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Journal of King Saud University Science (2016) xxx, xxxxxx
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Centre for Geoinformatics, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), V.N. Purav Marg, Deonar, Mumbai 400088, India
KEYWORDS Abstract Groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable development are an important
Groundwater potential zone aspect in Leh valley due to an increase of tourists and the local population. In the present study,
mapping; the groundwater potential zones were delineated by adopting a frequency ratio (FR) model. Land
Frequency ratio; use and land cover, hydro geomorphology, slope, geology, lineament density, drainage density,
Water budget; spring well locations and ground water level were the thematic factors considered for groundwater
Sustainable management; potential zone mapping. There are 86 spring wells located in the study area, of which 60 wells were
Leh valley considered for success rate and remaining 26 wells considered for prediction rate in the FR model.
The nal groundwater potential map was classied into ve zones as very high, high, moderate, low,
and very low. The success and prediction rates of FR model were measured as 81.25% and 77.23%
respectively. Water budget of the valley was also calculated on the basis of consumption, demand
and supply of water by taking account of the oating population. There is a huge demand of water
supply requirement during the tourist season from May to September months and deciency of
water in the area was calculated as 4,224,557 (in l). Finally, suitable sites for articial recharge
for sustainable groundwater management were identied. The sites were selected on the basis of
depth of groundwater level, source of spring well locations and gradient from natural spring to
selected recharge wells.
2016 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is
an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
1018-3647 2016 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
2 B. Guru et al.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Materials and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Frequency ratio model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Thematic maps generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.1. Land use and land cover (lu). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.2. Hydro geomorphological features (hg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.3. Slope (sl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.4. Geology (ge) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.5. Lineament density (ld) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.6. Drainage Density (dd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.7. Groundwater Level (gl). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.8. Spring wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3. Groundwater potential zone mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1. FR Model for groundwater potential zone mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1.1. Validation of FR model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2. Water budget of Leh valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.3. Sustainable groundwater management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping 3
Figure 1 Base map of study area, Leh Valley, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
model (Zabihi et al., 2016), certainty factor model (Zabihi of water either from precipitation or surface or snow melting,
et al., 2016), evidential belief function (Pourghasemi and into underground formations can be achieved by various
Beheshtirad, 2015; Naghibi and Pourghasemi, 2015), and methods such as water spreading, recharge through pits,
generalized linear model (Naghibi and Pourghasemi, 2015). shafts, injection wells, trenches, snow harvesting, check dams
These statistical methods were used to carry out the GWPZ cum groundwater dams. Many research studies have been
based on different inuencing parameters, their interconnec- carried out on articial recharge sites selection for aquifer
tion and contribution to the groundwater movements and replenishment in various parts of the world (Johnson and
accumulations. Sniegocki, 1967; Warner and Moreland, 1972; Ramasamy
Articial groundwater recharge is a process by which and Anbazhagan, 1997). In the last few decades, remote sens-
groundwater reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding what ing and GIS techniques play an important role for identica-
is the case under natural conditions of replenishment tion of suitable sites for articial recharge structures for
(Bhattacharya, 2010). Augmentation of this natural inltration sustainable groundwater resource management (Anbazhagan
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
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4 B. Guru et al.
2. Study area
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Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping 5
Figure 3 Flow chart shows materials and methodology adopted in the research study.
slope, geology, lineament, lineament density, drainage density, FR value of each class in a thematic layer was considered as
groundwater level were considered for preparing GWPZ map. weight of that particular class in thematic parameters to deter-
The different thematic layers were generated in ArcGIS and mine groundwater potentiality.
stored in geodatabase. The accuracy of land use and land cover The FR value was derived from each thematic layer on the
map was calculated from the Kappa index. All the thematic basis of relationship with spring wells of training set data using
maps were converted from vector to raster format with Eq. (1). The accuracy of FR model was validated using recei-
10 m 10 m grid cell for further integration analysis for ver operating characteristic (ROC) curve in form of success
GWPZ using FR model. After the identication of GWPZ, rate curve and prediction rate curve were used (Nandi and
the validation was carried out by area under curve (AUC) Shakoor, 2009 and Zabihi et al., 2016). The area under curve
method considering cumulative percentage of spring wells (AUC) value indicates the prediction accuracy (Pradhan and
and percent of groundwater potentiality index value. The Lee, 2010). In the present study, AUC were determined by
materials and methodology adopted in the present study are using the training set of 60 spring wells for measuring the suc-
shown in Fig. 3. cess rate curve and remaining 26 spring wells retained as test
data set.
3.1. Frequency ratio model
3.2. Thematic maps generation
The FR is a bivariate statistical approach and used to deter-
mine probability of groundwater potential areas on the basis 3.2.1. Land use and land cover (lu)
of relationships between dependent variable viz., spring wells Land use and land cover of any region play an important role
and independent variables viz., groundwater inuencing fac- in runoff, inltration, and recharge of groundwater
tors (Oh et al., 2011; Naghibi et al., 2016). FR is dened as; (Anbazhagan et al., 2005 and Bhattacharya, 2010). The land
use and land cover of the study area were demarcated into ve
W=TW
FR 1 categories such as rocky terrain, mixed agricultural land, built
CP=TP
up land, sandy area, and river bed by visual interpretation of
where, FR is frequency ratio of the class of factor, W is a num- Resourcesat2 LISS IV satellite image (Fig. 4a). The accuracy
ber of pixels of spring well locations for each class of thematic of land use and land cover map was calculated from Kappa
maps; TW is a number of total pixels of spring well in the study index method (Gomez et al., 2008; Gomez and Montero,
area. CP is a number of pixels in each thematic class and TP is 2011; Ronny et al., 2015). In this process of accuracy measure-
a total number of pixels in the study area. In the FR model, ments there are 139 sample locations (collected from eld) of
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
6 B. Guru et al.
Figure 4 Thematic maps (a) land use and land cover, (b) hydro geomorphic features (c) slope, (d) geology, (e) lineament density, (f)
drainage density, (g) groundwater level, (h) wells for training set and testing set.
different land use and land cover features and the land cover 3.2.2. Hydro geomorphological features (hg)
classied output was considered as input. Finally, accuracy Hydro geomorphological features have an important role to
of land use and land cover map was calculated as 88.7%. play in percolation and recharging of groundwater into the
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping 7
Fig. 4 (continued)
subsurface (Ramasamy and Anbazhagan, 1997; Balamurugan were interpreted. Six categories of features such as deep bur-
et al., 2008). On the basis of eld data and satellite image ied pediment, river bed, valley ll, buried slope, denudation hill
(Resources at LISS IV), the hydro geomorphological features and structural hill were interpreted and mapped (Fig. 4b).
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
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8 B. Guru et al.
3.2.3. Slope (sl) shallow groundwater levels indicate high groundwater poten-
Slope denes the variation of elevation in a particular area tiality whereas the deeper groundwater levels indicate less
which inuences the runoff (Naghibi et al., 2016). Generally, groundwater potential.
in gentle slopes, the movement of water is slow which allows
more percolation into the ground. On the other hand, there 3.2.8. Spring wells
was steep slope increase runoff and decrease in the percolation Based on the eld visit and PHE data, the natural springs were
and inltration into the ground. Slope map was produced from identied in different parts of the study area. During the eld
ASTER DEM with 30 m resolution (Fig. 4c). The slope degree visit, it was observed that in some locations, the PHE had con-
varies from 0 to 68.88 and classied into ve classes viz., structed articial wells for collecting the spring water as open
011.34656, 11.3465721.07219, 21.0722029.98734, or closed tanks for the drinking water purposes. At many
29.9873539.17266, and 39.1726768.88984 on the basis of places, the agricultural irrigation depends on the spring water
natural breaks classication method (Jenks, 1967). source. The springs discharge water at different rates depend-
ing on the season and local climatic conditions, for example, in
3.2.4. Geology (ge) the winter season the area is covered by snow while in summer,
The study area is geologically composed with granitoid, uvio- the spring wells discharge water (ranging from 50 l/min to
glacial deposits, and quaternary sedimentary rocks (Fig. 4d). 200 l/min). There are total 86 spring well locations in the area
The different lithological units were demarcated and delin- and these wells are located at various altitudes ranging from
eated on the basis of published geology map (GSI, 2005) and 3300 m to 3900 m at the Leh valley (Fig. 4h). Among the
also necessary eld checks were carried out. Unconsolidated spring wells, 70% (60 wells) were selected as training data set
sedimentary and fractured granitoid rocks were more for GWPZ mapping using FR model and remaining 30% (26
favorable for groundwater movement and accumulation than wells) were selected as testing data set for validation of model
massive rock. on the basis of random dividing method (Lee et al., 2012).
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
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Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping 9
Table 2 Frequency ratio value of different thematic attributes for groundwater potential mapping.
Thematic maps Attribute details No of pixel % of pixel No of pixel % of pixel Frequency
in a class in a class of wells of wells ratio
Land use and land cover River bed 11,090 0.63 0 0.00 0.00
Mixed agricultural land 130,864 7.49 54 90.00 12.02
Built up land 119,714 6.85 4 6.67 0.97
Rocky terrain 1,398,377 80.02 2 3.33 0.04
Sandy wasteland 87,543 5.01 0 0.00 0.00
Hydro geomorphic features Deep buried pediment 256,466 14.68 57 95.00 6.47
River bed 15,216 0.87 0 0.00 0.00
Valley ll 48,270 2.76 0 0.00 0.00
Buried slope 98,298 5.62 0 0.00 0.00
Denudation hill 292,883 16.76 0 0.00 0.00
Structural hill 1,036,455 59.31 3 5.00 0.08
Slope 011.34656 408,257 23.36 47 78.33 3.35
11.3465721.07219 380,010 21.74 8 13.33 0.61
21.0722029.98734 452,615 25.90 4 6.67 0.26
29.9873539.17266 365,731 20.93 1 1.67 0.08
39.1726768.88984 140,975 8.07 0 0.00 0.00
Geology Granitoid 1,377,608 78.83 3 5.00 0.06
Fluvio-glacial deposits 256,466 14.68 57 95.00 6.47
Quaternary sedimentary 113,514 6.50 0 0.00 0.00
Lineament density 00.38347 77,451 4.43 26 43.33 9.78
0.383481.02770 342,828 19.62 10 16.67 0.85
1.027711.64126 594,345 34.01 12 20.00 0.59
1.641272.31617 483,111 27.64 11 18.33 0.66
2.316183.91142 249,853 14.30 1 1.67 0.12
Drainage density <1.16919 17,018 0.97 0 0.00 0.00
1.169201.96917 496,013 28.38 0 0.00 0.00
1.969182.66659 639,701 36.60 8 13.33 0.36
2.666603.38452 464,859 26.60 23 38.33 1.44
3.384525.25113 129,997 7.44 29 48.33 6.50
Groundwater level Shallow 122,673 7.02 9 15.00 2.14
Medium 428,857 24.54 21 35.00 1.43
Deep 821,718 47.02 30 50.00 1.06
Very deep 374,340 21.42 0 0.00 0.00
69.92% of the area and gentle slope covers 30.08%. In linea- value is decreasing with the increasing of depth of the ground-
ment density, the high lineament density covers 51.43% of water level. The FR value of different thematic layers and its
the area which indicates that these lineaments are acting as a classes are shown in Table 2. From the FR model the GWPZ
transmitting medium for groundwater. The high, medium mapping is prepared in the study area and the details are dis-
and low classes of drainage density covered the area of about cussed in the following in sub headings.
9.19%, 19.48%, and 71.59% respectively. Structural features
like faults and fractures controlled the drainage systems in 4.1. FR Model for groundwater potential zone mapping
the study area and these drainages act as a transmitting med-
ium for glacial melted water movement into the subsurface. FR model provides values of GWPI ranging from 0.21999 to
FR values were estimated from each thematic layer on the 46.72999. It was classied into ve potential classes based on
basis of the relationship with spring wells. The relationship Jenks (1967) natural breaks classication method, i.e., very
between hydro geomorphic features and groundwater poten- low, low, moderate, high and very high (Fig. 5) and each class
tiality shows deep buried pediment region having the high is occupied in the study area 71.66%, 12.05%, 8.51%, 4.59%,
FR value of 6.47 than other features. The results also show 3.19% of total study area respectively (Table 3). The mean and
the FR value of lineament density of 9.78. The FR value of standard deviation of this model are 6.99325 and 9.21219. It is
the slope is found to be gradually decreasing with the increas- notable that most of the high and very high potential zones are
ing the degree of slope. Among the geological units uvio- located in the central part of this study area due to the presence
glacial deposits have highest FR value of 6.47 and indicated of high lineament density, high drainage density, lower slope,
the high possibility of the presence of groundwater in this fea- and porous nature of surface and subsurface which was com-
ture. The relationship with drainage density reveals that high posed of boulder, gravel, sand in deep buried pediment deposit
FR value is concentrated among the high and very high density (Agarwal and Garg, 2016; Kolawole et al., 2016; Liu et al.,
zones. The relation with groundwater level also shows the FR 2015; Kumar et al., 2014; Khodaei and Nassery, 2013; Nag
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003
10 B. Guru et al.
and Ghosh, 2013). The high lineament density and low slope the high drainage density has possibility of low groundwater
categories inuence the inltration of water into the ground potential, which is due to the presence of massive rock or an
in the presence of deep buried pediment deposit in the study impervious layer beneath it. However, the present study area
area. The deep buried pediment formation is acting as a is covered by fractured rock formation and drainage systems
groundwater accumulation zone in the study area that receives were controlled by those fractures moreover the drainage sys-
water from snow or glacial covered area through fractures and tems are acting as a source of groundwater recharge medium.
drainages. The results also show that very high and high The low and very low potential zones are found in the
groundwater potential zones fall in high drainage density class, surroundings of this central part, where higher slope and the
since the drainage systems in the study area were controlled by presence of lower drainage density made the region unfavor-
structural features like fractures/joints. These structural fea- able for groundwater potentiality.
tures were acting as a transmitting medium for inltration of The integration was taken up both with all thematic data
groundwater in the Leh valley. However, some of the earlier layers and also with its different combinations to evaluate
studies (Mogaji et al., 2011; Chowdary et al., 2009) show that the inuence of different causative factors on groundwater
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Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping 11
Please cite this article in press as: Guru, B. et al., Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping and its sustainable management in cold desert, India.
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12 B. Guru et al.
Table 6 Suitable sites for articial recharge for sustainable groundwater management through natural gradient.
Sl. No. Well location Ground water Well elevation Nearest spring Dierence of Distance between
potential (in m) elevation (in m) elevation (in m) nearest spring and well (in m)
1 Ibex Colony Moderate 3370 3420 50 1075.73
(12.6823.78)
2 Skalzanglig Very high 3340 3400 60 1531.72
(34.1046.13)
3 Chengspa Very high 3535 3540 5 716.71
(34.1046.13)
4 Skara Yokma Very high 3395 3400 5 221.56
(34.1046.13)
5 Skara Very high 3380 3400 20 540.83
(34.1046.13)
6 Karzo Very high 3525 3530 5 104.80
(34.1046.13)
7 Chubi Very high 3530 3540 10 112.70
(34.1046.13)
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Frequency ratio model for groundwater potential mapping 13
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14 B. Guru et al.
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Journal of King Saud University Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.003