LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of previous work on related topics

that provide the

necessary background for the purpose of this research. The literature

review

concentrates on a range of earthquake engineering topics and

structural modeling

aspects. For the understanding of seismic capacity, a review of

literatures required in

experimental testing, current design practice, theoretical strength

evaluation and

modeling techniques such as finite element model ling. The literature

review begins with

a coverage of general earthquake engineering topics, which serves to set

the context of the

research.

2.2 Earthquake design techniques

The objective of design codes i s to have structures that will behave

elastically under

earthquakes that can be expected to occur more than once in the life
of the building. It is

al so expected that the structure would survive major earthquakes

without collapse that

might occur during the life of the building. To avoid collapse during a
large earthquake,

members must be ductile enough to absorb and dissipate energy by

post-elastic
deformations. Nevertheless, during a large earthquake the deflection
of the structure

should not be such as to endanger life or cause a loss of structural

integrity. Ideal l y, the damage should be repairable. The repair may
require the replacement of crushed concrete

and/or the injection of epoxy resin into cracks in the concrete caused
by yielding of

reinforcement. In some cases, the order of ductility involved during a

severe earthquake

may be associated with large permanent deformations and in those

cases, the resulting

damage could be beyond repair.

The design seismic forces acting on a structure as a result of ground

shaking are usually

determined by one of the following methods:

- Static analysis, using equivalent seismic forces obtained from

response spectra for

horizontal earthquake motions.

-Dynamic analysis, either modal response spectrum analysis or time hi

story analysis

with numerical integration using earthquake records.

2.2.1 Static analysis

Al though earthquake forces are of dynamic nature, for majority of

buildings, equivalent

static analysis procedures can be used. These have been developed on

the basis of
considerable amount of research conducted on the structural behavior
of structures

subjected to base movements. These methods general l y determine

the shear acting

due to an earthquake as equivalent static base shear. It depends on

the weight of the

structure, the dynamic characteristics of the building as expressed i n

the form of

natural period or natural frequency, the seismic risk zone, the type of
structure, the

geology of the site and importance of the building.

The natural frequency, which is the reciprocal of natural period, can

be calculated

using the following formulae (Smith et al ., 1991) as given in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1: Formulae to calculate the fundamental natural frequency

of a building

(Smith & Coull, 1991).

The static equivalent earthquake load mainly depends on the accuracy
of natural period

calculation. The Australian code (AS1170.4, 1993) recommends No =

46/H formula to

calculate the natural frequency of the building. The calculation of

equivalent

earthquake force in Australian code is similar to the method recommended

by UBC (1997).

2.2.2 Dynamic analysis

The dynamic time-hi story analysis can be classified as either linear

elastic or inelastic

(Chopra, 1995). The linear elastic modeling and analysis of Reinforced

Concrete (RC)

structures i s a well -established technique. Several commercial

packages for the 3-D

elastic analysis of structures are available and are in widespread use

(e.g.

SAP2000,ETABS, SPACE GASS, etc.). However, the results of the l i near

analysis are not
useful i n the determination of the actual behavior of the RC
structures and the

seismic safety analysis which depends more on inelastic displacement

and deformation up

to collapse than on forces. It i s necessary to take advantage of the

inelastic capacity of

various components of the structure. The response spectrum approach i

s based on the

linear force response of an equivalent single degree of freedom

(SDOF) system. There

have been several developments i n the response spectrum approach

including

modification to account for some non-l i near effects such as inelasticity,

ductility and the

response modification factor. The use of the capacity-spectrum

technique in the

evaluation of RC buildings has been suggested (ATC40, 1996). The

recent development i

n the f i el d of displacement-based response spectra (Bommer et al .,

1988; Priestley et

al ., 2000) represents a promising approach that may be adapted to

the simple seismic

assessment of buildings. In general , the response spectrum approach

has its limitations.

It does not account for the different failure modes and sequence of
component failure.

It does not provide information on the

degree of damage or the ultimate collapse mechanism of a deficient

RC structure. The

inelastic analysis of structures requires a non-l i near dynamic time-hi

story procedure
past the elastic response and up to collapse (Chopra, 1995). The two
principal

approaches to model RC component behavior are microscopic finite

element (FE) analysis

and macroscopic phenomenological model s. Al though accurate, it is

not feasible to

analyze an entire structure using microscopic FE model s. It is practical

to study the

behavior of isolated elements such as a beam, column, connection,

structural wall , slab-

column and slab-wall so that their macroscopic analytical models

defined in terms of

global parameters are developed for use i n the analysis of a complete

structure.

RUAUMOKO (Carr, 1998) i s one of the popular programs available

to carry out time

hi story analysis for two or three dimensional frame structures, which

has a loading

input, a discretely defined acceleration record (The actual acceleration

record is digitised

in 0.005, 0.01, 0.02 or 0.025-second time intervals). This program has

various types of

hysteretic elements to represents the member behavior. The commonly

used simpl

element in RUAUMOKO for reinforced concrete members is the modified

Takeda, stiffness
degrading model (Takeda et al ., 1970). There are more complex
elements like Fukada

degrading Tri -linear hysteresis are al so available for more refined

analysis. Li Xinrong

(Carr, 1998) reinforced concrete column hysteresis rule is available in

Ruaumoko to

model concrete columns, which allows for the changes in the stiffness
of reinforced

column as the axial force in the column changes. The commonly used
concrete beam-

column interaction surface is used to model the columns.

2.2.3 Dynamic behavior of multi-storey frames

It is shown from non-linear dynamic analysis that unexpected

distribution of bending

moments may occur in columns of multi -storey frames, compared

with the distribution

obtained from static lateral loading (Paul ay et al ., 1992). Static

lateral load analysis

indicated that points of contra flexure exit generally close to mi d

height of columns.

However, non l i near dynamic analysis suggests that at certain times

during the

response of the structure to earthquake ground motions, the point of

contra flexure in a

column between floors may be close to the beam-column joint and the
column may

even be in single curvature. The reasons for the unexpected

distribution of column
bending moments at some instants of time i s the strong influence of
higher modes of

vibration, particularly second and third modes (Paul ay et al ., 1992).

2.2.3 Bar slip and bond deterioration

Bar bond slip plays a significant role in the performance of reinforced

concrete

structures such as in the case of inadequate anchorage of the beam

bottom

reinforcement. After yielding of the beam longitudinal reinforcement

the bond slip

propagates to the beam column joint causing additional rotation at

the beamcolumn

interface. When the bottom longitudinal reinforcement starts to slip,

pull out of the

bottom reinforcement occurs which reduces the positive moment

capacity substantially.

This in turn will reduce the shear in the joint. The beam will
experience rigid body

rotation with pronounced pinching (Paul ay et al ., 1992).