been performed on motivation and satisfac-
tion factors of volunteers participating in these special
events (Elstad, 1996; Farrell et al., 1998; Johnston et
al., 2000). What follows is an illustration of studies
that examined volunteer motivation at special sporting
events. The focus of this literature review is primarily
on volunteer motivation and satisfaction specifically for
sporting events, and not on additional dimensions of
volunteering such as commitment or retention.
Elstad (1996), one of the first researchers to focus on
satisfaction and volunteer learning as important aspects
of future motivation regarding Olympic volunteers, re-
searched the role of volunteers during the Winter Games
in Lillehammer and found that the volunteer group
reported overall satisfaction with their participation.
Several determinants of volunteers satisfaction were
identified, such as personal networking, being a part
of the celebratory atmosphere, job-related competence,
welfare issues, and job characteristics. Elstad also noted
that managerial components such as transport, food, and
accommodation contributed to negative evaluations.
Farrell et al. (1998) specifically examined sport
volunteers by investigating the attributes of satisfaction
and motivation for 300 volunteers at an elite sporting
competition. Utilizing a 28-item scale adapted from the
work of Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen (1991), Farrell et al.
reported that the purposive (related to doing something
useful and contributing to society) and solidary incen-
tives (related to social interaction, group identifica-
tion, and networking), as described by Caldwell and
Andereck (1994), were supported. In addition, the re-
searchers proposed two additional categories: the exter-
nal conditions, which emphasize extrinsic motivations,
and the commitments dimension, which emphasizes
expectations from others for volunteering. According
to the study, the highest ranking reasons in terms of
194 GIANNOULAKIS, WANG, AND GRAY

importance came from the purposive group, whereas
external conditions and commitments were the lowest
ranking reasons. Farrell et al. (1998) suggested:
Motivation for special event volunteers is different from
that for other volunteers. Special event volunteers might
find these distinct dimensions (purposive, solidary, external
conditions, and commitments) important because of their
volunteer commitment and their attachment to the activ-
ity. These dimensions may differ from the motivations for
other volunteer activities because of the nature of special
events. (p. 298)
Farrell et al. (1998) concluded that understanding of the
motivations, perceptions, and behavior of volunteers
in special events such as elite sporting competitions
has the potential to improve planning, management,
and recruitment strategies for maintaining a strong
volunteer base.
The suggestion by Farrell et al. (1998) that motiva-
tion for special event volunteers is different from that
of other volunteers was reinforced by Johnston et al.
(2000) in a survey of 700 volunteers from the 1997
Canadian Scout Jamboree. The researchers found that
the reasons that were ranked highest by the participants
were I wanted to help make the event a success, I
wanted an opportunity to meet the scouts and be in-
volved in activities, and I am involved in scouting.
All of the above-mentioned responses were included in
the purposive category, suggesting that the three top
motivations might be seen as indicating that commit-
ment to the organization itself and to the participants in
the event are, in fact, important motivators along with
the commitment to the event (p. 175).
In 2003, Strigas and Jackson sought to validate Far-
rell et al.s (1998) motivation scale and investigated the
assessment of the structure of motivations for sport vol-
unteers as well as evaluated the psychometric properties
of the instrument. The volunteer motivation instrument
consisted of 40 items ranked within five major factors:
material, purposive, leisure, egoistic, and external.
Strigas and Jackson (2003) found that the motivational
reasons with the highest mean score were Volunteering
creates a better society and I wanted to help make
the event a success (p. 121). These results coincided
generally with those found by Williams et al. (1995)
and Farrell et al. (1998).
Research that focuses on volunteerism in sport settings
is limited, and studies of volunteerism in nonsport sectors
have been unable to identify whether sport volunteer-
ism is driven by considerations that are unique to sports
(Strigas & Jackson, 2003). Additional research should
be conducted in order to form a conceptualized theory
that will identify the significance of motives to volunteer-
ing in sport settings. The theory needs to take under
consideration the size, location, purpose, composition
of the volunteer labor, and impact of the sport event on
the hosting community, and create a taxonomy of sport
events for volunteers based on the presiding factors (p.
121). Thus, the purpose of the study was to develop an
instrument that would examine motivation of volunteers
participating in mega-sporting events, such as the Olym-
pic Games. It is important for Olympic organizing com-
mittees to achieve the best possible match of volunteers
with the respective positions. The relative importance
of this concept is reinforced by the excessive amount of
volunteers participating at the Olympic Games.
Method
Participants
The target population of this study was comprised of
volunteers who participated in the Athens 2004 Olympic
Games. A convenience sample of 146 individuals was
selected from volunteers who offered their services in
the Olympic Aquatic Center and the Olympic Village.
From the 146 Olympic volunteers who completed and
returned the questionnaires, 63% were female and
51.4% were between 21 and 30 years of age. Eighty per-
cent of the respondents were Greek, while participants
reporting nationalities other than Greek represented
20% of the total sample. Of the total respondents, 43.2%
had 2-year or bachelor degrees, 27.4% had postgradu-
ate degrees, 16.4% had high school degrees or less,
while 13% of the respondents held other degrees. The
majority of the respondents (76.7%) were single, 18.5%
were married, and 4.8% were divorced, widowed, or
separated. In addition, 60% of the respondents reported
that their volunteer responsibilities occurred during the
2 weeks of the Olympic Games and 20% responded that
their time commitment occurred from 6 months prior
the event to 2 months following the event. Volunteer du-
ties fell into the following categories: sport information
services, spectator services, and athletes services.
Instrumentation
The volunteer motivation scale developed for the pres-
ent study was a modified version of Strigas and Jacksons
 MEASURING VOLUNTEER MOTIVATION
(2003) motivation scale. The scale developed by Strigas
and Jackson was an adaptation of the Special Events
Volunteer Motivation Scale (SEVMS) developed by Far-
rell et al. (1998). As mentioned previously in the review
of motivational theories of special events volunteerism,
Strigas and Jackson developed a 40-item instrument
to assess various volunteer motivations at a regional
marathon event in Florida. We chose to modify Strigas
and Jacksons 40-item instrument for the following two
reasons: (a) the five factors included in the instrument
(material, purposive, egoistic, external, and leisure) were
adequately representing most of the volunteer dimen-
sions identified in the review of literature; and (b) the
instrument was capable of measuring the motivational
patterns of sport volunteers in a valid and reliable way.
In particular, the five-factor sport volunteer motivation
model was adequately identified by a principal compo-
nent analysis and all the extracted motivation factors
were internally consistent, having Cronbachs alphas of
0.91 (Material), 0.84 (Purposive), 0.84 (Leisure), 0.79
(Egoistic), and 0.73 (External). Even though Strigas
and Jacksons motivation scale was found as a sound
assessment tool, their validation study was not strong in
terms of the psychometric support, caused by the limited
sample size (N = 60). Further examination with a larger
sample would increase the generalization of the conclu-
sions drawn by means of factor analysis (DeVellis, 1991).
Despite the fact that most motivation dimensions in the
volunteer literature were represented within the 40-scale
items, such a lengthy instrument may include disadvan-
tages, particularly in applied settings where participants
may be pressed for time. In an effort to accommodate
time demand, facilitate ease of survey administration,
and maximize response rate, a more concise, valid,
and reliable instrument is needed. Thus, in an attempt
to reflect the specific context of the Olympic Games,
the modified scale for the present study was formed by
adapting nine items from Strigas and Jacksons (2003)
motivation scale and adding 15 items that were specific
to the Olympic Games. The initial scale created for the
present study was comprised of 24 items and named as
the Olympic Volunteer Motivation Scale (OVMS) (Table
1). The OVMS items were reviewed by two professors
with expertise in sport management and human resources
to establish the scales content validity. For each item,
a 5-point Likert scale was used, ranging from strongly
disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), with higher numbers
indicating higher level of agreement with the reason for
being an Olympic volunteer.
195
Table 1
The 24 Items Within the Olympic Volunteer Motivation Scale
(OVMS)
1. To help the others and the community
2. To become associated with the Olympics
3. To make job contacts
4. To support my nation
5. To gain work experience which might lead to employment
6. Volunteer tradition in my family
7. Opportunity to establish contacts with experts from the same field
8. Commitment as a citizen
9. Individual challenge
10. Belonging to a team
11. To feel valued and respected
12. Opportunity to meet with elite athletes
13. To gain knowledge of different languages and cultures
14. To meet new people and make new friends
15. Passion for the Games
16. Spirit of solidarity and peace enshrined in the Olympic philosophy
17. To support the spirit of volunteerism
18. To learn new skills
19. Memories that will last a lifetime
20. For nationalistic pride
21. For materialistic rewards (e.g. official ATHOC volunteer uniforms)
22. To attend an Olympic event
23. I am involved in sports
24. Being a volunteer at the Olympic Games is considered to be pres-
tigious
Procedure
Data collection took place 2 months prior to the Athens
2004 Olympic Games and during Games time (August
of 2004). We utilized two methods to recruit potential
participants. Firstly, questionnaires were placed at the
volunteers check-in and check-out area at the Olympic
Aquatic Center, so that participants could fill out a survey
voluntarily. Secondly, the survey was hand-distributed
to volunteers who offered their services in a variety of
functional areas (i.e., spectator services, competition
management, and sport information desk services) of
the Olympic Aquatic Center and the Olympic Village.
The authors were able to secure official permission for
survey distribution only for the above-mentioned venues
through personal contacts. Participants were asked if they
would be willing to assist the researchers in assessing
the dimensions of volunteer motivation by completing
the survey. It was clearly stated to all participants that
their involvement in the study was voluntary and the
information would remain confidential. No incentives
were utilized and no question required the participants
to disclose their name or other identifiable personal data.
Of the 434 distributed surveys, 146 questionnaires were
returned to the researchers (29.7% response rate).
196 GIANNOULAKIS, WANG, AND GRAY

Data Analysis data were greater than the corresponding first four 95th
percentile random data eigenvalues, suggesting that four
The data analysis in this study involved principal
factors should be retained (see Table 2 for the comparison
component analyses (PCA) and internal consistency
between the first six actual and random data eigenvalues).
analyses. Principal component analyses were employed
The four factors accounted for 52.40% of the variance
to examine the construct validity of the OVMS. Before
in the item responses, with the first factor contributing
running the principal component analysis, Kaisers
25.51%, the second factor 12.24%, the third factor 7.96%,
measure of sampling adequacy and Bartletts test of
and the fourth factor 6.69%. Because moderate correla-
sphericity were performed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
tions were observed between factors 1 and 2 (r = 0.44) and
Kaisers measure of sampling adequacy was 0.81,
between factors 1 and 3 (r = 0.36), the component matrix
indicating that the sample was adequate for a factor
was thus rotated by using promax rotation technique. An
analysis. Bartletts test of sphericity was significant,
item that had a factor loading equal to or greater than 0.45
2(276) = 1364.01, p < 0.01, indicating that the hypoth-
without double loading was then included to interpret the
esis of the variance and covariance matrix of the scale
factors. After a close examination of the structure matrix,
items as an identity matrix was rejected; therefore, a
we found that factor 4 was not well defined by the loaded
factor analysis was appropriate. Rotation methods were
items. In particular, item 1 was negatively loaded on fac-
used to improve interpretability of the factor solution.
tor 4 and item 24 was double-loaded on factors 1 and 4.
Specifically, varimax rotation was used if the underly-
If items 1 and 24 were deleted, factor 4 contained one
ing factors were uncorrelated and promax rotation was
single item (item 21) and it failed to satisfy the retention
used if the underlying factors were correlated. Decisions
criterion outlined previously in the data analysis. For the
on the factors and items were based on the following
reasons cited above, a three-factor solution was finally
criteria: (a) a factor had an eigenvalue greater than its
selected for follow-up runs.
corresponding 95th percentile random data eigenvalue
Principal component extraction with three-factor
derived from OConnors (2000) SPSS commands for
identification and promax rotation revealed that three
parallel analysis; (b) an item had a factor loading equal
factors emerged with a total of 45.71% variance
to or greater than 0.45 without multiple loadings (occurs
explained (factorial structure, factor loadings, and
when an item has factor loadings equal to or greater than
percentage of variance explained are shown in Table
0.45 on two or more factors); (c) a factor was interpre-
3, and intercorrelations between the identified OVMS
table in terms of the loaded items; and (d) a factor had
factors are illustrated in Table 4). Based on the con-
at least two items. Estimates of Cronbachs alpha were
tent of the loaded items, the predominant factor was
used to examine the internal consistency of the items
labeled Olympic related and operationally defined
comprising each OVMS factor. Final decisions for the
as the desire of volunteers to be associated with the
remaining items were based on the following criteria:
Olympic movement, be involved in the Olympics, or
(a) item-total correlation was 0.40 or above; (b) item
meet with Olympic athletes. The second factor was
deletion resulted in the improvement of Cronbachs
labeled Egoistic and operationally defined as the
alpha based on the alpha if item deleted value; and
(c) Cronbachs alpha coefficient was equal to or greater
than 0.70. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) 13.0 for Windows was utilized to perform the Table 2
above statistical analyses. Comparison of the First Six Actual and Random Data
Eigenvalues
Random Data Random Data
Results Component Actual Data (Mean) (95th Percentile)

Principal Component Analyses 1. 6.12* 1.82 1.95

2. 2.94* 1.68 1.77
Construct validity of the OVMS was examined through 3. 1.91* 1.57 1.65
4. 1.61* 1.49 1.55
principal component analysis (PCA). Specifically, PCA 5. 1.31* 1.42 1.48
was used to estimate the actual eigenvalues, while paral- 6. 1.04* 1.34 1.40
lel analysis was employed to produce the random data Asterisks were used to identify the actual eigenvalues that were greater
eigenvalues. The first four eigenvalues from the actual than the corresponding 95th percentile random data eigenvalues.
 MEASURING VOLUNTEER MOTIVATION 197

Table 3 were above 0.40. In addition, no deletion of any item

Three-Factor Solution of Principal Component Analysis by improved the Cronbachs alpha value. As a result, the
Promax Rotation for the OVMS remaining 18 items from the principal component
Item Olympic Related Egoistic Purposive analyses were retained and alpha coefficients for the
15. 0.75* 0.23 0.44 OVMS factors were determined. In accordance with the
2. 0.72* 0.09 0.32 coefficient alpha equal to or greater than 0.70 criterion
22. 0.67* 0.33 0.04
12. 0.65* 0.39 0.05
(George & Mallery, 2001), the internal consistency was
19. 0.61* 0.14 0.29 acceptable for all OVMS factors, having Cronbachs
24. 0.47* 0.44 0.16 alphas of 0.82 (Olympic related), 0.82 (Egoistic), and
3. 0.28 0.83* 0.05
5. 0.20 0.81* 0.10
0.77 (Purposive) (see Table 5 for item-total statistics,
7. 0.32 0.76* 0.11 alpha if item deleted, and Cronbachs alphas). The final
18. 0.33 0.66* 0.12 OVMS was comprised of three factors with a total of 18
21. 0.26 0.59* 0.04
17. 0.23 0.06 0.78*
items. Notably, the reliability alphas of the Egoistic and
8. 0.09 0.05 0.73* Purposive factor were approximately equal to the alphas
16. 0.44 0.11 0.67* of the corresponding SEVMS factors, even after two
4. 0.19 0.06 0.60*
6. 0.05 0.26 0.60*
items per factor were eliminated. Such results suggested
20. 0.34 0.27 0.53* that the OVMS factors consisted of fewer items, but still
1. 0.18 0.14 0.46* maintained satisfactory levels of internal consistency,
Eigenvalue 6.12 2.94 1.91
Variance 25.51% 12.24% 7.96%
which would make the instrument easier to administer
and less intimidating to survey respondents.
In an attempt to facilitate interpretation, items were ordered and grouped
by size of loading. Asterisks and bold were used to identify the loaded
items (above 0.45 criterion). Discussion

Mega-international sporting events such as the Olym-

individuals need for social interaction, interpersonal
relationships, and networking. The third factor was
labeled Purposive and operationally defined as the
willingness of volunteers to benefit with their actions
the stated end of the organization. Items 9, 10, 14, and
23 were deleted because they were not well interpreted
by the factor solution. Items 11 and 13 were eliminated
because they were double-loaded on factors 1 and 2.
Internal Consistency Analyses
The internal consistency of each OVMS factor
was assessed through the estimation of Cronbachs
reliability alpha. Correlations between an item and the
sum of all other items in each identified OVMS factor
Table 4
Intercorrelations Between the OVMS Factors
Factor Olympic Related Egoistic
Olympic related 0.38**
Egoistic
Purposive
*p < 0.05.
**p < 0.01.
pic Games are characterized not only by unity of time,
place, and activity, but also by significant human re-
source requirements. Since the 1980s, volunteerism has
become a growing trend not only for the operation of the
Olympic Games, but also for the successful implemen-
tation of the event. Evidently, volunteers have become
one of the pivotal resources for staging the Olympic
Games and for carrying out day-to-day functions (Kar-
lis, 2003). To successfully organize and complete such
a complicated event as the Olympic Games, depending
only on professional staff is insufficient. Consequently,
the financial cost for Olympic organizing committees
in terms of employing thousands of salaried workers
would have been excessive. Continuous increasing of
the scale of the Games requires the organizing com-
mittee to recruit more volunteers to work on different
positions in various areas. Despite the increased im-
portance of volunteers within the Olympic movement,
little research has addressed the specific characteristics
Purposive
and experiences of individuals who choose to dedicate
their volunteering time and effort at the Olympic Games.
0.32**
0.16*
Most of the research in volunteer motivation has focused
on special and regional sporting events.
The purpose of the current study was to explore at-
tributes of motivation for volunteers at the Athens 2004
198 GIANNOULAKIS, WANG, AND GRAY

Table 5
Item-Total Statistics for the OVMS Subscales
Item-Total Square-Multiple Alpha if Cronbachs
Factor/Item Correlation Correlation Item Deleted Alpha

Olympic related 0.82

15. 0.60 0.43 0.77
2. 0.54 0.37 0.78
22. 0.54 0.37 0.77
12. 0.54 0.34 0.77
19. 0.46 0.28 0.79
24. 0.43 0.21 0.79
Egoistic 0.82
3. 0.71 0.58 0.75
5. 0.67 0.54 0.76
7. 0.64 0.42 0.77
18. 0.54 0.31 0.79
21. 0.45 0.22 0.81
Purposive 0.77
17. 0.63 0.51 0.71
8. 0.58 0.36 0.72
16. 0.50 0.39 0.73
4. 0.53 0.43 0.73
6. 0.43 0.23 0.75
20. 0.43 0.39 0.75
1. 0.40 0.20 0.76

Summer Olympic Games and examine the factorial
structure of the Olympic Volunteer Motivation Scale
(OVMS). Based on data analysis, the final 18-item
OVMS demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability
of the scores. All the statistical assumptions regarding
the factorial analysis were met in terms of the study.
The extracted factors (Olympic related, Egoistic, and
Purposive) were well defined and interpreted in terms
of the items included. The fact that 18 items were uti-
lized for the purpose of the study (after following the
principal component analysis and reliability results) is
likely to increase the response rate when used in future
Olympic volunteer motivation studies. Olympic-related
motivation (the desire of volunteers to associate with
the Olympic movement, be involved in the Olympics,
or meet with Olympic athletes) was found to be the
predominant factor. Olympic-related motives were
followed by the Egoistic factor, namely motivation
related to the individuals needs for social interaction,
interpersonal relationships, and networking.
The strength of the study lies in the development of
a motivation scale that is specifically oriented towards
Olympic volunteers. The results of the study were not
consistent with the studies by Caldwell and Andereck
(1994), Farrell et al. (1998), Johnston et al. (2000),
and Strigas and Jackson (2003). In contrast to all the
aforementioned studies, Olympic volunteers rated the
Purposive factor as the least important factor in terms
of their motivation to participate in the Athens 2004
Olympic Games. This inconsistency could be possibly
explained by the fact that the majority of the participants
were relatively young (2130 years old). It appeared that
young Olympic volunteers were primarily motivated by
the desire to fulfill the behind the scene experience
during the Games, meet with Olympic athletes, and be
associated with the Olympic Movement. These findings
could also be attributed to the distinctive nature of the
Olympic Games. In comparison with social events and
regional-scale sporting events, the Olympic Games
have a more influential pull cause that could arouse
individuals desires and needs to volunteer at the events
(Crompton, 1979). As a result, it seems plausible to
conclude that volunteers were more likely to endorse the
event-relevant or Olympic-related motives rather than
the material, egoistic, external, leisure, and purposive
motives identified in the previous studies.
The study included strong methodological advan-
tages, such as a clear time frame and staged approach,
as well as rigorous statistical analyses and analogous
interpretation of the results. A limitation of the study
was the fact that volunteers were selected only from
the Olympic Village and the Olympic Aquatic Center
(convenience sample). In addition, sampling issues have
the potential to compromise the generalizability of the
 MEASURING VOLUNTEER MOTIVATION
results. Finally, 80% of the participants were Greek,
which does not represent the typical Olympic volunteer.
The focus of this study was directed on Athens 2004
volunteers who worked at the Olympic Aquatic Center
and the Olympic Village. Future volunteer motivation
studies should adapt probability sampling protocols
(i.e., cluster or stratified sampling techniques) and
select Olympic volunteers from a plethora of venues
within the Olympic Games in order to create a repre-
sentative sample of the Olympic volunteer population.
In this way, researchers will be able to enhance the
representativeness of the Olympic volunteer sample and
strengthen the external validity of the study. Recruiting
volunteers from different functional areas and/or venues
could provide researchers with the opportunity to further
examine whether the different nature of a sport or status
of the venue (competitive vs. noncompetitive) provide
different motivational reasons for the volunteers. Fur-
thermore, the OVMS needs to be cross-validated not
only within volunteers at the Olympic or Paralympic
Games, but within various mega-sporting events (i.e.,
World Cup or Asian Games) in order to verify the
factorial structure of the OVMS. Finally, the factorial
structure of the OVMS needs to be reexamined using
confirmatory factor analysis so as to enhance the scales
construct validity and verify the theoretical framework
of Olympic volunteer motivation.
Practical Implications
Mega-sporting events are commonly characterized
by the internationalism and diversity of their volunteer
population. The results of the study will provide vol-
unteer administrators and event managers within the
Olympic Games or large-scale international sporting
events with a concise tool to measure and further under-
stand volunteer motivation, resulting in more effective
recruitment and retention strategies. Sport managers
and event organizers thus would foster a strategic use of
recruitment dollars and form a cohesive match between
volunteers needs and event responsibilities.
Green and Chalip (1998) noted that recruiting and
retaining volunteers for sport events and services
are fundamentally marketing problems. As far as the
Olympic Games are concerned, organizing the event
is a matter of identifying several thousand of different
tasks for the volunteers. Consequently, fragmentation
of tasks can result in distancing the Olympic volunteers
from their primary source of motivation (Blanc, 1999).
199
Because volunteering is often approached from a hu-
man resource perspective, successful recruitment of
sport volunteers requires that the volunteer experience
should be constructed and promoted in terms of benefits
that differentiate volunteer activities from one another
and from alternative leisure pursuits. Furthermore,
volunteer managers should keep motivation in mind
when determining volunteer tasks and when recruiting,
training, and supervising volunteers. Individuals can be
motivated by several concerns, and it is important to
understand which needs are the most pressing (Clary,
Snyder, & Ridge, 1992). Motivations specific to spe-
cial events and differences in volunteer motivation at a
variety of events must be examined in order to under-
stand the complex nature of volunteering for sporting
events, and especially for large-scale sport projects as
the Olympic Games. The study of Olympic volunteer
recruitment and retention as a marketing problem must
begin by asking what it is that volunteers are seeking
to buy with the time they dedicate to the respective
Olympic organizing committee.
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