10/14/2014 Conductivity Measurement and Theory

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A Practical Guide to Conductivity

Measurement
by Mark Heyda

Units of Measurement

Electrical Conductivity is the ability of a solution to transfer

(conduct) electric current. It is the reciprocal of electrical
resistivity (ohms). Therefore conductivity is used to measure
the concentration of dissolved solids which have been ionized in
a polar solution such as water. The unit of measurement
commonly used is one millionth of a Siemen per centimeter
(micro-Siemens per centimeter or S/cm). When measuring
more concentrated solutions, the units are expressed as milli-
Siemens/cm (mS/cm) i.e.- 10-3 S-cm (thousandths of a
Siemen). For ease of expression, 1000 S/cm are equal to 1
mS/cm. Often times conductivity is simply expressed as either
micro or milli Siemens. However this unit of measurement is
sometimes (incorrectly) referred to as micro-mho's rather than
micro-Siemens. The expression "mho" was simply the word
ohm spelled backwards.

Several means of conductivity expression have been adopted

by various industries as a way of making the units of
expression into whole numbers. The water softening industry
refers to "grains" of hardness and uses TDS or total dissolved
solids as a measurement scale. While TDS is really a

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gravimetric measurement, because in solution the solids are

predominately present in ionic form, they can be approximated
with conductivity. The TDS scale uses 2 S/cm = 1 ppm (part
per million as CaCO3). It is also expressed as 1 mg/l TDS.
While the method of measurement is the same, some
conductivity meters can make the conversion and express the
results of a measurement in many different units. This is
helpful for users who are accustomed to one particular unit of
measurement.

Table of Aqueous Conductivities

Solution S/cm mS/cm ppm
Totally pure water 0.055
Typical DI water 0.1
Distilled water 0.5
RO water 50-100 25-50
Domestic "tap" water 500-800 0.5-0.8 250-400
Potable water (max) 1055 1.055 528
Sea water 56,000 56 28,000
Brackish water 100,000 100 50,000

Resistivity versus Conductivity

When the ionic concentration is very low (such as in high purity

water), the measured conductivity falls below a value of one
micro Siemens per centimeter. In order to express these
numbers as whole numbers as opposed to fractions, the
resistivity scale is often used. The numbers are exactly the
inverse of each other. For example: the reciprocal of 0.10
S/cm [or 1/(0.10 x 10-6 S/cm)] is then 10 x 106 ohms-cm (10
M-cm). This is also commonly referred to as "mega-ohms".
Either unit of measurement can be used to state exactly the
same value. Commonly the conductivity scale is more versatile
as it can be used for a broader range of measurements.

Because air is soluble in ultra high purity water (18.3 M-cm),

the reading will not be stable in an open container.

Temperature Compensation

Temperature plays a role in conductivity. Because ionic activity

increases with increasing temperature, conductivity
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measurements are referenced to 25C. The coefficient used to

correct for changes in temperature, is expressed as a
percentage per degree Celsius. For most applications, beta has
a value of two. In order to establish the true value of beta a
solution is measured at the elevated temperature (without
temperature compensation). Then the solution is cooled and
re-measured. can then be exactly calculated for that
particular solution. Advanced meters allow for custom
reference temperatures.

Probe Types and Polarization Errors

Amperometric

The probe used to measure conductivity was originally an

amperometric system which had two electrodes spaced one
centimeter* apart from each other. [* Probes with different
electrode spacing allow measurement of various
conductivities.]

The amperometric method applies a known potential (voltage,

V) to a pair of electrodes and measures the current (I).
According to Ohm's law: I=V/R where R is the resistance. The
higher the current so obtained, the greater the conductivity.
The resistance in this method unfortunately is not constant
even though the distance may be fixed. Salt deposition on the
electrodes due to electrolysis can vary the resistance. For low
to medium levels of conductivity (< 2 mS/cm) this may be
sufficient, but for greater accuracy and for higher levels, a
different method is required.

Potentiometric

A potentiometric method is based on induction and eliminates

the effects of polarization common to the amperometric
method. The potentiometric method employs four rings: the
outer two rings apply an alternating voltage and induce a
current loop in the solution while the inner rings measure the
voltage drop induced by the current loop. This measurement is
directly dependent upon the conductivity of the solution. A
shield around the rings maintains a constant field by fixing the
volume of solution around the rings.

Because a potentiometric (4-ring) conductivity sensor is not

limited by electrolysis which commonly affects amperometric
probes, it can be used to measure a much wider range of
conductivities. Practically, stainless steel rings can be used.
But, the preferred metal is platinum because it can withstand
higher temperatures and produces a more stable reading.
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Platinum sensors are also easier to clean. Advanced

microprocessor conductivity instruments can vary the voltage
applied to the sensor which enables them to extend the range
of a potentiometric probe even further. This technique allows
advanced meters to be able to measure both high and low
conductivities as well as the ultra low conductivity of deionized
water with one probe.

Inductive or Toroidal

Another method of conductivity measurement uses an

inductive probe (sometimes referred to as a toroidal sensor).
Typically these are found in industrial process control systems.
The sensor looks like a donut (toroid) on a stick. The
advantage of this technology is measurement without any
electrical contact between the electrode and the process fluid.
The probe uses two toroidal transformers which are inductively
coupled side by side and encased in a plastic sheath. The
controller supplies a high frequency reference voltage to the
first toroid or drive coil which generates a strong magnetic
field. As the liquid containing conductive ions passes thru the
hole of the sensor, it acts as a one turn secondary winding.
The passage of this fluid then induces a current proportional to
the voltage induced by the magnetic field. The conductance of
the one turn winding is measured according to Ohm's law. The
conductance is proportional to the specific conductivity of the
fluid and a constant factor determined by the geometry and
installation of the sensor. The second toroid or receiving coil
also is affected by the passage of the fluid in a similar fashion.
The liquid passing thru the second toroid also acts as a liquid
turn or primary winding in the second toroidal transformer.
The current generated by the fluid creates a magnetic field in
the second toroid. The induced current from the receiving coil
is measured as an output to the instrument. The controller
converts the signal from the sensor to specific conductivity of
the process liquid. As long as the sensor has a clearance of at
least 3 cm the proximity of pipe or container walls will have a
negligible effect on the induced current.

Calibration
Most conductivity meters can be calibrated using a standard of
a known value. Often a value of 1413 S/cm is used. Some
meters will allow the user to select from a wide range of pre-
selected values. Calibration should be performed using a
standard which is as close to the solution being measured as

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possible. More advanced meters will allow calibration at two,

three, four or even five points. This results in good accuracy
over a wider range of measured values. Some meters will even
recognize the value a standard when the probe is immersed
during calibration similar to auto buffer recognition in pH
meters. This simply is another way a making a conductivity
meter easier to use. Temperature is so important in
conductivity measurement, it should also be calibrated at least
one and preferably two different points.

US Pharmacopoeia and European Pharmacopoeia

Standards

USP <645> with Stage 1,2 and 3 compliance is required for

purified water and WFI (water for injection). Only a few
resistivity/conductivity meters conform to these requirements.
Some of these requirements are:

Resolution of 0.1S/cm or greater

Accuracy at 1.3S/cm of 0.1S/cm
Must be able to read with or without automatic
temperature compensation
Verifiable cell constant +/- 2%

The advanced HI 98188 will easily meet or exceed these

criteria.

Portable and Bench Meters

Instruments which measure conductivity are available as

portable field instruments which are hopefully waterproof since
they are to be used in wet environments. Depending upon the
model, the meters can:

Used in various ranges of conductivities

Incorporate a temperature sensor in the probe
Auto-range to automatically express the results in the
proper units
Allow data logging of measurements with computer output
port and data capture software
Rechargeable batteries
Offer automatic calibration from the keypad
Include a potentiometric (4-ring) conductivity sensor

Laboratory bench meters normally will have all of the features

available in the portable meters. Additionally, they often can
express measurements in micro Siemens, milli Siemens, mega
Ohms, TDS: ppm or ppt, and salinity in PS, % or ppt. Look for
features such as automatic time interval logging and log on
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demand plus automatic standard recognition during

calibration. GLP (good laboratory practice) features allow the
user to store and retrieve data regarding the status of the
system. And for those on a tight budget, some conductivity
bench meters will even include a pH meter with two separate
electrodes. These combination meters share the same display.

Process Conductivity/TDS Controllers

For continuous measurement systems, a controller is used.

These instruments are typically panel mounted and offer a host
of excellent features including but not limited to: auto-ranging,
control output relay(s), analog recorder output, in-line probe
cleaning, diagnostic features and even a computer digital
output with SMS (Short Messaging Service) or modem
capabilities. Process controllers can also be divided into three
general types depending upon the type of probe they employ.
The first uses an amperometric probe for applications where
cost is a consideration. The second uses a standard
potentiometric type temperature compensated probe similar to
those used with bench or portable meters. These are good
work horses for most applications. However, the third type of
controller uses an inductive probe. This probe has many
advantages in an industrial setting. Common problems like
contamination or polarization factors are eliminated because
the sensor is has no electrodes in contact with the process
fluid. Depending upon the application, users should select a
controller and a compatible sensor suitable to the type of fluid
and physical environment of use.

The above article may not be copied or reproduced without consent of the
author. All rights reserved. Mark Heyda 2006

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