Kalinin1998 PDF

ADVANCES IN HEAT TRANSFER, VOLUME 31
Heat Transfer Enhancement

in Heat Exchangers
E. K. KALININ
Russian Charitable Foundation lnfellect
Moscou: Russia
G. A. DREITSER
Moscow, Aviation Iiistitiite
Moscow, Russia
I. Introduction
Heat exchangers are widely used in power engineering, chemical industries,

petroleum refineries, and food industries; in heat engines, cars, tractors, boats,
and ships; in aviation and space vehicles; in refrigerating and cryogenic engi-
neering; in space conditioning, heating, and hot water supply systems; and in
many other fields of technology.
The problem of reducing the mass and size of heat exchangers is urgent.
Enhancement of convective heat transfer processes is a promising means for
solving this problem. It should be noted that use of heat transfer enhancement
enables us to solve some other no less important problems, such as lowering the
maximum temperatures of working surfaces in heat exchangers, improvement of
their operational reliability, and reduction of fouling and other contaminants.
At present, different methods of convective heat transfer enhancement in heat
transfer channels have been proposed and studied [I]. These include flow
turbulators on a surface, rough surfaces, developed surfaces due to finning, flow
swirling by spiral fins, worm devices, swirlers mounted at the channel entrance,
gas bubble mixing in the liquid flow, mixing of solid particles or liquid drops in
the gas flow, rotation of a heat transfer surface, surface vibration, heat carrier
pulsation, action of electrostatic field on the flow, flow suction from the
boundary layer, and use of jet cooling systems are some of the means of heat
transfer enhancement in single-phase heat carrier flow.
159 ADVANCES IN HEAT TRANSFER, VOL. 31

Copyright 0 I998 by Academic Press. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN 0-12-020031-7 0065-2717/98 525.00
160 E. K. KALMIN AND G.A. DREITSER
Along with turbulators, twisting facilities, and finning, low-heat-conducting

and porous coatings called nonisothermal fins are also utilized for boiling heat
transfer enhancement. Turbulators or fins that break up a condensate film,
nonwetted coatings, liquid stimulators for producing drop condensation, flow
swirling, and rotation of a heat transfer surface are proposed as means to enhance
condensation heat transfer from heat carriers. Heat pipes and vortex tubes occupy
a special position among the means of heat transfer enhancement.
Use of combined methods for heat transfer enhancement very often proves to
be highly efficient. This can be a combination of turbulators with finned
surfaces, the use of spiral fins swirling the flow, the use of twisting facilities in
suspension flow, or a combination of turbulators with flow swirling.
The number of publications on heat transfer enhancement progressively
increases. Monographs [2-621 and surveys [ 1, 63-71] should be mentioned.
However, the results of these investigations are often contradictory (especially at
a first glance), and the enhancement methods proposed are not always adaptable
to production and/or efficient. In a number of cases, the choice is not substantiated
and is accidental in nature. This situation hampers the substantiated choice of an
efficient method of heat transfer enhancement as well as the evaluation of different
methods. This is attributed to weak use of heat transfer enhancement methods,
which undoubtedly causes large economic losses and retards the reduction of metal
consumption for heat exchangers.The present authors hope that this work not only
helps scientists and engineers to reliably choose the most efficient method of heat
transfer enhancement but also enables them to calculateheat transfer and hydraulic
resistance in the presence of heat transfer enhancement.
In the present work, most attention is concentrated on a high-efficiency method
of heat transfer enhancement in tubes that was developed by the authors at the
Moscow Aviation Institute [ l , 12,29,57]. Experimental studies were made of the
efficiency of this method for heat transfer enhancement in tubes, annular channels,
and in-line and cross-flow tube bundles over a wide range of operatingparameters,
for boiling and condensation of heat carriers, and also under the conditions of
fouling on heat transfer surfaces. The essence of this method is that annular grooves
of specific pitch are rolled over the outer tube surface. In so doing, annular
diaphagms of smooth configuration are formed over the inner tube surface.
Annular grooves and diaphragms turbulize the wall layer of the heat carrier
and enhance heat transfer outside and inside the tube. Since the outer diameter
of a tube does not increase when grooves are rolled on it, these tubes can be
used in close-packed tube bundles, and the existing technology for assembling
tubular heat exchangers can be adopted for production.
These annular turbulator-equipped tubes provide high-efficiency heat transfer
enhancement not only in gas and liquid flow but also in boiling and condensa-
tion of heat carriers, i.e., they possess the important ability to be used in
different-purpose heat exchangers. In addition, it was found that contamination
HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN HEAT EXCHANGERS 161
due to fouling in these tubes is several times less than in smooth tubes. The
strength of annular diaphragm rolled tubes does not deteriorate. The methods of
producing these tubes are simple: annular diaphragms can be rolled on them
using standard equipment. Thus, the proposed design of the annular turbulator-
equipped tubes obeys all the requirements needed for wide use in practice.
This work presents our results on heat transfer enhancement in channels and
analysis of the reported data of other researchers. In writing it, we used our
results and analyzed the state of the art of enhancement, concentrating mainly on
the following:
I . Giving a relatively simple and convenient means for evaluating different
methods of heat transfer enhancement resulting in a decrease of size and
mass heat exchangers at assigned temperatures of heat carriers, heat fluxes,
and total hydraulic losses
2. Showing by analysis of the turbulent flow structure where the flow should
be turbulized additionally to achieve the greatest heat transfer increase
under minimum hydraulic losses, and showing by the analysis of vortex
and separated zones that these are an efficient means for a directed impact
on the turbulent flow structure in channels
3. Giving different relationships and recommendations applicable for prac-
tical calculations
Thus, in this work it is shown that although it is impossible to give recom-
mendations on heat transfer enhancement for all practical cases and unique
design relations, it is nevertheless possible to state a general approach to
choosing the most efficient method of heat transfer enhancement for each
particular heat exchanger.
The work presents the design relations and recommendations on the use of a
number of efficient methods of heat transfer enhancement in different-geometry
channels. The performed evaluation of the efficiency of these enhancement
methods shows that a 1.5 to 2-fold decrease in the mass and size of heat
exchangers may be achieved without any difficulties.
11. Choice of Heat Transfer Enhancement Method
Use of effective heat transfer surfaces solves the problem of decreasing the
mass and size of heat exchangers. A wide variety of surfaces for convective heat
transfer have been proposed and studied [l]. As applied to the flow of single-
phase heat carriers, these are flow turbulators on surfaces, rough surfaces, finned
surfaces, flow swirling by spiral fins, worm device, and swirlers mounted at the
channel entrance. With ordinary surfaces, the flow may be affected by different
methods: gas bubble mixing in the liquid flow and solid particle or liquid drop
162 E. K. KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
mixing in the gas flow, heat transfer surface rotation, surface vibration, heat
carrier pulsations, flow affected by electrostatic fields, and flow suction from the
boundary layer. Often it appears highly efficient to use combined methods of
heat transfer enhancement (turbulators combined with surface firming; spiral fins
simultaneously swirling the flow; twisting devices in suspension flow; turbula-
tors combined with flow swirling). It should be noted that when a particular
method of heat transfer enhancement is chosen for practical use, not only the
efficiency of the surface itself but the procedure for assembly of a heat
exchanger, the strength requirements, surface contamination, the specific fea-
tures of operation, etc., must be allowed for. Such considerations significantly
reduce the possibilities for a choice of an effective surface.
A. CONDITIONS GOVERNING
THE CHOICE OF THE METHOD
In designing any heat exchanger using a heat transfer enhancement method
optimized for particular goals, the characteristics of the heat exchanger can be
significantly improved. Such improvements include a decrease in the size and
mass of the heat exchanger and the amount of metal used in manufacturing it,
lower surface temperature, and greater operational reliability and serviceability.
However, the choice of the optimal method of enhancing heat transfer is
governed by many conditions that should be taken into account in each specific
case. Of most importance are the following:
1. Goals and tasks of heat transfer enhancement in a particular class of heat
exchangers
2. Amount of energy expenditures allowed for heat transfer enhancement and
the kind of energy available for this purpose
3. Hydrodynamic structure of the flow where the heat transfer must be
enhanced; the distributions of heat flux density or temperature field in the
heat carrier; accessible means for flow structure control
4. Manufacturing methods of heat exchangers, involving heat transfer
enhancement; ease and reliability in operation.
Let us consider these conditions in more detail.
1. Problems of enhancing heat transfer usually involve decreasing the size
and mass of the heat exchanger or decreasing a temperature head, i.e., decreas-
ing a wall temperature at a given temperature of the heat carrier or increasing a
heat carrier temperature at a given maximum wall temperature. This enhance-
ment decreases the size of either the heat exchanger or the temperature head, as
compared to the values attained under given conditions by usual means (by
varying the flow velocity and channel sizes).
2. Analysis and design examination of the installation as a whole make it
possible to reveal permissible energy expenditures for pumping the heat carrier
through the heat exchanger (e.g., cooling systems of turbine blades, fuel ele-
ments of an atomic reactor, cooling systems of the engine nozzle and combus-
tion chambers). Usually, the nature of the energy source is apparent. As a rule,
this is (at a given pressure drop) the required power for heat camer pumping or
energy for applying either an electric or a magnetic field, etc.
A demand for heat transfer enhancement often arises when an increase in the
flow velocity within the limits of hydraulic pressure loss allowable in practice
does not provide the required size of heat exchanger or the prescribed wall
temperature. Therefore, heat transfer enhancement methods are needed in order
to decrease the size of the heat exchanger when the total pressure loss for heat
carrier pumping through it is invariable.
All known means for heat transfer enhancement in turbulent flows through to
artificial additional flow turbulization are bound up with increasing the hydraulic
resistance. To evaluate heat transfer enhancement, it is expedient to compare
channels having facilities for artificial flow turbulization with smooth channels.
The relationship between the Nusselt number ratio Nu/Nu,,, and the hydraulic
resistance coefficient ratio @&,, for channels with heat transfer enhancement
(Nu, 5 ) and for smooth channels (Nu,, , Tsm)is the criterion for efficiency of the
method of heat transfer enhancement. These ratios will be different for different
types of heat exchangers. Let us obtain such a ratio by using a tubular heat
exchanger as an example, in which one heat carrier flows in the tubes (subscript
1) and the other flows between them in the parallel direction (subscript 2). Let
the heat carrier in the tubes have a smaller heat transfer coefficient for the
allowable hydraulic loss, A p , in the tubes.
Hence, the heat flux
Q=Fa,(T, - T , > = K . F . m (1)
the hydraulic pressure loss due to friction in the tubes
Ap=<Re2--=A<Re
1 iu2 2-
1
2 0 D2p D
and the heat carrier flow rate through the heat exchanger tubes
nD2p
G=--Ren=BRen (3)
4 0
are considered to be prescribed. Here = (T,, - Tf2)is the temperature head
between heat carriers.
The problem consists in decreasing the size of the heat transfer surface F by
heat transfer enhancement in tubes when the chosen smooth tube diameter D and
the tube bundle pitch S/D,,, are kept constant but the number of the tubes n and
their length 1 are variable.
164 E. K. KALININ AND G . A. DREITSER
From the conditions Q = Qs,, A p = Apsm, G = G,, and equations (l), (2),
and (3), we have that the inequality FIF,,<l will be valid if the inequality
is satisfied.
In inequality (4), Nu and Nb,,,, l and tsm correspond to different Reynolds
numbers. Let us reduce these ratios to the same Reynolds numbers for a smooth
tube, assuming that &,, = CzRez. and Nu,, = CI Re:. Then we arrive at
As we see, the size of the heat exchanger can be decreased not only by
applying the methods of heat transfer enhancement that yield Nu/Nu,, > 5/<s,,,
but also by those methods wherein NdNu,,,, < l/&,,, if inequality ( 5 ) is
satisfied.
Note that T, - 7, = ( K / a l ) mfollows from Eq. (1). Without considering the
thermal resistance and the curvature of the tube wall, the heat transfer coefficient
K = a Ia ~ / ( +a 4.
~ Then T,,, - Tf= a 2 A T / ( a 1+ az),and inequality ( 5 ) will
be of the form
From inequality ( 6 ) it follows that the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement

inside the tubes grows if at this point the heat transfer outside the tubes is
enhanced or if the coefficient of heat transfer azoutside the tubes is much larger
than a1inside the tubes.
Evaluation of the use of inequalities (4) to (6) is beneficial for a preliminary
choice of the method of heat transfer enhancement. Of course, the final choice of
method must be made on the basis of comprehensive comparison of the
predicted performance of heat exchangers and their design, service require-
ments, operational reliability, and economic feasibility. During this period of
intensive development of computer-aided design (CAD) of different objects,
it is desirable to have computational procedures in the form of application
packages.
In some special cases, the pressure drop that can be utilized for heat carrier
pumping through a heat exchanger appears to be significantly higher than the
possible hydraulic loss in this heat exchanger when any flow turbulization is
designed. At the same time, the method that provides a maximum value of
Nu/Nbmand meets design, manufacturing, and service requirements will be the
best for heat transfer enhancement.
If the method of heat transfer enhancement is based on use of electric energy

(application of sound oscillations, electric or magnetic fields, etc.), then only the
design examination and computation of the entire installation with regard to
electric energy consumption allows such a method to be evaluated.
3. A knowledge of the hydrodynamic structure of the turbulent flow and the
specific features of heat transfer in it (distributions of heat flux densities or
temperature fields) makes it possible to define the regions where increasing the
intensity of turbulent pulsations will make the greatest contribution to heat
transfer enhancement. Usually these are the regions closely adjacent to the
walls. Turbulent heat conduction in these regions is small in comparison with its
values in the flow core, and the heat flux density is close to maximum.
Following V. K. Migai's estimates [26,28], the thermal resistance of the
separate layers according to the three-layer scheme in turbulent flow at Re = lo4
is 32.3% for the viscous sublayer (y' = y / v G < 5), 52% for the transition
layer (y' = 5 to 30), and 15.7% for the flow core. For turbulent flow even in
smooth channels, the greater part of the hydraulic loss is spent for generating
turbulence that occurs near the wall in the region y* 5 50 to 60.
However, substantial turbulent pulsations appear in the region y + > 60
because the heat carrier is ejected from the wall into the flow core. In what
follows, large-velocity pulsations alternating with pressure pulsations disin-
tegrate into smaller pulsations and transport their energy to them. Finally, this
energy dissipates into thermal energy of the flow.
Studies of the turbulent flow structure and the heat transfer mechanism in the
flow [9,72] have shown that the large-scale pulsations directed from the flow
core to the wall because of the nonlinear interaction of the flow core with the
wall play an essential role in heat transfer. In this case, large masses of heat
carrier are transferred from the flow core to the wall and vice versa. The number
of ejection transfers of the heat carrier from the wall that give impetus to
turbulence generation increases.
As any additional flow turbulization involves extra energy consumption, the
choice of the place and the means for additional flow turbulization is of decisive
importance in developing effective methods of heat transfer enhancement. From
the aforesaid it is obvious that the heat transfer enhancement method that would
provide additional turbulization only of the wall liquid layers of order
yf = 30-60, not turbulizing the flow core, would be most efficient. It may be
expected that just such a heat transfer enhancement method will provide a
substantial increase in Nu with moderately growing <, i.e., it will allow inequal-
ity ( 5 ) to be obtained.
In nonround channels having narrow comers (e.g., closely-packed bundles of
tubes or rods streamlined by the longitudinal flow, or triangular channels), the
flow structure under transition and turbulent flow conditions changes not only
normal to the wall but also over the channel perimeter.
166 E. K. KALlNIN AND G. A. DREITSER
Along with turbulent flow in the flow core and near the wall in broad parts of
the channel, regions of weak turbulence or even laminar flow can occur at the
channel corners. These regions occupy a major portion of the channel surface.
Therefore, in developing methods of heat transfer enhancement in such chan-
nels, it is necessary to search not only for ways of additionally turbulizing the
wall region in the broad parts of the channel but also for specific ways of
turbulizing the flow in the corner zones.
4. Manufacturability and service quality are the most important conditions for
the final choice of the heat transfer enhancement method, especially for quan-
tity-produced heat exchangers. This refers to not only the manufacture of the
heat transfer surfaces themselves but also the assembly of heat exchangers from
them, their operational reliability, their in-service life, and the influence on
contamination and salt scaling (fouling) in comparison with usual surfaces of
these heat exchangers.
In this situation, of course, the economics are allowed for, permitting this heat
transfer enhancement method (decrease of the metal consumption, mass, size of
a heat exchanger, etc.) to be adopted. Other requirements for a heat exchanger
(e.g., assembly) that are especially important for the installation as a whole must
be met.
To be convinced of the efficiency of this or that means for heat transfer
enhancement, not only an extensive volume of studies but also experience in
employing heat exchangers under real conditions is necessary. This accounts for
the fact that usually much time will elapse between the development of a
method of heat transfer enhancement and its wide use for heat exchangers. On
the other hand, only a few of the developed and reported methods of heat
transfer enhancement can meet the above requirements and find wide use,
although in individual cases the application of some of them may appear
profitable.
B. SEPARATED
FLOWREGIONS
AS A MEANS
FOR GOAL-DIRECTED
FLOWTURBULIZATION
ADDITIONAL
When the turbulent structure in a channel of a given cross section in which
heat transfer must be enhanced is studied, the question arises how to increase the
intensity of turbulent pulsations in certain flow regions where this will do the
job. Analysis of the state of the art of the problem makes it apparent that
creating separated flow regions or other arranged vortex structures is the most
available and effective means for controlled impact on the turbulent flow
structure.
For separated regions to be used successfully, it is necessary to know how
they interact with the main turbulent flow and how the processes proceed in the
separated region itself. These processes are very complex in nature. And yet
HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT M HEAT EXCHANGERS 167
they are examined qualitatively to such an extent that the vortex zones can be
used rather reasonably for heat transfer enhancement in channels.
Let us consider the key feature of vortex zones in subsonic flow and their
interaction with it. One of the most widespread means for formation of vortex
zones is the transverse protrusions or grooves on the channel surface. Protru-
sions and grooves can be different in shape. It should be noted that the structure
of the separated region essentially depends on the outlines of the protrusion or
groove on the channel surface that is responsible for the onset of the vortex
zone.
D. E. Ablott and S. J. Klines investigations [73] of the separated flow region
behind a straight backward-facing step have allowed three regions to be distin-
guished in it (see Fig. 1).
Region 1 is the three-dimensional (length x = n) separated flow region
characteristic of one or several vortices with their axes normal to the side
walls. The size of these vortices can vary with time. Their number depends
on the shape and sizes of the backward-facing step. In experiments, two to
six such vortices have been observed.
- -
-
\I
FIG. 1. Pattern of the vortex zone structure at a stepwise expansion of the flat channel (vortex
rotation direction at the comers is according to the right-hand rule). a, back view; b, top view; c,
.
front view. n, nz. m ,, mz. I , , 1 2 , boundaries of the separated flow regions for two channel walls; I,
11, 111, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional unsteady separated flow region,
respectively; A, attachment point.
168 E. K. KALININ AND 0.A. DREITSER
Region I1 is the two-dimensional (n < x < m ) separate flow region character-

istic of the presence of a practically two-dimensional vortex.
Region III is the three-dimensional unsteady separated flow region character-
istic of unsteady vortices, mainly located at the sites in the zone within
0.8 < x / m < 1.25. This separated flow region lies within n x < 1.
Usually the main flow mass enters the separated flow region chiefly at the
boundary of region 111 near the attachment point A . The mass flow from the
separated flow region corresponding to the main flow is concentrated in region 1.
The greater part of the generated turbulence is accounted for by the boundary of
region 1 with the flow. The term of the turbulent energy equation [74], namely,
-yw: wJ(aw, /dy), is usually called turbulence generation. It allows for the
amount of energy in the averaged flow converted to the kinetic energy of
turbulent pulsations at a given site in the flow; w: and y; are the pulsation
velocity components along the channel axis and normal to the wall, respectively,
and wx is the axial averaged velocity component.
For a large height h of backward-facing steps when hlHo > 0.5 (Ho is the
distance from the channel axis to the wall in the narrow part of the channel), the
sizes of the separated flow regions are different and an interaction exists
between them, exhibiting particularly the reverse rotation of vortices in the
unsteady regions.
The static pressure is higher in the large separated flow region and variable in
each cross section of this region. The entire large separated flow region is much
more unsteady than the small one. For such a region, the values of m, n, and I
are time-variant with very low frequency. Equalizing the static pressure is
accompanied by the mass flow, which is most intense along the axis of the
vortices in region 1. The results of the described experiment demonstrate that the
vortex zone is complex in structure.
Irreversible expenditures of the flow energy to overcome the hydraulic
resistance of the backward-facing step are made to maintain the vortex zones
and, finally, to enhance flow turbulence, i.e., to increase the energy of turbulent
pulsations because of generation of new pulsations. The energy of these pulsa-
tions is gradually transported to still smaller pulsations and, at last, converted to
thermal dissipation. Some dissipation occurs within the limits of the vortex zone
itself. But a major part of the energy in the form of the kinetic energy of
turbulent pulsations from the upper boundary of the vortex zone in region I is
entrained into the main flow and transported by the main flow along the
streamline and normal to it as a result of turbulent diffusion.
Using the experimental data Fig. 2 is plotted, showing how turbulence
generation varies with distance from the backward-facing step:
I 104
'
100
80
60
40
20
FIG. 2 Turbulence generation variation along the separated flow region
Figure 2 adequately shows that turbulence generation is maximum in region I

where liquid emerges from the upper vortex zone into the flow. A small
maximum is also seen near region I11 where liquid emerges into the vortex
zone.
Figure 3 plots the distribution of turbulent pulsations over the cross section at
different distances from the backward-facing step. From this figure it is clearly
seen that the pulsations m / w o are maximum near the upper boundary of the
vortex zone and are transported along the streamlines (wois the axial velocity
along the channel). This means that turbulence generation occurs mainly at the
site where the vortex zone strongly interacts with the main flow, i.e., at the upper
boundary of region I (see Fig. 1). The turbulent shear stress -pw: w; attains its
~
large values right here. Also, the velocity gradient &vV/dy has its maximum
value here. From the fact that dw:2/w0is retained on the streamline issuing from
the upper boundary of the vortex and that the region of strong pulsation is
expanded, it follows that turbulent pulsations that appear at the upper boundary
of region I are transported by the averaged flow along the streamlines, gradually
damping and diffusing sideways from it (see Fig. 3).
FIG.3. Distribution of the turbulence intensityR/M.O behind a single backward-facing step

with hlH,, = 0.5. The dashed line denotes the boundary of the separated flow region.
170 E. K.KALINTN AND G.A. DREITSER
A qualitatively similar mechanism for interaction between the separated flow

region and the flow is also seen when separation takes place on the wall of the
smoothly expanding channel [76]. However, the size of the vortex zone is much
smaller here than in the case of stepwise expansion of the channel, and the
turbulence generation intensity is, on the contrary, higher. This is a consequence
of large velocity gradients and turbulent shear stress at the upper boundary of the
vortex, since the mean flow velocity at the main entrance is hgher. In this
situation, maxima of velocity gradient, shear stresses, and turbulence generation
coincide at the upper boundary of the vortex. Here, the wall effect does not show
itself, and according to Prandtls hypothesis, the maximum of all three quantities
is specified by that of the velocity gradient in the sense that the turbulent shear is
where 1 is the turbulence scale slightly varying in the

__
vortex zone, and turbu-
lence generation is determined by the expression -pwi y~(aw,ldy).
The averaged velocity fields and pulsation characteristics in different channel
cross sections behind a smooth expansion of the channel are presented in [76].
The interesting results of processing the same experimental data on turbulent
characteristics are plotted in Fig. 4. Analysis of the data allows the following
conclusions.
1. The largest turbulence generation is seen at the upper boundary of the
vortex zone (at the entrance on large vortices and over almost the entire
surface on small extended vortices). At these sites the averaged velocity
FIG.4. Channel distribution of (1) turbulence generation, (2) turbulent energy dissipation, and (3)
turbulent energy transfer by convection at a smooth expansion with different Froude numbers
F , = w r l / @ , where W,I is the air velocity in the narrow channel part, d , is the height of the
narrow channel part, d , is the height of the broad channel part, and x is the distance from the
backward-facing step.
gradient and the pulsation velocity components also reach their maximum.
The second maximum of turbulence generation is observed near the wall.
2. At the entrance of the vortex zone, turbulence generation greatly exceeds
its dissipation. It is important to note that this takes place only near the
upper (far from the wall) boundary of the vortex. As the vortex moves
away from the upper boundary to the wall in the defined cross section, the
difference between turbulence generation and energy dissipation of turbu-
lent pulsations decreases drastically. Dissipation is dominant over the
considerable section of the vortex zone adjacent to the wall.
3. The kinetic energy imparted to pulsational motion in the vortex zone is
transported downstream by the averaged flow and dissipates well down-
stream, elevating the turbulence intensity at a considerable distance from
the vortex.
It is notable that even the theoretical prediction made for a two-dimensional
approximation yields a pattern of the turbulent parameter distribution in the zone
of the vortex and behind it that qualitatively coincides with experiment. Figure
5 plots the numerical results for the structure and heat transfer in the turbulent tube
flow for a sudden twofold expansion of the channel diameter [77]. The vorticity
distribution (see Fig. 5a) illustratesthe presence of a mixing zone with large shear
stresses. It begins at the separation point and is located along the upper boundary
of the vortex. The kinetic energy of the turbulent pulsations (see Fig. 5c) is
maximum in this mixing zone. Hence, turbulence generation is high along the
upper boundary of the vortex and is then transported by the averaged velocity
along the wall. As seen from Fig. 5d, this mixing zone is characteristic of large
turbulent heat transfer coefficients. Heat transfer predictions coincide qual-
itatively with A. K. Runchal's experimental data [77], but the quantitative
a x C x
095-
b X
d X
FIG. 5. Flow parameter distribution at an abrupt tube expansion from R / 2 to R (Re = 2 R w y

p = 10'): a, vorticity; b, stream function; c, kinetic energy of turbulent pulsations; d, temperatures
for Pr = I and Prr = 0.7.
discrepancy reaches 30%. A. K. Runchal explains this discrepancy by noting

some differences in the boundary conditions between the experiment and the
prediction and, in the main, by our lack of knowledge of the structure of such
flows. Apparently, of no small significance was the fact that the prediction did not
allow for three-dimensional flows in vortex zones, which play an important role.
Use of vortex zones to enhance heat transfer in channels and the boundary
layer usually involves equally spaced protrusions or grooves (turbulators) on the
surface. It is therefore important to know how the shape, size, and relative
position of turbulators affect the flow structure.
C. K. Lin, S . J. Kline, and J. P. Johnston [78] studied the influence of the
relative position of rectangular turbulators on the structure of separated flow
regions in a water boundary-layer flow without a gradient. The structure of
vortex zones behind and in front of the rectangular protrusions was examined
over a broad range of relative position of the protrusions, 2 < SL/h < 96 (SL is
the location pitch of protrusions; h = 6.4 mm is the height of protrusions). The
results of this study are given in Fig. 6. One large vortex B and two small
vortices A and C are observed at the comers for SLlh = 2 (see Fig. 6a).
Figure 7 demonstrates that the large vortex is not two-dimensional and steady
along the entire length. It has a cellular three-dimensional structure. This
structure is a result of time-periodic three-dimensional ejections of liquid from
the vortex simultaneously in cross sections approximately equally spaced along
the groove. Thus, the mechanism of mass and energy exchange between the
vortex and the main flows apparently consists of periodic ejections of small-
momentum mass from the vortex and relatively uniform replenishment of the
vortex through its upper boundary with the large-momentum mass of the main
flow. Hence, when turbulators are so closely spaced, turbulence generation
occurs in two ways: three-dimensional overshoots of large velocity gradients
and turbulent stress at the upper boundary of the vortex.
In D. F. Maul1 and L. F. Easts work [79] dealing with the flow structure in
transverse grooves, it is emphasized that the two-dimensional vortex flow in a
rectangular groove takes place only for the ratio of width L to depth H smaller
than 1.2 and larger than 2.2. For 1.2 5 LIH 5 2.2, the vortex flow in the groove
is three-dimensional.
The pitch of the rectangular protrusions SLlh = 2 corresponds to a rectangular
groove with LIH = 1, i.e., it has a value close to the boundary of a stable two-
dimensional vortex in the groove (see Fig. 6a). Therefore, evidently the apparent
two-dimensional vortex is periodically disturbed by three-dimensional over-
shoots.
As the pitch increases up to SLlh = 4 (see Fig. 6b), the main vortex B is
extended, the vortex A grows in size, and a new small vortex A appears at the
comer. In this situation, the vortex B becomes markedly less stable than for
SLlh = 2. A small flow separation is also seen behind the leading upper edge of
the turbulator at its upper boundary. As the pitch increases to SLl h = 8 to 96, the
upper flow structure is depicted in Fig. 6c by the example of SLlh = 8 . The
onset of the backward flow from the end edge of the upper face of the turbulator
that had reached its middle was observed.
As in the case of the flow behind a single backward-facing step, three
characteristic zones are seen in the separated flow region:
1. The main separatedJlow1 region. Its length I is determined ahead of the
attachment cross section, in which the backward flow into the separated
flow region is still seen. The length of this region is unstable and varies
within k0.5h.
2. The two-dimensional separated flow region. Its length m is deter-
mined by the cross section, in which the local flow of the wall layer
downstream of the separated flow region becomes essential. The extended
two-dimensional vortex reaches the upper part of the end wall of the
L , 2 3
FIG 6. Pattern of tlie structure of the vortex zones between the turbulators in the boundary layer
without a gradient: a, S,.lh = 2; b, SLlh = 4. 0: y = 6.4 mm. w,/w,, = 0.176; A: y = 5.12 mm,
w,Iw, = 0.103: V,y = 3.84 mm, w,/w,== 0.085. c, SLlh = 8. A ' , A , B, C, C', vortices;p. distance
from the wall; n. nz, I , m', I ' , separated flow region boundaries; 1, flow direction; 2, back wall; 3,
front wall; 4, opposite flow; 5, region of unsteady fluctuations.
I74 E. K. KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
1
\
FIG. 7. Pattern of the cellular three-dimensional structure of the vortex between the forward-
facing steps: 1, two-dimensional cell of the vortex; 2, three-dimensional overshoot.
turbulator and causes the backward flow on the upper edge of the
turbulator.
3 . Small substantially unsteady vortex A of length n. However, no three-
dimensional vortices have been revealed in this separated region. A
separated flow region I long that is also unstable and varies within k5 h is
formed in front of the turbulator. Intense turbulent mixing occurs at the
external boundary of this region. The region of a two-dimensional vortex
m long exists inside the separated flow region. A third region with a small
vortex C is observed in the comer.
Between the separated flow regions, turbulence is generated in approximately
the same manner as on the smooth wall. Near the wall in the zone of large
velocity gradients, where the flow loses its stability, vortex structures are formed
that are then ejected beyond the viscous and buffer layers, This is consistent
with the mechanism for turbulence generation on the smooth wall investigated
by S. J. Kline, W. C . Reynolds, and F. A. Schraub [80].
Varying the pitch SLlh results in some increase in the size of the above
regions of the vortex zones until SLlh = 48. A hrther increase of the pitch does
not exert any practical influence on the variation of the structure of vortex zones.
The relative size of all regions of the vortex zones proved to be insensitive to the
variation of the Reynolds numbers, which in C . K. Lin, S . J. Kline, and J. P.
Johnstons experiments [78] varied by less than an order of magnitude. P.
Williams and I. Wattas visualizations [81] made in a rectangular channel with
water at Re = 1.7 10 witness that, in general, the entire vortex structure under
these conditions is unsteady.
These results for the pitch SLlh = 7 and two shapes of forward spacing steps
are plotted in Fig. 8. When the forward spacing steps are rectangular (see
Fig. 8a), two vortices appear at points A and B and then rapidly increase in size.
Vortex A grows more rapidly until its height reaches approximately 2h. By this
time vortex B has a diameter approximately equal to h. Then a weaker vortex
appears at point C, and vortex A starts to move to the next turbulator, where it is
combined with the vortex B. The combined vortex rolls through the turbulator
and then disintegrates. During this time, vortex C grows to the forward spacing
steps size and then disintegrates. After this, at points A and B new vortices
appear, and the process is repeated. When saw-toothed turbulators are used,
there are no vortices that rotate in the opposite direction, and the frequency of
replacing vortices is twice as large. It is important to note that the size of the
protrusions essentially influences the structure of the vortex zones and their
development. With the vortex zones unsteady, turbulence is generated at the
boundaries of these zones when the vortices develop and disintegrate after their
overshoot.
The unsteadiness of the vortex structure in the channel is also supported by
the experiments of the authors (see Fig. 9) with semicircular forward spacing
steps with SLlh = 5 to 20 and Re = lo4 to lo5 for water in a rectangular
channel. Visual observations of flow past smoothly outlined protrusions show
A A B
a b
FIG. 8. Time history of the vortex stmctures with water flow in the rectangular channel: a,
rectangular forward spacing step; b, saw-toothed forward spacing step. x, clockwise rotation of the
vortex; 0, counterclockwise rotation of the vortex; 1 to 4, at different time instants.
176 E. K. K A L M N AND G . A. DREITSER
FIG. 9. Flow past the semicircular turbulator over the section 0.5H long (Re = 4.92 . 10).
a, dlD = 0.94; b, dlD = 0.8.
that depending on the smoothness of the profiles of the protrusions, visible

two-dimensional vortices cannot be formed in front of or behind them. When the
flow coming into the smoothly outlined forward spacing steps is turned, a
system of three-dimensional helical vortices appears. Their axes are equidistant
from the wall, and the neighboring vortices rotate in different directions.
Vortices of this type were studied in close detail by L. N. Person [82]. Thus, in
the protrusions, turbulence generation is apparently determined either by this
system of three-dimensional vortices alone or by this system interacting with
one small vortex behind the protrusion.
As shown by the studies of G. I. Voronin and E. V. Dubrovsky [ I , 141, the

separated flow region plays an important role in enhancing heat transfer from
different shaped channels, although it is generally agreed that the formation of a
new boundary layer on short fins is a determining factor in these channels. These
channels are widespread in plate-finned heat exchangers. Transverse vortices
develop on the leading edges of the cut channels (see Fig. 10). With other things
being equal, the intensity and size of these channels depend on the fin width 6.
Then, as the relative fin width 6/d,, decreases, the hydraulic resistance falls and
heat transfer grows, since the vortices become smaller and require less energy
consumption, while turbulence tearing off from their upper boundaries is trans-
ferred more close to the wall, thereby enhancing heat transfer.
The effect of the fin thickness 6/de, on heat transfer is most evident for
Re < 2000 and on the hydraulic resistance coefficient for Re > 2000. This is
attributed to the fact that in transient flow, heat transfer is especially sensitive to
the size, position, and intensity of vortices that provide more early flow turbuli-
zation near the wall. Hydraulic resistance is determined by total hydraulic loss
due to earlier (with respect to Re) flow turbulization. In the turbulent region
(Re > 2000), more powerful vortices generated on a thick fin noticeably
increase ( but more weakly influence the Nu increase, since the major turbu-
lence generation at the upper boundary of the vortices occurs far from the wall.
SL
h
A-A
a b
A-A
FIG. 10. Basic design of plate-finned heat exchangers; a, b, cut surfaces with triangular and
rectangular channels; c, surfaces with protrusions and hollows.
Besides, as the thickness did,, increases, the coefficient 5 grows as a result of

serious vortex loss behind the thick fin. These vortices turbulize the flow core in
the next short channel and slightly affect heat transfer.
From the aforesaid, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The separated flow region and, in general, the organized vortex structures
are effective means for additional turbulence generation in the flow.
2. The structure of the vortex zones in front of and behind a protrusion or in a
groove depends highly on shape and size of the protrusions and grooves.
3. Turbulence generation essentially exceeding dissipation proceeds mainly
at the vortex zone boundary far from the wall. In this zone, the velocity
gradient and turbulent stresses have maximum or simultaneously large
values. Also, unsteady disintegration of the vortices generates turbulence.
4. For heat transfer to be enhanced, sharply outlined turbulators (rectangular,
triangular, etc.) should be avoided. In the powerful vortices that appear in
front of and behind such turbulators, energy dissipation is comparable with
or even larger than turbulence generation (except at the upper boundary).
This is attributed to a large hydraulic loss. It is advisable to use smoothly
outlined turbulators, either those that do not create two-dimensional sepa-
rated flow regions or those that combine three-dimensional vortex struc-
tures with small separated regions behind a turbulator. Maximum
turbulence generation behind such turbulators is approximately at the level
of the upper boundary of a protrusion. Equal turbulence generation created
by smoothly and sharply outlined turbulators is attained under essentially
different hydraulic loss. In the case of smoothly outlined turbulators, the
hydraulic loss is much smaller because of the ordered system of helical
three-dimensional vortices, with their axes along the flow [83, 841. In
addition, the system of three-dimensional vortices enhances heat transfer
directly near the wall.
5 . It is important in further studies of heat transfer enhancement to center
attention on the vortex structure, energy exchange, and turbulence genera-
tion as a function of outline and size of turbulators, as well as on channel
flow parameters and the role of vortex structures themselves in heat
transfer.
c. ANALYSIS
OF DIFFERENT
HEATTRANSFER METHODS
ENHANCEMENT
First, let us illustrate a general approach to choosing a heat transfer enhance-
ment method, using as an example a round tube with turbulent flow of air. As
already mentioned, it is first necessary to determine the flow sites where the
artificial increase of the turbulence intensity allows maximum increase of heat
transfer with moderate energy loss.
Figure 11 plots the predicted distribution of the dimensionless parameters

of the air flow in a tube far from its entrance for qn, = const along it and
E, = E , . As
aT
q = (i + p c; ' EJ- (7)
ar
and the heat transfer coefficient is
a = 4.1 / V - K - r, 1
where
it is easy to conclude that a will be most affected by the E , increase in the

immediate vicinity of the wall. Indeed, in the wall layer (0.05 to 0.1) r", the
mean value of E~ does not exceed 10% of its maximum value for a given
Reynolds number, and the heat flux is close to maximum. Therefore. in the wall
@ = T -T,,
~
T - T" 4/48
10 10 140
08 08 120
0.6 06 100
04 04 80
02 02 60
1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 r/q1 40
20
W/HO
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 rli;,

0.8 08
0.6 06
04 04
0.2 02
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0 2 rli;, I 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 r/ql
FIG. 11. Distribution of dimensionless temperature, velocity, heat flux density, mass velocity and
turbulent momentum transfer coefficient along the tube radius with constant physical properties
(dashed line) and with variable physical properties (solid line) under air heating ( I , T,,. = 1000 K,
5 = 154 K) and cooling (2, T,, = 300K, T,= 902 K). Re = 4.3. lo4; Pr = 0.7 to 0.71 (B. S.
Petukhov's data [85]).
layer (0.05 to 0.1) ro or y' = y l v a = 60 to 160 in thickness, 60 to 70% of

the available temperature head is spent. Naturally, the greater the F'randtl
number, the more narrow the affected layer.
Hence, the greatest efficiency of heat transfer enhancement can be reached by
increasing E, right in the wall layers. At the same time, it is evident that
additional turbulization of the flow core (where cq is large and q + qw) will
enhance heat transfer slightly, although it will cause large hydraulic loss. Thus,
the only remaining problem is how to augment cq in such a wall layer. By
adopting the conclusions of the previous subsection, it is not difficult to
recognize that equidistant smoothly outlined protrusions-turbulators with a
height of the order of this wall layer thickness (y' = 50 to 1 5 0 w a n be an
effective method of heat transfer enhancement. These protrusions should not be
too closely spaced. When they are closely spaced (S,lh < 5 to lo), the turbulent
pulsations that appear behind a turbulator have no time to damp on their way to
the next turbulator. In this case, they will diffuse into the flow core, thereby
increasing the intensity of turbulent pulsations. Such is indeed the case in rough
tubes. This is not a rational way because it is connected with sufficiently large
hydraulic loss spent for additional turbulization of the flow core that only
slightly increases heat transfer.
With a distance between the turbulators that is sufficiently large (SLlh2 5-
lo), the turbulent pulsations that have additionally appeared in the vortex zone
or when the vortices themselves have undergone periodic disintegration are
transferred by the main flow close to the wall. They will travel a sufficiently
large distance until they transport their kinetic energy to such small pulsations
that it will dissipate. At this distance, E~ increase practically only near the wall.
Hence, heat transfer enhancement will be achieved with minimal hydraulic
loss.
With a still larger distance between the turbulators (SLlh> 100-SOO), addi-
tional turbulence that has appeared behind a turbulator can rather noticeably
damp at some distance from it, and the remaining channel section before the
next turbulator will differ slightly in flow structure from the smooth channel. As
analysis of the experiments shows, for the given shape and height h of the
turbulators (within the wall layer y+ = 50-150), maximum values of Nu/Nus,
and are attained at SLlh = 10. In this case, the maximum of </TSmvery
strongly depends on the shape of the turbulator and on its associated three-
dimensional and unsteady vortex structures.
As indicated above, for rectangular protrusions, the presence of two vortices
(behind and in front of a protrusion) corresponds to S L / h= 10. At the upper
boundary of the vortices and between them there exists a zone with a high
turbulence intensity in the immediate vicinity of the wall. In the case of flow
past a vortex in front of a forward spacing step, apparently, there appears a
system of helical vortices. In the case of flow past smoothly outlined turbulators
(e.g., those outlined along the upper boundary of vortices in front of and behind
a rectangular groove), no two-dimensional vortices exist (or they are much
smaller). Hence, there are also no energy losses (or these are smaller) for
maintaining these vortices and for compensating for energy dissipation in them.
Decreasing SLlh causes the vortices to coalesce into one vortex and heat
transfer to deteriorate because of the great influence of the comer zones, which
have less local heat transfer. Increasing SLlh yields a specific growth of the
surface between the vortices, over which additional turbulization manages to
damp essentially.
A particular value of turbulator pitch and height must be chosen on the basis
of predictions proceeding from the specific conditions of each problem. In non-
round channels, e.g., with longitudinal flow around tube or rod bundles, the
choice of a heat transfer enhancement method is dictated by the presence of
narrow comer zones. If these are absent, as in bundles of tubes having a larger
pitch SID,,, 2 1.2-1.3, then the described method of enhancing heat transfer by
the outlined protrusions will also be effective, as in the tube. With comer zones
present (tube bundles with SID,,,, < 1.2), it is important to augment E, right in
these narrow zones where c, is much smaller than in the flow core.
However, use of protrusions as turbulators for S/D,,, close to unity is either
impossible or will block up the section of the corner zones. In this case, it is
advisable to use transverse grooves as turbulators. The vortex zones forming in
them will generate turbulence that will be transferred close to the wall by the
averaged flow, thus augmenting cq in the wall region. Therefore, the turbulator
grooves must not be very closely spaced.
In triangular, rectangular, flat, annular, etc., straight channels, it is also
expedient to utilize equidistant transverse protrusions or grooves that turbulize
the wall layers of the flow. For small Reynolds numbers in the flow transition
region, they also provide an earlier (with respect to Re) transition to turbulent
flow, and in channels having sharp comers, they stimulate turbulent flow
penetrating into these narrow zones. In a number of cases, it may prove effective
to use cut channels with a fin shift and equidistant cavities, protrusions and
grooves, confusors and diffusors, etc., as turbulators.
Except for turbulators located near the wall, other enhancement methods are
also adopted to augment the turbulence intensity in the wall region. Different
means of tube flow swirling have a significant place among them. To do this,
different types of helical inserts (twisted strips, screws) along the entire tube or
a portion of the tube; tangential supply of heat carrier to the tube, and blade
swirlers located at the tube entrance or equidistantly are employed. A suffi-
ciently comprehensive survey of studies dealing with heat transfer and hydraulic
losses in swirl-augmented tubes is contained in V. K. Shchukins book [8, 251.
In a number of cases, pressure or flow-rate pulsations imposed on forced flow
can be used as a method for heat transfer enhancement. With acoustic resonance
I82 E. K. KALININ AND G . A. DREITSER
present in the channel, heat transfer essentially increases in the zone of the
standing wave crest. Here, the channel length-mean heat transfer [21] sub-
stantially grows. Pressure pulsations, including sound pulsations, can also be an
effective means for heat transfer enhancement under free convection. A detailed
analysis of heat transfer in a sonic field is presented in [9]. Curvilinear channels
(coil and helical heat exchangers, multipass heat exchangers, etc.) have long
been in use as a method of enhancing heat transfer in channels.
Reliable layout of tubes or heat-releasing rods with a certain distance between
them in heat exchangers, as well as achieving good mixing of the flow in the
intertube space to equalize nonuniformities of its heating, is an important
problem. Simultaneous solution of these problems along with the heat transfer
enhancement can be obtained in the case of longitudinal and cross flow past
closely packed bundles of helical tubes [ 5 , 581 whose cross section is shaped as
an ellipse or a rectangle with rounded comers.
When tube bundles are streamlined by cross flow, making longitudinal
smoothly outlined equidistant protrusions (transverse to the flow) or using rough
tubes is an affective means for heat transfer enhancement. As the studies of
rough tubes have shown [l], this causes an earlier (with respect to the corner)
laminar-turbulent boundary-layer transition, a separation point shift down-
stream, and additional turbulization of the boundary layer.
Analysis of different heat transfer enhancement methods was oriented to
single-phase flows. However, the methods that are most effective for single-
phase flows are most efficient for film boiling (vapor near the wall) in two-phase
flows and for condensation, as well as being sufficiently efficient for nucleate
boiling in channels. The major conclusion of different heat transfer enhancement
methods is that in each case, an effective method for heat transfer enhancement
can be chosen when the condhons cited in Sec. I1.A are rigorously taken into
account.
D. CHOICE OF A RATIONALMETHODFOR HEATTRANSFER

ENHANCEMENT
IN STRAIGHTCHANNELSAND IN LONGITUDINAL
FLOW
AROUND TUBEBUNDLES
Let us illustrate the choice of a method by a real example. In the mid-1950s
the problem of designing a transportation closed-cycle gas turbine plant [72]
was put before the Institute of Engines of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The
design examination revealed that the plant could be built and positioned accord-
ing to the given overall sizes only if sizes of the tubular refrigerator and the
regenerator were reduced by a factor of 1.5 compared to all known methods for
heat transfer enhancement at that time.
Tubular heat exchangers were chosen because the pressure of the the gas
(helium) and its pressure drop in the contour were large. All production
potentialities to decrease the diameter of the tubes and their packaging density
and to optimize all parameters that affect the plant efficiency, including permis-
sible hydraulic losses in heat exchangers (regenerator and refrigerator) and their
efficiency, were exhausted.
Thus, the problem was to develop a method of enhancing heat transfer that
would decrease heat exchanger sizes by a factor of at least, 1.5 for tubular gas-
gas and gas-water heat exchangers at given values for gas pumping (hydraulic
loss), heat carrier temperatures, and heat powers.
The theoretical possibility of such heat transfer enhancement and the essence
of the method were justified by E. K. Kalinin in 1958 [86]. This allowed work
on designing a gas turbine plant to be developed successfully at the Institute.
Subsequently E. K. Kalinin, G . A. Dreitser, and S. A. Jarkhos experiments on
tubes and tubes bundles in longitudinal flow [I21 supported that the preferred
method allowed a 1.5- to 2-fold decrease of heat exchanger size in the gas
turbine plant.
The elaboration of the method was based on deep studies of the hydro-
dynamic structure of the turbulent flow in tubes and in the intertube space,
temperature fields and heat fluxes, the role of the separated flow region, and
vortex structures as sources of a goal-directed change of the turbulent flow
structure.
This theoretical analysis has led to the following conclusions.
1. In turbulent flow of gases and water, it is advisable to artificially turbulize
only the wall layer yf = 50 to 200 thick.
2 . For this wall layer to be artificially turbulized in tubes, transverse equidis-
tant protrusions must be used as turbulators. Vortex zones formed behind these
protrusions will be a source of additional turbulization.
Turbulence generated at the upper boundary of these zones is transferred by
the averaged flow along the wall, increasing mainly in a thin wall layer at a
larger length behind the protrusion. When difision of the turbulizing effect of a
protrusion starts to diminish, a new protrusion should be made, and so on.
Visual observations of water flow past semi-circular protrusions (see Fig. 9)
in a rectangular channel have shown that the system of vortices is unsteady, and
the turbulized zone approximately corresponds to the protrusion height. It has
appeared that the turbulence intensity and E, in the wall layer y + = 200 thick at
a length of 0.5 H are even larger for protrusions approximately equal to the layer
thickness than they are for those whose height is 3 times higher.
Further, it has been established that for the same height but different shape,
the smoothly outlined protrusion is most effective. When it is used, the wall
layer is turbulized with the smallest hydraulic loss. As mentioned above, when
the protrusion shape is smoothly outlined, either a system of three-dimensional
helical vortices or this system supplemented with a small unstable two-dimen-
sional vortex behind the protrusion is formed. The hydraulic loss in forming
such a system and the energy dissipation in it are much smaller than in vortex
structures for rectangular, triangular, and semicircular protrusions near which
excess turbulence is generated.
3. In the intertube space of closely packed tube bundles (SID,, < 1.2-1.3)
streamlined by the longitudinal flow, it is advisable to use transverse grooves as
turbulators. To do this, the full-scale technology of rolling tubes was developed
in practice. With this technology, when tubes were rolled over the outer surface,
equidistant grooves with a given pitch tlD,,, were formed on the outer surface
and smootlily outlined protrusions of a given height were formed inside the
tubes (see Fig. 12). The increased cost of such rolling of tubes is only several
percent of the cost of a smooth tube.
'The production of a heat exchanger from rolled tubes is no different from the
assembly of a heat exchanger with smooth tubes. But the total length of the
tubes in the heat exchanger in which heat transfer is enhanced proves to be much
less than in the one with smooth tubes. Therefore, heat transfer enhancement by
this method not only allowed the size and mass of the heat exchanger to be
decreased 1.5 to 2 times but also cut its cost substantially. Special studies of the
vibration fatigue strength of rolled tubes, thermal stresses, etc., have shown that
j d - d 1
FIG. 12. Annular turbulator-equipped tube.

these tubes are as good as smooth ones for all indices that specify their
operational reliability in the heat exchanger.
The performed analysis, although it was the governing factor in choosing the
enhancement method, could not yield precise quantitative relations for determi-
nation of hydraulic loss and heat transfer, or for the choice of the protrusion
height or groove depth and the optimal pitch for each particular application.
It is as yet impossible to find relations for wide-spaced turbulators (from 10 to
200 protrusion heights) theoretically. Therefore, after the major features of the
enhancement methods had been formulated, it was necessary to conduct rather
extensive experimental studies, including:
I. Study of heat transfer and hydraulic resistance in turbulator-equipped
channels in transition and turbulent regions with the intent of obtaining the
quantitative empirical dependences on relative turbulator height (depth)
and pitch, Re and Pr numbers, temperature, and channel length variations
of the physical properties of heat carriers.
2. Study of a transition from laminar to turbulent flow in turbulator-equipped
channels.
Comparison of these results provides evidence that the developed enhance-
ment methods, resting on a preliminary study of the flow structure and the
means of affecting it in a desired direction and allowing for the service
requirements of heat exchangers, have substantial advantages over other
methods.
E. REGULAR
TRENDS
IN HEATTRANSFERVARIATIONS
ON THE
CHANNEL
WALLSWITH DISCRETE
FLOWTURBULIZATION
The heat transfer enhancement method appeared effective (1.5- to 2-fold
decrease in the size and metal consumption of a heat exchanger) because goal-
directed turbulization of only the wall layers of the flow allowed the relation
to be realized.
In 1958, when this method first came under the scrutiny of science and
substantiation, it was considered that inequality (9) could not be derived. Then,
based on the Reynolds analogy and assuming that the turbulent Prandtl number
was equal to unity, or, at least, constant in the entire flow, it was assumed that
the relation
NuINu,, <
could be really obtained.
186 E. K.KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
At that time all known heat transfer enhancement methods that had been
experimentally checked, supported this relation. Moreover, based on the hydro-
dynamic heat transfer theory resting on the Reynolds assumption of the same
mechanism of heat and momentum transfer in turbulent flow, it was considered
that heat transfer could be augmented only by increasing friction resistance; the
pressure resistance growth due to the vortex formation did not affect heat
transfer.
Thus, the theoretical prerequisites that substantiated inequality (1 0) and the
fact that all heat transfer enhancement methods known at the time experimen-
tally supported this inequality presented several problems for researchers. A
major challenge was to analyze the flow without any preconceptions in search of
more effective methods of heat transfer enhancement. The need to find such
methods induced the present authors to critically scrutinize the substantiations of
both the theoretical prerequisites existing at that time and the choice of the heat
transfer enhancement methods known at that time.
This analysis [72] has revealed:
1. The hydrodynamic heat transfer theory is not valid for turbulent separated
flows, which are typical when the majority of the heat transfer enhance-
ment methods are realized, because the assumptions made to construct this
theory are violated in these flows. Let us recall these assumptions: (a) the
process is steady-state; (b) the liquid is incompressible; (c) the physical
properties are constant; (d) the boundary layer is turbulent and the channel
flow is hydrodynamically stabilized; (e) the heat transfer coefficient along
the plate (tube) is constant; and (f) the turbulent Prandtl number is
PrT= E , / E ~ = 1. It is evident that in the flow with periodic separations,
assumptions (d) and (e) are not satisfied. The experimental data obtained
during that time [72] showed that the turbulent Prandtl number varied over
the tube radius (decreasing to the wall) and depended on the Reynolds
number, i.e., assumption (f) was not correct. There were also data showing
that E, and E, were vectors in nature.
2. The fallacy of the widespread statement that the so-called pressure resis-
tance bound up with the onset of the vortex zones had no influence on heat
transfer was demonstrated. On the contrary, in fact, the vortex zones are a
source of additional flow turbulization and heat transfer enhancement.
3. Processing of the experimental data on hydraulic resistance and local
heat transfer behind single-tube diaphragms [72] has shown that even for
the pitch tlD = 14 and diaphragm diameter dlD 2 0.9, inequality (9) can
be obtained.
4, The study of the flow structure and the role of the vortex zones as sources
of goal-directed additional flow turbulization allowed us to substantiate the
conclusion that by additionally turbulizing only the wall layers of the flow
by equally spaced vortex zones, it was possible to develop methods of

enhancing heat transfer that realize inequality (9).
With this in view, methods for heat transfer enhancement in tubes, in
longitudinal flow past tube bundles, and in channels of plate-finned and tube-
finned heat exchangers were proposed and implemented. Comprehensive studies
of these methods were planned and realized. These studies completely supported
the conclusions of the theoretical analysis and the possibility of obtaining
inequality (9).
The theoretical substantiation and the experimental derivation of inequality
(9) when heat transfer is enhanced is the subject of the scientific discovery [87]
specified by the following formula: The early unknown regular trends in the heat
transfer variation on the channel walls with discrete flow turbulization at forced
convection have been determined, implying that at certain relationships between
size of turbulators and their location, the growth of heat transfer is larger than
that of hydraulic resistance relative to an identical smooth channel [87].
111. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Tubes
ENHANCEMENT
A. HEATTRANSFER IN THE TURBULENT
FLOW
TRANSITION
REGION
For evident reasons, the region of subcritical Reynolds numbers is of no
interest for heat transfer enhancement. At the same time, for Reynolds numbers
greatly exceeding their critical values, the laminar boundary layer can exist at a
large distance from the channel entrance. Therefore, data on the interaction
between the laminar boundary layer and artificial turbulators and on the heat
transfer processes under viscous and viscous-gravitational flow conditions can
be of independent practical importance.
In the viscous flow region, the heat transfer in rolled tubes is smaller than that
in smooth ones because of the thermal resistance of low-motion (stagnation)
regions between the diaphragms (Table I, Fig. 13) [12]. In the developed
viscous-gravitational flow region, artificial turbulators do not affect the level of
TABLE I
EFFECTOF THE THICKNESS OF THE STAGNATION REGIONBETWEEN
THE DIAPHRAGMS ON T H E HEATTRANSFER COEFFICIENT
dlD 0.875 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.97 0.98

a/aS,,? 0.63 0.675 0.725 0.78 0.87 0.91
1s 2 3 Re, 10.'
FIG. 13. Local heat transfer coefficient vs Re number in the region of the viscous and transient
flow: 1, smooth tube; 2, diaphragmed tube, dlD = 0.91 and r/D = 1.0. 0 xlD = 10; A,
xlD = 110.
heat transfer (see Fig. 14), which for gases should be calculated by the
equation
Nu = 0.045 Reo.* (11)
In the transition region, the artificial turbulators have a double effect on the
flow. On the one hand, these disturbance sources are the sites of turbulent
disturbances in addition to the already existing artificial disturbances in the flow.
On the other hand, the turbulators interacting with the turbulent sections of the
intermittent flow [88, 891 favor a rapid development of turbulent plugs (distur-
bances that achieve the size of the flow area). Naturally, these phenomena
become noticeable only when a certain height of turbulators is attained.
The flow intermittence in the transition region, i.e., the alternation of sections
with laminar and turbulent structures, changes the heat removal conditions in a
fixed channel cross-section, i.e., it causes variations in the heat transfer coeffi-
cients. When heat supply is regulated (constant heat flux), these variations
manifest themselves in wall temperature fluctuations. The fluctuation amplitude
of the wall temperature depends on the limiting values of the heat transfer
coefficients corresponding to the laminar and turbulent flow states at a defined
Re number, on the liquid-to-wall heat capacity ratio, on the frequency fluctu-
ations (Le., the Strouhal number Sh =.fD/w), and on the means for heat supply
and heat load.
External manifestations of the interaction between the turbulators and the flow
in the transition region are critical Reynolds number decrease (see Fig. 15),
Nu
50
40
05 0.7 10 15 20 3 0 4 0 Re10'3
FIG. 14. Tube length-mean beat transfer coefficient vs Re number in the region of the viscous-
gravitational and transient flow ( R . Koch's data [90] and W. Nunner's data [91]): I , segment having
as a base the length equal to 4 mm ( d / D = 0.84; rlD = 0.15); 2, segment having as a base the length
equal to 4 mm (dlD = 0.84; t / D = 1.63); 3, segment having as a base the length equal to 4 mm
(dlD = 0.84; tlD = 0.41); 4, rectangular profile (dlD = 0.92; t / D = 0.82); 5, semi-round profile
(dlD = 0.92; t / D = 3.27); 6. segment having as a base the length equal to 4 mm (dlD = 0.84;
r/D = 0.82); 7, sernicireular profile (dlD = 0.92; t / D = 0.82); 8. segment having as a base the
length equal to 18 mm (dlD = 0.92; tlD = 3.27); 9, smooth tube.
earlier onset of the flow intermittence and a narrower range of Reynolds

numbers over which the flow intermittence exists (see Fig. 16), decreased values
of time-averaged heat transfer coefficients over the tube sections with laminar
flow, and an enhancement effect over the section with a weakly developed
turbulent flow structure (see Fig. 13).
In our experiments, the critical Re,, number was estimated by three independ-
ent procedures: (1) varying the behavior of local time-averaged heat transfer at
the end of the heated section; (2) using the Re number corresponding to a
maximum of the pulsation characteristic ATmax/ATmln= Numax/Numln= f(Re) at
the end of the heated section; and (3) varying the resistance law in isothermal
conditions. All three procedures yielded close results. A decrease in the critical
Recr number was found for the tubes where dlD 5 0.92.
So, heat transfer enhancement in the transition region is determined by two
phenomena. The first phenomenon is related to the influence of artificial turbula-
tors in forcing the growth of the critical Reynolds number. The second is related
to the artificial turbulization with a weakly developed turbulent structure. Both
phenomena essentially depend on the turbulator height. A prominent effect of
the Rec, decrease can be achieved for dlD < 0.92.
190 E. K. KALMIN AND 0.A. DREITSER
Re,,IRecr, , , ,$
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 d/D
FIG. 15. Turbulator height influence on the critical Reynolds number in tubes: 0,
data of the
present authors; A, data of [90]; 0, data of [91].
1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
~ Re number in tubes
FIG. 16. Maximum-to-minimum heat transfer coefficient ratio N ~ , . d N h , ivs
in the transition region: 1, dlD = 0.91; t/D = 1; xlD = 103; 2, d/D = 0.91; tlD =: 1; xlD = 58; 3,
d/D = 0.91; tlD = 1; xlD = 22; 4, smooth tube.
As for the efficiency of artificial turbulization of the flow with weakly

developed turbulence, the following would appear reasonable. For small Re
numbers, the turbulent flow has a much less full velocity profile than in the
developed turbulent flow region and, hence, a less full temperature profile
(especially for gases). Therefore, the main thermal resistance in the flow with
weakly developed turbulence is not localized in a very thin wall layer as in the
case of the developed turbulent flow but is distributed in much thicker wall
layers. This means that for prominent effects of artificial turbulization to be
reached, diaphragms with relatively high heights must be used, i.e., heights
comparable with the thickness of the wall layer where the greater part of the
temperature head is spent. Owing to this, it becomes clear that the best effects of
heat transfer enhancement in transition regions have been reached for the
diaphragm height dlD < 0.92, i.e., for the same height that provides an earlier
transition and turbulizes the thick wall layers of the flow.
1. Tube Length-Mean Heat Transfer

Heat transfer enhancement in the region of transition and weakly developed
turbulence is as yet imperfectly understood. W. F. Cope [92] was the first to
study heat transfer and hydraulic resistance for water heating in tubes with
artificial roughness shaped as small pyramids and obtain data on heat transfer
enhancement in tubes in the transition region. The pyramid sizes were equal to
d / D = 0.978, 0.933, and 0.888; the Re number range was Re = (2 to 60) . lo3.
The best heat transfer enhancement efficiency was attained over the range of Re
numbers equal to Re = (2 to 10) * 10.'. In this case, the tube provided with the
pyramid having dlD = 0.978 did not reveal any effect in this region. For the
tube with d / D = 0.888, Nu/Nu,,,, = 1.4, 2.0, and 1.75 at Re = 2000, 6000, and
10,000, respectively. As the Re number grows, the enhancement efficiency is
degraded, and for Re = 6 lo4, Nu/Nu,,, = 1.2. More recent works of E. K.
Kalinin and S. A. Yarkho [93], R. Koch [90], and J. W. Smith and R. A. Gowen
[94] favored the conclusion that heat transfer enhancement efficiency is better in
the transition region than in the turbulent flow. In doing so, the maximum
efficiency can be reached only when the turbulator height is dlD 9 0.92. At the
same time, for a variety of reasons (i.e., limited number of pulsations, strong
influence of free convection flow in tubes and annular channels), the general-
ization of quantitative data on heat transfer enhancement in tubes in the
transition region has not met with success.
Let us consider the fundamental quantitative and qualitative regular trends in
heat transfer enhancement in the transition region by using the results [93,95]
for heating of water and a water-glycerin mixture in smooth tubes and in tubes
provided with equidistant annular diaphragms. Experiments were made at a tube
length-constant heat flux in horizontal stainless steel tubes 10 m m in diameter,
r r
0.06
0.05 1.6 0.0s
0.04
0.03 .4Nu,/Pr
Nu,/Pro4 1.o
1.5
1.2 7.5
5.0 5.0
2.5 1.0 2.5
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 Re.103 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 Re.10
a b
FIG. 17. Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance in the vicinity of Re,,: a, smooth tube; b,
diaphragmed tube; 1, heat transfer; 2, hydraulic resistance; 3, amplitude characteristic.
with the length of the heated section equal to 114 diameters and with the length
of the hydrodynamic stabilization section equal to 16 diameters. Figure 17 plots
the tube mean heat transfer coefficient vs. Re number for smooth and rolled
tubes. The scatter of the experimental data did not exceed + 10%. As a rule, it
was much smaller.
The influence of the Pr number and the temperature factor in the vicinity of
Recrwas specially examined, but it was established that the smallest scatter of
the points was seen when and (pffp,,.)m=Owere included to choose the
tube length-mean liquid temperature as the determining one. The experimental
results showed this for a smooth tube with Re,,, for rolled tubes with
0.983 2 dlD 5 0.92 and Rec, = 2200 = const, and for tubes with dlD = 0.91
and 0.875, Rec, = 1900 and 1580, respectively.
Figure 18 shows the heat transfer enhancement efficiency as a function of
diaphragm height and pitch. A tendency to a sharp increase in the enhancement
efficiency with the growth of the diaphragm height is clearly seen. As indicated
above, this fact points to the advisability of flow turbulization in the transition
region of thicker wall layers of the flow. As for the effect of the diaphragm
pitch, we can do no more than to state that increasing the pitch tlD from 0.5 to
1 at dlD = 0.91 markedly decreases Re,,, and the enhancement efficiency
grows. It is pertinent to note that in the developed turbulent flow of liquid, on
the contrary, it is advisable to use turbulators having a small height and small
pitch. Thus, as far as heat transfer enhancement is concerned, the transition
region is very promising. A 3.5-fold heat transfer increase greatly exceeds the
possible increase for liquids in the turbulent region.
Use of this effect in a tubular helical heat exchanger [96], where the flow
inside the tubes was transient, allowed the mean heat transfer coefficient to be
increased almost 2 times for the same hydraulic resistance and, accordingly, the
heat transfer coefficient to be increased by 30 to 35 percent with no additional
1.4 1.2
1.3 I 1
1.2 1 .o
1.1 0.9
1 .o 08
0.88 0.92 0.96 d / D 0 I 2
a b
FIG. 18. Heat transfer enhancement in the transition region affected by: a, diaphragm height
(Re = 2510); b, diaphragm pitch (Re = 3160).
increase in the amount of energy spent for gas pumping in the tubes and in the
intertube space. The volume and the mass of the heat exchanger were, accord-
ingly, decreased by 35 to 40 percent.
Owing to the fact that the nature of the curves Nu/Nu,, =f(Re, d/D, tlD) is
rather complex, to make practical calculations of heat transfer, it is desirable to
use data from Table 11. In this case, Nu,, is calculated by the equation
Nusrn= 0.1 l(Re2j3- 125)Pr0445 (12)
where the tube length-mean liquid temperature is the determining one.
2. Hydraulic Resistance Coeficient

When the experimental data on the mean hydraulic resistance coefficient in
smooth and rolled tubes in the transition region were processed, a correction for
possible hydrodynamic destabilization was not included. Strictly speaking, if at
the tube entrance there existed a laminar boundary layer, then the hydrodynamic
stabilization section 16 diameters long was insufficient to stabilize a velocity
profile. The processing of the experimental data on the hydraulic resistance
coefficient in viscous flow showed that the hydrodynamic destabilization of the
flow was quite satisfactorily allowed for by using S. S. Filimonov and B. A.
Khrustalev's recommendations [97]. Such a correction can also be included for
the transition region after the length of the section with the viscous flow has
been preliminarily evaluated according to B. S. Petukhov's recommendations
TABLE I1
ENHANCEMENT
HEAT TRANSFER FLOWIN TUBES(Pr = 2 + 50)
WITH LIQUID
Re
Tubes 1580 2000 2510 3160 3980 5000 6300 7950 10,000 12,600 15,800 20,000 25,100 31,600 39,800 50,000 63,000
1 a 0.96 1.07 1.34 1.19 1.11 1.10
1.10 1.10 1.11 1.19 1.25 1.26 1.29 1.31 1.35 1.36 1.37
b 1.07 1.12 1.08 1.12 1.12 1.14
1.10 1.15 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.19 1.20 1.216 1.23 1.23 1.24
2 a 0.94 1.00 1.34 1.10 1.13 1.10
1.19 1.20 1.28 1.35 1.43 1.52 1.61 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.65
b 1.00 1.00 1.23 1.22
1.27 1.32 1.37 1.41 1.48 1.53 1.59 1.65 1.73 1.77 1.81 1.84 1.88
3 a 1.00 1.07 1.40 1.34
1.34 1.43 1.55 1.65 1.87 1.98 2.10 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17
b 1.05 1.07 1.44 1.41
1.53 1.72 1.83 1.97 2.10 2.21 2.32 2.38 2.42 2.21 2.58 2.63 2.70
4 a 1.03 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.08 2.12
1.88 2.17 2.20 2.26 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27
b 1.12 1.15 1.83 2.14
2.42 2.75 3.00 3.26 3.48 3.65 3.82 4.00 4.18 4.40 4.62 4.82 5.55
5 a 1.00 2.88 3.52 2.93
2.60 2.43 2.33 2.27 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30
b 1.62 2.85 4.55 4.50
4.95 5.43 5.78 6.11 6.52 6.94 7.34 7.80 8.26 8.78 9.32 9.84 10.45
6 a 0.94 1.41 2.06 2.05
1.99 1.93 1.90 1.85 1.85 1.83 1.80 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.59 1.53 1.40
b 1.26 1.48 2.01 1.95
2.09 2.28 2.42 2.55 2.70 2.82 2.96 3.07 3.16 3.24 3.32 3.39 3.46
7 a 0.96 0.84 1.47 1.43 1.46 1.50
1.47 1.50 1.60 1.62 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.58 1.55 1.39 1.42
b 1.00 1.05 1.24 1.24 1.32 1.40
1.17 1.48 1.58 1.70 1.74 1.78 1.79 1.31 1.83 1.85 1.87
8 a 0.73 0.81 1.03 1.14
1.13 1.14 1.15 1.19 1.22 1.26 1.29 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.33 1.31 1.29
b 1.05 1.07 1.25 1.16
1.17 1.23 1.27 1.32 1.38 1.45 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.54 1.56 1.57 1.58
9 a - 0.91 1.12 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.15 1.17 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.15 1.12 1.10
b 1.05 1.05 1.12 1.07
1.08 1.13 1.18 1.21 1.25 1.27 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.36
10 a 1.00 1.00 0.93 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.06 1.07 1.14 1.19 1.23 1.27 1.26 1.23 1.19 1.14
b 1.00 1.00 1.16 1.07 1.12 1.16 1.18 1.19 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.33 1.35 1.37 1.40
11 cfsm 0.040 0.032 0.034 0.039 0.038 0.036 0.034 0.033 0.030 0.029 0.027 0.026 0.024 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.019
(1) dldD = 0.983, t/D = 0.496; (2) 0.966,0.498; (3) 0.943,0.497; (4)0.922,0.523; (5) 0.875,0.496; (6) 0.912,0.992; (7) 0.946,0.998; (8) 0.944, 1.987;
(9) 0.942, 3.989; (10) 0.967, 0.994; (1 1 ) smooth. (a) Nu/Nu,,; (b) </&,,,.
[98]. For all tubes, irrespective of diaphragm height, the smooth tube diameter
was taken as the design diameter. Flow nonisothermity was allowed for by
including the temperature factor (,ff,,J,~,)~. The value of n was taken from the
experimental data obtained in the turbulent region for tubes with artificial
turbulators n =f(dlD, tlD). So, the corresponding value of n was taken for each
tube.
Let us consider the hydraulic resistance coefficient as a function of Re number
(see Fig. 19). The following conclusions can be made:
1. The variation of the hydraulic resistance law occurs simultaneously with
the onset of transition at the tube end.
2. As with the heat transfer coefficient, the rate of growth of the hydraulic
resistance coefficient for Re > Recr in rolled tubes is larger than in a
smooth tube and grows as dlD decreases.
3. All diaphragm heights within Re > Recr,smare characteristic of a hor-
izontal area for the relations </ts,,=f(Re). After this area, tS,,,increases
monotonically. Such a behavior of the relation is attributed to sharply
increasing tbm for Re > Re,,,,,,. A maximum increase of the hydraulic
resistance coefficient in the transition region is attained in a diaphragmed
tube with dlD = 0.875 and is </ts,, = 4.5.
The hydraulic resistance coefficient in the transition region should be calcu-
lated by using the data of Table 11. It should be remembered that the values of
(/tSm taken from Table I1 are really the ratios of the isothermal hydraulic
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
2 4 6 810 20 Re.IOJ
FIG. 19. Hydraulic resistance coeficient as a function of Re number in rolled tubes with the same
pitch t / D = 0.5: 1, d / D = 0.983; 2, dlD = 0.965; 3, dlD = 0.943; 4, diD = 0.920; 5,
dlD = 0.875.
resistance coefficients. Therefore, for the temperature factor influence for

heating of liquids in artificial turbulator-provided tubes to be taken into account,
data on the effect of rolling height and pitch on the power at the temperature
factor must be used.
As seen from Table 11, the most effective relationships between the growth of
heat transfer Nu/NU,, = 2.88 and hydraulic resistance coefficients
(Nu/Nu,, = 2.88 for (/tSm = 2.85) are achieved in the transition region
Nu/Nu,, > 5Itsm.
B. THEORETICAL
METHODS
OF PREDICTING
HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
FLOW
IN TURBULENT
Theoretical studies of heat transfer enhancement in turbulent channel flows

are few, relate mainly to rough channels or closely spaced turbulators, and are
semiempirical in nature. The main reason for this situation is that the mechanism
of the phenomenon and the structure of separated turbulent channel flows have
not been adequately explored.
Analysis of the theoretical studies of G. Paumerd [84], R. Koch [90], W.
Nunner [91], V. K. Migai [99, 1001, and N. M. Galin [loll allowed definite
conclusions. All the preferred calculation methods in one way or another use the
Reynolds analogy. From an analysis of the assumptions on which this analogy is
based, it is clear that it is not valid for separated flows. It is evident that in and
near the separated flow region, any similarity of the velocity and temperature
profiles is out of the question. However, for closely spaced roughnesses outside
the vortices, this analogy is approximately valid. Therefore, the methods pre-
viously considered, along with the available assumptions and semiempirical
coefficients, allow prediction of the heat transfer from rough tubes in terms of
their hydraulic resistance.
In rough tubes, turbulence is mainly generated at the upper boundaries of the
vortices, from which it diffuses into the flow core. This is responsible for the
hydraulic loss. Under these conditions, it is seen that the protrusion shape is not
so essential.
For far-spaced turbulators, turbulence is generated simultaneously in two
regions:
1. At the upper vortex boundary, where the shear stress yw: w: and the
~
velocity gradient dw, /dy, and, hence, their product, are large.
2. Near the wall between the attachment point and the next turbulator. In this
case, the turbulent flow structure and the sizes of the separated flow
regions and their positions (and, hence, the heat transfer and hydraulic
loss) will essentially depend not only on the height of the turbulators but
also on their shape and the space between them.
Of interest are V. K. Migais data [26,28] estimating the limiting values of

heat transfer enhancement in tubes due to artificial flow turbulization. Unlike the
previous investigations, he examined the three-dimensional turbulent flow. For
Pr = 0.7, the limiting values of the ratio Nu/Nu,,,, = 4.06 at Re = loJ and of
NuiNu,, = 3.62 at Re = lo5 were obtained. In doing so, possible values for the
growth of the hydraulic resistance coefficients <I&,,, are 3.89 and 4.67, respec-
tively, i.e., at Re = LO4, it is possible that Nu/NuSm> t/<,,,. It is V. K. Migais
opinion that the above regular trends are in good qualitative agreement with the
experimental data for tubes and provides evidence that the transition region is
advantageous in terms of heat transfer enhancement. The performed analysis is
helpful in evaluating possible alternative means for increasing heat transfer
enhancement.
C. INFLUENCE
OF THE REYNOLDS
NUMBER
Preparatory to analyzing the influence of the Re number, an important point
should be stated: There are no quantitative data for the flow structure behavior in
tubes with artificial turbulators when the Re number varies. Also, there are no
data on the influence of shape, height, and pitch of turbulators on the structure
behavior in the wall regions when the Re number varies. As such information is
lacking, at present the possibility of theoretically (bearing in mind, semi-
empirically) generalizing the extensive experimental data for heat transfer
enhancement, and particularly for the influence of the Re number on the heat
transfer enhancement efficiency is eliminated. The influence of the Re number
on heat transfer and hydraulic resistance in artificial turbulator-provided tubes
essentially depends on the height, pitch, and shape of the turbulators and on the
kind of heat carrier (gas, liquid). In particular, it is found from experiment that
the heat transfer (the ratio Nu/Nu,,) can increase, remain constant, or decrease
when Re grows. In doing so, no dependence on the variation of the hydraulic
resistance is revealed. Of independent interest is the problem of heat transfer
enhancement in the limiting case, i.e., as Re .+ m. For the reasons mentioned, all
these facts and some other questions cannot be satisfactorily explained on the
basis of a rigorous theoretical analysis. This being so, the influence of different
factors and particularly of the Re number on heat transfer enhancement effi-
ciency will be considered mainly by analyzing the available experimental data
and making comparisons with theoretical treatment where possible.
If the free convection influence is considered for small Reynolds numbers,
then in the general case it is possible to distinguish three ranges of the Reynolds
number characteristic of the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement and its
corresponding variation:
1. Re < Resm,where heat transfer augmentation in tubes with artificial turbu-
lators is not attained (see Sec. 1II.A).
198 E. K. KALINlN AND G . A. DRElTSER
2. Resm< Re < Re*, where the ratio Nu/Nu,, grows sharply with increasing
Re (see Sec. 1II.A); the boundaries of this range depend on the height,
pitch, and shape of the turbulators and also on the Pr number.
3. Re,, > Re*, where as a rule, Nu/Nu,, = const > 1; however, cases are
encountered in which Nu/Nu,, slightly increases with Re or appreciably
starts to decrease.
Experimental data for heat transfer in water flow and in a mixture of water
and glycerin [93, 951 were obtained. Figure 20 plots the enhancement efficiency
Nu/Nu, vs. Re number. The dashed line corresponds to the boundary of the
Re* numbers, above which the increase in heat transfer over that in a smooth
tube remains constant for the considered turbulator pitch tlD = 0.5.
The Re number increase in the smooth tube for Re > Re,, occurs with an
intense growth of turbulent transfer in the flow core, and as this takes place,
thermal resistance is concentrated in the thinner wall layers, where the turbulent
heat transfer coefficient tqis small and the heat flux is maximum. An assumption
has been made that as the Re number increases, the maximum ratio Nu/Nu,, for
a given height, pitch, and shape of turbulators can be attained only when the
turbulator height becomes comparable to the wall layer thickness in the smooth
tube, where the thermal flow resistance (up to 99 percent) is concentrated. It is
therefore of interest to compare the experimental dependence of Re* on the
FIG.20. Influence of the Re number on heat transfer enhancement in rolled tubes: 1, boundary o f
the Re* numbers;2, dlD = 0.983; 3 , dlD = 0.966; 4, dlD = 0.943; 5 , dlD = 0.92; 6, d / D = 0.912
(pitch equal to 1.0); 7, d / D = 0.875 (pitch equal to 0.5).
H E A T TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT I N HEAT E X C H A N G E R S 199
turbulator height with the predicted value. To do this, let us use the energy
equation for a smooth tube
Integrating this equation in the wall region subject to PrT and q, = const, we
arrive at
= 4-j - "T
-T,, ' J ; ( u ~ , / w ) ( D /-2 y) d ( y / D )
(14)
4(D/EL) ( D / 2 - y ) ( l + Pr E , / / v )
Figure 2 1 plots the results of graphical integration of ( 14) in the form of
t i =--
T,, - T J'
4, L l f i dT7j
20
IS
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 j"
FIG. 21. Temperature profiles near the smooth tube wall for different Pr numbers: 1, Pr = 0
( / ' = I ~ ~ ) ; ~ , P I . = O . I ; ~ , P I . = O . ~ ; ~ , P ~ = ~ ; ~1 0, ;P7 I, P. i=. =~5 ;0 ;~8,, yP: nI ;.9=, ? . : ~ .
as a function of y+. In doing so, c,Iv = f ( y ) is taken from Schleiher's experi-

mental data. The abscissa is the dimensionless distance from the wall
From Fig. 21 it is possible to obtain an expression for the dimensionless

thickness of the wall layer where 99 percent of the total temperature head "wall-
tube axis" is spent
( ;)99
575
= ~ ~ 0 . 8 pro..'
75
Equating the diaphragm height to the wall layer thickness yields

3150
Re* =
(I - ~ / D ) ' . ' ~ P ~ O . ~ ~
where d is the inner diameter of the annular diaphragm.
As can be seen from Fig. 22, in which the results calculated by Eq. (17) are
compared with the experimental data [95, 1021, the coincidence is good. At the
same time, it should be emphasized that in the tubes with the turbulators, for
which Rec, < Recr.sm,the Re* boundary moves down in the values of the
Reynolds numbers. Apparently this is of no essential importance and results in
decreasing Recrwhen the diaphragm height is increased or the diaphragm pitch
is varied (see Fig. 23, curves 5 and 7). Also characteristically, according to the
data of N. M. Galin [loll, it should be expected that in air flow the Re*
boundary must move up in the values of the Reynolds numbers. However, in the
Re' 10.'
8
6
I 2 4 6 8
( I -d/D).I o-2
FIG.22. Re* as a function of diaphragm height at the pitch t / D = 0.5; -, by Eq. (17); 0,data
of [95]; A, data of [102].
HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN HEAT EXCHANGERS 20 1
10
E
6
10
lo4 2 4 6 8 10' 2 Re,
FIG. 23. Heat transfer variations in diaphragmed tubes at air heating: A, f l D = 0.25; 1,
dlD = 0.88; 2, dlD = 0.894; 0.905; 3, dlD = 0.935; 0.943: 4, dlD = 0.964; B, f l D = 0.5; 5, smooth
tube; 6, dlD = 0.88; 7, d / D = 0.905; 8, dlD = 0.925; 9, d / D = 0.945; 10, dlD = 0.957; 1 I ,
d / D = 0.967; C, tlD = 1; 12, dlD = 0.858; 13, dlD = 0.915.
work known to us, as well as in our experiments with air, such a tendency has
not been observed. Figure 23 plots the experimental data on heat transfer in air
flow in rolled tubes [103-1061. Over the entire range of the Re numbers and
diaphragm heights, the heat transfer law remains invariable (there is a tendency
showing that Nu/Nu,, slightly increases with Re). Upon generalizing the data on
heat transfer enhancement with the flow in tubes, it may be said that over the
range Re = lo4 to 5 . lo5, the heat transfer law does not change or changes only
very slightly and is close to Nu-Re"' for any turbulator height and pitch.
As for the experimental data on heat transfer enhancement in liquid flow in
tubes, despite the limited number of investigations, some clearly expressed
discrepancies in the heat transfer laws in the developed turbulent flow region can
be stated. Upon analyzing the data from V. P. Isachenko, S. G . Agababov, and
202 E. K. KALININ AND G.A. DREITSER
N. M. Galin [ 1071, it is easy to conclude that Re* is essentially affected by the

turbulator shape. So, for roughness in the form of a triangular thread, Nu/Nu,,
increases over the range Re = (2 to 20) . lo4 for all test tubes. Roughness in the
form of a smooth thread has a clearly expressed boundary of the Re* numbers;
however, for a deeper thread, Nu/Nu,, = const. for Re > Re*, and for a less
deep thread, Nu/Nu, falls over this range, attaining a value equal to 1 at
Re = 2 . lo5.
It is characteristic, too, that with all other things being equal (protrusion
height and shape, Pr number), the turbulator pitch exerts a prominent influence
on the behavior of the relation Nu =J(Re). Figure 24 plots our experimental
data on water in tubes having the same diaphragm height but different pitches.
Comparison of the plots in Figs. 20 and 24 easily illustrates that an increase of
the pitch to f l D > 0.5 results in a variation of the heat transfer law for
Re > Re*: If for t / D = 0.5, Nu/Nu,, = const, then for t / D > 0.5, NuiNu,,
essentially decreases with increasing Re number.
Let us emphasize one more important fact. Since with increasing Re number
the thermal flow resistance is concentrated in thinner wall layers, obviously the
best heat transfer enhancement in developed turbulent flow (of liquids for
Re > Re*) is attained at small turbulator heights, unlike the region of transition
and weakly developed turbulence. This is quite natural; if the turbulator height
exceeds the wall layer thickness where the greater part of thermal resistance is
concentrated, then this gives rise to additional turbulization even in the flow core
region, in which the turbulent transfer is high and the heat flux is small. As a
result, the heat transfer enhancement is negligible (especially for Pr > l ) , and
the hydraulic resistance increases dramatically.
As noted above, because data on the flow structure in tubes with artificial
turbulators are few, it is extremely difficult to analyze the influence of the Re
number on heat transfer on theoretical grounds. It is quite natural that preferred
1 .S
1.4
I .o
2 4 6 8 1 0 20
FIG.24. Influence of the Re number on heat transfer enhancement for different diaphragm pitchcs
on water (dlD = 0.94): I, tlD = 4.0; 2, rlD = 2.0; 3, t/D = 1.0; 4, tlD = 0.5; 5 , flD = 1.0,
d/D = 0.91.
HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN IIEAT EXCHANGERS 203
calculation methods that are not supported by a sufficient number of data on the
flow structure cannot encompass a diversity of subtleties that can be revealed
experimentally and are dependent, first at all, on turbulator height, pitch, and
shape. Nevertheless, these semiempirical calculation methods allow heat transfer
dependence on the Re number close to the law for a smooth tube, i.e.,
-
Nu Reo* or Nu/Nu,,,, = const > 1, to be obtained. The exception is provided
by W. Nunners relation, derived in 1955 [91]. Unfortunately, this is often
encountered in the world literature. The fallacy in W. Nunners physical model
is clearly brought out in our work and in V. I. Gomelauris work [108, 1091.
Therefore, this will not be considered here. Note that the design formula
proposed by W. Nunner yields results that not only contradict the natural
physical representations but also do not agree with his own experimental data.
This is true for the Pr number influence on heat transfer enhancement.
Figure 25 plots the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement Nu/Nu,, vs. Re
number for t/<,,,, = const obtained by W. Nunners experimental data and his
design formula [91]
Nu - ( 1 + 1.5 Re-1XPr~16(Pr1) +
1 + 1.5 R e ~ X P r ~ [ ( ~ / ~ , , +
Nusm tF,,, l , )11
Pr
As seen from the plots, the design values of Nu/Nu,, increase with Re, which
is absurd physically because as Re grows, ( must decrease at (/ism = const. In
other words, as Re grows, the condition = const means that the turbulators
must have either a smaller height or a larger pitch. It is obvious that in none of
the cases is there an increase in Nu/Nu,,,,.
Let us briefly run through the influence of the Re number on the hydraulic
resistance coefficient in tubes. If A P = PI - P2 is the measured pressure drop
on the test tube, then it can be approximately written with no regard to the tube
NuINu,,
2.8
2.4
2.0
4 6 8 10 20 40 Re-10-3
FIG. 25. Influence o f the Re number on heat transfer enhancement in diaphragmed tubes
(W. Nunners data): I , experiment; 2, prediction by Eq. ( 1 8 ) .
204 E. K.KALININ AND G.A. DREITSER
length variation of the density as
where (,fi is the hydraulic resistance coefficient due to mean shear stress over the
smooth tube sections; Lrr is the total length of the smooth tube sections; w is the
mean velocity in the smooth tube cross section; and 51 is the local hydraulic
resistance coefficient of a single turbulator (diaphragm).
Equation (19) can also be written as
or
where 5 is the total hydraulic resistance coefficient in the tube with artificial
turbulators; and t is the diaphragm pitch.
It is known that in developed turbulent flow, the local hydraulic resistance
coefficient of a single diaphragm with sharp edges does not depend (or
depends very slightly) on the Re number. The hydraulic resistance coefficient
caused by wall friction depends on the Re number and the turbulator height,
pitch, and shape in the general case for rough tubes. According to R. Koch's
data [90],where the shear friction stress distribution between the protrusions of
the annular diaphragms was measured by a hot-wire probe, the mean shear
friction stress over these sections obeys the law
tjr= A . Re' l5 (22)
or
tfr= B/Reo.2S
To put this another way, the influence of the Re number is the same as in the
smooth tube, but the constants A and B essentially depend on the turbulator
height and grow as that height increases (however, for dlD = 0.8, B = 0.3 16),
and slightly depend on the turbulator pitch. It is found that the contribution of
the friction coefficient to the total hydraulic resistance coefficient is 1.5 to 2.5
percent over the range dlD = 0.5 to 0.8 and tlD = 2 to 6.5. As dlD and tlD
increase, this contribution grows.
From Eq. (21), it is easy to see that for high and closely spaced turbulators,
i.e., in the case where the hydraulic resistance is almost entirely determined by
local losses-the so-called similarity region of the resistance law-the total
hydraulic resistance coefficient practically does not depend on the Re number. If
the friction contribution to the total hydraulic resistance is essential, as is the

case for large dlD and tlD and for smooth turbulator profiles, then the total
hydraulic resistance coefficient must depend on the Re number and markedly
decreases as the Re number increases.
Thus, it can be concluded that when heat transfer is enhanced, the relative
increase of the hydraulic resistance coefficient (I(>, grows as the Re number
increases. This increase is the more drastic, the closer the law of the hydraulic
resistance of the turbulator-equipped tube is to the similarity case.
An exception can occur in those cases in which the flow structure behind the
diaphragm protrusion changes qualitatively in attaining a definite Re number.
Apparently, this is characteristic of the smooth protrusion profiles alone, whose
shape resistance can rather sharply decrease as the Re number increases. In this
case, the total hydraulic resistance coefficient decreases according to <- Re-,
where m > 0.25. However, ( does not reach the values of <,, and again
increases as Re grows.
Figure 26 plots the typical total hydraulic resistance coefficient vs. Re
obtained in our experiments on gases in diaphragmed tubes [104-1061. First,
from the plots it follows that for all tubes, the hydraulic resistance coefficient
falls as Re grows, which is favorable for enhancement efficiency. In addition, a
noticeable variation of the hydraulic resistance law is characteristic of the range
Re = lo5. Let us emphasize that such a phenomenon has not been observed in
the works known to us. This is evident not only because of the limited range of
the Re numbers but mainly because of the use of the turbulators with sharp
edges.
To some extent, the diaphragm shape can affect the hydraulic resistance law.
<
This is shown in Fig. 27, which plots the relation =f(Re). It is clearly seen
that for diaphragms with sharp edges (other parameters being approximately
equal), the hydraulic resistance law is the similarity law, and for smoothly
outlined turbulators, the hydraulic resistance coefficient decreases markedly as
Re grows. In this case, the quantity (/<s,, can even decrease.
In closing, it may be said that in the works concerned with heat transfer
enhancement, the hydraulic resistance law in the test tubes is practically similar
in the majority of cases. Only in some cases [105, 1101 laws are obtained that
differ essentially from the similarity laws. These are precisely the cases in which
the best efficiency of heat transfer enhancement has been achieved.
The presented data allow the relative contributions of the increased heat
transfer and hydraulic resistance coefficients to be compared with compatable
results from smooth tubes. This problem is of certain scientific and practical
interest.
Analysis of the structure of turbulent flows in a channel as well as of the
separated flow region as a source to augment flow turbulence, in addition to
conducted comprehensive studies, have allowed the phenomenon of increasing
0.1
FIG.26. Hydraulic resistance coefficient vs Ref in rolled tubes: A, tlD = 0.25; I , d/D = 0.887;
2, d / D = 0.894; 3, d/D = 0.905; 4, d / D = 0.935; 5 , d / D = 0.943; 6 , d/D = 0.964; 7, smooth tube:
B, t / D = 0.5; 8, d / D = 0.88; 9, tflD = 0.905; 10, d D = 0.925; 11, dlD = 0.945 and 0.957;
12. dlD = 0.967; C, r/D = 1.0: 13, d / D = 0.868; 14, d/D = 0.915.
the heat transfer more than the hydraulic resistance increase relative to that in an
identical smooth channel. As noted above, this property of turbulent flow in the
turbulator-provided channels is attributed to the fact that the turbulent vortices
formed in the wall flow region at discrete sites propagate along the channel
walls, weakly diffusing into the flow core. Outlined protrusions or grooves
located with a certain pitch along the channel walls serve as such discrete
situated sources of turbulent vortices.
In the region of the developed turbulent flow, the best results are attained
when the height of the diaphragms is not large (dlD > 0.94) and when the pitch
H E A T TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN HEAT EXCHANGERS 207
FIG.27. Comparison of the hydraulic resistance variations in tubcs provided with different-profile
diaphragms: 1, smooth tube; 2, dlD = 0.915, ! / D 1.0, smooth profile (our data [106]); 3.
d/D = 0.92. t / D = 0.82, rectangular profile (W. Nunner's data [91]).
is smaller (tlD = 0.25 to 0.5). In this region, as the height of the diaphragms
increases (as d / D decreases), the ratio Nu/Nu,,, first increases sharply, and then
the heat transfer growth is stabilized. As the diaphragm height grows, the
hydraulic resistance increases first gradually and then sharply. For small dia-
phragm heights (dlD = 0.96 to 0.993), there are the ranges of tlD, over which
the growth of heat transfer is equal or greater than that of the hydraulic
resistance, i.e., NU/NI.L~,2 .
The quantity d/D, at which Nu/Nu,,,, = </(,,1 decreases as the Re number
grows and the pitch t / D increases (see Fig. 28). For larger values of dlD,
Nu/Nu,,,, > </c,lll,
and for smaller values, Nu/Nu,,,, < ti(,,,,.
2.0
J/I)
10
18
0 9s 16
0 96 1.4
13
2 4 6 8 10' 2 Re 4
FIG 28. d/D and Nu/Nu,,,, = c/C,", vs Re for different t / D in air tube flow 1, 2, 3, t / D = 0.25,
0.5, 1, respectively: -, d/D; - - - - - - , Nu/Nu ,,,, = </<,",.
The relation NuINu, = increases for tlD = 0.25 as Re grows, attaining

-2 at Re = 4 . lo5. For tlD = 0.5, NuINu,, = as a function of Re passes
through its minimum of the order of 1.4 to 1.5, and for tlD = 1, the values of
Nu/N&, = e/tsm decrease as Re increases; the maximum value is 1.78 at
Re = 2 . lo4.
The advancing growth of heat transfer is realized within
dlD > 1.077 - 0.01 lg Re - (1.373 lg Re + 9.01)
X exp[5.52 X (tlD - 0.25)] X
This relation is valid for tlD = 0.25 to 1, Re = 2 * lo4 to lo5.
D. INFLUENCE OF THE PRANDTL

NUMBER
Historically, circumstances took such a turn that an attempt to answer the
question of what heat carriers (liquid metals, gases, or liquids) yield the best
enhancement efficiency was made on the basis of a theoretical analysis. Assum-
ing that artificial turbulators actively affected turbulent exchange only far from
the wall, W. Nunner came to the conclusion that the best heat transfer enhance-
ment, all other things being equal, must be attained for liquid metals, i.e., for
Pr 4 1 . All subsequent investigations, both experimental and theoretical [95,
107, 1081, did not support W. Nunner's conclusions. Let us qualitatively
examine the mechanism of interaction of artificial turbulators with the flow
when the Prandtl number varies.
The relative turbulent heat transfer coefficient
E~ - E, Pr
a Y PrT
grows at a given distance from the tube wall as the Re and Pr numbers increase.
Another way of putting it is that the qualitative influence of both numbers on the
temperature field in turbulent flow is the same (as is known, the quantitative
contribution of the influence of the Pr number is smaller than that of the Re
number). In this regard, it is logical to assume that the influence of both numbers
on heat transfer enhancement will be qualitatively the same.
Indeed, if in the weakly developed turbulence region the thickness of the wall
layers having the greater part of the thermal resistance is essentially larger than
the turbulator heights and NUIN&",grows as Re increases, then over this range
of Re numbers the Pr number would reasonably be expected to affect Nu/Nu,,, .
And, vice versa, in the developed turbulent flow, when the turbulator heights are
comparable and larger than the thicknesses of the mentioned layers and the Re
number does not affect the enhancement efficiency, i.e., NuINu,, = const #
f(Re), the Pr number must not exert an essential influence (for Pr > 0.7).
However, some details are of importance over this range of Re numbers.
First, it should be expected that in gases and liquids, when the turbulator pitch
and the Re number are invariable, increasing the turbulator height will be
accompanied by the same heat transfer growth only to a certain limit. In relation
to the fact that artificial turbulization of the wall layer occurs not only in the
vortex zone behind the protrusion but for a certain distance downstream due to
energy dissipation of the turbulent jet stalling from the upper vortex boundary,
the following circumstance is of considerable importance. If the turbulator
height has increased so that the vortex size is large and the turbulized wake goes
far from the wall, then a hrther increase of heat transfer would not be expected.
In this sense, the larger the Pr number, the smaller the protrusion heights that
will yield the limiting value of the heat transfer coefficient. In this case, it seems
probable that the smaller the Pr number, the larger the limiting value of the heat
transfer coefficient will be.
Second, it may be assumed that in the limiting case, as Re 3 m, the relative
heat transfer coefficient Nu/Nu,,,, must tend to 1. In this sense, increasing the Pr
number for experimentally possible maximum Re numbers can be accompanied
by decreasing Nu/Nu,,, . This circumstance must be (from the above considera-
tions) most pronounced when the turbulator pitch increases.
Third, the decrease in the thickness of the wall layer with the greater part of
thermal resistance when Pr increases, and the necessity to augment turbulent
transfer in thinner wall layers do not as yet mean that the same effects of
Nu/Nu,,, can be obtained for both liquids and gases in the presence of much
smaller turbulator heights. For very small heights (dlD = 0.99), the vortex
power is practically negligible, and for smooth profiles, in general, no vortices
can exist. Therefore, no noticeable increase of turbulent transfer in the protru-
sion zone, especially at large pitches, could be expected. This conclusion is
convincingly supported by results [93, 1101 where for protrusions with
dlD 5: 0.99, the enhancement efficiency on water practically was not attained.
Let us refer to the experimental findings concerned with the influence of the Pr
number on heat transfer enhancement [ 1 I 11. Experiments were performed for
water heating with q. = const in a smooth 9.5-mm diameter tube and in a tube
having artificial turbulators shaped as 0.2-mm-high pyramids (data for the pitch
are not cited). The Pr number varied from 1.15 to 6.7 over the range Re = 4 . 1O4
-
to 4 lo5. Figure 29 plots the relative heat transfer coefficient vs. Pr number for
Re = 1.5 * lo5.As the Pr number grows, the enhancement efficiency is improved
only by 5% over the range Pr = 1 to 3, while for Pr > 3, Nu/Nu,,=const. It is
essential here that as the range Re = 4 . lo4 to 4 . 10 increases, the enhancement
efficiency has been degraded by 25% for Pr = 2.6 = const.
The influence of the Pr number on heat transfer enhancement in tubes having
equally spaced annular diaphragms over a broad Pr number range was studied
for heating of air, carbon dioxide, helium, water, and a mixture of water and
glycerin (40% glycerin), which allowed the Pr number to be varied from 0.7 to
210 E. K. KALININ AND C. A. DREITSER
Nmq".
1.48
I .44
1.40
1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 PI
Fro. 29. Influence of the Pr number on heat transfer enhancement
50. The experiment provided for obtaining not only the relations Nu =.f'(Re),
but also Nu =,f(Pr) for Re = const. Experimental results are plotted in Figs. 30
and 3 1 . From the plots, it follows that over the range Re > Re*, the variation of
the Pr number from 0.7 to 50 does not influence the enhancement efficiency. For
Re < Re*, the ratio Nu/Nu,,,, increases by 12% in passing from water to the
mixture of water and glycerin. The influence of the Re number is invariable in
the case of air.
In the experimental work on water and transformer oil in an annular channel
performed by V. I. Gomelauri [log, 109, 1121, it was found that the enhance-
ment efficiency increased as the Pr number grew. When the Pr number varied
approximately from 5 to 80, the ratio NuiNu,,, increased by 13%. For turbulator-
provided channels, it was recommended that this influence be taken into account
through the variation of the power at the Pr number: for smooth tubes,
0.20
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
2 4 6 8 1 0 20 40 Pr
FIG.30. Influence of the Pr number on heat transfer in smooth and rolled tubes: I , smooth tube;
2, dlD = 0.983; 3, dlD = 0.966; 4,dlD = 0.943; 5 , dlD = 0.946 (pitch equal to 1.0); 6, dID = 0.92;
7 , CUD = 0.875 (pitch equal to 0.5); 0, water; 0, mixture of water and glycerin.
H E A T TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN H E A T E X C H A N G E R S 21 1
Nui/Pr" l-l'
I00
80
60
40
20 I
0.8 lo4 1.5 2 RC - 10-4
FIG. 31. Heat transfer variations in tubes: I , smooth tube: 2, (IID = 0.966, t / D = 0.498; 3 ,
dlD = 0.946. rlD = 0.998; 4, tllD = 0.922. r/D = 0.523: 0, water; 0. mixture of water and
glycerin;-. air.
- -
Nu P?1.43,and for turbulator-containing tubes, Nu Pr".". J. W. Smith and R.
A. Gowen's experiments [94] conducted in tubes on water and polyalkine-
glycol indicated that the Pr number strongly affected the enhancement effi-
ciency. Turbulators were shaped as small pyramids (similar to these in D. F.
Dipprey and R. H. Sabersky's experiments [ 1101). No roughness influence on
Recr was revealed. Quantitatively, it was impossible to evaluate the influence of
Pr on Nu/Nu,,, because the Prandtl number decreased as the Re number
increased.
Thus, it may be concluded that in developed turbulent flow, the Pr number
weakly affects the enhancement efficiency over the range Pr = 0.7 to 80. At the
same time, in individual experiments there is a suggestion that the enhancement

efficiency is improved as Pr increases. V. K. Migai [ 1 131 came to the conclusion
that the Pr number did not affect the enhancement efficiency. As for the region
of transition and weakly-developed turbulence, as would be expected, the
influence of the Pr number was essential.
Data on heat transfer enhancement in flow of liquid metals are unknown.
However, there are good reasons to believe that artificial turbulization of liquid
metal flows (Pr G 1) must have extremely low efficiency.
Figure 32 plots the relative heat transfer coefficient Nu/Nu,, vs. diaphragm
height with invariable pitch for water and air. The plots clearly illustrate that
when the diaphragm height dlD = 0.933 to 0.94 increases, heat transfer grows
in the same proportion. However, for d/D < 0.94, the heat transfer ceases to
increase for water but continues to grow for air. The conclusion that the
ultimately attainable increase in heat transfer depends on the Pr number was also
obtained in theoretical work [113], from which the relation (Nu/Nu,,),,,, =
f(Pr) was taken and plotted in Fig. 33.
As discussed above, for very small turbulator heights in liquids with Pr P 1,
a large increase in heat transfer cannot be attained. In this connection, the results
obtained by V. P. Isachenko, S . G. Agababov, and N. M. Galin [lo71 on water
in inside-threaded tubes appear somewhat unexpected. For example, it was found
that in a tube with a profile rolled in the form of a triangle (dlD = 0.978;
t / D = 0.0286), NuINu,, = 2 for Re = 10. However, if it is considered that after
rolling, the heat transfer surface is extended by approximately by 40%, then the
heat transfer augmentation due to artificial turbulization is much reduced.
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.c
0.88 0.92 0.96 d/D
FIG. 32. Influence of the diaphragm height on heat transfer enhancement (Re =4. lo4;
tlD = 0.5): 0,air; 0 , water; X, water with regard to the finning effect.
Nu/Nu,,
0 1 10 100 Pr
FIG.33. Limiting increase o f the heat transfer coefficient vs Pr.
Here it is pertinent to dwell upon the influence of the increase in the heat
transfer surface on the efficiency of heat transfer when artificial turbulators are
used. When rolls are threaded outside the tube, the inner tube surface formed
because of closely spaced built-in turbulators is always larger than the smooth
tube surface. But during experimental data processing, the heat transfer coeffi-
cient is as a rule referred to the smooth tube surface. When heat transfer in rough
and smooth tubes is compared, indeed, the total contribution of artificial turbuli-
zation and surface increase (comparable with the finning efficient) to heat
transfer augmentation is evaluated.
As a practical matter, taking into account the influence of varying the surface
is not critical: If inside a tube having turbulators of specific type, a definite
increase in the heat transfer coefficient is attained, then for any heat exchanger,
it makes no difference what effects are employed to achieve this increase.
Evaluating the quantitative influence of the turbulator size or location on the
heat transfer increase or developing enhancement means or, at least, finding the
relationships between the growth of heat transfer and hydraulic resistance is
quite another matter. In all these cases, the evaluation of the efficiency of the
heat transfer surface is of certain interest. So, we have already assured ourselves
that the efficiency of finning and artificial turbulization can be comparable. We
shall return to the necessity for making such evaluations.
Next, we show the influence of circular diaphragm height and pitch on the
increase in the heat transfer surface. Figure 34 plots FIF,,,, vs. diaphragm height
and pitch for tubes used in our experiments. The maximum heat transfer surface
increase is 22%.
E. INFLUENCE OF THE TURBULATOR

SHAPE
Now that we have analyzed the experimental results [83, 91, 1071, the follow-
ing conclusions can be drawn. First, it can be stated that modifying the
protrusion shape, if its pitch and height are unchanged, slightly influences the
214 E.K. KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
1.2
1.1
I .o
0.84 0.88 0.92 0.96 dlD
FIG. 34. Heat transfer surface variation with the diaphragm height and pitch in rolled tubes:
1. rlD = 0.25; 2, flD = 0.5; 3, t / D = 1.0.
variation of heat transfer and more significantly influences the hydraulic resis-
tance coefficient. As we have seen (see Fig. 27), modifying the turbulator profile
is accompanied by a variation in the value of the hydraulic resistance coefficient
with respect to the Re number. In V. G. Pavlovskys work [83] specially devoted
to this problem, it is convincingly emphasized that the hydraulic resistance
coefficient in turbulator-provided channels is greatly affected by the protrusion
profile or the turbulator drag. Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance were studied
in experiments on air in a rectangular channel for differently shaped turbulators:
triangular, semicircular, rectangular, and drop-shaped. The turbulator height and
pitch were constant. Heat transfer practically did not depend on the turbulator
shape. The hydraulic resistance coefficient decreased as the resistance coeffi-
cient of the profile was reduced. So, passing from the triangle to the drop-shaped
protrusion was accompanied by a decrease in the hydraulic resistance coefficient
by 24%.
W. Nunner [91] found that the semicircular and rectangular turbulators also
yielded different heat transfer enhancement: Heat transfer in tubes with rectan-
gular diaphragms was 9% higher than that in tubes with semicircular ones, and
the hydraulic resistance was, accordingly, 33% higher. However, at present it is
impossible to quantitatively generalize such data. At the same time, of impor-
tance is the fact that in developing means for heat transfer enhancement due to
artificial turbulization of the wall layer of the flow, we must be objective in
choosing the turbulator shape, i.e., we must try to get turbulators with stream-
lined profiles. In this respect, our method of making turbulators provides the
smallest hydraulic resistance among all heat transfer enhancement results known
to us. This is achieved by rolling tubes 0.5 mm in wall thickness and the above-
mentioned streamlined diaphragms having a small profile resistance.
It is pertinent to emphasize that the following factors are of significance: the
rolling technology, roller thickness, size rolling or tube rolling by three rollers,
wall thickness, and kind of material. Use of different technologies for fabricat-
ing diaphragms (rolling by one roller when the pass is made in the tube for a
given ratio d/D, or rolling by three rollers) has led us to recognize that when the
diaphragm pitches and heights are the same, the hydraulic resistance coefficient
has decreased by 25%, pointing to a more favorable profile for those diaphragms
fabricated by pass rolling.
Results on the hydraulic resistance coefficient of thin-walled tubes rolled from
carbon steel 10 having natural roughness A = 0.02 mm ( D = 15 mm) using
commercial manufacturing methods have revealed that the relative increase in
the hydraulic resistance coefficient also depends on the roughness of the
initial rolled tubes. This was demonstrated at the All-Union Research Institute of
Metallurgic Engineering (Moscow).
Figure 35 compares the experimental data on the hydraulic resistance coeffi-
cient of hydraulically smooth stainless steel tubes, industrially smooth carbon
steel tubes, and the same tubes with uniform rolling d/D = 0.94 and t / D = 0.5.
It is important here that the stainless steel tube had a wall 0.5 mm thick and was
<
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
1 2 4 6 10 Rc-10" 1 2 4 6 10 Rc-10.''
a b
FIG. 35. Hydraulic characteristics of different-thickness stainless steel and carbon stcel tubes
(rolling dlD = 0.94, r/D = 0.537): 1. 5. hydraulically smooth thin-walled stainless steel tubes; 2, 3,
smooth carbon steel thin-walled tube and smooth carbon steel thin-walled wide-pitch rolled tube,
respectively; 4. smooth stainless steel thin-walled narrow-pitch rolled tube; 6 , carbon steel thin-
walled tube; 7, relative heat transfer coefficient Nu/Nu,,, .
216 E. K.KALINTN AND G.A. DREITSER
TABLE I11
GENERALIZED
DATAON HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
IN THICK-WALLED
TUBES
Re .
Tube characteristic 2 4 6 8 10 20
Carbon steel, 6 = 2.5 m m NuMu,, 2.185 2.2 2.215 2.22 2.23 2.25
Stainless steel, 6 = 0.5 mm
Carbon steel, 6 = 2.5 m m <I<$,, 2.26 2.29 2.4 2.29 2.29 1.86
Stainless steel, 6 = 0.5 m m (/tSn, 3.46 3.63 3.715 3.76 3.8 3.94
Carbon steel, 6 = 2.5 m m t . lo- 6.52 5.89 5.76 5.56 5.13 4.0
Stainless steel, 6 = 0.5 m m t . lo- 8.71 7.94 7.5 7.16 6.92 6.24
rolled by 1.5-mm-wide rollers, and the carbon steel tube had a wall 2.5 mm
thick and was rolled by 3.6-mm-wide rollers. This figure illustrates that the
rolling of a thick-walled carbon steel tube with natural roughness provides not
only a much smaller relative growth of the hydraulic resistance coefficient c/csm
but also a smaller absolute value of the resistance coefficient t for the rolled
thick-walled tube. This is attributed to the smaller profile resistance of the
diaphragms that are formed when the thick-walled tubes are rolled with the use
of wide rollers. This result is of importance in practice: The same increase in
heat transfer and hydraulic resistance for Nu/Nu,, = </<,,,, = 2.2, when the
thick-walled carbon steel tubes are rolled, provides high efficiency in heat
exchangers using such tubes over a broad Reynolds number range. Table 111
comprises the generalized data on heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of thick-
walled tubes.
A considerable decrease in the hydraulic resistance of the rolled tubes was
also achieved in the case of thin-walled brass tubes having turbulators with a
smoother shape than those in previous work. The tubes had an outer diameter of
18.38 to 18.94 mm, an inner diameter of 16.38 to 16.94 mm (wall thickness was
approximately 1 mm), d/D = 0.904 to 0.947, t / D = 0.305 to 0.60.
Figure 36 plots the hydraulic resistance coefficients for water as a function of
Re. It is seen that the relation t/~$,~ =f(Re) passes through its maximum at
Re = 6 * lo4 to 1.4 . lo5 for all tubes. The hydraulic resistance (see Fig. 37) can
be essentially decreased (by 20 to 30%) by improving the closeness of contact
between the turbulators when the turbulator heights and pitches as well as the
heat transfer increase are kept the same. Use of such turbulators greatly extends
the region of the advancing growth of heat transfer and provides Nu/Nu,, =
(/ts,= 2 at Re = 4 . lo4. This ratio increases with the Reynolds number. It is
obvious that in doing so, the efficiency of tubular heat exchangers can be
appreciably improved. The design of the heat transfer surface of the tube was
also essentially improved for stainless steel tubes (see Fig. 38) [ 1 141.
r
I .4
1.2
10-1
9
8
7
6
5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.8
1.6-10'
104 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910' 2 Re
FIG.36. Hydraulic resistance of tubes having smooth diaphragms: 1 , dlD = 0.904, tiD = 0.417;
2, dlD = 0.916, tlD = 0.305; 3, dlD = 0.91, tlD = 0.356; 4, diD = 0.923, tlD = 0.414; 5 ,
dlD = 0.923, tlD = 0.6; 6, dlD = 0.947, rld = 0.404; 7. dlD = 0.944, IID = 0.427; 8, smooth
tube.
I
0.9 0.94 d/D
FIG.37. Rolling depth influence on the growth of heat transfer NdNu,,, and hydraulic resistance
in the water Row (Re = 4 . 10' and rld = 0.4): I , data of [105]; 2, tubes having smooth
diaphragms.
FIG. 38. Profiles of (1) wide- and (2) narrow-pitch rolled turbulators.
Figure 39 plots data on the hydraulic resistance for tubes 12/9.8 in diameter in
air flow at Re = lo4 to 4 . lo5 for the rolling pitch t / D = 0.6 with different
values of d / D = 0.75 to 0.97 and the diaphragm rounding radii R/D = 0.08 to
0.42. It is seen that as with the tubes studied earlier, (see Fig. 26), no similarity
of the hydraulic resistance coefficient has been obtained for either of the
tubes.
If the formed cross section of the turbulator diaphragm (see Fig. 12) is
approximately represented as a semicircle with radius R, then comparison of the
geometrical parameters of the turbulators and the tube shows that a maximum
value of the turbulator radius can be obtained from the expression
R,,,,
~
D
= 0.25( 1 - ")[
D (1 -do)*
and a minimum value R,i, is determined by the design and production
potentialities
Rmjn= Ro + 6 (25)
where Ro is the groove radius and 6 is the tube wall thickness. If account is taken
of the fact that Ro = 0.56, then we have
&in = 1.56 (26)
As the performed experiments have revealed, the range of the minimum
values of R / D is written
D
where A = 2.1 to ( t / D ) / ( l - d/D). From Fig. 40 it is seen that the hydraulic
resistance in the tubes whose turbulator profile is made withinA = 2.1 to 7.41 in
both air and water is lower by 25 to 35 percent than that in the tubes whose
turbulator shape characteristics are beyond A = 1.79 to 2. In what follows, the
heat transfer coefficient practically has remained invariable.
FIG. 39. Hydraulic resistance coefficient of tubes provided with annular diaphragms for different
c//D and RiD at /ID = 0.6: I,tflD = 0.97. RID = 0.42; 2. 0.95. 0.37: 3. 0.04. 0.32: 4, 0.93. 0.26: 5.
0.92. 0.2; 6. 0.91. 0.15; 7, 0.875. 0.08: 8. smooth tube.
The shape influence is the central cause of the difficulties that emerge when
we compare experimental data on heat transfer enhancement. Because of this, if
the experimental hcat transfer data of different authors are generalized satisfac-
torily, then only the common features can be seen in the hydraulic resistance
data, and at present it is very difficult to generalize them quantitatively.
F. INFLUENCE OF DIAPHRAGM
HEIGHTA N D PITCH
These problems have been partially considered in the previous sections. Here.
we shall dwell on them in more detail. In 1952 E. W. Sams [I 151 was the first
to attempt to generalize the experimental data on heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance in wire insert-provided tubes through the use of the relative pitch tih.
He showed that for a defined Re number, the data on heat transfer and hydraulic
E. K. KALININ AND G.A. DREITSER
1
0.9 0.95 3.9 0.9
a b
FIG.40. Comparison of c/ts,,,vs dlD for tubes with different-profile turbulators: a, Re = 4 . lo';
b, Re = 4 . 10'; 1, __ A = 1.79 to 2.17; 2, -A = 2.12 to 7.41; X, air; 0 , water.
resistance coefficient were satisfactorily generalized at different t and h just by

their relationship. In this case, the maximum of Nu/N&,, r/Tsm
=f(t, h ) corre-
sponding to tlh = 10 was found. In subsequent work (both in tubes and in
annular channels), a similar result was obtained, but with one substantial
difference: Even if E. W. Sams's data on hydraulic resistance and heat transfer
in the Nu/Nu,, , r/&
= f(t, h ) coordinates practically did not scatter for differ-
ent turbulator heights, all subsequent work did not support this. This situation is
quite obvious, as tlh cannot be the only criterion, and data on heat transfer and
hydraulic resistance can be generalized through the use of two characteristic
parameters tlh and hlD or tlD and dlD (needless to say, for a fixed turbulator
shape). The presence of the maximum in the relations NulNu,, and 5/Tsm=
f(t, h ) has been analyzed [88,90].
Figure 41 plots the experimental data on heat transfer in turbulent air tube
flow behind single diaphragms having sharp edges and at sudden expansions. As
in the case of the diaphragms and sudden expansions, the maximum of the heat
transfer increase is achieved in the section 10 groove heights from an abrupt
FIG.41. Local heat transfer variations in a tube with single diaphragms and abrupt expansions:
0'; A, Re = 10.1 . 10'; 2, diaphragm; d / D = 0.52;
1, abrupt expansion; dlD = 0.5; A, Re = 3.5 . 1
0, Re = 4.5 . lo4: 0, Re = 12.2 . 10'.
expansion of the diameter and right in the section where the jet of the initial
mass attaches to the wall. These data demonstrate that the maximum increases
with respect to the Reynolds number and depends only on the extent of varying
the channel cross section, i.e., on the quantity dlD.
Figure 42a plots the data for the relative pitch influence on the heat transfer
increase for annular rectangular (Koch's experiments) and smooth (our experi-
ments) diaphragms in air flow with the same constant Re number and the
constant diaphragm height.
In R. Koch's work, the diaphragms did not contact the tube wall, and hence
the heat transfer surface was not increased. In our experiments [105, 1061, when
the pitches were closely spaced, the heat transfer surface increased, and that is
why the correction for FIF,,, was made. In this figure it is seen that the
maximum increase of heat transfer is attained with tlh = 10. If NulNu,,,, =
.f(t/h) is plotted by varying h at t = const, then the obtained dependence will
have nothing to do with the above relation and, in fact, a dependence on the
diaphragm height will be found. Thus, the dependence of the relative heat
transfer coefficient on the pitch tlh is spread in the h values. In addition, there
are Wilky's data, showing that the maximum of the function moves up in the
values of tlh as the height decreases.
Figure 42b plots the relative hydraulic resistance coefficient vs diaphragm
pitch. As with heat transfer, the increase of the hydraulic resistance coefficient
attains its maximum at tlh = 10. When the data for the influence of pitch on
coefficients of hydraulic resistance and heat transfer are compared, naturally, the
222 E. K.KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
question arises whether the relative pitch t / h = 10 is optimal from the standpoint
of the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement.
Figure 42c plots the relation ( N U / N U ~ ~ , ) / ( ~as
/ ~ a~ ,function
,,) of diaphragm
pitch. Characteristically, at t / h = 10 the increase of heat transfer relative to the
growth of the hydraulic resistance coefficient is minimum. However, this is not
as yet to say that in the vicinity of tlh = 10 the heat transfer efficiency degrades.
To evaluate how the pitch variation affects the efficiency of heat transfer
enhancement, it is more illuminating and convincing to compare the sizes of a
tubular heat exchanger composed of smooth and turbulator-provided tubes. The
4 6 810 20 40 60 100 tlh

a b
Nu/Nu,,, vi <"I
<I<,
10
08 0.7
06
04 0.6
02
0.5
4 6 810 20 40 60 100 tih 4 6 810 20 40 60 100 ///I
C d
FIG.42. Influence of the diaphragm pitch on: a, heat transfer enhancement; -. R. Koch's data
[go]; 0, data of [105]; 0 , our data [I051 with regard to the finning coefficient; 0 , data of [106];
b, hydraulic resistance coefficient (Re = 4 . 10'; dlD = 0.894);I , R. Koch's data; 2, our data;
c, relationship between the growth of the heat transfer and hydraulic resistance coefficients
(Re = 4 lo4, dlD = 0.89); 1, our data; 2, R. Koch's data [90]; 3, E. W. Sams' data [ I 151;
d, efficiency of heat transfer enhancement (Re = 4 . lo4;dlD = 0.89); 1, with regard to the finning
effect; 2, with no regard to the finning effect.
H E A T TRANSFER E N H A N C E M E N T IN HEAT EXCHANGERS 223
volume (mass) ratio of such heat exchangers depends on the relative coefficients
of hydraulic resistance and heat transfer
provided that the flow rates, heat fluxes, and hydraulic resistance are equal in
these exchangers.
Figure 42d plots this dependence (according to our data). The plot clearly
demonstrates that as the pitch decreases, the benefit from reducing the heat
exchanger size becomes more profound. If account is taken of the surface
increase at small pitches, then this dependence has a minimum right in the
vicinity of tih = 10. This very minimum is also observed when the turbulators
do not contact the walls, i.e., they do not increase the heat transfer surface. Thus,
the closely spaced diaphragms would be appropriate for a maximum decrease in
the heat transfer surface when the rolled tubes are used in the turbulent region.
However, it should be kept in mind that the size of the cross section of the rolled
tubular heat exchanger (number of tubes) depends on the relation (NLI~NU,,,,)~
((/tsn,), but it decreases as the pitch decreases, meaning that the heat exchanger
cross section increases relative to that for smooth tubes.
This conclusion on the role of tih, to a large extent, can be applied to liquids
with Pr > 1. We have seen for ourselves that the pitch increase is accompanied
by a marked decrease in the enhancement efficiency, especially for elevated Re
numbers (Re > Re*).
Figure 43a plots the experimental data of different authors as the relative heat
transfer coefficient vs annular diaphragm height with the constant pitch
tlD = 1.0 and Re = 10 in air flow. In R. Kochs work [90] it was shown that
the relation Nu/Nu,,, = . f ( d / D ) at t / h = const (essentially, for t l h = const but
not for tlD = const) had a maximum, and this maximum moved down as t l h
increased. A maximum value of NuiNu,,,, = 4.3 in the tubes having artificial
turbulators shaped as annular diaphragms was attained for dID = 0.6 and
t / h = 10. It is interesting that according to V. K. Migais theoretical predictions,
this value is close to a theoretically possible limit of the increase of the heat
transfer coefficient (Nu/Nu,,),,,,, = 4.5 for Pr = 0.7. As noted above, for liquids
with Pr > 1 NuiNu,,, as a function of dlD is saturated earlier than in the air
flow, and heat transfer does not increase for d / D < 0.94 (see Fig. 32). Hence, for
liquids, the question about an optimal diaphragm height range is solved simply:
The best results are attained over the range dlD = 0.98 to 0.94.
Unlike the heat transfer coefficient, the hydraulic resistance coefficient
increases progressively as the protrusion height grows. However, as our studies
have shown, the rate of increase of the hydraulic resistance coefficient is smaller
over the range of the small diaphragm heights than at great heights. This result
contradicts R. Kochs conclusion [90]. By extrapolating the data to the range of
224 E. K. KALMIN AND G. A. DREITSER
small h, he reported that the hydraulic resistance coefficient increased dramati-

cally over this very range, and that for small dlD c 0.8 this increase obeyed the
experimental law
< = A . e~p[B(d/D)~] (29)
where A and B are the functions of tlh.
Apparently, this contradiction is the result of the influence of the different
turbulator shapes. As we have seen for ourselves, this exerts an essential
influence both on the value of the hydraulic resistance coefficient and on its
3.8
1.4
1.o
0.72 0.76 0.80 0.84 0.88 0.92 0.96 d/D- 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98dlD
a b
vj v,,
1.1
1.7,
1.o
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.72 0.76 0.80 0.84 0.88 0.92 0.96rliD
C
FIG.43. Influence of the diaphragm height on: a, heat transfer enhancement in tubes in the air
flow (Re = 4 . lo4; r/D = 1.0); 0, data of [lOS]; 0,data of [106]; 0 , W. Nunners data [91]; I, R.
Kochs data [90]; A, data of [ 1161; b, relationship between the growth of the heat transfer and
hydraulic resistance coefficients for tlD = 0.5 in air flow (Re = 4. lo4); c, efficiency of heat
transfer enhancement in tubes in the air flow ( t / D = I .O); 1, our data; 2, V. K. Migais data [ 1161;
3, R. Kochs data [90].
variation. Figure 43b plots Nu/Nu,, and </&m vs dlD obtained in gas flow as an
illustration. From the plots it is clearly seen that the range of small diaphragm
heights is very promising for heat transfer enhancement; within this range the
increase in hydraulic resistance as well as heat transfer is almost the same.
However, the effects themselves are small in magnitude, i.e., in this range the
heat exchanger length can be decreased approximately 1.5 times when the
entrance section is the same. Higher diaphragms are needed to achieve a more
substantial decrease in heat exchanger size. In this case, the hydraulic resistance
coefficient increases dramatically. Therefore, let us use Eq. (28) to estimate an
optimal diaphragm height to maximize the decrease in heat exchanger size for
the constant pitch tlD = 1.0 and Re = 4 * lo4 for air. The results obtained in
Fig. 43c allow the conclusion that for a given pitch and a given Re number, the
optimal diaphragm size is in the vicinity of dlD = 0.93. The same result has
been obtained in other works, in particular that of V. K. Migai [116] and R.
Koch [90], the data from which are plotted in this figure. Thus, if tubes with
equally spaced annular diaphragms are chosen as a means for heat transfer
enhancement (i.e., the chosen means are most suitable from energy and theoret-
ical standpoints), then the choice of optimal diaphragm height and pitch in
turbulent flow should be made considering the following factors.
1. For liquids (Pr = 2-80), tlD = 0.25 to 0.5 and dlD = 0.94 to 0.98 can be
taken as optimal sizes.
2. For gases, using the design recommendations and considering the specific
conditions (the necessity of a maximum decrease in size without limitation
or with limitations on the overall size of a heat exchanger, e.g., cross
section, length mass flow rates, Re numbers, etc.), preliminary estimates
should be made by equations similar to (28) for different Re by varying
tlD and dlD. It must be borne in mind that in the general case, the
beneficial and interesting ranges are the following: tlD = 0.25 to 1.0 and
dlD = 0.90 to 0.95.
G. INFLUENCE OF THE TEMPERATURE FLOW

FACTORUNDER ARTIFICIAL
TURBULIZATION CONDITIONS
In smooth tubes and in tubes having artificial turbulators, the influence of the
nonisothermity of the turbulent flow on heat transfer and hydraulic resistance
will be different. Therefore, one of the important problems of heat transfer
enhancement is the nonisothermity effect under artificial turbulization condi-
tions. How important is this effect, especially from the standpoint of practice?
Let us illustrate this by the results of our experiments on water [117], with the
intent of evaluating the influence of flow nonisothermity on the hydraulic
resistance coefficient in rolled tubes.
226 E. K. KALlNlN A N D G. A. DREITSER
The pressure of the artificial turbulators in the tubes, in the general case,
increases the contribution of the turbulent components to total momentum
transfer. Accordingly, the contribution of molecular transfer decreases. As is
known, in the limiting case (completely rough tubes) the similarity law is
attained, and the hydraulic resistance coefficient does not depend on the Re
number. Naturally, under these conditions the temperature field must not exert
any influence on the velocity field (interaction due to molecular viscosity).
Of chief interest is the influence of the flow nonisothermity on the hydraulic
resistance coefficient in those tubes, for which the hydraulic resistance laws vary
from Blasius's law (hydraulically smooth tubes) to the similarity law (com-
pletely rough tubes).
In our experiments, the nonisothermity was reached by supplying heat
(qw,= const) to the turbulent water flow over the range q,, = 0 to
4.5 . los WJm'. This corresponded to pflpw = 1 to 2.5 within the range
Re = lo4 to lo5. The preliminary measurements in a smooth tube under iso-
thermal conditions yielded results that practically coincided with Blasius's law
with a scatter of the experimental points equal to +3.5%.
5s,n= 0.3 161Re0.254 (30)
The experimental data on the hydraulic resistance coefficient in a smooth tube
were processed in the form of &m/L&,, =f( p,,,Jpf), and with the scatter of the
experimental points equal to +5%, the relation
is obtained, or
113
0.3 16
Figure 44 plots the results of the processed experimental data on rolled tubes
having different-height diaphragms for the constant pitch tlD = 0.5. As the
turbulator height increases, the nonisothermity influence on the hydraulic resis-
tance coefficient falls sharply. As follows from Fig. 45, the hydraulic resistance
law approaches the similarity one. Therefore, the tube with the diaphragms
dlD = 0.875 and the pitches tlD = 0.5 within the range Re = lo4 to lo5
practically is fully rough, and the hydraulic resistance coefficient in this tube
does not depend on the nonisothermity.
The power of ,uWl,ujas a function of diaphragm height for the pitch tlD = 0.5
is generalized by the equation for dJD = 0.87 to 1:
nlno = (d/D)2"4 (33)
As the pitch decreases, the hydraulic resistance law approaches the similarity
FIG.44. Power at /i,/psrvs diaphragm height for the pitch r/D = 0.5.
law, and the nonisothermity influence degrades for d f D = 0.94 and t / D = 0.5
to 4:
nfno = 10(fl%Y;f,lJ)[l 7174 Ip(r/d)]
(34)
Thus, in the general case, the hydraulic resistance coefficient in the isothermal
turbulent liquid flow in tubes provided with artificial turbulators can be given as
5 = &,(ill" Ip, (35)
u.20
0.I0
0.08
0 05
0.04
0.02
L l I 1
I 2 4 6 810
Kc. 10A
FIG. 35. Variation of the hydraulic resistancc coefficient in tubes with differcnt-hcight din-
phragms: I. smooth; 2. d/D= 0.983; 3, d / D = 0.965: 4, d/D = 0.943; 5. d / D = 0.922; 6,
tUD = 0.875.
or
where to= f l(dlD), tlD, Re), nlno = f *(d/D,tlD) for a defined turbulator
shape.
Comparing Eqs. (33), (34), and (36), it is easy to verify that when the hydraulic
resistance of rough or artificial turbulator-provided tubular heat exchangers is
calculated,as well as when the efficiency of the heat transfer enhancement method
is estimated, particular account should be taken of the specific influence of
nonisothermity on the hydraulic resistance. Neglect of this fact can lead to
noticeable errors: As liquids are heated, the hydraulic resistance moves down in
value. For example, for tubes with diaphragms dlD = 0.9 and pitches t / D = 0.5
under the heating conditions corresponding to pJpt = 0.3, by taking into
consideration the nonisothermity influence, as recommended for smooth tubes,
Eq. (3 l), the actual hydraulic resistance is underestimated by 50%.
It stands to reason that the presented results fall far short of being exhaustive,
even as applied to the hydraulic resistance coefficient. Nevertheless, reflecting the
general qualitative case, they strongly support the necessity for a hrther study of
the flow nonisothermity influence under artificial turbulization conditions.
H. HEATTRANSFERENHANCEMENT
WITH SUPERCRITICAL
HYDROCARBON
FLOW1N TUBES
Interest in the given problem has been aroused by the use of hydrocarbon
fuels as coolants of heat-stressed components of vehicle engines. The possibility
of these fuels' use for cooling can be essentially improved as a result of
endothermal decomposition reactions. Also, the presence of supercritical cooling
parameters allows high values of heat transfer coefficients to be obtained.
Problems of heat transfer enhancement under these conditions have not been
previously studied.
In this connection, G . A. Dreitser, A. S. Myakochin, L. S . Yanovsky, and I. V.
Podporin [ 1 181 conducted a large number of experiments. The inner diameter of
the electrically heated tubes was D = 1 to 4 mm, and the tube length was equal
to 1 m. Kerosene of trademark RT (per= 2.5 MPa, To, = 666 K) at a pressure of
5.0MPa served as the working liquid. Experiments were performed over the
range Re = lo2 to 3.5 . lo4 at the entrance temperature To = 373 K and the heat
flux density q,+= 3 . lo3 to 8 * lo5 W/m*. Heat transfer in the smooth channels
is governed by the known relations. Under conditions involving a high wall
temperature T,, > 55OoC, the fuel is partially decomposed, and heat transfer is
affected by the fuel state in the channel.
As is known, in the supercritical region of the state parameters, the thermo-

physical properties (heat capacity, viscosity, and heat conduction) very sharply
and nonmonotonically vary with temperature. According to B. S. Petukhovs
classification [ 1 191, the heat transfer regime under supercritical pressures can be
conventionally subdivided into normal, degraded, and upgraded regimes. A
normal regime is one within which the heat transfer process can be explained by
the existing concepts of the turbulent flow laws and is governed by the known
critical relations, having regard to the properties that are variable across the flow
cross section. The degraded and upgraded heat transfer regimes have lower and
higher heat transfer coefficients, as against the normal ones.
Researchers are taking a special interest in the degraded heat transfer regime.
Degraded heat transfer regimes were observed both in ascending and in
descending liquid flow, with the temperature peak in a number of cases being
greater in magnitude in the descending flow than in the ascending flow. When
the tube is in a vertical position, the degraded regime can be observed in the top
part of the tube.
The degraded heat transfer regime is attributed to a decrease in turbulent
transfer resulting from a strong variation of the properties over the flow cross
section and the appearance of the free convection effect at high pressure gradients.
This is bound up with the directions and forces that specify the forced and free
motion when in some part of the flow, transverse turbulent velocity pulsations are
suppressed and the wall layer is laminarized. In some work, it is emphasized that
the degraded heat transfer regime originates after the wall layer of the liquid
passes through the zone of maximum heat capacity while the flow core has
attained this temperature, i.e., this maximum occurs within T, < T1, < L,where
7;,,,, is the temperature of maximum heat capacity at a given pressure.
For degraded heat transfer regimes to be suppressed and the wall temperature
to be decreased, annular turbulator-provided tubes must be used to enhance heat
transfer in the wall region. Stainless steel tubes with an inside-outside diameter
of 4 mm that were 1 m long with the turbulator parameters CllD = 0.85 to 0.95
and tlD = 0.75 to 2 were examined.
As a result of these studies, the range of the Re values was found in which use
of the turbulator-equipped tubes was most efficient, i.e., the transition region
where (NU/NU,,~,) > < / ~ b l , , . Figure 46 plots the corresponding ratios Nu/Nu,,, and
</<,,,, vs Re number in the transition region within the normal (nondegraded)
heat transfer regimes. A maximum increase of heat transfer up to NulNu,,, = 3.6
is for Re = (4 - 8) . lo3.
The influence of the rolling depth CUD and the pitch r/D on heat transfer
enhancement increases as dlD and t l D decrease, as seen from Figs. 47 and 48.
As indicated by Fig. 49, for Re < 1000 in laminar flow, Nu/Nu,, < 1. The
reason is that for small flow velocities in the channels between the turbulators,
stagnation regions are formed that augment the thermal resistance between
FIG.46. NulNu, and </(,, . vs Re at heating of supercritical kerosene in the turbulator-provided

tubes under "normal" heat transfer conditions: I , 2, d / D = 0.85, t / D = 1.5; 3, 4, d/D = 0.95.
tlD = 1.5.
wall and flow and decrease heat transfer. The quantity ~ / ~ s ,>n 1 in these
regimes.
It was revealed that heat transfer enhancement was most beneficial in sup-
pressing degraded heat transfer regimes. As is evident from Fig. 47, the ratio
FIG.47. NuiNu,,, at heating of supercritical kerosene under the degraded heat transfer conditions
( t / D = 0.75) in turbulator-provided tubes: 1, dlD = 0.95; 2, d / D = 0.92; 3. dlD = 0.875; 4,
d / D = 0.85.
FIG. 48. Influence of the protrusion shape on heat transfer and hydraulic resistance for
(/ID = 0.85; i l D = 1.5: 1. 2, narrow-pitch rolling ( I mm); 3, 4. wide-pitch rolling ( 2 rnm): I . 3.
NuINu,,,,; 2. 1,<I( .,,,.
Nu/Nu,,, can reach 5 as the NuiNu,, growth moves up in the Re numbers, at

which point degraded heat transfer in a smooth tube manifests itself.
It is found that the rolling shape may influence not only the hydraulic
resistance but also heat transfer. For example, for d / D = 0.85 and t / D = 1.5 in
the nornial heat transfer regime </<>,,, can be decreased by 30 to 32% by using a
smoother rolling shape. In doing so, NuiNu,,, decreases by approximately 20%
(see Fig. 48).
FIG.40. Rolling depth outside the tube (ordinate axis) vs rolling depth inside it (abscissa): I .
t/D',,,, = 0.25; 2. I/D~,,~,
= 0.5 and 1.0.
It should be noted that in flow of supercritical hydrocarbon fuels, higher

efficiencies of heat transfer enhancement are established for other heat
carriers.
IV. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Tube Bundles in

Longitudinal Flow and Annular Channels
A. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
DUE TO TRANSVERSE
ANNULAR
GROOVES
IN FLOW
TUBEBUNDLESIN LONGITUDINAL
To design most compact heat exchangers, it is necessary not only to enhance
heat transfer in an intertube space by different turbulators but also to utilize
closely packed tube bundles (relative tube pitch in a bundle is SID,,, I1.2).
Two described means for reducing the overall size of a tubular heat exchanger
are, as a rule, mutually exclusive. Use of outer finning increases the size of
closely packed tube bundles. Use of closely packed tube bundles interferes with
the outer finning of tubes and makes the less efficient because of the growth of
hydraulic resistance of a bundle. It would therefore be very promising to adopt
a means of heat transfer enhancement in longitudinal flow past tube bundles that
would not increase the outer diameter of tubes, i.e., one that would allow these
tubes to be used in closely packed bundles.
The use of tubes with annular transverse rolled grooves meets this require-
ment. Recesses formed on the outer surface of tubes promote wall layer
turbulization and heat transfer enhancement. This means of heat transfer
enhancement has the following main advantages over other means in external
flow past a tube: It is applicable in closely packed tube bundles, as it does not
increase the outer diameter of tubes; formation of annular grooves inside of a
tube essentially enhances heat transfer in it; it is easy to perform; it can be used
at high flux densities; and it allows the existing technology of assembling
tubular heat exchangers to be used.
Consider the results on heat transfer enhancement in in-line staggered tube
bundles with S/D,,,, = 1.2 for air heating and cooling [105, 1201. A test section
consisted of 19 tubes with an outer diameter DOut = ( I 1 t 0.1) mm, wall thickness
of 0.65 k 0.01 mm, and a length of 1.5 m. Six versions of tube bundles with
different rolling depths d,,,,/D,,,and rolling pitch ?/Do,,were tested: for air heating,
d,,,/D,,t = 0.97 and 0.90 at t/Dout= 0.454, and d,,,/D,, = 0.90 at t/D,,, = 0.909;
for air cooling, d,,/D,,, = 0.95 and 0.93 at tlDou,= 0.454, and d,,,,,/D,,, = 0.93
at ?/Do,, = 0.909. Tubes were rolled by the technology developed at the All-Union
Research Institute of Metallurgic Engineering for quantity production. The rolling
width was approximately 1 mm. Parameters in the heater were varied over the
following ranges: heat flux density = 355 k 24,600 W/m2; mean flow tem-
perature 5 = 62 to 140C; mean wall temperature T, = 91 to 218OC; mean
temperature head dT= 14 to 101C; temperature factor iT, = 1.046 f 1.25; z,

Reynolds number based on deqand T,,, Re, = 2 . 10' to 8 . lo4. In a refrigerator,
r,
q = 400 k 49,000 W/mZ; = 36.7 to 99.5"C; = 10.8 to 46.8OC; A T = 3.3 to
60.4"C; TWIT,= 0.88 to 0.99; Re, = lo3 to 1.18 . lo5.
The dimensionless rolling depth dlD inside a tube can differ from the outside
do,,,iD,,,, . Figure 49 plots the relationship between dimensionless rolling recesses
outside and inside the tube for several considered rolling version. At tlD,,, = 0.5
and 1 the dimensionless rolling depth outside and inside the tube practically
coincides, but for a smaller pitch tiD,,,, = 0.25 (not studied in tube bundles),
d,,,,/D,,,, outside the tube is somewhat larger than d / D inside it.
When the equivalent diameter, the wetted perimeter, and the flow area of tube
bundles were determined, the presence of grooves was not allowed for. The heat
transfer coefficient and the heat flux were related to a smooth tube surface. The
increase of the tube surface due to groove rolling did not exceed 8%.
In the laminar flow region, rolling does not affect heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance (Fig. 50). As Re grows, first the resistance of rolled tube bundles
becomes higher relative to that of smooth tube bundles, and then heat transfer
increases. At Re > Re, the ratio NuiNu,,,, (where Nu,,, is the Nusselt number for
a smooth tube bundle at the same Re) starts to grow as Re grows. However, after
Rez has achieved a definite value, the heat transfer growth compared to that of a
smooth tube bundle is stabilized and, as Re grows, NulNu,,,, is invariable. The
values of Re, and Rez increase as the rolling depth decreases and almost do not
depend on the rolling pitch (Fig. 51). As Re grows, the difference in the
resistance coefficient of rolled ( and smooth l,,, tube bundles increases first
5
10
8
6
Re Re
a b
FIG. 50. Coefficients of (a) heat transfer and (b) hydraulic resistance for tube bundles in
longitudinal flow with annular grooved tubes (SID,., = 1.2) with a rolling pitch t/Do,,,= 0.454:1-4,
~ ~ 0.95, 0.93, 0.9, respectively; 5 , smooth tube bundle.
I , ,0.97,
L / ~ , ~ , / L=
Re
FIG. 5 1 . Rel and Re2 as a function of rolling depth for a rolling pitch r/& = 0.454.
sharply and then more smoothly. The ratios Nu/Nu,, and </&, increase as the
rolling depth increases (Fig. 52) and rolling pitch decreases.
As d,,,/D,,, decreases, a plot of <
as a hnction of Re becomes flatter
(Fig. 52), since in that case, a portion of pressure loss for flow turbulization in
channels grows. The pressure loss equivalent to local resistances slightly
depends on Re, and as it grows, the dependence of the total resistance coefficient
on Re decreases.
The obtained experimental data have allowed the mechanism of heat transfer
enhancement to be explained as follows. In the case of laminar flow, grooves are
filled with a stagnant gas and do not affect hydraulic resistance and heat transfer.
As Re grows, turbulent plugs appear in the wide parts of the space cells. Over
some portion of the tube perimeter, the flow velocity increases near the wall and
the flow is periodically stalled in the grooves. These phenomena turbulize a thin
wall layer and, hence, enhance heat transfer and hydraulic resistance. Since
turbulent plugs enhance heat transfer on only a small portion of the tube perimeter
containing the wide parts of the cell and at the same time capture the main flow
core, the growth of hydraulic resistance exceeds the growth of heat transfer.
As Re grows further, the laminar sublayer thickness decreases. In this case,
stable vortices whose power increases are formed in the grooves. As Re grows,
the vortices propagating along the grooves gradually penetrate into the narrow
parts of the intertube space and cover the entire tube perimeter. Therefore, the
heat transfer coefficient increases because of both the growth of the power of a
vortex forming in a groove and its propagation over the whole groove.
At the upper vortex boundary, where the velocity gradient is maximum,
random flow disturbances are formed into coarse pulsations of the axial velocity
component. As a result of pressure pulsations, the energy of longitudinal
fluctuations is transferred to transverse fluctuations. Coarse fluctuations are
transferred by the main flow along the walls, converting their energy to more
finer fluctuations unless they completely dissipate. The presence of these fluctu-
ations near the walls increases turbulent heat conduction in the wall boundary
layer and heat transfer.
As Re grows, velocity profiles become more full and the upper part of a vortex
remains practically at the same level. Therefore, the turbulized jet stalling in the
upper part of a vortex, although it has become more powerful, mostly does not
penetrate into the region where the main temperature head acts. In this case, heat
transfer enhancement due to flow turbulization ceases to increase. The hydraulic
resistance of the tube bundle continues to increase as the vortex power grows.
For the rolling pitch r/Dc,ul= 0.454 and 0.9 5 d,,,ID,,, 5 0.97, the Re
numbers at which Nu/Nu,,, starts to grow and is stabilized are expressed by the
following relations:
Re, = (30do,,/D,,, - 26.4) . 10' (37)
- 12.1). 10'
Rez = (l6.8dnuT/Dni,, (38)
1.2
1 .0
0.8
1
FIG.52. RatiosNu/Nu, ,,,, (/< ,,,,, (Nu/Nu,,,,)l(U;~,,,, as a function of rolling depth d,,,/D,,,,, for the
rolling pitch tlD,,,, = 0.454: ~ Nu/Nu,,,>, - - - - - c/c,,,);l, Re = 4 . 10' to 4 lo5; l', Re = IQ;
I". Re = 4 . 10': 2, Re = 2 . 10'; 3, Re = 10'; 4, Re = 6 . 10'.
At Re = 4 . lo4 the ratios Nu/Nus, and 5/rsmfor do,/D, = 0.95 are equal to
1.40 and 1.35, respectively, i.e., the growth of heat transfer exceeds that of
hydraulic resistance, and at d,,/D0,,, = 0.9 these ratios are equal to 1.44 and
1.67 (at t/D,,, = 0.454). As the rolling pitch grows, Nu/Nus, and </(sm decrease.
For t/DOut= 0.909 and dou,/Dou, = 0.90, these ratios are 1.3 and 1.25. As
dout/D,ut decreases, the influence of the temperature factor on hydraulic resist-
ance at air is heating reduced. This is attributed to the fact that the flow
nonisothennal behavior affects mainly the viscous component of pressure loss,
whose relative value decreases as roughness increases. At do,,lDo,t = 0.90 a
correction allowing for the influence of the temperature factor on the resist-
ance coefficient is (/to= 1, where (,) stands for isothermal flow (over the
investigated range Tw/Tf).The dependence of </to on the rolling depth for 1 2
d,,,,/D,,, 2 0.9 and t/Dout= 0.454 can be written as
5/50 = (5/50)sm + 10 ( 1 - dout/DouJ . [ 1 - (5/t0)sml
* (39)
(LIT/1-
2 9(lgRc-4)
(t/5o)sm = (40)
where is the coefficient allowing for hydraulic resistance as a func-
tion of temperature factor for a smooth tube bundle at 1 < T,/T, < 1.1;
lo4 < Ref < 8 lo4.
At air cooling the influence of the temperature factor on the hydraulic
resistance of rolled tube bundles as well as of smooth tube ones is negligible.
The influence of relative tube pitch on heat transfer enhancement was studied
for water. In-line staggered tube bundles with pitches S/Dou,equal to 1.16, 1.2,
1.34, 1.4, and 1.5 (des= 5.51, 7.05, 11.22, 13.21, and 17.9mm) [14,22] were
investigated.
Test sections were composed of seven 1400 mm long tubes. The heat transfer
coefficient was related to the mean temperature difference of the outer surface
and the flow in the central bundle cells. The flow temperature was determined,
assuming that transverse flow mixing did not occur among the cells. This
assumption was supported [123, 1241.
The study of heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of smooth tube bundles
preceded the study of heat transfer enhancement. Heat transfer data agree
satisfactorily with the results of other investigations in the turbulent region and
can be generalized by the relation
Nuf = (0.032S/DO,,- 0.0144) * Re:X Pr:'3 (41)
This is valid for staggered tube bundles with SID,,, = 1.1 to 1.5 and Ref
corresponding to the turbulent region, i.e., for Ref > 1.3 . lo4 at S/Do, = 1.1 to
I .2, for Ref > 2 . lo4 at S/Do,, = 1.2 to 1.4, and for Ref > 3 . lo4 at S/Dout= 1.4
to 1.5.
The equivalent diameter obtained with respect to the complete wetted perime-
ter is taken as the determining dimension, and the mean temperature Tf of the
boundary layer equal to the average of the mean temperatures of the fluid and
the wall is taken as a determining temperature.
It should be noted that at SlD,,, > 1.5, heat transfer grows more slowly, and
at S/D,,,, < 1.1, it decreases faster than predicted from Eq. (4 1). Because of the
number of tubes, the hydraulic resistance of the studied tube bundles strongly
depends on the array geometry, and yet the obtained data are consistent with
the relation
< = (0.316 . S/D,,,, - 0.176) . Re-" (42)
for in-line staggered tube bundles with a large number of tubes when a
correction for the influence of periphery cells is included.
Since the heat transfer was investigated on the central tube of the bundle, the
equivalent diameter deqZis defined assuming that the number of tubes in a
bundle is infinite, i.e., for central form. The main temperature t, of the boundary
layer, equal to the average of mean temperatures of the wall and the flow in the
central bundle cell ;f,centr, was taken as the characteristic temperature. To
determine the hydraulic resistance coefficient (, the equivalent diameter d,, was
used as the characteristic dimension, and the mean flow temperature in the
intertube space was used as the characteristic temperature.
In the experiments, the parameters were varied over the following ranges:
water temperature at the entrance, 7.7 to 66.2"C; mean wall temperature, 44.2 to
90.2"C; heat flux density, 4.7 . lo4 to 4.65 . 10' W/m2; Ref, 2 . lo3 to 6 . 10';
Prf, 3.5 to 11.2. Heat transfer enhancement was examined on 17 versions of tube
bundles. Rolling parameters were varied over the ranges d,,,/D,,, = 0.9 to 0.97
and tiD,,, = 0.417 to 0.88. The rolling width was approximately 1 mm. The
ratio of groove pitch to depth tlh was varied over the range 8.2 to 66.8
(hid,,, = 0.0129 to 0.086; tld,,, = 0.379 to 1.82).
Figure 53 illustrates the experimental data for some of the investigated
versions of tube bundles. At low Reynolds numbers, free convection essentially
affects heat transfer. Because of this, the experimental results can be evaluated
only qualitatively in this Reynolds number range. Annular grooves are efficient
in closely packed tube bundles; as SiD,,, grows, heat transfer enhancement
decreases. Over the investigated range of d,,,lD,,, and tlD,,, in tube bundles
with SID,,, = 1.16 and 1.2, growth of maximum turbulent heat transfer consti-
tuted 50 to 60%, whereas in smooth tube bundles at approximately the same
increase of hydraulic resistance and at SID,,,, = 1.34 and 1.4, it is on the order of
25 to 30%. At SID,,, = 1.5, the heat transfer enhancement is still less.
Analysis of the experimental data obtained has shown that they can be
generalized by the same relations for different SID,, if the dimensionless groove
rolling parameters hld,,, and tld,,, are included. The relations previously
obtained for a bundle with SID,,, = I .2 were used for NuINk,,, and <Itsrn. For
t/D,,, = 0.454, SiD,,,, = 1.2, and d,,,/D,,, = 0.9 to 0.97 the ratio Nu/Nu,,,
238 E. K. KALlNlN AND Ci. A. DRElTSER
Nu/Prf"
80
60
20
6 810' 2 4 6 810' Re,
FIG. 53. Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance coefficients for rolled tube bundles with different
relative pitches: a, S/D,,ull.16,&,,,,ID,,", = 0.95, iiD,,,, = 0.44; b, SID,,,,, = 1.34, d,,,/L),,,, = 0.90.
ilD,., = 0.42; - - - - - ,rolled tube bundles, ~ smooth tube bundles at the same values of
s/Dcw,.
begins to increase at Rel = (3.6 to 33.8. h/deql) 10' and is stabilized at

1
Rez = (4.7 to 18.85 . h/deqr). lo4. These relations are also valid approximately
for tube bundles with SID,,,, = 1.16 to 1.5. The formulas for generalizing
Nu/Nu,, and </tS,,,are cited in Sec. X.
The above-mentioned experimental data were supported by the more recent
investigations of V. I. Gomon and A. Y. Tkachuk [I251 in which the mean heat
transfer in bundles was examined by a heat exchanger method on quantity-
produced sections of shell-and-tube water heaters for heating and hot-water-
supply systems. Seven bundles composed of 19 tubes with SID,,, = 1.31 to
1.38, d,,,,lD,,,,= 0.922 to 0.98, t/DOut= 0.228 to 0.9, h/d,, = 0.01 to 0.04,
tld,, = 0.23 to 0.92 were investigated over the range Re = 7 . lo3 to 5 . 10'
(Fig. 54). The largest increase in heat transfer enhancement (up to 48%) is
achieved in tube bundles with the small rolling pitch tlD,, = 0.23.
As seen from Fig. 55, heat transfer enhancement by annular grooves sub-
stantially depends on the rolling depth at hld,,, < 0.05, and at hld,,, s 0.1 the
ratio NulNu,,, does not depend on hld,,, , Since hydraulic resistance increases
with the hld,, increase over the whole considered range of hld,,,, the range
hld,,, = 0.04 to 0.08,which providing substantial heat transfer enhancement at
a moderate increase of hydraulic resistance, should be considered to be the
optimal rolling depth.
A
I40
I20
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
6 7 8 910 20 Re, 10 ' 6 7 8 9 10 20 Re, 10.'
a b
FIG. 54. Heat transfer in the intertube space of water heaters ; A = N~,/[Pr:'~'(Pr,lPr,.)"'~]j vs
Re,:l. smooth tube water heater. .4 = 0.027 Re:"; 2. d",,,/ D,,", = 0.93, t/Dout = 0.462.
'-1 = 0.0347 . Re:'.'; 3, d,,JD,,,,,= 0.924, !ID,,,,,= 0.235. ,4 = 0.05 Re:"'; 4, d,,,,,ID,,, = 0.943,
riD,,,,I = 0.231, '4 = 0.0378 . Re;""; 5 , &,/D ,,,, = 0.9X. //Do",= 0.46. .4 = 0.023 Re:"; 6 , d,,,,/
Do,, = 0.975, r/D,,,,, = 0.227, '4 = 0.0348 . Re:"K; 7, 8, d,,,,,ID,,, = 0.922, tlD,,., = 0.90,
.4 = 0.0345 . Rep7xx,
To choose optimal rolling parameters, it is necessary to allow for heat transfer

enhancement inside the tubes by diaphragms formed during rolling. The optimal
range of diaphragm heights is dlD = 0.93 to 0.96 or h/D = 0.02 to 0.035.
Outside this range a tube will also be characterized by hlD,,, = 0.02 to 0.035
[dimensionless rolling parameters outside and inside a tube coincide (Fig. 49)].
Considering the formula for the equivalent diameter with an infinitely large
NU N ~ r i n
1.5
1.4
1.3
1 .z
1.1
I .o
0 0.05 h!d,, I
FIG. 55. Influence of the rolling depth h/&% and the rolling pitch i/Deqyon heat transfer
enhancement in tube bundles in longitudinal flow at Re > Rez.
240 E. K. KALININ AND G . A. DRElTSER
number of tubes
= [ 1.102 . (S/Dou$ - 11 . Do,,
deqm (43)
the relation
1
hid,,, = (0.02 to 0.035)DoU,/deq,
= (0.02 to 0.035)
1. 102(s/D0,,,)z- 1
is obtained.
Figure 56 plots this range vs SJD,,, .The range hld,,, = 0.04 to 0.08, which is
optimal for heat transfer enhancement outside the tubes, is also shown. The
ranges coincide at S/DOut = 1.1 to 1.3. Just in this case, it is most advisable to
use this method of heat transfer enhancement. In tube bundles with SID,,,, > 1.3
optimal heat transfer enhancement in the intertube space is provided inside tubes
at rolling heights that are larger than the optimal ones and, hence, at substantial
pressure loss inside a tube. Optimal enhancement inside a tube accompanies
insignificant enhancement outside tubes, which was found in experiments.
The above drawback can be eliminated if protrusions whose height is 1.25 to
2.5 times less than the groove depth outside a tube [126] are produced inside a
tube. Transverse finning is also efficient in relatively separated tube bundles.
I I I I I
1.1 1.2 13 14 SiDour
FIG. 56. Ranges of the optimal rolling depth in staggered tube bundles with longitudinal flow in
relation to a relative tube pitch: 1, optima1 region of heat transfer enhancement inside tubes: 2.
optimal region of heat transfer enhancement outside tubes in a tube bundle with longitudinal flow.
HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT M HEAT EXCHANGERS 24 1
-c I
b\\\\\\\.' \\\\'\'\
..\_ ,\ \: ' .~; 1
FIG. 5 7 . mgitu cross section of the annular channel with grooves on inner ti : surface.
B. HEATTRANSFER ENHANCEMENT I N ANNULAR

CHANNELS
INCORPORATINGAN INNER GROOVED TUBE
The methods of heat transfer enhancement by rolling of annular grooves
described in Sec. 1V.A can also be used for annular channels. Grooves on the
outer surface of the inner tube enhance heat transfer between this surface and
annular channel flow. In this case, all the advantages of the characteristics of
in-line closely packed tube bundles are preserved.
Heat transfer in an annular channel with an outer diameter Do = 16 mm and
an inner diameter Do, = 1 I mm (Fig. 57) was studied using air. Air in the
annular gap was heated by hot air flowing inside the tube. The length of the
heating section was 1000 mm (l/deq= 201.6). The average heat transfer for the
whole annular channel was determined. Heat transfer enhancement on eight
versions of tubes with different rolling depths d,,u,/Do,lt = 0.881 to 0.97 and
rolling pitches t/D,,,, = 0.237 to 0.91 was determined.
In the experiments, the main parameters were varied over the following
ranges: air temperature at the entrance, 5 to 20C; air temperature at the exit, 50
to 120C; Reynolds number Re, = 10'' to lo5; air pressure, (4.5 to 12) . lo5Pa;
temperature factor T,/T, = 1.15 to 1.2.
When the equivalent diameter, the wetted perimeter, and the flow area were
determined, the presence of grooves was not taken into consideration. The
average heat transfer coefficient was related to a smooth tube surface. The mean
flow temperature served as the characteristic temperature, and the equivalent
diameter served as the characteristic dimension.
Heat transfer enhancement by annular grooves as against a smooth channel
constituted 30 to 50%. The ratio Nu/Nu,,,, increased with decreasing d,,,, ID,,,,
and t/DOut. Heat transfer enhancement slightly increased with Re at Re < (4 to
6 ) . 10' and did not depend on Re at larger values of Re. In generalizing the
experimental data, as in the case of tube bundles, the ratios of the rolling depth
and pitch to the equivalent diameter (h/deqand t/deq)were used. In the experi-
ments, hld,, = 0.033 to 0.151 and tld,, = 0.5 to 2 . Figure 58 plots these data for
Nu/Nu,, - 1
1 - 0.274tld
0.6
0.4
0.2
FIG. 58. Heat lransfer enhancement in annular channels vs grooves depth at Re = 6 . lo4: 0,
DOID,,,,= 1.455 and tid,, = 0.5; (3, (id,, = 1.0; 8, tid,, = 2.0 [127]; 0, D,,/D,,, = 1.133 ,
tldq = 0.247 [130]; A, DoiDm = 1.38, t/deq= 0.275 [128]; 0, Dl,/Do$,,= 1.287, t/&, = 0.221
[129]; X, D,,/D,,, = 1.56, tid,, = 0.839 and 0.444 and Re = 8 lo3; ~ , by formula (44).
Re = 6 . lo4 vs rolling depth hid,,. The data are also shown of C . A. Kemeny
and J. A. Cyphers [ 1281 for annular semi-circle-shaped grooves (h/deq= 0.0275,
t/d, = 0.275), of H. Brauer [129] for triangular grooves (hld,, = 0.0697,
t/d,, = 0.221), of F. F. Bogdanov, A. P. Korshakov, and 0. I. Utkin [I301 for
triangular grooves (hid,, = 0.158, t/d,, = 0.247). Over the range hid,, = 0 to
0.158 and tid,, = 0.22 to 2 the data are generalized by the relation
+
Nu/Nu,,,, = 1 0.64 . [ l - exp(-35.8h/de,)] . (1 - 274t/d,,) (44)
This relation is valid for Re = 4 . lo4 to lo5 and for the annular channel outer-
to-inner diameter ratios DolD,,t = 1.33 to 1.455. At smaller values of Re, the
ratio Nu/Nu,, is 10 to 15% less than at Re = 4 . lo4.
Heat transfer enhancement is somewhat less in the annular channel with
DolDn,, = 1.56 than by Eq. (44). Figure 59 plots the experimental data for
average heat transfer with oil cooling in the annular gap. The average tem-
perature tt of oil between its temperatures at the entrance and exit was used as
the characteristic temperature. As seen from Fig. 59, the data for a smooth tube
are in satisfactory agreement with the formula obtained by V. P. Isachenko and
N. M. Galin [ 13 13 for average heat transfer on the inner wall of an annular
channel under one-sided heating of drop liquids:
Nu/Nu,, = 0.017 . Refox . PI-:') . (P~,/PI-,)'~~. (Do/Dout)n(45)
for Re, = 4 lo4 to 3 . lo5,D,,tlDo = 0.0715 to 0.83 (Do and &, are the outer
1
and inner diameters of the annular channel) and l/deq = 48 to 460 where the bulk
liquid temperature is used as the characteristic temperature T/-.Heat transfer with
grooved tubes increases by 28 to 35%. Over the investigated range Re, = (4.8 to
FIG. 59. Heat transfer enhancement in oil flow in the annular channel provided with grooves on
the inner surface Nuwd= Nu,/[P~;"(P~,/P~,,)'.'~(A,/D,,,)" I"]: 1 . hld,, = 0.0827, t/deq= 0.444; 2,
hld, = 0.0613, t/dq = 0.444; 3, hldcq = 0.1067, t/deq= 0.889;4,hldcq= 0.0613, f/deq= 0.889; 5,
hld., = 0.0827. tld, = 0.889; 6, smooth tube.
8.4) . lo', Pr, = 47 to 60, hid,, = 0.06 to 0.1 1, tid,, = 0.4 to 0.9, heat transfer
enhancement can be generalized by the relation
NuiNu,,,, = 1 + 0.42 . [l - exp(-33.8 . hidtq)]. ( 1 - 0.282 . t/d,,) (46)
As seen from Fig. 58, Eq. (44) somewhat overestimates the heat transfer at
> 1.5 and underestimates it at Du/Dout< 1.15 to 1.2. However, experi-
DolDnur
mental data are lacking to obtain a better generalizing relation.
Data on the hydraulic resistance of annular grooved channels are not numer-
ous. To a first approximation, for calculations over the same ranges of tld,,,
hid,, , and D0lD,,, it is possible to use the relations for in-line tube bundles cited
in Sec. 1V.A where d,, is used as the characteristic dimension and the hydraulic
resistance coefficient ( for a smooth channel is determined by the formula
< = 0.348 ' Re-02' (47)
valid for Re = 4 . lo3 to 3.2 . 10' and Dn,,,lDo 2 0.0625 [12].
The divergence of experimental data over the range hld,, = 0.0275 to 0.158
and tld,,, = 0.221 to 0.247 with Eqs. (152) and (153) does not exceed f10%.
As seen from Fig. 58, heat transfer enhancement due to annular grooves
substantially depends on the rolling depth at hld,, < 0.05, and at hid,, > 0.1 the
ratio NuiNu,, does not depend on hid,, . Since hydraulic resistance increases
with increasing hld,, over the entire considered range of hld,,, the range
hld,, = 0.04 to 0.08, which provides substantial heat transfer enhancement at a
moderate growth of hydraulic resistance, should be considered to be an optimal
rolling depth.
When annular grooves are being rolled, heat transfer inside the tubes is
enhanced at the same time by the formation of annular diaphragms. This fact
should be taken into account when choosing optimal rolling parameters. As
indicated above, the range of rolling depths dlD = 0.93 to 0.96 or hlD = 0.02 to
0.035 is optimal for heat transfer enhancement inside the tube. If the dimension-
less rolling depth outside and inside the tube is the same (Fig. 49), then outside
the tube hlD,,, = 0.02 to 0.035 or hid,, = (0.02 to 0.035) . Dout/deq = (0.02 to
O.O35)l(Do/D,,t- 1).
Figure 60 plots the optimal range of the rolling depth as a fhction of DolD,,,
from the standpoint of heat transfer enhancement inside the tube. The optimal
region of heat transfer enhancement outside the tube is shown in this figure.
(Here it is assumed that for Do/D,,, = 1.133 to 1.455, the optimal rolling depth
range hld, = 0.04 to 0.08 is preserved over a wider range Do/Dout= 1.105 to
10.) These regions coincide over the range of the diameter ratios Do/DOut = 1.25
to 2 . It is most advisable to use this means of heat transfer enhancement in this
0.1
8
6
4
0.01
8
6
4
2
1 1.5
FIG. 60. Ranges of the optimal rolling depth vs outer-to-inner diameter ratio of the annular
channel: I, optimal heat transfer enhancement inside a tube; 2, optimal heat transfer enhancement in
our annular channel.
very region. At small Do/DOut, optimal heat transfer enhancement is provided at

heights inside the tube that are smaller than the optimal ones, and at larger
DOID,,,, at values of dlD inside the tube that are larger than the optimal one. It
is natural that the choice of the optimal depth depends on specific conditions,
particularly on the relationship between heat transfer coefficients outside and
inside the tube.
C. HEATTRANSFERENHANCEMENT
DUE TO TRANSVERSE
FINNINC
I N ANNULAR
CHANNELS
Heat transfer enhancement in annular channels has been investigated by many
authors. Heat transfer enhancement in these channels is achieved mainly in two
ways: development of a heat transfer surface and flow turbulization. There are
also studies combining these two ways. We shall confine ourselves to short
descriptions from several works [ 132-1 381.
1. All investigations were conducted in annular channels with the outer-
to-inner-diameter ratio DOID,,,, 2 2. Moreover, the heat transfer enhance-
ment devices analyzed in these works are of considerable size compared to
the carrying tube (outer finning diameter of the finned tube). In principle,
this renders their use in annular channels with small Do/Dou,and in closely
packed tubular bundles impossible.
2. As a result of both artificial flow turbulization and increases in the heat
transfer surface, different methods of heat transfer enhancement yield very
contradictory data on the ratios a/aI,,,and AplAp,,, and on their depend-
ence on Reynolds number.
3. In the majority of works, the heat transfer increase per unit length of the
carrying tube was obtained not only through artificial flow turbulization
but also through the increase in a heat transfer surface (in some investiga-
tions, the finned-to-smooth tube surface ratio reached approximately 10 to
13). The methods of artificial flow turbulization used in these works are
aimed at increasing heat transfer on the finned surface but not on the main
surface. All of these devices would be appropriate for use at small heat
flux densities when the thermal resistance of the h n i n g does not domi-
nate. As the heat flux density increases, the finning efficiency decreases. In
addition, it is advisable to use finning when the heat transfer coefficient
outside the tube is many times less than the one inside the tube. It is not
advisable to use it at large heat flux densities or when low-heat-conducting
fin materials (stainless steel) are employed.
4. Industrial manufacturing of the majority of artificially finned tubes is
difficult, and this substantially increases their cost as compared to that of
smooth tubes.
246 E. K. KALlNIN AND G. A. DREITSER
a c
FIG. 61. Schematic of turbulators in an annular channel: a, shaped as wire rings slipped over a
smooth tube; b. shaped as a rectangular thread: c, shaped as a triangular thread.
The second means of flow enhancement does not require a substantial

increase in the outer diameter of tubes and can therefore be used in any annular
channels, including those with small DOID,,,,. Manufacturing turbulators on the
outer surface of tubes is not associated with considerable technological difficul-
ties. Turbulators shaped as wire rings slipped over a smooth tube, wire spirals
coiled around a tube, or rectangular or triangular threads (separate rings or
spirals) (Fig. 61) are in most common use.
Some results of heat transfer enhancement by these turbulators in annular
channels are shown in Fig. 62. The Nusselt number ratio Nu/Nu,, and the
hydraulic resistance ratio (/t\,,, are obtained at the same flow rates through the
annular channel and Reynolds number Re. The heat transfer coefficient for the
finned surfaces is related to a surface of a nonfinned tube. In the comparison it
was assumed that the diameter of the smooth tube was equal to that of the finned
one (Do,,&The flow velocity was determined by the channel cross section that
would exist in the absence of finning, i.e., by the cross section with an area of
(n/4)(& - &,) (Fig. 61). The equivalent diameter was deq= Do - D,,,.
The results of the majority of investigations are fairly close to one another.
Heat transfer enhancement increases as the Reynolds number increases. Its
maximum value constitutes 2 to 2.5 when the hydraulic resistance increases 2.7
to 5 times. An exception is provided by D. Wilkie's investigations [153], in
which heat transfer enhancement effects have been obtained at turbulator heights
that are by an order of magnitude smaller than those in other studies.
Figure 62 plots the ratios Nu/Nu,, and titsm as a function of relative location
pitch tlh of turbulators at a constant relative height hld,, ,with the turbulators as
the determining parameter. At constant hld,, the ratio Nu/Nu,, as a function of
t / h has a maximum that somewhat decreases in tlh as hld,, increases. For
FIG. 62. Influence of the parameter i l h on (a) heat transfer enhancemcnt and (b) hydraulic
resistance in annular chqannels for point turbulators at Re = 10 in air: 1-4. data of H. Rampf and
G. Feurstein [139, 1401 for rectangular fins at hld,, = 0.0492. 0.0328, 0.0164, 0.0082. rcspectively;
5-7. data of N. Sheriff. P. Gumley, and J. France [ 1411 for rectangular fins at hld,, = 0.005. 0.010.
0.020. respectively; 8-12, data of P. I. Puchkov and 0. S. Vinogradov [I421 for triangular fins at
/i/deq= 0.0185. 0.0450, 0.0815, 0.0973, 0.183, rcspectively; 13. data of H. Brauer [I291 for
rectangular fins at hlci,, = 0.0375; 14-15. Yu. V. Vilemas and V. I. Shimonis [ l ] for rectangular fins
at hld,,, = 0.0028. 0.074. 0.0130. 0.0210 and for rounded trapezoidal fins at hld,, = 0.0028,
0.0055.
248 E. K. KALINlN AND G. A. DREITSER
hld,, = 0.01 to 0.016, a maximum of Nu/Nu,, occurs at tlh = 10, and for
hld,, = 0.03, at tlh = 5. The hydraulic resistance coefficient ratios Jlsm at
constant hld,, also have a maximum, which is larger, the larger is hld,, and
corresponds to tlh = 10.
At the same h/d, and tlh, the wire turbulators provide somewhat smaller heat
transfer enhancement, This is attributed to the presence of contact resistance
between the wire finning and the tubes. This can also explain the weak influence
of hld, on Nu/Nhln (over the range hldeq = 0.02 to 0.04). As h/d,, increases
(by increasing the diameter of the wire used for finning), both flow turbulization
and the tube surface beneath the wire occupied by stagnant zones increase.
Rectangular- and triangular-finned channels have a higher hydraulic resistance
than the wire-finned ones. Thus, the use of transverse finning permits heat
transfer to be substantially enhanced in annular channels when the hydraulic
resistance increases only moderately. A choice of optimal finning geometry is
affected by specific conditions; however, it can be noted that geometrical finning
sizes should be chosen so that the ratio of turbulator pitch to height is close to
10, and the ratio of turbulator height to equivalent diameter is within 0.01 to
0.02 for wire h i n g and 0.01 to 0.03 for rectangular and triangular fins.
Owing to the above, our interest is in considering in more detail the work of
N. Sheriff and P. Gumley [ 1431 in which heat transfer enhancement was studied
at constant t/h = 10 over the range h/d,, = 0,001 to 0.2 for wire finning. The
results on tltsrn were converted to the inner channel surface.
N. Sheriff and P. Gumley's data on heat transfer converted to the inner tube
surface were plotted as a function of dimensionless turbulator height
where tMjl is the shear stress on the inner surface of a turbulator-equipped

channel, t is the hydraulic resistance of a channel, and 5, and dql are the
hydraulic resistance coefficient and the equivalent diameter of the channel
section between the inner wall and the zero-shear-stress cross section.
Heat transfer enhancement for different hld,, is unambiguously determined by
the quantity e'. Nu/Nu,, increases, achieving ef = 100, and does not vary with
its further increase (NulNu,, i= 2.3). This fact agrees with the results for heat
transfer enhancement in tubes cited in Sec. 111. The Stanton number St as a
function of e+ has a maximum corresponding to e+ = 35. At e+ < 35, when the
turbulator height increases, the heat transfer increase exceeds that of d&, and
e+ > 35, it is delayed behind the increase of d&. The turbulator height
corresponding to e+ = 35 is therefore optimal for heat transfer enhancement. In
this case, an approximately twofold increase in heat transfer enhancement is
achieved. As e+ increases further, an inconsiderable increase in heat transfer
enhancement is accompanied by a substantial growth in hydraulic resistance.
To compare the height of a dimensionless turbulator with the thicknesses of

the laminar sublayer and buffer region, it is more correct to determine it in terms
of the shear stress of a smooth wall:
where rs,,,
and are the hydraulic resistance coefficient of a smooth channel
and a channel section between the inner smooth-tube wall and a zero-shear-
stress surface.
tsn,is determined by the simplified relation recommended by C. Kemeny and
J. Cyphers [128]:
<,,ern + Do/Dout) . 5sm - ( W D o t i t ) . L s r n
= (1 (50)
If <, is determined by Eq. (47), and the hydraulic resistance coefficient <2,sm
of the outer part of the annular channel is the same as that of tube flow, then
tl.sm= 0.3164 * Re-''.'' . (1.1 + 0.1 . Do/DOu,) (51)
hence,
hf(hldc,) . Re" "' . 40.0395 . ( 1 . 1 + 0.1 . Do/D,,,) (52)
Figure 63 plots the ratios Nu/Nusnl and as a function of h+ for different
heights of turbulators. The Nusselt numbers are found as usual, and the
hydraulic resistance coefficients are related to the inner channel section. The
points are obtained through smoothed curves at rounded-off values of the
Reynolds numbers. For all turbulator heights, heat transfer enhancement equally
depends on h'. At h+ = 2 to 25, the ratio Nu/Nu,,,, increases as h' increases,
while at h' > 25, Nu/Nu,,,, = const. Thus, heat transfer enhancement ceases to
increase when the turbulators are beyond the laminar sublayer and buffer region.
The hydraulic resistance of channels is not determined unambiguously by the
quantity h+ and increases as hid,, increases.
The heat transfer data plotted in Fig. 63 are generalized by the relation
Nu/Nu,, =
1 0 ~ . 3 & ~ ~ h *0.165
~
(53)
for h+ = 3 to 25 and by the relation
Nu/Nu,, = 2.08 (54)
for h+ > 25.
D. HEATTRANSFER ENHANCEMENTDUE TO TRANSVERSE

FINS
I N TUBEBUNDLES FLOW
IN LONGITUDINAL
As indicated in Sec. IV.A, use of transverse finning is efficient in relatively

separated bundles (SiD,, = 1.3 to 1.5 and more). In this case, smooth tubes and
tubes with heat transfer enhancement inside them can be finned. In the last case,
a rolling height inside tubes and a fin height can be chosen independently of
each other.
In the comparison of smooth and finned surfaces, the same assumptions as
those in Sec. 1V.C for annular channels were adopted. Also, the values of Nu,,
and tsm were determined by Eqs. (41) and (42).
In [144147] dealing with small-height fins produced by coiling wire spirals
around a tube or by slipping wire rings over a tube, it was found that heat
transfer substantially increased (up to 2.2 to 2.6 times) and the hydraulic
resistance grew only moderately. W. Sutherland [ 1461 studied closely packed
tube bundles with S/D,,,, = 1.15 to 1.25 in air. At a constant location pitch
tlh = 10, data on heat transfer and hydraulic resistance for different heights of
turbulators (Fig. 64) were obtained. Heat transfer enhancement for each version
of turbulators increases as Re increases up to a certain value of Rez, and
becomes larger as the turbulator height decreases. At Re > Rez, heat trans-
fer enhancement does not depend on Re. Over the range hld,, = 0.00692 to
0.0349, which was investigated by W. Sutherland, it also has a heat transfer
1 2 4 6810 2 4 6 810 h'
FIG. 63. NuiNu,, and </tsmas a function of h' = h G / v according to N. Sheriff and P.
Gumley's data [I431 for t/h = 1 0 I , hld,, = 0.001; 2, h/d- = 0.025; 3, hld, = 0.005; 4,
hid,, = 0.01; 5, hld,, = 0.0142; 6 , hid,, = 0.02.
HEAT TRANSFER ENMANCEMENT IN HEAT EXCHANGERS 25 1
enhancement of NuiNu,,,, = 2.23. The relative hydraulic resistance </ts,,,

for all
considered versions increases as Re increases and essentially depends on the
turbulator height, changing as the heat transfer enhancement is saturated, in
the range from 3 to 12.
Of interest is the processing of the data on heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance as a function of dimensionless height of turbulators
as T ! ~,,,I/, = (dp,,,,/dx). (d/4/1). Here r,,,,,,, is the shear stress on the smooth
channel wall.
N tliN LI
3
i
2
A - 5
8 -6
0-7
1
I
, -
<IS,
I0
8
-7
000 h
1 10 100
FIG. 64. NulNu, and <I<.,,,in wire-finned tube bundles as a function of dimensionless fin height
at tlh = 10 according to W. Sutherlands data [ 1461 for SID,,,, = I .25 and 1 . I5 and according to N.
Kattchec and W. Mackewichs data [I451 for SID,,,, = 1.28: 1, S/D,,,, = 1.25, 11/& = 0,00692; 2,
= I . I. hid,, = 0.0 1092;
SID,,,,, = I .25. hid,, = 0.001384: 3 , SiD,,,, = 1.25, /?/dc,,= 0.022 1; 4, S/f>o,2t
5 . SID,,,,,= 1.15. hIdeL,= 0.0218; 6 . SID,,,, = 1.15, h/&, = 0.0349; 7, SID,,,,,= 1.28,
hI&, = 0.0257.
252 E. K. KALINlN AND G. A. DREITSER
The quantity h' allows the heights of turbulators to be compared with the
thicknesses of the laminar sublayer and buffer region. The points plotted in
Fig. 64 were obtained by smoothed curves at rounded-off values of Re. For all
considered versions, heat transfer enhancement equally dependens on h'. At
h+ = 2.5 to 20, the ratio Nu/Nu,, increases as h+ increases, and at h+ > 20
Nu/Nu,, = const. W. Sutherland's data on heat transfer at tlh = 10 are gener-
alized by the relations
for h' = 2.5 to 20
N ~ / N ~ ,=, 100.386 Ig h - 0. I545
(56)
+
for h+ > 20
Nu/Nu,, = 2.23 (57)
As seen from Fig. 64, the ratio (/tsmis not determined unambiguously by the
quantity hC and increases with hld,, . W. Sutherland also examined the influence
of the location pitch tlh of turbulators on heat transfer enhancement. To do this,
tlh was varied from 7.15 to 14.82. When this was done, Nu/Nu,, did not vary
and 5/tSm slightly increased as tlh decreased (when tlh was decreased from
14.82 to 7.15, 5/(,,,, increased by 20%). This suggests that the ratio tlh = 10 is
close to optimal for heat transfer enhancement in tube bundles (as well as inside
a tube). This conclusion is also supported by the work of N. Kattchee and W.
Mackewich [145], in which it was found that heat transfer enhancement
increased as tlh decreased up to 10.
Use of wire finning also allows substantial heat transfer enhancement to be
attained in more separated tube bundles. Staggered tubes in a bundle with
SID,,, = 1.5 had finning with hld,, = 0.056 and t / h = 37.5. At Re > lo4 (Fig.
65), heat transfer increased 2 times compared to that in a smooth tube bundle, and
hydraulic resistance increased 2.2 to 3.6 times (as a function of Re) [144].
The studies performed on heat transfer enhancement due to finning in in-line
tube bundles are scanty and do not allow generalized recommendations to be
proposed for calculations at different SlD,,, , hld,, and tlh. However, some
preliminary conclusions can be made. First, the use of easily produced outer
finning, including those involving wire rings or a coiling wire spiral, is advisable
for heat transfer enhancement outside tubes. Second, geometrical sizes of fins
should be chosen so that the ratio of turbulization pitch to height is close to 10
and the ratio of turbulator height to equivalent diameter of a bundle is
hld,, = 0.01 to 0.02. Since as the tube pitch increases in a bundle, deqincreases,
the optimal fin height will also increase. If the fin height is choosen larger, then
it is advisable to increase tlh.
Experimental studies of heat transfer enhancement in longitudinal flow past
tube bundles are scanty. On the other hand, many surfaces with turbulators have
been studied in annular channels with a smooth outer surface. Methods exist that
0.2
0. I
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 Re, 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 lo4 2 Re,
a b
FIG.65. (a) Heat transfer and (b) hydraulic resistance in tube bundles with S/Do,, = I .5 and wire
finning [144]: 1. 2. smooth tubes, isothennal and nonisothermal flows, respectively; 3, 4. finned
tubes, isothermal and nonisothermal flows, respectively: 5. by Eq. (41).
allow calculation of hydraulic resistance and heat transfer of turbulator-equipped

tube bundles if the resistance and heat transfer of a single tube in an annular
channel [ 121 are known.
E. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
I N ANNULAR CHANNELS
WITH
ONE-SIDED
COMBINED
TURBULATORS
OF THE PROTKUSION-GROOVE
TYPE
In Sec. 1V.B it was mentioned that when heat transfer in annular channels is
enhanced by rolling an inner tube, all advantages are preserved for closely
packed bundles with longitudinal flow. It is important, in this case, to emphasize
that both in annular channels and in tube bundles, rolling in the form of annular
grooves provides a lower level of heat transfer increase than inside tubes. Thus,
from Eq. (44) it is seen that a limiting heat transfer increase by groove rolling in
an annular channel constitutes 60% and attains 100% or more in tubes. At the
same time, in practice conditions are often encountered in which heat transfer
coefficients in intertube spaces of heat exchangers or in an annular channel are
smaller than those in tubes. In such situations, substantial heat transfer enhance-
ment can be attained only when the heat transfer coefficient outside the tube
increases considerably. As indicated in Sec. I V . C , turbulators shaped as forward
spacing steps are preferred over grooves, as they allow an increase of heat
transfer in annular channels of about 100%. It stands to reason that the hydraulic
characteristics of channels with turbulators shaped as forward spacing steps are
worse than those of grooved channels. However, their main drawback is the
need for labor-consuming and nontechnological manufacture of tubes with
254 E. K. KALlNlN AND G. A. DREITSER
FIG. 66. Fragment of the test rolled tube-provided channel.
forward spacing steps on an outer surface, and the problem of simultaneous heat
transfer enhancement inside tubes remains still unsolved.
Based on these considerations, a new design of a tube with rolled combined
turbulators of the "protrusion-groove'' type [ 1481 has been proposed. The rolling
technology was developed, and the thermohydraulic characteristics of annular
channels provided with such fins were studied. A section of the proposed tube is
sketched in Fig. 66. At certain (high) rolling speeds of thick-walled carbon tubes
by wide rollers, the material of the tube wall has no time to deform deep into
grooves, and, as a result, annular different-height forward spacing steps are
pressed out on the edges of the grooves. The height of these protrusions depends
on many factors: the given diaphragm height inside the tube, wall thickness and
material, rolling speed, and roller width. However, if these factors are invariable,
then, the results on rolling tens of kilometers of tubes while in quantity
production have shown, the rolling technology developed at the All-Union
Research Institute of Metallurgic Engineering provides a stable geometry of
turbulators outside and inside a tube.
Thermohydraulic characteristics of annular channels with tubes having com-
bined turbulators outside were studied by the heat exchanger method in experi-
ments with turbulent air flow in an annular channel (Re = lo4 to 10') and with
water and air flows inside a tube (Re = lo4 to 2 . lo5).In all experimental heat
exchangers the heat transfer length of the tubes was 1 m. Geometrical character-
istics of the investigated annular channels are summarized in Table IV. The
main goal of the present study is to analyze the influence of the height of annular
forward spacing steps on heat transfer enhancement and the hydraulic resistance
of annular channels.
The data obtained on hydraulic resistance and heat transfer are plotted in
Fig. 67. Note that the experimental data on the hydraulic resistance coefficients
of technically smooth channels are satisfactorily described by the standard
equation for tubes with natural roughness
csm= 0.11 . (A/&, + 68/Re)".25 (58)
TABLE IV
CHARACTERISTICS ( m m ) OF ANNUI.AK
GEOMETRIC CHANNELS WITH COMRINI'I) Tt!KRULIZERS
~~ ~
No. Surface material. and wall

channel thickness of the tube d Dw Do dcq 11I 11, h, 111 f fi
I Smooth, steel 10 (Russian mark), h = 2 mni 15.75 20.2 7.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

hJ
2 Smooth. steel 10, h = 2.5 mm 14.9 20.0 27.3 7.3 0 0 0 0 0 0
'm
JI 3 Smooth, steel 10. h = 2.5 mm 14.0 20.0 28 8.0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 Smooth, steel 1 0G2, h 2.5 inin 14.8 20.05 28 7.95 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 Smooth, steel 10. h = 2 mm 15.75 20.2 28 7.8 0 0.775 0.625 0 8 3.2
6 Smooth, steel 10, h = 2.5 mm 14.9 20.0 27.3 7.3 0 0.95 0.38 0 8 3.5
7 Smooth, steel 10. h = 2 mm 15.75 20.2 28 7.8 0.1 1.3 1.075 0 8 3.2
8 Smooth, steel 10G2. b = 2.5 mm 13.8 20.05 28 7.95 0.12 1.2 1 .0 0.05 X 3.4
9 Smooth, steel 10, b = 2.5 mm 14.9 20.0 27.3 7.3 0.3 0.95 0.38 0.2 8 3.5
10 Smooth. steel 10'32. b = 2.5 mni 14.8 20.05 28 7.95 0.4 1.075 0.27 0.3 8.13 3.5
r Nu
0.10 200
0.08
0.06
I60
0.04 80
60
0.02 40
1 2 4 6 Rel.10 4 I 2 4 6 RC,,.IO~
a b
Re. 67. (a) Hydraulic resistance and (b) heat transfer in smooth-tube annular channels and in the
presence of combined turbulators on the inner tube (Table IV): 0, smooth inner tube (channels Nos.
0,
1 , 2 , 3 , 4); channels Nos. 5 , 6 (h,ld,, = 0); -0-,
channel No. 7 (h,ldeq= 0.0128); 0, channel No.
8 (hlldes = 0.0151); A,channel No. 9 (hlid,, = 0.0411); X, channel No. 10 (h,ld,, = 0.05).
where A = 0.0365 mm is the absolute roughness of tube surfaces of annular

channels. From Fig. 67 and Eq. (58), it follows that unlike the case for
hydraulically smooth channels, for which Eq. (47) is valid, the resistance law is
-
practically self-similar at Re > 5 lo4 in the investigated channels.
The heat transfer coefficient in smooth-tube annular channels at Re > 5 . lo4
can be described by the equation from [149]
Nulha= Nu, - 0.86 . (Do,t/Do)o~'6 - ( (59)
. [ = 0.016 . Re0.* (Do,,/Do)o~lh
*
where
[= 1 + 1.75. (DolDoUt - 0.5
Re
at DoutlDO< 0.2
[=1 at Dout/D0> 0.2

Nu, is the stabilized Nusselt number for a round tube at Pr = 0.7, NuII,%is
the stabilized Nusselt number with heating of the inner wall of an annular
channel. However, at smaller Re the discrepancy between the experimental data
and the values of the heat transfer coefficient calculated by Eq. (59) reaches
+20%. In this case, over the range Re = (1.5 to 5 ) * lo4,the heat transfer law is
close to Nu,, - The reason for the discrepancy between the experimental
data and those calculated by Eq. (59) may lie both in the influence of cross
flow past a heat transfer tube at its entrance and exit, for which the law
Nu - is characteristic, and in the influence of air cross flow on the delay of
hydrodynamic and thermal stabilization in a smooth-tube annular channel.
H E A T TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN HEAT EXCHANGERS 257
Furthermore, the growth of hydraulic resistance and heat transfer in rolled

channels was estimated by Eqs. (58) and (59).
Despite the fact that the experimental grooves had somewhat different equiva-
lent diameters and different channel depths, as the height of the annular forward
spacing steps increased (Fig. 67), the resistance coefficient monotonically
increased over the entire Re number range. It is characteristic that at
hl/de,= 0.041 1, the resistance law becomes self-similar. Compare: For dia-
phragms of the same height in a tube at D = deq( d / D = 0.92, t / D = l.O), the
resistance coefficient decreases as Re increases. The fact that the resistance law
becomes self-similar earlier (with respect to hl/deq)in annular channels than in
tubes indicates that the resistance of annular forward spacing steps is substantial
compared with that of diaphragms [in this comparison, the natural roughness of
both tubes of annular channels does not play a decisive role, as demonstrated by
the dependences ((Re) for channels 5, 6, 7 (Table IV) with small hl/deq].It is
important to emphasize also that when tubes with forward spacing steps
h , = 0.1 mni high are being rolled, no pair forward spacing steps are formed;
i.e., at h l = 0.1 mm, h, = 0 111111, while in channel No. 9 with h, = 0.3 mm,
h4 = 2 mm. This leads to the fact that channels with h , = 0.1 mm and 0.3 mm
have a different location pitch of forward spacing steps: t l = 8 mm in the case of
single and r , = 3.5 mm of a pair of forward spacing steps. Thus, there are good
reasons to believe that for an equal-height pair of forward spacing steps
h , = 0.1 mm (h,ld,, = 0.0128) in height, the resistance law will also be the
similarity one.
Contrary to the resistance coefficient, the heat transfer coefficient increases
only when h,/d,, increases up to 0.04, after which Nu/Nu,, remains constant
(Sec. 1V.C). Over the investigated Re number range, Nu/Nu,,, does not depend
on Re within the accuracy of the obtained data and reaches a value of 2.09,
which is 50% higher than for grooved turbulators.
The experimental data on the resistance coefficient of annular channels with
combined turbulators can be generalized by the functional dependence
(Itsn, = f(hl,h z , t, dcq,Re) or as a product of two functions
(/(sni t, dcq,Re) *fAhi, dq)

= f i ( h , (60)
In this case, the function.fi does not allow for the influence of varying pitch
of different-height protrusions because in the experiments the pitch was not
varied (tildes = 0.41 to 0.48).
The function f l is represented by Eq. (45) for rolled tube bundles with a
correction decreasing the values of ((/&,,,),,, = 0 by lo%, i.e.,
(</ism),,, =fi(hz,t, deq,Re) = 0.9 . f 1 + [3.21(h2/deq) (lg Re - 2.27)
= 3
+ 0.09 * (Ig Re - 4.311 . sin[(l - 22.44 . hdd,,) . n3

. (1.4 - 488 . r/deq)} (61)
258 E. K. KALINlN AND G . A. DREITSER
where &, is determined by Eq. (58).

Comparison between the experimental data for rolled channels with no
annular forward spacing steps and calculations by Eq. (61) shows a satisfactory
correction over the range Re = 1O4 to 1O5 and h2/d,, = 0.0 167. Further experi-
mental data processing in coordinates
has shown that the finction can be approximated by the following equation:
.f2(hi, &q) = 1 + 440 * (h1/d,J2 (62)
valid for hl/de,= 0 to 0.05. Thus, the experimental data on the resistance of
channels with turbulators shaped as forward spacing steps and grooves can be
generalized within f 15% by
</Tsm = (t/tsm)/z, = 0 [l + 440 (hl/deq>*] (63)
where (</rS,,Jh,= is determined by Eq. (61). According to the experimental data
and Eq. (62), as hlld, increases, </&, increases from 1.4 to 1.6 at hlld,, = 0
and to 3.51 to 3.55 at hl/de,= 0.05. It is characteristic that the contribution of
annular grooves (</<s,n)h, = 0 (e.g., at Re = 5 . lo4 with a depth h = 1 mm) to the
total resistance coefficient </tsrn = 2.56 is the same as that of annular protru-
sions h l = 0.26 mm in height, i.e., f l =f 2 = 1.6.
The experimental heat transfer data can be generalized by the functional
dependence Nu/Nusrn= f ( h l , hZ, t, deq)or in the following form:
Nu/Nusm = 1 +f i ( h 2 9 t, deq) .j2(h1, deq) (64)
where Nu,, is determined by Eq. (59).
As seen from Fig. 68, the experimental data for NulNu,, at h , = 0 lie 10%
below the predicted data if the second term of the right-hand side of Eq. (44),
fl = 0.64. [ l - exp(-35.8 . h,/deq)]. (1 - 0.274. t/des) (65)
is used as the functionf, . With this in mind, the functionftcan be approximated
by
fi = 0.9 + 224 . (hl/deq)1.55 (66)
valid at hl/deq5 0.04. At hl/de,> 0.04,
f2= 2.44 = const (67)
It is important to emphasize that Eq. (66) has been obtained when the pitch
tlldcq= 0.41 to 0.48 is practically constant and does not allow for an independ-
ent influence of the parameter tl/hl, which markedly decreases as hl grows:
t , / h l = 28 to 78 at hl = (0.1 to 0.12) 111111, and t l / h l = 8.75 at hl = 0.4 mm.
NuiNu,,,
2.0 2.2
1.8 1.8
16 I .4
14 10
12
0 I 2 3 kli$',.lO~
a
FIG. 68. Generalizing curves for the experimental data on heat transfer in annular combined
turbulator-quipped channels: a. joint influence of annular grooves and protrusions; b, influence of
annular protrusions; x. calculation by Eq. (44); 0. smooth inner tube (channels Nos. I , 2, 3 , 4.
Table IV); X, channels Nos. 5, 6 (h,/&, = 0): U. channel No. 7 (hl/dec,= 0.0128); -0-, channel
No. 8 ( h , / d , = 0.0151); A, channel No. 9 (hl/de,= 0.0411); 0, channel No. 10 (hl/deq
= 0.05); 1.
by Eq. (66): 2, by Eq. (67).
Thus, it can be concluded that use of combined turbulators of the protrusion-

groove type allows heat transfer in annular channels to be increased up to 50%,
as compared to groove type rolling. In this case, an optimal height of protrusions
exceeds h,/d,, = 0.04, at which the increase of the resistance coefficient is
) , ~ , Integral themiohydraulic characteristics of annular
, , , 1.7.
( ~ / ~ ~ , , , ) / ( ~ / ~=()~ =
channels with combined turbulators at h,/dcq= 0.04 are the following:
NuiNu,,,, = 2.09,</($,,, = 2.5 to 2.95 for Re = ( 1 to 8) . 10'.
V. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Flat and Triangular Channels
ENHANCEMENT
A. HEATTRANSFER IN FLATC H A N N E L S DUE TO
FINNING
TRANSVERSE
Consider flat channels in which relatively low fins are used, i.e., heat transfer
was enhanced mainly through to artificial flow turbulization near the wall, not
through increasing the heat transfer surface.
Detailed studies [ 150, 15 11 were made of two-sided heating of air in short, flat
channels (l/dcq = 18.75 to 31) with different aspect ratios and with transverse
rectangular one-sided and two-sided finning.
When fins are located at an angle 01 = 30 to 45" to the channel axis, heat
transfer in some of the analyzed channels is 5 to 20Y0 higher than when fins are
located across the flow (a= 90'). A marked (2 to 2.8-fold) increase in heat
transfer is accompanied by a 3.35 to 6-fold increase in hydraulic resistance. Heat
transfer on a smooth channel surface is increased 1.5 to 2 times. The data on
hydraulic resistance of channels with one-side finning can be generalized by the

relation
where R =
5 -
---[I+
(,, B
B
+H
26.3 .
R - 2.5 ln(2hlH) - 2.5
+
(t/10h)n.3s. (B/H)"' . [12.31 - 27.07 * (al90")

1+17.86 . (a/90")2];
tSn,
= 0.316/Re0.*'; rn = 0 at a = 90"; rn = 0.35 at a < 90'; in the formula for
R if BIH > 2, then it is assumed that BIH = 2.
The data for heat transfer on a finned surface can be generalized by the
relation
t/8
Stti, =
( p - R ) . (5fin/8)0.x-1
where p = 2.24 . (BlH)"' . [(hid,,) . Re . (~fin/8)ns]n3' . (aI90")"' . (tllOh)";
<ti,,= ( + (HIB)(t - &,) is the hydraulic resistance coefficient of a finned
surface; for B = H the powers rn = 0.35 and n = 0.1; for BIH = 2 and 4,
rn = n = 0. Equations (68) and (69) are valid for tlh = 10 to 20, hld,, = 0.047
to 0.078, a = 30 to 90, BIH = 1 to 4, Re = (1 to 6) . lo4.
Mean heat transfer % for a flat channel with one finned wall can also be
determined by Eq. (69) if in the formula for p the value of the coefficient equal
to 2.24 is replaced by 1.88. Heat transfer for a smooth surface is defined by the
relation
St,, = St + (B + H ) . (St - St,,) (70)
To estimate an location optimal pitch of the turbulators, it is of interest to
consider the data on heat transfer behind a wire turbulator (Fig. 69). A maximum
heat transfer coefficient occurs at a distance of the order 10h at hld,, up to 0.06.
This distance somewhat decreases at larger hld,, . As in the case of heat transfer
enhancement inside tubes and in annular channels, the optimal ratio of turbulator
pitch to height tlh is close to 10. Apparently, the optimal height of turbulators is
somewhat lower than in a tube and lies within hld,, = 0.015 to 0.025.
In the majority of studies, turbulators were mounted on only one channel
wall; the other wall was smooth. The results on Nu and ( obtained in such a
channel can be recalculated for flat channels having turbulators on both walls.
For a flat channel, the parts separated by a section within a maximum velocity
(Fig. 70) are equal; d,,, = 4 . (yl - y,), deq2= 4 . (y", - y2), where ym is the
coordinate of a section with the maximum velocity.
The obtained values of the resistance coefficients and the Nusselt number
Nul will be valid for a flat channel 2 . ( y , - y,) = deq1/2wide (if turbulators
were located on surface 1). It is seen in Fig. 70 that as the friction coefficient is
increased on a turbulator-provided surface, the velocity maximum is shifted to
the smooth surface.
FIG. 69. Comparison of the data of F. J. Edwards and N. Sheriff [I521 for a flat channel with E.
F. J. Edwards' and N. Sheriffs data for
W. Sams' results [ I 151 far a round tube and wire finning: 0,
h,/decl= 0.0161 and Re = 2 . 10'; 0. 0, +. E. W. Sams' data for h,/d,, = 0.0634, 0.0464, 0.0317,
respectively. and Re = 2.1 . 105; I, E. W. Sams' data for Re = 3 . lo4 and h,ld,, = 0.0317 to
0.0634; 2-4, E. W. Sams' data for Re = 3 . 10' and hl/d,, = 0.0634, 0.0464 and 0.0317,
respectively.
B . HEATTRANSFER I N TRIANGULAR
ENHANCEMENT CHANNELS
This problem was studied in detail by E. V. Dubrovsky [154-1561.
Heat transfer enhancement in such channels can be realized by protrusions or
grooves (Fig. 1Oc) equally-spaced on some part of the channel periphery. On
wide portions of channel sections, where the flow regime is turbulent, the
general laws for turbulization of flow due to formation of vortex zones in it are
FIG. 70. Variation of the position of a section with maxirnuin velocity with the resistance ratio
<./TI according to the data of D.Wilkie, M. Cowin. F. Burnett el a(. [153].
the same as in round channels. However, a means for enhancement must allow
for the fact that turbulent vortices can diffuse into the laminarized zones,
affecting laminar flow stability in these comer zones.
Substantial enhancement was achieved on a surface with transverse protru-
sions and grooves. Experiments were conducted for channels with h = 7 mm,
t = 4.6 mm, Udeq= 0.24 to 4.55, d:/deq = 0.687 to 0.912, Lid,, = 23.64 at
Re = 200 to lo4 (d: is the reduced equivalent diameter at the narrowest point of
the channel section between two opposite forward spacing steps on the channel
walls).
Stability loss of laminar flow in these channels begins at Recr much smaller
than in smooth triangular channels and in round tubes having transverse forward
spacing steps and grooves. That is why, for the considered surfaces, the value of
the Re range over which enhancement is possible is substantially larger than in
round turbulator-equipped tubes at the cost of a decrease in the value of Re,,.
Thus, for a surface with d$/dec,= 0.797, this region is over the range Re = 400
to 1000. An about 2.6-fold heat transfer increase is obtained on these surfaces
when increases up to 6 times. Also, there is a region where Nu/Nu,,,, >
51<s,,, up to NuINu,,, = </tst,,= 2.1 (Fig. 71). The ratio of Nu/Nu,, to 5/tSn,
attains 1.15 to 1.2 at Re = 1700 and decreases as Re increases. These results
point to possible substantial heat transfer enhancement in triangular channels.
It is efficient to use cut surfaces (Fig. 10a, b) for triangular channels. For
channels having a cross section in the form of an isosceles triangle, over
the range Re = 1.2 . lo3 to lo4, heat transfer and hydraulic resistance are
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1 .o
0 4 8 12 16 20 tldeq
a
FIG. 7 I . Dependences of Nu/Nu,, and <Its,,, at Re = 1700 for plate-finned surfaces [I]: a, on
tld,,, (dzq1de,= 0.797); b, on d,*/dcq (rldeq= 0.24); 1 , Nu/Nu,, ; 2, titsm.
determined by [l]
Nu = 0.01 16 (6/d,,)-o' . (l/deq)O4' Reo85(1'dLy3) "I
5 = 22.6 . (S/de,)033 . ([/de,)-087. ~ ~ ~ 0 7 ( ' [3d ~ q '"')

(d/dq?'
(71)
where 6 is the surface thickness and / is the length of the interrupted surface.
VI. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Transverse Flow Past Annular

Turbulator-Equipped Tubes
Investigations were made over the range Re = 1O3 to 8 * 1 O4 in water and air
flows [ 114, 1571. Experiments were carried out on staggered tube bundles with
the following transverse S,lD,, and diagonal Si/Do,,tpitches: (1) 1.35, 1.35; (2)
1.2, 1.2; (3) 1.1, 1.1 and on an in-line tube bundle with a transverse pitch
Sl/Do,, = 1.2 and a longitudinal pitch Sz/Dout = 1.2. Tube bundles were com-
posed of 6 to 7 longitudinal rows, each row consisting of 7 to 8 tubes. Heat
transfer from tube bundles was investigated by the local modeling method. A
heated tube was located in the first and fifth rows of the tube bundles. A tube
diameter of a bundle Do,, was equal to 16 mm.
Tube bundles were assembled so that grooves on all tubes were located in one
section or in adjacent transverse rows shifted half a pitch. Grooves had the
following parameters: do,, /Do,, = 0.875, t/Dout= 0.44.
When a velocity was determined in a narrow bundle section and on a heat
transfer surface, the presence of annular grooves on tubes was not considered.
For all analyzed tube bundles; it was found that in properly transverse flow
past tube bundles, the annular grooves do not provide a substantial increase in
heat transfer and hydraulic resistance (Figs. 72 and 73). In a staggered tube
bundle with S , IDout= S;/D0,, = 1.2 at equal heat transfer, the hydraulic resis-
tance decreases somewhat, as compared to that in a smooth tube bundle (by 10
to 15%).
It should be noted that the obtained results correspond to properly transverse
flow past tube bundles and cannot be extended to an apparatus with multipass
flow past an intertube space where such flow is absent. Such an apparatus
requires detailed studies of heat transfer and hydraulic resistance in the intertube
space. However, it can be said that the enhancement effect in such an apparatus
will be between the cases of properly longitudinal and properly transverse flow.
This is indirectly supported by the conducted tests of heat exchangers. That is
why it can be recommended to consider that in calculations for tubular heat
exchangers with multipass flow past an intertube space, the presence of annular
grooves causes heat transfer and hydraulic resistance increases of 15 to 20%.
FIG.72. Mean heat transfer from cross-flow annular-grooved tube bundles as Nu,/Pr/" 36 vs Re,: I ,
2, staggered tube bundle with S,/D,,, = S;/D,,, = 1.35, when grooves are located in one section ( I )
and shifted half a pitch (2); 3, staggered bundle with Sl/D,,, = 1.2; 4, staggered tube bundle with
SI/D,,l = S;/Dc,ut= 1 . I ; 5, in-line tube bundle with Sl/D,,, = S;/D,,, = 1.2; 6, staggered smooth
tube bundle with SI/D,., = S;/D,,, = 1.2.
VII. Boiling Heat Transfer Enhancements in Channels
A. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
METHODS
Heat transfer enhancement in film boiling is a most urgent problem. A
distinctive feature of flow at developed film boiling in channels of constant cross
6 8 lo3 2 4 6 8 lo4 2 4 Re
FIG.73. Hydraulic resistance of bundles of annular-grooved and smooth tubes: 1-6, the same as in
Fig. 72; 7, in-line smooth tube bundle with SJD,,, = S;/D,,, = 1.3.
section is that a liquid phase does not contact the wall, since the wall tem-
perature exceeds the temperature of limiting metastable superheating of the
liquid. This is why a wall heat flux is removed through convection only by the
vapor phase (its thermal resistance is sufficiently high) and is thus spent for
heating of the vapor phase, for heating and evaporation of the liquid. Several
film boiling regimes are distinguished depending on the geometry of an inter-
face: slug, plug, and dispersed [ 158-1 601. One of the most important character-
istics of two-phase flows, namely thermal nonuniformity, i.e., a phase slip with
respect to temperature, is associated with the extent of development of an
interface. As the interface increases, with other conditions being equal, thermal
nonuniformity decreases. The amount of heat supplied to the liquid increases,
and superheating of the vapor phase decreases.
It is found from experiments [ 158-1 6 I ] that in straight, smooth channels, the
coefficient of heat transfer from a wall to a vapor with film boiling is higher that
than to single-phase vapor at the same Reynolds number. The reasons for this
are rather diverse, but the main one is that momentum and energy transfer
between the flow and the wall is enhanced as a result of an intense phase
transition caused by a maximum phase slip with respect to temperature near
the wall.
Nevertheless, the values of coefficients of film boiling heat transfer remain at
a level typical of single-phase gas flow. So for example, in the slug film boiling
regime of a subcooled liquid, the heat transfer coefficient is 5 to 30 times as
small as that for single-phase liquid flow, and in the dispersed regime, 1 to 6
times as large as that for single-phase gas flow. At the same time, a liquid phase
exists in the flow, i.e., there are possibilities of using the fact that the thermo-
physical properties of a liquid are better than those of a vapor to augment wall
heat transfer. Decreasing the extent of thermal nonequilibrium, especially at
small mass velocities, which allows a Reynolds number for a vapor and a
temperature head (T,, - T , ) to be increased, is a no less important additional
means for enhancement of two-phase flow-to-wall heat transfer.
These principles are now adopted to develop means for enhancement of film
boiling heat transfer. As a most promising means, we shall consider artificial
flow turbulization by diaphragms, threads, spiral fins, and wired wall [ 162-1 651;
flow swirling by spiral devices [166] or rotation of a heat transfer surface;
coating of a heat transfer surface with low-heat-conducting or porous materials
[ 1581; and preliminary dispersion of the liquid phase [ 1671.
Therefore, studies of enhancement of film boiling heat transfer in channels
take four paths
1. Artificial turbulization of the wall vapor layers

2 . Involving of a liquid phase in flow-to-wall heat transfer through forced
liquid irrigation of a wall
266 E. K. KALtNtN AND G. A. DREITSER
3. Increase in a film boiling crisis temperature, which provides wall wett-

ability at elevated temperatures and thus forces a transition to the nucleate
boiling regime, e.g., in unsteady cooling processes
4. Thermal nonequilibrium decrease as a result of a developing interface
because of liquid-phase dispersion
It is natural that each of the above paths has certain advantages as well as
disadvantages and limited applications. However, unlike heat transfer enhance-
ment in single-phase flows, where the advantage of artificial turbulization of thin
wall layers (Sec. 11) is reasonably substantive, a means for enhancement of film
boiling heat transfer must be chosen with regard to a specific area of application,
i.e., with regard to particular problems.
Here the following circumstances are borne in mind. First, the problems of
heat transfer enhancement and the operating conditions of vapor generating
channels are highly diverse, e.g., the necessity of providing trouble-free opera-
tion of a parallel-flow channel when the heat load is increased at moderate mass
velocity and pressure requires a substantial (up to the nucleate boiling level)
decrease in the wall temperature. In principle, this cannot be achieved by using
small-height turbulators. Second, and this is most important, the efficiency of
any means for film boiling heat transfer enhancement is substantially higher than
in single-phase flows. This is caused by the liquid phase present in the flow; i.e.,
in principle, heat transfer coefficients can be increased to the level characteristic
of nucleate boiling.
Taking into account that artificial turbulization by annular diaphragms with
film boiling allows a simultaneous use of vapor-phase turbulization, forced
liquid irrigation of a wall, and thermal nonequilibrium decrease, we shall restrict
our consideration to this very means.
FILMBOILING
B. DISPERSED HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
Experimental studies of dispersed film boiling heat transfer enhancement
were made with nitrogen [29, 57, 114, 168-1721.
Studies of thermal nonequilibrium, heat transfer, and hydraulic resistance
were made with upward flow under conditions of steady heating and unsteady
cooling.
As for phase transition enhancement, the higher the efficiency of artificial
flow turbulators in the dispersed film boiling (DFB) regime, the higher is the
extent of thermal nonequilibrium of flow in a smooth channel (the extent of flow
thermal nonequilibrium is estimated by xeqUil lx). In other words, the less devel-
oped the interface and the higher the vapor superheat, the stronger is the
influence of turbulators on the interfacial transfer processes. This influence is
first of all expressed in periodic mixing of a strongly superheated vapor in the
wall layers with a low-temperature vapor of a two-phase flow zone, i.e., this
flattens the vapor temperature fields over the cross section, increases the tem-
perature head (T, IFs),and, finally, augments a phase transition velocity.
The coefficient K allowing for an increase in the phase transition velocity in
rolled channels in comparison with smooth channels has been calculated.
The values K = 2.14 to 6 were obtained through comparison of numerical and
measured values of the output quality. Thus, the coefficient K takes into account
all factors affecting phase transition enhancement along the channel [additional
splitting of drops, their boiling on the wall, increase of (Tu- 231, i.e., it is an
integral index of the influence of turbulators on the phase transition velocity.
The experimental results from vapor generators provided with diaphragms of
other sizes have shown that this coefficient increases as dlD and tlD decrease.
The influence of equally spaced diaphragms on enhancement of heat transfer
in nonequilibrium dispersed flows is versatile. It consists of simultaneous
artificial turbulization of a vapor phase and phase transition enhancement as well
as liquid drop irrigation of a wall.
The mechanism of artificial turbulization of a vapor phase is similar to that for
single-phase flows (Sec. 11). The specific features of two-phase flow are reflected
only in the fact that when the moisture contents are large and drop evaporation
near the wall is intense, momentum and energy transfer in the vapor phase in a
smooth channel is also large. As a result, the effect of artificial turbulization of
the vapor phase in the DFB regime is, in general, expressed more weakly than in
single-phase flows; it is the weaker, the smaller is x.
Periodic separated flow zones enhance a phase transition, and the mechanism
of this process also has many factors: interface increase, mixing of the super-
heated vapor in wall layers with the low temperature vapor of the two-phase
flow zone and additional evaporation of drops at wall irrigation. As a result,
thermal nonequilibrium decreases, i.e., for the same flow parameters in a rolled
vapor generator as against a smooth tube, larger values of x, Re,, and
(z/D = idem) are attained.
The measured pressure drop over the suction of the rolled vapor generator is
satisfactorily correlated with the predicted ones if the empirical relations
@Tsm = f ( d / D , tlD, Re) obtained in single-phase gas experiments (Sec. 111) are
used for the resistance coefficients.
Integral estimates of the efficiency of dispersed film boiling heat transfer
enhancement in the form of Nu/Nu,,, where Nusmis based on flow parameters in
a smooth channel (Re,, = Re,,,,,, T, = Tu,,,), show that the inequality
Nu/Nu,, > (I&,,, (Fig. 74) can be reached in nonequilibrium flow. In our
experiments, the quantity Nu/Nu,,, attained 10 and more. This points to a
substantially greater efficiency of artificial turbulators in the DFB regime, as
compared to their use in single-phase flows.
The results on heat transfer enhancement by artificial flow turbulization
indicate that this technique should be more reasonably used for thermally
268 E. K.KALININ AND e. A. DREITSER
"
0.85 0.9 0.95 d/D
FIG.74. Ratios NuINu,, and <I&,,,vs dlD and Re, at tlD = 0.5: 1, <IT.,,, at Re. = 10' to 4 . lo5;
2, </(lm at Re,, = 2 . lo'; 3, 5, NuINu,, at Re,, = 2 . 10' and x = 0.15 and 0.75, respectively; 4, 7,
Nu/Nu,, at Re, = 10' and x = 0.15 and 0.75, respectively. 6, 8, Nu/Nu,, at Re,, = 4 lo5 and
x = 0.15 and 0.75, respectively.
nonequilibrium flows at small velocities and qualities x > 0.4 to 0.5. As applied,
for example, to gasifiers-evaporators of cryogenic fluids, this means that dia-
phragms should be mounted on the output part of a vapor-generating channel.
When dlD and tlD are decreased, a greater efficiency of heat transfer
enhancement is attained, but the choice of diaphragm size and pitch (tlD 5 1)
depends on the particular hydraulic resistance limitations.
Experiments were conducted with nitrogen in seven modifications of tubes
with d / D = 0.957, 0.925, and 0.880 at t1D = 0.5, with d/D = 0.919, 0.891, and
0.868 at t1D = 1, and with dlD = 0.863 at tID = 2. The test tubes had an inner
diameter D = 9.8 mm, a wall thickness 6 = 0.60 mm, and a heated length
L = 1117 mm, and were manufactured from stainless steel 1x18H10. The tubes
were heated by passing a low-voltage current through them. The main parame-
ters were varied over the following ranges: pressure p = (1 to 8) lo5 Pa,
nitrogen flowrate G = 4.1 to 85 g/s, vapor Reynolds number Re, = (0.5 to
66) lo4, drop diameter Reynolds number Res = 23 to 8000, temperature factor
TWIT,= 1.08 to 9.5, and parameter characterizing the vapor generation intensity
lg(103X) = 0 to 2, where X = (D/x) dxldz. -
The experimental data on heat transfer were generalized by
NU
-- -I+
0.523 ~ ~ ~ [ i . 71o3x)]
4(i~ 1 +
(72)
Num (dlD)34(tlD)'.628Re:
where
n = 0.179(d/D)-3.2(t/D)-0.265 (73)
At 8 =X/Xbound
< l(Xbound= 0.016),
Nu,, = 0.023 Re:.8Pr:,4( 1 + 0 . 1 5 ~ ) ( T ~ l T ~ ) ~ 0 ~ s 5 ~ ~(74)
~~~~1~0
at kr 1,
Nu,, = 0.023 Re?8Pr:4[l.67 lg(103X) - 1.171 (75)
Equation (72) describes the experimental data in the confidence interval
+25% with a confidence probability of 0.99 over the range dlD = 0.863 to
0.957, t / D = 0.5 to 2.0, Re,>= (0.2 to 6 ) . lo5, and lg(103X) = 0.05 to 1.85.
Nu/Nu,, as a function of Re,, and X is plotted in Fig. 75.
C. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
IN THE SLUGFILMBOILINGREGIME
The slug flow regime of film boiling appears at the entrance sections of vapor-
generating channels. In this regime, a liquid phase moves in the form of a
continuous jet separated by a vapor film from the wall. The length of the slug
flow section depends on the heat load, the mass velocity of the subcooled liquid
phase, and, finally, on the quality, and can reach a hundred diameters of a
channel. In a flow with phase slip with respect to velocities sufficient for a
stability loss of a liquid jet, when the attained volume quality is larger than in
the case of closely-packed particles (u, > 0.3), the slug flow structure is replaced
by a dispersed one.
We conducted experiments on heat transfer enhancement in this regime by
using equally spaced diaphragms with unsteady liquid subcooled nitrogen
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
FIG.7 5 . Plot of the influence of the parameter X as a function of heat transfer enhancement at
different Re,, for a tube with dlD = 0.88 and r/D = 0.5: 1 4 , Re, = 2 . IO, 4 . lo4, 6 . lo4, lo,
2 . 10; 4 . IO, respectively.
240
I80
Qn
"V
0 4 8 12 5. S
FIG.76. Wall temperature variation of smooth and rolled channels during nitrogen cooling in the
slug flow regime (G = 0.168 kg/s, C - = 8.5 K, Z = 26): 1, smooth channel; 2, d / D = 0.97; 3,
dlD = 0.95; 4, T,.
cooling of channels (D= 10 mm, 6 = 0.5 mm, L = 300 mm) [29,57, 114, 158,
170-1721. Experiments were performed on three channels: one smooth tube and
two rolled with dlD = 0.95 and 0.97 at t/D = 0.5. The ranges of the flow
parameters were Rer = (1 to 10) . lo5, O,,equil = (ilS - &)/r= 0.2 to 0.22;
0 = c,,(T, - T J r = 0.2 to 1.1, and 2 = z/D = 4 to 20.
Figure 76 plots the oscilloscope record results on the wall temperatures of the
test channels at the same flow rates and subcooling degrees of liquid.
Figure 77 plots the cooling time-mean heat flux in the slug film boiling
regime vs subcooling for a smooth channel and for diaphragmed channels.
BO. 10-4 BoIBosm

5 6
4 5
3 4
2 3
1 2
1
0 0.06 0.10 0.15 @I
FIG. 77. Graphical comparison of the experimental data on heat transfer in smooth and rolled
channels at Re, = lo6 and 2 = 20: 1, Bo for a smooth channel; 2, Bo for dlD = 0.97; 3, Bo for
dlD = 0.95; 4, Bo/Bo,, for d/D = 0.97; 5, Bo/Bo,, for d/D = 0.95.
Analysis of the obtained results has allowed the following conclusions. Use of
artificial turbulators for precooling of channels in the slug flow regime of film
boiling of cryogenic liquids essentially (five times and more) increases the wall
heat flux, i.e., reduces the cooling time. When Re, is increased, the efficiency of
heat transfer enhancement increases, but insignificantly. Heat transfer increases
most when the subcooling degree of the liquid decreases, which points to
simultaneous turbulization of a liquid jet and a vapor film. The experimental
data on heat transfer in a smooth-tube channel and in diaphragmed channels
over the investigated ranges of dimensionless determining parameters can be
generalized with a deviation of no more than +20% by the following
equations:
For a smooth channel
Bo,, = q,nL?lGr
where the Rel number is taken over the physical liquid parameters at the channel
entrance.
For a diaphragmed channel with dlD = 0.97 and tID = 0.5,
Bo = 4.8 . 10-3(1 + 3.30/)[1 + 1.67 exp(-OSZ)] (77)
For a diaphragmed channel with dlD = 0.95 and tJD = 0.5,
Bo = 6.1 . 10-3(1 + 3.80/)[1 + 0.37 exp(-0.22)] (78)

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the results on enhancement of film
boiling heat transfer convincingly point to the wide potentialities of the means
for artificial turbulization earlier proposed for single-phase flows of liquids.
D. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
AT WATERSURFACE
BOILING
IN TUBES
The method for heat transfer enhancement under these conditions was studied
in connection with surface boiling of liquids [57, 1731. The problem was put in
conformity to evaporative heat exchangers used in chemical and food industries
as well as in other fields. In many evaporative heat exchangers, a condensing
vapor serves as the heating medium and surface boiling occurs inside the tubes.
Practically, it is difficult to realize the majority of the known means for heat
transfer enhancement in such an apparatus because there is no technology for
quantity production of the investigated heat transfer surfaces. A special technol-
ogy for assembling heat exchangers from these surfaces is needed, as these
surfaces have a relatively low efficiency and heat transfer outside and inside
tubes is not enhanced simultaneously.
With film condensation on the outer surface of vertical tubes, the annular
grooves allow a 1.7 to 2.8-fold increase in the heat transfer coefficient. The
objective of the present study is to look into the possibility of enhancing heat
transfer by the above means based on liquid surface boiling in tubes.
With surface boiling of a liquid in forced flow, the wall layer is turbulized by
the formation of vapor bubbles. The fiequency of bubble detachment and the
number of nucleation sites are proportional to the heat flux density. Usually
surface boiling is realized at not high heat flux densities when the number of
nucleation sides and bubble detachment frequencies are not large. That is why
additional turbulization of the wall layer due to rolling must be more efficient at
surface boiling. As in the case of forced single-phase flow, with surface boiling,
rolling turbulizes only the wall layer, and the hydraulic loss increase is not large.
Because of additional turbulization of the wall layer, bubbles are detached from
the heating surface earlier. The time of bubble formation, growth, and detach-
ment is considerably reduced and that is why the generation frequency of
bubbles increases. On the other hand, vapor bubbles formed on the heating
surface due to forced motion fall on diaphragms, where flow turbulence is
higher, and are detached from the surface earlier, as if they were on a smooth
surface. This also increases their detachment frequency. Thus, heat transfer
enhancement with surface boiling in forced flow in annular-diaphragmed tubes
is attained when the detachment frequency of bubbles increases as a result of
additional turbulization of the wall layer and the earlier detachment of bubbles
From the heating surface, especially from the diaphragms.
In our study, a test section was a vertical single-tube evaporator. Experiments
were carried out on boiling of water heated to the temperatures 95 to 97C in a
tank. Water was circulated by a pump. A vapor-water mixture was supplied
from the evaporator to the separator, where the vapor was separated from the
liquid. The liquid was returned to the tank and the vapor was sucked through the
condenser by a vacuum pump into a measuring vessel. Commercial oil I - 20
heated to 130 to 150C in the tank was pumped into the intertube space.
The heat transfer tube of the test section, which had a diameter of 16 mm and
a length of 1500mm, was manufactured from steel 1X18H10 and mounted
inside a smooth tube having an inner diameter D = 25 mm. A smooth tube and
five modifications of tubes having rolling parameters inside (three tubes with a
rolling pitch tlD = 0.572 and diaphragm-to-tube diameter ratios dlD = 0.883,
0.904, and 0.931 and two tubes with tID = 0.286 and dlD = 0.884, and 0.908)
were examined. The width of the annular diaphragms was -2 mm. The wall
temperatures of the test tubes were measured by chromel-copper thermocouples
at nine points lengthwise.
In the experiments, the main parameters were vaned over the following
ranges: water temperature at the entrance tj = 95 to 97"C, water temperature at
the exit ti' = 98 to IOOC,water flow rate G = (64 to 200) . kg/s, Reynolds
number Re, = (2 to 6) . lo4, temperature of the inner surface t, = 101.4 to

106.3OC, water pressure approximately 0.1 MPa, and heat flux density ( I .8 to
8) . lo4 W/m2. On the hot side, the flow parameters were: oil temperature at the
entrance tiout= 130 to 150C,oil temperature at the exit tLOut = 123 to 140C,
flow rate G,,,, = 0.37 to 0.5 kg/s, Re,..t = (4.8 to 8.4) . lo3, and Prandtl number
Pr,,,,, = 47 to 60. The discrepancy in the heat balance of the test section did not
exceed *7%. The relative error in determining the heat transfer coefficient
corresponding to a confidence probability of 0.997 was equal to 7 to 8%.
The length-mean heat transfer coefficients outside and inside the tubes were
determined. In doing so, the increase of a heat transfer surface due to the outside
grooves and the protrusions inside was not allowed for, and the heat flux was
related to the smooth tube surface.
When the mean heat transfer coefficient inside a tube is defined as
a = q/(f, - t , ) (79)
the data on a smooth tube agreed fairly well with D. A. Labuntsov's interpolated
relation proposed for the calculation of nucleate boiling heat transfer at forced
convection conditions in tubes [ 1741
-a,,,
_ - 4% + a ,
a,,. 5% - a,
where a,, is the heat transfer coefficient determined by the formulas for con-
vective heat transfer of single-phase liquid and a,, is the heat transfer coefficient
calculated by the relations for nucleate boiling (Fig. 78).
OllOln
Orloll,
20
26 3.4
30
22
2.6
18 12
14 18
10 14
0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 olr,iola
FIG. 78. Ratio do!,, as a function of a,,la,, with water surface boiling in annular turbulator-
equipped tubes: 1-5, d / D = 0.8S4,0.908,0.883,0.904. 0.931, respectively, and //D= 0.286.0.286,
0.571. 0.571, 0.571. respectively: 6, smooth tube.
274 E. K. KALININ AND 0.A. DREITSER
To determine aw,S . S. Kutateladzes [175, 1761 relation
Nuf = 0.023ReF8Pr~(Pr/lPrns)o.06 (81)
was used.
The temperature t, = 0.5 . ($ + $3 was taken as the determining one, and D.
A. Labuntsovs relation [ 1741
Nu, = 0.125Ret65Pr3 (82)
where Nu, = aql,lA, Re, = ql,/(rpv), 1, = c,poT,/(rp)*,was used for cal-

culation of a,.
Values of v, c, , R, and Pr were evaluated for the liquid at the temperature t, .
As seen from Fig. 78, the ratio a,/aq = 0.5 to 2.4, i.e., experiments were
conducted in the region where the heat transfer was determined both by forced
convection and by boiling. Equation (80) is recommended within
0.5 5 ay,/ay 5 2. If aw/a,5 0.5, then the heat transfer is determined by forced
flow and as,,,=a,,. At ay,Iaq> 2, the heat transfer is determined by boiling and
am =
Figure 78 also plots the data on heat transfer from tubes provided with
annular turbulators. Values of aqand a,, were determined for a smooth tube. As
seen from this figure, the annular diaphragms increase the mean heat transfer
coefficient by 30 to 40%. This increase is greater, the larger the rolling depth
(the smaller is d/D), the smaller the rolling pitch t / D and the smaller the ratio
a,/a,,i.e., the greater the contribution of forced convection to the total heat
transfer.
The experimental data on heat transfer enhancement can be generalized by the
relation
a/aY,,= 1 + 1.35 . (1 - 0.371t/D) * (1 - d/0)0.48(1 - 0.104a,/aM,)(83)

9
valid for tlD = 0.25 to 0.6, d / D = 0.88 to 0.94, aW/aq = 0.5 to 2.4, with as,
being evaluated by Eq. (80); aw,by Eq. (81); and a,,by Eq. (82).
Thus, the studies have shown that heat transfer can be essentially enhanced in
forced liquid tube flow with surface boiling. Use of annular turbulator-equipped
tubes allows the size of tubular heat exchangers to be reduced while preserving
their heat power. The size of single-phase evaporators to be reduced while
preserving their heat power. The size of single-phase evaporators can be reduced
by 30 percent. If a condensing vapor is used as a heating medium, then heat
transfer enhancement on the outer surface of tubes will be more essential than in
single-phase liquid flow, and the size of a heat exchanger can be decreased by
40 to 44%, as compared to a smooth-tube one.
VIII. Enhancement of Condensation Heat Transfer
A. MEANSFOR CONDENSATION ENHANCEMENT

HEATTRANSFER
For many years, the problem of choosing effective condenser surfaces has not
received the attention it deserved. It was considered that the process of con-
densation heat transfer from a heat carrier was satisfactory, and there was no
need to search for more effective surfaces than those commonly used. These are
mainly round tubes. In the last few years, in connection with the growth of
energy plants as well as the requirements for compactness of condensation heat
exchangers, great interest has been paid to the problems of enhancing condensa-
tion heat transfer as well as searching for more efficient surfaces than the
commonly used ones.
As is known, vapor condensation on a surface can be filmwise or dropwise
depending on whether the liquids wet or do not wet a surface. Drop condensa-
tion provides a sufficiently high intensity of vapor-to-wall heat transfer, since
the vapor drops forming during condensation do not remain on the wall and do
not generate thermal resistance between the vapor and the wall. If at condensa-
tion a liquid film is formed on the wall, then it generates additional thermal
resistance between the vapor and the wall and reduces the heat transfer. It is
obvious that for heat transfer to be enhanced, this film must be destroyed and
removed from the wall. The simple solution is to develop a surface that would
not be wetted with the liquid, so that condensation would be dropwise. Unfortu-
nately, real possibilities to achieve this are limited, and the simplest and most
attainable way is to provide separation and entrainment of the forming con-
densate film from the wall.
That is why the present section is mainly devoted to developing surfaces that
would provide enhancement of heat transfer with film condensation. As will be
indicated, these surfaces are also efficient if condensation on them is dropwise
(true, the effect of heat transfer increase is smaller than with film condensation).
In this section, the specific features of the condensation process on ordinary
surfaces will not be dwelt upon in detail. These problems are covered in detail
elsewhere [ 177, 1781.
Consider briefly the main means for heat transfer enhancement in surface-
type condensers. Usually condensers are shaped as tubes with condensation
outside them. The thermal resistance with surface condensation on the side of
the condensing vapor is the sum of the thermal resistances of the condensate
film and an air interlayer. The thermal resistance of the film can be decreased
by destroying or turbulizing the condensate film, and that of an interlayer,
by providing reliable air removal, by keeping sufficient velocities of the
vapor-air mixture in a tube bundle, and by making a rational array of a tube
bundle.
276 E. K. KALININ AND G . A. DRFXTSER
Creating drop condensation, use of low-finned tubes, heat transfer surface

vibrations, use of an inclined tube bundle, and development of efficient air
suction schemes are the most rational means to enhance heat transfer on the side
of a condensing vapor.
Drop condensation is one of the most efficient means for enhancement of
condensation heat transfer. Heat transfer with drop condensation is 5 to 10 times
greater than with film condensation. At the present time, the drop condensation
mechanism can be considered to be reasonably well understood.
The drop condensation process in a commercial heat exchanger can be set up
in two ways: periodic supply of a liquid stimulator with a hot vapor to the
condensation surface, or use of a hydrophobic surface shaped as a solid coating.
Each of the above ways has advantages and disadvantages, which hampers the
final choice of a means for setting up drop condensation. Silicon organic liquids
GKZh-90, GKZh-16, GKZh-94, machine oil, kerosine, etc., can be used as
liquid stimulators. In this case, the purity and dose of the stimulator are very
important.
It has been established that the stimulator mechanism consists of rendering a
surface hydrophobic. Demands for a long lifetime, corrosion safety, and inex-
pensive production are made on stimulators. A large number of publications,
sometimes very contradictory, have been devoted to the problem of choosing
stimulators. A large number of chemical compounds that produce drop condensa-
tion have been found. However, the lifetime of these compounds does not exceed
several hundred hours, which is obviously insufficient for industrial application.
Organic compounds whose molecules have a nonsymmetric structure can be
used as hydrophobic films. A hydrophobic film on brass, nickel silver, and steel
tubes can be produced by using an ethylene fluorine derivative (fluoroplastics),
silicon organic resins, and phenol-formaldehyde-based materials. Teflon and
some other similar materials can be used as a coating.
It is of great importance to know the influence of contamination on the
lifetime of stimulators. Experiments with a process vapor containing solid and
gas admixtures have shown that when even a small amount of contamination is
present in the vapor, the drop condensation time is sharply reduced because of
chemical contamination of the surface.
The study of drop condensation is of great scientific and practical interest. The
main purposes of hrther studies in this field are further accumulation of
theoretical and experimental data; search for new stimulators and coatings
meeting the main requirements; comprehensive investigations into the influence
of different contaminantson the drop condensation process; study of the influence
of different factors on the transition from drop to film condensation (spatial
orientation of a heat transfer surface, drop falling from tube to tube, etc.).
Use of rolled or finned tubes increases the surface per unit length as well as
enhancing heat transfer from vapor and water. At present a large number of
types of finned surfaces are known. Tubes that are differently rolled outside and
inside (e.g., the tubes shown in Fig. 12) can be used in condensers. Use of
annular-grooved rolled tubes allows a 2.5 to 2.7-fold increase of condensation
heat transfer. The increase of vapor condensation heat transfer is attributed to
the action of surface tension forces on small-curvature sections.
Operating conditions of a tube bundle in a real condenser substantially differ
from those of a single tube. At the same time, the majority of investigations of
condensation enhancement have been performed on single tubes. Almost no data
on the influence of air velocity on heat transfer in rolled or finned tube bundles
are available. Heat transfer deterioration due to condensate filling in finned tube
bundles is 2 to 2.5 times smaller than in smooth tube bundles. Inclining a tube
bundle from the horizontal by a small angle is one of the existing means to
decrease the filling influence for profile tubes. As a whole, the efficiency of profile
tubular heat exchangers is increased by 25 to 50%, although undoubtedly the
existing data are still insufficient to make quantitative estimates.
The main problems for firther study are accumulation of theoretical and
experimental data with the intent of elaborating calculation methods for profile
tubular heat exchangers, industrial tests of quantity production heat exchangers
of turbine plants with smooth tubes replaced by profile ones, study of the
influence of filling of lower tubes in a horizontal tube bundle, and study of
thermal and hydraulic characteristics of an inclined tube and an inclined bundle
of tubes.
Vibrating a heat transfer surface enhances heat transfer on both sides and can
serve as a means to prevent surface contamination. In principle, it is possible to
produce artificial vibrations of a heat transfer surface and to control natural
vibration within certain limits. However, data on real vibration parameters in
different heat exchangers are not available. In addition, the methods for calculat-
ing natural frequencie tube vibration are insufficient for different geometry
tubes, in particular for profile tubes and also when some design features are
allowed for. Meanwhile, the reliability of heat exchangers is, in the main, bound
up with vibration. Vibration is one of the main reasons for failure of tubes.
However, available data relating to this problem are obviously insufficient.
The main problems concerning vibrations in heat exchangers are as follows:
study of a real vibration level of different heat exchangers and their tubular
systems; development of calculation methods and experimental checks of
natural vibration frequencies of tubes and tube bundles, and study of the
influence of vibration on the reliability of a heat exchanger, on heat transfer with
vapor condensation and to cooling water for smooth and profile tubes, on
contamination of different tubes, and on nonseparated flow of a condensate film
in inclined tubes.
Use of an inclined tube bundle near the horizontal (up to loo) allows the
influence of condensate filling of lower tubes to be eliminated, vapor resistance
to be decreased, and condensate deaeration to be improved, and use of one near

the vertical line (angle of 10 to 20") allows heat transfer to be enhanced on the
side of a condensing vapor at moderate velocities. In this case, a gain in heat
transfer can constitute 15 to 30%. It should be noted that use of the inclination
of a tube bundle is appropriate for profile tube bundles as well as for producing
drop condensation on tubes.
Accumulation of theoretical and experimental data for the influence of incli-
nation on heat transfer, study of the influence of condensate filling of tubes
(smooth, profile, and at drop condensation) in a horizontal tube bundle, and
determination of the characteristics of nonseparated flow of a condensate film in
different-geometry tubes, in incoming ambient flow, and with vibrations are the
subjects of further investigations.
Studies of the influence of air on heat transfer in condensation-type heat
exchangers have already illustrated the crucial importance of this problem.
Of interest is the study of the influence of air suction on the thermal
characteristics of heat exchangers under industrial conditions as well as the
development and study of a rational system of air suction from a heat exchanger,
followed by the determination of the optimal suction at an acceptable sucking
vapor flow rate.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the influence of air on condensation heat
transfer in profile tubes and inclined tubes, with vibration and drop condensation
conditions, is poorly explored, and the available studies point to a possible
principal difference in the mechanism of this influence on heat transfer.
Heat transfer from a tube wall to cold water plays an important role in heat
transfer enhancement in condensers. It should be noted that use of turbulators
inside condenser tubes allows heat transfer to be enhanced and at the same time
surface contamination to be decreased.
B. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
WITH VAPOR CONDENSATION
ON HORIZONTAL
ANNULAR-GROOVED
TUBES
In [63, 179, 1801, the possibility of substantially enhancing heat transfer with
vapor condensation on finned surfaces is shown.
The developed designs of tubes appeared to be highly efficient also under
condensation of liquids on the outer surfaces of tubes. As compared to other
means for condensation heat transfer enhancement, these tubes do not require
any additional metal consumption for firming, also provide heat transfer
enhancement inside tubes, and are simple to manufacture.
Film condensation heat transfer enhancement on the outer surface of tubes is
caused by the influence of surface tension on a condensate film. The thicker and
the more uniform the condensate film, the larger is its thermal resistance. That
is why, for substantial heat transfer enhancement outside tubes, a geometry is
FIG. 79. Sketch of a tube used with condensation of liquid on the outer surface.
needed that, when equally spaced diaphragms are preserved inside tubes,
yields an efficient fall of the condensate film or its falling down a groove as
its thickness decreases on the remaining tube sections. This is achieved by
decreasing the pitch of annular grooves (up to 0.25 to 0.35 of the outer tube
diameter), by giving a convex form to the projecting part of the tube, and
by smoothly conjugating groove surfaces and projecting parts of a tube
(Fig. 79) [181].
If tubes are positioned horizontally, a condensate film forming on them falls
down the outer surface of the tube across its axis from top to bottom and falls
from the tube bottom. The presence of a variabletion of the outer tube surface
with smooth transitions (Fig. 79) leads to additional condensate falling into
equally spaced grooves. This decreases the thickness of the condensate film on
the projecting parts of the tube, thereby reducing the thermal resistance between
the vapor and the wall and enhancing the heat transfer. Falling of condensate
from the projecting parts of the tubes into grooves accelerates their filling,
reduces the condensate film stability, and results in its separation or accelerated
falling. Thus, an artificial redistribution of the condensate along a tube sharply
increases the heat transfer on the projecting tube parts, making up the bulk of the
tube, and, finally, causes a substantial increase in the mean coefficient of heat
transfer outside the tube.
To substantiate the choice of optimal parameters of grooves and projecting
parts of tubes, detailed experimental studies were conducted over a wide range
of flow and geometrical parameters.
Heat transfer enhancement on horizontal tubes was investigated with water
vapor condensation [57, 172, 182-1841. The test section was composed of 16
in-line tubes separated by vertical walls into four compartments, each of which
comprised four tubes with the same or different rolling parameters. Cooling water
was supplied to the interior part of the tubes, and saturated vapor was supplied
from the top to the intertube space. The following parameters were measured: tube
wall temperatures at 14 points (four thermocouples were embedded in three
sections of a tube and one thermocouple, in two sections); water flow rate and its
temperature and pressure at the entrance and exit of each tube; flow rate,
pressure, and temperature of the heating vapor; and flow rate and temperature of
the condensate. The availability of reliable data on heat transfer inside annular-
diaphragmed tubes allowed some experiments to be conducted with the use
of the heat exchanger method, i.e., without measurements of the tube wall
temperature.
Experiments were performed on nine horizontal brass (L68) tubes with
DOut = 18.3 to 18.92 mm and 1 = 1859 mm with the rolling parameters shown in
Fig. 80. The main parameters of the process were varied over the following
ranges: water vapor pressure p = 0.157 to 0.323 MPa; saturation temperature
t, = 112.7 to 136.6"C; wall temperature t, = 75.2 to 98.3"C; temperature
difference AT = T, - T, = 7.2 to 44.2"C; vapor velocity no more than 5 m/s,
for a film Retilm= 2.5 to 150.
I
1.5 L
20
I
30
U I
40
I-
50 AT,K
1
FIG. 80. Enhancement of heat transfer with vapor condensation on horizontal tubes vs tem-
perature head.
0 0.856 0.37 1.0 0.051 A 0.913 0.32 0.5 0.094

V 0.955 0.37 0.5 0.092 0.948 0.37 1.0 0.053
0 0.931 0.283 0.5 0.095 0 0.927 0.53 1.0 0.053
X 0.910 0.37 0.5 0.093 * 0.893 0.37 0.76 0.062
A 0.933 0.37 0.5 0.03
Data on vapor condensation heat transfer in tubes located in different rows are
practically the same. As seen in Fig. 80, heat transfer enhancement practically
does not depend on the temperature difference. The heat transfer coefficient is
increased 1.8 to 2.65 times, it being the larger, the larger the groove depth, the
smaller the pitch, and the smaller the rounding-off radius R of the projecting
parts of the tubes. The experimental data can be generalized by the relation
= 6.8 . ( I
(YICY~,,, - 0.35 . R/D,,,) ' (I - 0.379 . t/DOut)
. (1 - 0.513 . d,,tlDoL,l)] (84)
which is valid for d,,,tlD,,, = 0.89 to 0.95, tlD,,, = 0.283 to 0.37, RID,,, = 0.5
to 1 .O. Data on the smooth tube satisfactorily agree with the equation in [ 1781:
4 3 2 2
asm= 0.728dh pl g I [ , d r ,- L)D~,,] (85)
obtained for film condensation of a stagnant vapor on a horizontal tube. Values
of thermal conductivity I / , dynamic viscosity p/,and density y l entering into Eq.
(85) were evaluated in terms of the saturation temperature Tv.
It should be emphasized that for the tubes investigated, the heat transfer inside
a tube is increased 2.5 to 3 times as against a smooth tube. That is why, when
the data on tubes are used, the heat transfer coefficient is increased 2 to 2.2
times.
Similar investigations [ 1851 were conducted on condensation of water,
acetone, and extraction gasoline vapors on four horizontal tubes 1 m long with
Do,, = 25 mm and with the following annular groove parameters: (1) d,,,/
D,,,, = 0.872; t/D,,, = 0.2; (2) 0.9; 0.2; (3) 0.912; 0.2; (4) 0.876; 0.4; and (5)
0.91; 0.4, respectively.
With film condensation, irrespective of the thermophysical properties of the
liquid, the presence of annular grooves causes a substantial heat transfer
increase: for tubes 1, 2, and 3 it was increased 2.8 to 3, 1.8 to 2.2, and 2 to 2.5
times, respectively.
Thus, experiments have shown that the chosen to be profile when positioned
horizontally promotes drainage of the condensate, a decrease in the film con-
densate thickness on the projecting parts of tubes, and accordingly, an increase
in the intensity of vapor condensation heat transfer.
The data presented were supported by industrial tests of a heater used for a
water heating system [ 1961. The heater was composed of 214 tubes 4.08 m long
with a diameter Do,, = 16 mm and a wall thickness of 0.85 mm. The tubes were
positioned horizontally. The parameters of tube rolling were do,,ID,,, = 0.932
and tID,,, = 0.3 1 (inside the tubes dlD = 0.932, t / D = 0.357). This heater and a
similar smooth-tube heater were tested at the same pressure of heating vapor.
Replacing the smooth tubes by rolled ones allowed the heat power and heat
transfer coefficient to be increased more than 2 times. In this case, the heat
transfer coefficient inside the tubes was increased 2.7 to 2.55 times, while that
outside the tubes was increased up to 2.5 times. As the pressure of the heating
vapor increased, the heat transfer enhancement also increased.
It should be emphasized that the efficiency of the investigated annular
turbulator-equipped tubes when used in condensers is substantially higher than
that of tubes having spiral rolling, which increases the heat transfer coefficient
by 25% [186, 1871.
c. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
WITH VAPOR CONDENSATION ON THE
OF VERTICAL
OUTERSURFACE ANNULAR-GROOVED
TUBES
Heat transfer enhancement was studied in the same tubes when they were
positioned vertically and the vapor was practically stagnant [183, 1881. Heat
transfer was lower than in horizontal tubes and increased as Refilmand the rolling
depth increased and the pitch decreased (Fig. 81). At Refirm< 400, a tlh decrease
less than 8 did not lead to a further growth of enhancement. This was associated
with keeping the condensate in grooves by surface tension forces.
Experimental results on mean heat transfer can be generalized by
" [
-=
Nusm
If
5.4 . lo3
exp(1.4tlh) 1
. ~ ~ 0film
.127/exp[(9lh)(~~~l~)'"]
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 t/h
FIG. 8 1. Heat transfer enhancement at water vapor condensation on vertical tubes.
0 0.933 0.37 0.5 0.092

0 0.931 0.283 0.5 0.095
0 0.910 0.37 0.5 0.093
0 0.927 0.53 1.0 0.053
@ 0.913 0.32 0.5 0.094
which is valid at Refilm= Gspec/p/= 40 to 3000 (Gspecis the specific condensate

flow rate), where for a smooth tube,
,;
-
NU,, = -
&
4 0
-
g
= 0.925 . Re& . [l + 0.04 . Re:& + 2.23 . . Re:; . Pr:;6,,]
* l3 . (pUI /pw.)l*
[(A,.i, (87)
Visualization and high-speed photography of vapor condensation on annular-
grooved tubes have revealed that at Refilm< 500 to 700 the heat transfer increase
is caused by large-scale unsteadiness of the condensate film flow. Unsteadi-
ness means a periodic separation of the main condensate mass in the form of
large solitons 50 to 100 mm long with a frequency up to 1 Hz, thereby decreas-
ing the mean condensate film thickness. At high Reynolds numbers
(Refil,> 700), elevated turbulence and film formation were observed, causing
more intense transfer from the tube surface. It should be noted that at a slight
inclination of tubes (3 to S O ) , condensation heat transfer enhancement sub-
stantially increased.
This allowed tubes with annular grooves and diaphragms rolled inside them
[ 1891 to be used (Fig. 82). These tubes were meant for vertical tube-provided
condensers. Grooves and diaphragms were parallel to one another at an angle
o < 90 to the tube axis. The groove distance was equal to three times the width
3 1
FIG. 82. Tube provided with inclined grooves and diaphragms: 1, tube; 2, grooves; 3, diaphragms.
284 E. K. KALINm AND G. A. DREITSER
of the grooves (S, = 3t), and the groove depth was determined by
3
sin ag),
= dGCondv/(trp
where Gcondis the flow rate of condensate forming on the tube surface between
adjacent grooves. Between the grooves there may be fins not connected with
these grooves or grooves located mainly parallel to the tube axis. Condensate
filled down into the grooves and escaped via grooves on one side of the tube.
This provided a two- to threefold heat transfer enhancement, as compared to a
smooth tube.
Similar studies of profile three-entry spiral-rolled tubes were also made on
this installation. At Refil, > 200, heat transfer enhancement on this type of tube
was substantially lower than on annular-grooved tubes at equal tlh. At
Refilm> 400, no heat transfer enhancement occurred on spiral tubes.
Somewhat higher heat transfer enhancement was achieved with condensation
of water and extraction gasoline on the outer surface of vertical tubes in an
annular channel. This can be explained by the vapor velocity influence and a
possible deflection of the test tubes from a vertical position [157, 190-1941.
Tubes with an outer diameter D = 16 mm, an inner diameter of 14 mm, a
length of 1.5 m, and four rolling versions-+) doU,lD,,,= 0.876; t/Do,,=0.248;
(2) 0.938; 0.248; (3) 0.938; 0.437; and (4) 0.91; 0.437, respectively-were
placed in a 26-mm-i.d. smooth tube. The width of the annular grooves was equal
to 2 mm. Cooling water was supplied to the tube from bottom to top, and the
condensing vapor was supplied to the annular channel from above. The follow-
ing parameters were measured: vapor temperature at the condenser inlet, con-
denser pressure, temperature of the outer tube-wall surface at nine points from
top to bottom, temperature at the condensate outlet, cooling water temperature at
the inlet and outlet, vapor flow rate, and condensate and cooling water flow
rates. Saturation temperature was determined by the measured condenser pres-
sure. Heat flux was determined by the amount of formed conate and by cooling
water heating.
Experiments with condensation of extraction gasoline were conducted at
pressure p S= 0.05 to 0.07 MPa, saturation temperature t, = 50 to 60C, inlet
vapor temperature t,: = 70 to 76"C, outlet condensate temperature t," = 23 to
59"C, wall temperature t,,, = 26 to 48OC, temperature difference AT =
T, - T,,. = 4 to 45"C, heat flux density q,, = (6 to 51) . lo3 W/m2, vapor veloc-
ity in the annular gap entrance w,,= 2.27 to 11.5 m/s. With water vapor
condensation,p,, = 0.07 MPa, At = 4 to 45OC, q,,, = (4 to 30) * lo4 W/m2. Cold
water temperature at the entrance = 8 to 12OC, water velocity Wc,,ld = 0.2 to
2.2 mls, Reynolds number based on water Recold= (2 to 30) * lo3, Reynolds
number based on film Refilln= 80 to 800, and dimensionless parameter Z, =
- -
(Ga)"' 21 At/rpr= 3 . lo2 to 4 . lo3, where Cia = g . l&d/~:,g = 9.8 m/s'.
In Figs. 83 and 84, the experimental data on mean heat transfer over the
condensation section of the outer tube surface are compared with the results for
condensation on a smooth tube. The parameter Re, = Q At . lcond / ( r . ,u/)and the
+
correction for the variability of the physical properties of condensate E =

[(A, /2J3 ,~~/,u,,]~
9 are used. The liquid parameters entering into the formulas for
Z , and Re, are determined from the temperature T, ,and the linear dimension icon,,
corresponds to the tube length, on which condensation occurs. The measurements
and the known data on heat transfer inside rolled tubes have allowed lcond and the
mean heat transfer coefficient Q on the condensation action to be found.
Calculation has been made by the successive approximation method.
As indicated in Fig. 83 and 84, the data on the condensation of vapor and
extraction gasoline vapors on a smooth tube agree well with the relation for film
condensation in laminar film flow
Re,,,, = 0.943 . 275 (88)
FIG. 83. Plot of heat transfer at gasoline film condensation on a vertical tube: 0. A, 0, smooth
tube for p = 0.05, 0.06, 0.07 MPa, respectively; 0 , A, W, tube with d,,,/D,,, = 0.876.
i/Dou,= 0.248 at the same pressures; 0, d,,,/D,,, = 0.938, tlD,,, = 0.248 for p = 0.07 MPa; 1 .
Eq. (88); 2, Eq. (89) for tubes with d,,,lD,,, = 0.876 and 0.938, tiD,,, = 0.248 and 0.248,
respectively.
3 4 6 8 lo3 2 Z,
FIG. 84. Plot o f heat transfer at film water vapour condensation on a vertical tube: 1, smooth tube;
2 4 , tubes with d,,,lD,,, = 0.856, 0.955, 0.931, 0.910, 0.933, tlD,,, = 0.370, 0.370, 0.283, 0.370,
0.370, RID,.,=I.O, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, RolD,,,=0.051, 0.092, 0.095, 0.093, 0.092.
Heat transfer enhancement on the outer surface of tubes does not depend on the
saturation pressure and the parameter 2,. It is higher, the deeper are the annular
grooves and it decreases only slightly as the groove pitch increases.
On the investigated tubes, the coefficient of heat transfer with gasoline vapor
condensation increases 2.4 to 2.8 times as against a smooth tube, and with water
vapor condensation, 1.7 to 1.9 times. This discrepancy can be explained as
follows: Since the heat of vaporization is 7 to 8 times and the film thermal
conductivity is 3 to 4 times greater for water than for gasoline, with water
condensation wall heat flux densities that are greater by those magnitudes are
realized. The stainless steel X18H10 tubes used in the experiments have a
relatively low thermal conductivity. That is why the mean heat transfer coeffi-
cient on these tubes declines as the heat flux increases as a result of increasing
temperature nonuniformity on tube projections and recessions. For tubes with a
higher thermal conductivity (e.g., brass) the influence of this effect does not
manifest itself, and the results for water approach the data for gasoline.
The experimental data obtained on heat transfer enhancement can be gener-
alized by the following relations (dout /Dout= 0.976 to 1):
For condensation of gasoline vapors (t/DOut=0.248)
a/ay,,= 1 + 1.961 ( 1 - exp[-20.189 (1 - d,ut/DouJ]} (89)
For condensation of water vapors (tlDOut= 0.248 to 0.437)

alas,,,= 1 + (1.4 - 1.601 . t/Do,,). { I - exp[- 18.203 * (1 - dou1/DOut)]}
(90)
Including the dimensionless complex A,, . 6,./(;Ialm . deq),where A,,, ;Ifilm
are
the thermal conductivities of the wall and the film material, respectively, 6, is
the wall thickness, and deqis the equivalent diameter of the annular channel,
allows the experimental data on condensation of water and gasoline vapors to be
correlated by the following relation:
C Y / C X ~=
~, 1 + 0.551 . [A, 6,./(Afilmdeq)]0629
* (1.196 - 0.79 t/Do,,)
. ( 1 - exp[-19.196 . (1 - d,,ut/D,,,lt)]} (91)
Equation (91) is valid for i,.6,,./(;Lfilmdeq)
= 2.576 to 8.514, t/Dout= 0.25 to
0.44, do,,/D,,, = 0.876 to 0.938.
Since these tubes substantially enhance heat transfer inside tubes on water (in
the considered experiments, about a 2.5-fold increase), their use allows, as a
whole, a 1.5 to 2-fold decrease in condenser volume. At the same time the use
of longitudinally rolled tubes or tubes having longitudinal wire finning permits,
at best, the heat transfer coefficient to be increased 1.4 to 1.6 times.
It should be noted that heat exchangers of equal length were compared, and in
this case the rolled-tube heat exchanger operated in a not optimal regime, as in
this regime condensation did not take place along the entire tube (condensate
film was supercooled on the lower tube part). If a rolled-tube heat exchanger
operates within the optimal regime, then it will be more efficient than a smooth-
tube heat exchanger and the heat transfer coefficient will be enhanced 1.9 to 2.2
times.
Thus, these experiments have revealed that the chosen profile of vertical tubes
promotes an arranged drain of condensate, decrease in the film thickness,
condensate at the apexes of annular protrusions, and, accordingly, an increase in
vapor condensation heat transfer enhancement.
D. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENTWITH CONDENSATION
OF
VAPORMIXTURES
ON VERTICAL
SURFACES
As is known, the condensation of vapor mixtures can be dropwise, two-
filmwise or film-dropwise depending on the mixture composition and the mutual
solubility of the liquids.
Possibilities for enhancing heat transfer on vertical surfaces with condensa-
tion of vapor mixtures have been examined elsewhere [57, 183, 188, 1951.
Processes of condensation of water, acetone, and extraction gasoline vapors as
well as mixtures of water and acetone or extraction gasoline vapors on a vertical
surface having horizontal grooves were studied on a plate condenser, whose
schematic is shown in Fig. 85.
288 E.K. KALININ AND G . A. DREITSER
vapor entrance
I
FIG.85. Schematic of the plate condenser
The sides of the plate condenser had viewing windows for visualization and
high-speed photography. Studies were made of condensation on a smooth
surface and on five versions of surfaces with groove depths h = 0.4 to 0.85 mm,
a rounding-off radius R = 1 mm, and a pitch t = 4 to 12 mm. The water mass
content xWaterin the mixtures was varied within 0.16 to 0.84.
When one-component vapors were condensed, a condensate film was formed
on the surface (Fig. 86a) and was markedly turbulized in the grooves on this
surface. In this case, the mean coefficient of heat transfer with condensation of
water vapors was increased 1.2 to 1.85 times; of gasoline vapors, 1.13 to 1.6
times; and of acetone, 1.13 to 1.45 times (Fig. 87).
Heat transfer enhancement as a function of the parameter hlt and Weber
number We = g * p . Bred/o,where dred= [,u2/(p2. g)]"' is the reduced thick-
ness of the condensate film, g = 9.8 m/s2, p and p are the density and dynamic
viscosity of liquid, respectively, and o is the surface tension coefficient can be
evaluated by:
aIa, = exp[-5.667 . (h/t)]We-0.87S(h") (92)
Condensation of vapors of mixtures of mutually soluble liquids (water and
acetone) was dropwise (Fig. 86b), and a condensate film was formed after the
coalescence of drops behind the condensation section. As the cold water flow
rate decreases, the condensation section increases in size. At xac= 0.16, drops
a h c (1
FIG. 86. Scheme of condensation processes of vapor mixtures: a. film condensation; b, drop
condensation; c, two-film condensation; d, film-drop condensation.
spread out, and at xaC= 0.16 to 0.56, the dropwise nature of condensation is well
pronounced. Here x,, is the acetone mass fraction in a mixture. Turbulators
increase heat transfer 1.1 to 1.4 times depending on the parameter hlt. The
smaller heat transfer enhancement at condensation of an acetone-water mixture
as against the condensation of a one-component vapor is attributed to the smaller
influence of the turbulization efficiency on drops than on film. The experimental
data on mean heat transfer can be generalized by the relation (Figs. 88 and 89)
Nu = 1.09 * lo- . Re, 25 . nl:; Pr . exp[ 1.55 . (h/t)]
+
(93)
where
Nu = a RC,/Am,, *
Re, = lLmlx AT/(rmlx pmtx)

* 9
71d2 = 5 o m i x . R c r AT/(Pmix
* * * vfnix)
R,, = 2 omlx . Pmix * A T )

. Ts/(ri,,ix
< 1 ~ / C T , , , ~(domIx/aT)
~.
2.0
15
1.o
04 0 08 0 12 0 16 hlt
FIG.87. Heat transfer enhancement with condensation of ( 1 ) water, (2) extraction gasoline, and (3)
acetone vs relative groove depth.
FZ+~)
4
3
105
8
6
10-2 2 3 4 Re
FIG.88. Plot of heat transfer at condensation of a water-acetone mixture: 1, smooth plate; 2, 3,
hlt = 0.2125, 0.0542, respectively.
The properties of a mixture, such as Pmix ,p m i x , C m i x , rmix, Vmix , and lZmix, were
determined by the additivity method; R,,is the critical radius of a drop; AT is the
temperature head; T, is the saturation temperature; Re, = (1.1 to 3.9) . lo-*;
IIh = 0.03 to 0.042.
The nature of condensation of mixtures of water and extraction gasoline
vapors differs from the dropwise one, since this mixture is mutually soluble. On
the cooled surface a gasoline film is formed, on which there occurs dropwise
condensation of water vapor at xgasol L 0.44 (Fig. 86d), and two-film condensa-
tion (Fig. 86c) is seen at xWl < 0.44. Here xwl is the gasoline mass fraction in
a mixture. Turbulators have increased heat transfer 1.13 to 1.45 times, as
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -r,
FIG. 89. Heat transfer with condensation of a water-acetone mixture vs acetone content x,, at
A T = 30C: 1 , smooth plate; 2, 3, hit = 0,1000, 0.2125, respectively.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.S.r,,,,,,
FIG.90. Heat transfer with condensation of a water+xtraction gasoline mixture vs gasoline content
s,,,,,,:1 , smooth plate; 2, 3, hit = 0.1000, 0.2125, respectively.
compared to a smooth surface, i.e., heat transfer is somewhat larger than with
condensation of a water and acetone vapor mixture (Fig. 90). As a whole, heat
transfer with condensation of a water and extraction gasoline vapor mixture is
less, which is explained by the presence of additional thermal resistance of
gasoline film with condensation of water vapors as well as of water drops that
cover some part of the gasoline film surface. Especially, heat transfer sharply
decreases with two-film condensation. At film-drop condensation, heat transfer
is higher than by the Nusselt formula valid for one-film condensation and is
lower with two-film condensation.
To calculate heat transfer with condensation of a mixture of water and
extraction gasoline vapors, the relation
& = A . (1 -~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ , l ) ~ ~ (94)
is proposed. Here at 0.44 5 xgasol
5 0.84,
A = 2540 . exp[l.l3 * (h/r)] K = 0.58 . exp[1.022 . (h/t)]

and at 0.16 5 xgasolI0.44,
A = 1835 . exp[0.914 . ( h / t ) ] K = 1.14 . exp[0.965 ( h / t ) ]
for hlt = 0.0542 to 0.212.
292 E. K. KALINM AND G. A. DREITSER
ff iffIll,
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.o
0.88 0.92 0.96 do,,,I.%",
FIG.91. Heat transfer enhancement with condensation of a water-acetone mixture on vertical tubes
vs rolling parameters.
Similar results were obtained with condensation of vapor of a water and

acetone mixture on vertical annular-grooved tubes (Fig. 9 1). With drop con-
densation an approximately 1.6-fold increase of heat transfer is obtained. The
experimental data on mean heat transfer can be generalized by
C T / ( Y ~=
~ 1 + C1.605 - 0.291 . t / D , , J ] . ( 1 - exp[-4.618 .(1 - dout/DouJl}(95)
valid for tlDout= 0.248 to 0.437, d,,,lD,,, 2 0.876.
E. HEATTRANSFERENHANCEMENTWITH VAPOR CONDENSATION FROM A

VAPOR-AIRMIXTURE
ON VERTICALTUBES
Heat transfer enhancement with condensation of water and gasoline vapors
from a vapor-air mixture on vertical tubes, described elsewhere [57, 183, 1881,
was also investigated.
An up to 1.9-fold increase of heat transfer with water vapor condensation and
an up to 1.7-fold increase with condensation of gasoline vapors with an air
content of up to 6% (Fig. 92a, b) were obtained. The heat transfer enhancement
with turbulators can exceed the heat transfer decrease due to the presence of air
amounting to 6%. The ratio a/asm increases as the rolling depth grows and the
rolling pitch decreases. At d,,,lD,,, = 0.88 to 0.94, t/D,,, = 0.25 to 0.5, air
content ty = 1 to 6%, Refilm= 3000 to 6000, the following relations were
obtained:
For condensation of gasoline vapors,
(Y/(Y,, = 1 + 1.545 . y-O.O7 (0.578 - 0.514 . t/Do,,,)

*
{1 - exp[-19.6 . (1 - d~ut/Doul)]} (96)

0 2 4 y, % 0 1 y, %
a b
FIG. 92. Heat transfer enhancement with condensation of (a) water and (b) gasoline vapors from a
vapor-air mixture vs air content y at Re6,, = 4000: I , d,,,,/D,, = 0.88, t/D,,, = 0.25; 2, 0.94, 0.25;
3, 0.91, 0.5;4, 0.94, 0.5, respectively.
for condensation of water vapor,

El&,, = 1 + 0.770. t/-"." . (1.31 - 1.36 tlDoll1)
1
. { 1 - exp[- 19.4 . (1 - dOul/D~~ul)]} (97)
F. HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
WITH CONDENSATION
VAPORMIXTURE
ON HORIZONTAL
TUBES
Experiments were conducted with condensation of vapor mixtures on a single
horizontal tube with Do,, = 25 mm and a length 1 = 1 m, and with the following
annular groove parameters: ( 1 ) dout/D,,,= 0.872; tlD,,, = 0.2; (2) 0.9; 0.2; (3)
0.912; 0.3; (4) 0.876; 0.4; and (5) 0.91; 0.4, respectively.
As in the case of vertical tubes and surfaces, the study of condensation of
binary mixtures of different-composition vapors of mutually soluble (water-
acetone) and immiscible (water-extraction gasoline) liquids on the outer surface
of tubes was accompanied by visualization of the condensation process.
With condensation of a water-acetone mixture, there exist three regimes of
falling of the condensate over a cold surface depending on mixture composition:
film, drop and transient, and film-drop (rivulet). Already, when a small amount
of a volatile component (acetone) occurs, drops start to form, and increasing the
acetone condensation xac leads to stable drop condensation. The largest drop
formation is seen at x,, = 7%. At xaC> 54% the drop regime transforms into a
rivulet one, and at xac> 77% the film regime begins.
With condensation of a mixture of water and extraction gasoline vapors on a
cold surface, first gasoline vapors condense in the form of a film and then water
vapors condense on this gasoline film in the form of drops with condensation of
gasoline at xaCC 62% or in the form of a film at xac> 62%. With condensation
of vapors of immiscible liquids, the enhancement efficiency in higher than with

vapors of mutually soluble liquids (water-acetone).
IX. Heat Transfer Enhancement at Fouling on Tube Surfaces
In many fields of engineering, fouling control on a heat exchange surface is a

serious problem. Use of water containing temporary-hardness salts as a cooling
medium results in their deposition on heat exchange surfaces as the cold water
temperature increases. Therefore, in designing high-efficiency refrigerators and
water-cooled condensers, it is necessary, along with heat transfer enhancement,
to prevent or decrease the fouling growth rate on a heat exchange surface.
The fouling thermal resistance depends on such factors as salt and ion
composition of the cold water and salt concentration in it, heat load on the
heating surface, liquid temperature and velocity, and material properties of the
heat surface. These factors determine the composition rate and the nature of
increasing salt thermal resistance.
The existing methods to control salt deposition reduce mainly to preliminary
water treatment mostly by chemical reagents. These methods are inapplicable
for those situations in which large amounts of water are required for cooling and
when open-cycle cooling exists. Also, such salt deposit controls as contact
stabilization, addition of granular additives, and ultrasonic, magnetic, and radia-
tive treatment of the cold water are inapplicable for these situations. Use of
polymer coatings is hindered because of their low durability, difficult applica-
tion, and large thermal resistance.
Of late, great interest has been paid to the problem of how to reduce salt
deposits on heat exchange surfaces by using artificial flow turbulization.
As experimental investigations [57,194, 197-2001 have shown, the use of
turbulators on the tube surfaces results in a considerable decrease in the fouling
in heat exchangers; the fouling thermal resistance Rfoulon these surfaces, unlike
that on smooth ones, is asymptotic in nature-i.e., some time after the process
starts, Rwulbecomes time-independent. Only for such a behavior of Rf,,, can the
heat exchanger operate for a long period of time without special cleaning of the
fouling (naturally, at the acceptable value of Rfoulwith z -+ @J.Experiments have
supported the possibility of obtaining Rfoul(r)on turbulator-equipped tubes.
A. MODELFOR SALT DEPOSITION

WITH COLD WATER FLOW
PASTANNULARTURBULATOR-EQUIPPED TUBES
A model is proposed for salt deposition on turbulator-provided surfaces that
uses modem concepts of the salt deposition mechanism on smooth surfaces
reported by Zhukauskas [36], Webb [62], Knudsen and Ray [201], Pinheiro
[202], Chan [203], and Miiller-Steinhagen [204].
By virtue of the extremely complex behavior of salt deposition on these

surfaces and in the absence of experimental data on the mass transfer mecha-
nism at flow separation and under heat transfer conditions, the model can yield
only qualitative results, and use of empirical constants is needed to obtain
quantitative relations. Nevertheless, even such a qualitative model is very useful,
as it enables us not only to extend our concepts of the phenomenon mechanism
but also to obtain a structural form of the empirical relations that correlate more
fully with the experimental data.
The thickness and characteristics of a fouling layer depend on many parame-
ters: surface geometry, time, flow and wall temperature, flow velocity, pressure
and concentration of additives in the heat carrier and its hardness. When the flow
interacts with the wall, not only does a deposition salts occur, but they are also
carried away from the upper fouling layer. As the flow velocity MI increases, the
fouling-layer formation is hindered; therefore, as w or the Reynolds number
increases, smaller values of Rf0,,,are observed. It is obvious that additional flow
turbulization by annular grooves or diaphragms also hinders the formation of the
fouling layer on the wall.
A model is constructed, resting upon the following main statements:
1. Fouling thermal resistance, by virtue of its asymptotic behavior, is
described by the equation
where RfoulS-is the fouling thermal resistance at T + *.

2. Fouling is the result of two simultaneous processes: salt deposition and
carry-away :
3. Fouling deposits are stimulated by two mechanisms: mass transfer from

the flow core into the wall layer due to a salt concentration difference, and
chemical reactions at the interface. Each of these mechanisms is deter-
mined by its constants.
4. The deposition rate Odepis the quantity proportional to the salt concentra-
tion C in the liquid flow. The following relation is proposed for Odepby
Pinheiro [202]:
Coefficients KI , K p , KR , and KD depend on the flow velocity, temperature

and surface geometry.
5. The salt deposit carry-away velocity from the interface is determined by a
force (shear stress) with which the flow acts upon the fouling layer,
depends on the flow velocity and temperature, additive concentration, and

quantity of fouling layer; and increases with increasing fouling-layer
thickness, i.e., with increasing Rfoul. It is obvious that on a turbulator-
provided surface at the same flow velocity, the shear stress is greater than
on a smooth surface and salt deposit cany-away is also more intense.
Assume that the salt deposit cany-away velocity is proportional not only to
Rfoulbut also to wall shear stress. Then
@,a, = K2 twRf,,i = K3 l w 2 R m (101)
where K2 and K3 are the coefficients;, 5 = 8r,/pw2 is the hydraulic
resistance coefficient, and p is liquid density.
Use of Eqs. (100) and (101) and boundary conditions at
enable one, when integrating Eq. (99), to obtain Eq. (98); in this case,
p = K3w2 (103)
When neglecting mass transfer due to backward diffusion from the wall to the
liquid, the expression for the fouling thermal resistance assumes the form
The hydraulic resistance coefficient for a turbulator-equipped channel is

< = f@e, hldeq, t/deq) (105)
where h is the turbulator height or the annular groove depth, t is the turbulator or
the groove pitch; and deqis the equivalent channel diameter..
Qualitatively, Eq. (104) correctly reflects the effect of such parameters as w,
C, and turbulator parameters hld,, and tld,, on the fouling thermal resistance.
The coefficient K3, which depends on the flow velocity and surface geometry
[Eq. (1 04)], may therefore be given as
Constants K3 and K4 are found from experiment.
SETUP AND METHODS

B. EXPERIMENT
Experimental studies of the effect of fouling on heat transfer efficiency were
made by the present authors together with Risaev [205] and Inayatov [206] at
FIG.93. Test section for studying salt deposits outside the tubes.
the Tashkent Polytechnic Institute. Examination was made of salt deposits in

cold water flowing outside the tubes (in an annular channel) and inside the tubes.
Smooth tubes and tubes equipped with turbulators shaped as outside grooves
and smooth-configuration diaphragms inside (Fig. 93) were investigated. A test
section was a "tube-in-tube" heat exchanger in which there occurred reverse
flow of hot cottonseed oil and cold water. Oil was preliminarily heated to 110 to
115C. Cold water had an elevated carbonate hardness up to 20 mg.eq/L. During
the experiments, the cooling water elevated hardness concentration was held
constant by adding to this circulating water some water with higher hardness
from a special vessel. In the experiments, measurements were made of the inlet and
outlet temperatures of the hot and cold liquids and the water and oil flow rates.
For the assigned liquid parameters at the heat exchanger inlet, an experiment
was performed for about 300 1.1, which enabled a determination of the time
variation of the fouling thermal resistance and the thermal resistance as a
function of water velocity, temperature, and turbulator parameters.
When examining salt deposits on the outer tube surface, cottonseed oil flowed
inside the tubes and heated water flowed in the annular clearance (Fig. 93).
The test tube had an outer diameter D,,,,, = 16 mm, inner diameter
D = 14 mm, and length I = 2430 mm and was manufactured from stainless steel
IX18H10 (under the Russian trademark). The inner diameter of the outer tube
was 26 mm, the annular clearance width amounted to 5 mm, and the equivalent
annular channel diameter was LI,, = 10 mm.
The experimental methods used allowed the tube thermal resistance variations
to be determined as a function of the fouling growth. Upon determining the
linear heat transfer coefficients and final time instants
it was possible to determine the linear thermal resistance of the fouling layer
where Q and Qo are the heat powers of the heat exchanger at the final and initial
time moments, AT and ATo are the corresponding temperature differences, 6foul
is the fouling-layer thickness; and Afoul is the fouling thermal conductivity. In
using Eq. (109), it was assumed that the fouling onset does not change the heat
transfer coefficient outside and inside the tube.
The fouling thermal resistance is
Rfoul = RI,foul Dout (1 10)
It should be noted that these methods of determining Rfoulavoid the necessity to
measure a tube wall temperature, thereby considerably simplifying the experi-
ment. Knowledge of the heat transfer coefficients on the hot side allows reliable
calculation of this temperature.
Salt deposits on the outer surface of the annular groove-provided tubes were
examined on 11 versions of the tubes with the following values of dou,/Dou, and
t l D , , respectively: (1) 0.88; 0.24; (2) 0.9; 0.25; (3) 0.94; 0.25; (4) 0.88; 0.44;
(5) 0.9; 0.44; (6) 0.94; 0.44; (7) 0.96; 0.44; (8) 0.88; 0.625; (9) 0.94; 0.625;
(10) 0.88; 0.75; (1 1) 0.94; 0.75, where do* is the annular groove diameter, and t
is the groove pitch. In this case, hld,, = 0.64 to 0.086, and tld,, = 0.4 to 1.2,
where h is the groove depth. The water velocity was w = 0.05 to 1.82 m/s; the
hardness C 5 20 mg.eq/L; the wall temperature t, = 50 to 107OC; the operation
time amounted to 300 h.
In studying salt deposits on the inner surface of the turbulator-equipped tubes,
hot transformer oil flowed in the annular clearance and heated water flowed
inside the tubes in the opposite direction.
The test tubes had Dout= 10.4 m,D = 10 mm and were manufactured from
stainless steel 1x18H10 (under the Russian trademark). The heat exchanger
length was 1 = 2.5 m. Along with a smooth tube, study was made of three tubes
with the following turbulator parameters dlD and tlD, respectively: (1) 0.91;
0.5; (2) 0.91; 0.25; (3) 0.885; 0.5. Also, for comparison, a study was made of
salt deposits with water flowing in helical oval-shaped tubes proposed by
Danilov et aE. [58] at relative twisting pitches S/Do= 6.2 and 12.2, where Do is
the maximum oval diameter.
The fouling thermal resistance inside the tube is
Rfoui = Ri.foui . D (111)
where RI,foul was determined by Eq. (1 09).
Experiments were made over the following ranges of the flow parameters:
cold water temperature at the heat exchanger inlet ti = 20 to 3 O O C ; water
Reynolds number Re, = (3 to 25) . lo3; wall temperature t, = 70 to 100C;

C = 5, 10, and 20 mg.eq/L.
c. SALT DEPOSITION
ON THE OUTER SURFACE OF ANNULAR
GROOVE-PROVIDEDTUBES
In operating the test heat exchanger, a gradual salt deposition on the outer
tube surface, takes place resulting in a heat transfer coefficient decrease.
As seen in Fig. 94, which shows the data for water with a hardness
C = 20 mg.eq/L and velocity w = 0.15 m/s, the heat transfer coefficient on a
smooth tube for 150 h operation decreases approximately 5 times, which makes
the heat exchanger practically idle. These results are in good agreement with
Chans data [203]. The heat transfer coefficient for the grooved tubes decreases
considerably less, and in 100 to 150 h it attains its constant value, thus indicating
fouling cessation. Thus, these experiments support the above model for the
fouling process. As seen in Fig. 94, at w = 0.15 m/s the salt deposits on the
turbulator-equipped tubes reduce the heat transfer coefficient approximately 1.5
times. As the water velocity is increased up to 1 m/s, the salt deposits sharply
decrease, and a maximum of no more than a 15% reduction of the heat transfer
coefficient was observed.
20
1 - 5
I I , I
0 100 200 r,h 300
FIG.94. Time variation of the heat transfer coefficient for a heat exchanger equipped with a smooth
tube and with tubes having different-pitch grooves at d,,,/D,,,, = 0.88 and w = 0.15 mis; C =
20 mg.eq./L: I, smooth tube; 2-5, tlD,, = 0.25, 0.44,0.625, 0.75, respectively.
R,,,,,1bt m2. KIW
2-
1 I C-, _
mg.eql/
__
0 4 8 12 16 20
a b
FIG. 95. Fouling thermal resistance vs carbonate hardness of water and time at a water velocity of
(a) 1 m/s and (b) 0.15 m/s: 1-3, r = 50, 100, 150 11.
As seen from Figs. 95 to 97, the fouling thermal resistance grows with
increasing water hardness C and reduces with smaller groove depth and pitch.
To establish the nature of the fouling thickness distribution along the heat
exchanger, the layer was measured after each run of experiments. The fouling
thickness Sfolllincreased in the water direction, which was attributed to the
growth of the tube wall temperature. Knowledge of bfoOland Rfoul allowed
determination of the fouling thermal conductivity Afoul = 1.12 W/mK, which is
in fair agreement with other reported data.
It is characteristic that salt deposits in channels and over the smooth tube
sections are not equally spaced. Cavities are almost free of salt deposits because
of the separated flows in them, and on the smooth tube sections the thickness of
1 I I I
0.9 0.95
FIG. 96. Annular groove depth effect on the fouling thermal resistance at C = 20 mg.eq/L,
u' = 0.5 mis, tld,,, = 0.62, 1-3, r = 50. 100, 150 h.
1 L 1 L 1
the deposits increases in the water direction. Salt deposits give the part of the
tube that is not free of salt deposits a stream lined form.
For the above-mentioned ranges of the flow parameters, the experimental data
can be correlated can be correlated by
where RfC,",was measured in m2K/W; C, in mg.eq/L; u', in m/s; 5 , in h.

As seen from Eq. ( 1 12), the proposed model successfully allows for the effect
oft,. and hid,, , so that no additional allowance for the effect of these parameters
is required. The hydraulic resistance coefficient 5 for annular channels and in
longitudinal flow bundles of annular-grooved tubes is determined in terms of the
known values of Re, hld,, , and tld,, , using the results from Kalinin et al. [57].
Equation ( 1 12) enables one to allow for the fouling effect in tubular heat
exchangers with cold carbonate hardness-containing water flowing past the
intertube space, characteristic of the majority of heat exchangers used in practice
(with longitudinal flow in the intertube space).
D. SALTDEPOSITION
ON THE INNER SURFACE
OF ANNULAR
DIAPHRAGM-EQUIPPED
AND HELICAL TUBES
Figure 98 plots the time variations of heat transfer coefficients for some of the
test tubes at different C and Re. For smooth tubes during 280 h operation at
C = 10 mg.eq/L, the heat transfer coefficient is decreased 2 to 2.5 times; at
C = 20 mg.eq/L, it is decreased 2.3 to 4 times and does not fall outside the
K, ,WhnK
K, ,W/mK
O L ' L 4
I
40 80 120 160 200 240 r , h
a b
FIG. 98. Time variation of the heat transfer coefficient for heat exchangers with different tubes. a,
C = 10 mg.eq/L, b, C = 20 mg.eqlL; 1, annular diaphragm-equipped tube, Re = 4 . lo',
d / D = 0.91, i / D = 0.5; 2, helical tube, Re = 4 . lo', S/Do = 6.2; 3-5, smooth tube at Re = 16 lo',
1 4 . lo', 3.2 10'.
asymptotic value for 200 to 240 h. In turbulator-equipped tubes, at C =

10 mg.eq/L, for this time it is decreased by 25%, and in a helical tube, by 30 to
25% at Re = 4 . lo3 and falls outside the asymptotic value. At C = 20 mg.eq/L
it is decreased by 40% and 52%, respectively, i.e., it is much smaller than in a
smooth tube. It is characteristic that K, in the profiled tubes is higher even in the
presence of salt deposits, than in the smooth ones with no salt deposits.
As seen from Fig. 99, the efficiency of the turbulator-equipped tubes increases
in the presence of salt deposits. If with no salt deposits (t = 0 ) Kl/&,, = 2.5 to
3, then at T I L = 1, KIIK~*sm = 3.5 to 5.
Figure 100 plots Rfoul vs C for tubes with different-height annular turbulators
(for z -+ 03). It decreases with increasing turbulator height. For dlD = 0.91 and
tlD = 0.5, the fouling thermal resistance Rfoul is 4 to 5.3 times smaller than in a
smooth tube.
These experimental studies have enabled one to obtain the following general-
izing relations for the fouling thermal resistance:
1. For annular diaphragm-equipped tubes at dlD = 0.91 to 0.94, tld = 0.25
to 0.5, Re = (4 to 25) . lo3, C = 5 to 20 mg.eqll, and t, = 250 h, we
have
21
02 04 0 6 0 8 1 0 rir,
FIG. 99. Time variation of the heat transfer coefficient for different tubes at C = 10 mg.eq/L and
Re = lo4 ( r x = 250 h): 1, annular diaphragm-equipped tube, diD = 0.91, t / D = 0.5; 2, dlD = 0.91,
tlD = 0.25; 3, d / D = 0.935, f / D = 0.5; 4, helical tube, SiD,, = 6.2; 5, SID,, = 12.2; 6 , smooth
tube.
30
20
10
9
8
I
6
5
c', mg eqil
FIG.100. Fouling thermal resistance RfoUlvs cold water hardness Cat Re = 14 lo3: 1, smooth tube;
2, annular diaphragm-equipped tube, dlD = 0.935, t / D = 0.5; 3, d / D = 0.91, ?/D= 0.25; 4,
d/D = 0.91. t / D = 0.5.
("r
2. For helical tubes with S/Do = 6.2 to 12.2, Re = (3.2 to 25) . lo3, C = 5 to
20 mg.eq/L, and tx.= 360 h, we have
0 236
Rfoul= 0.204 . Re,o.227. Co36 . ( I

.) 447 (1 14)
zm DO
In Eqs. (1 13) and (1 14) Rw,,was measured in m2 . K/W and C, in mg.eq/L.
Equations (1 12) to (1 14) allow practical calculations of the fouling thermal
resistance over a wide range of flow parameters characteristic of tubular heat
exchangers.
Thus, these experiments have shown that flow turbulization inside the tubes
results in a considerable fouling reduction on their inner surface. Similar results
were obtained by Dreitser et al. [I971 and Gomelauri et al. [207]. Dreitser et al.
[197] showed that in annular turbulator-equipped tubes, salt deposits at a
carbonate hardness of water up to 20 mg.eq/L and at an alkali concentration up
to 14 mg.eq/L is twice as small as in smooth tubes. The heat exchanger operated
for three heating seasons.
Gomelauri et al. [207] studied salt deposits on a rough surface for 24 h with
one flow velocity and one carbonate hardness of water; no design recommenda-
tions were obtained.
Studies by Kim and Webb [208] also revealed the asymptotic nature of salt
deposits in annular turbulator-equipped tubes as well as the Rfoulincreases with
decreasing Re. These experiments were made with water flowing with alumin-
ium oxide particles.
In our experiments, the time variation of the hydraulic resistance was ana-
lyzed in water flow inside the tubes. With the cold water flow rate kept constant,
salt deposits gave rise to a hydraulic resistance growth. If for 240 h the
resistance of the smooth tube increased twice due to salt deposits, then that of
the annular turbulator-equipped tube increased by 30 to 40%, and that of the
helical tube, by 40 to 60%.
Thus, our experiments have supported the idea that salt deposits outside the
tubes due to the annular groove effect and inside the tubes due to the annular
diaphragm effect are much smaller than those on smooth tubes and obey the
asymptotic law. Thus, replacing smooth tubes by annular turbulator-equipped
ones provides reliable operation of tubular heat exchangers with no special
cleaning of their surfaces.
X. Methods of Calculating Effective Heat Transfer Surfaces
The previous section dealt with effective heat transfer surfaces for single- and
two-phase flows. The present section will be devoted to the methods of appro-
priate thermal and hydraulic design.
First, the method of evaluating the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement

will be described, as it allows an effective heat transfer surface to be chosen
with relative ease. This should be done, since there are no sufficiently estab-
lished models of thought about this point among the researchers of heat transfer
processes. Then, we shall dwell upon the general considerations applied to the
choice of effective heat transfer surfaces of the channels with single- and two-
phase flows and, in more detail, upon practical recommendations to calculate
heat transfer and hydraulic resistance when annular turbulator-provided tubes
are used in different-purpose heat exchangers [57].
A. EVALUATING
THE EFFICIENCY
OF HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENT
The physics of the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement is based on the
method of fabricating tubular heat exchangers [57].
Use of the analyzed heat transfer enhancement method allows the size and mass
of tubular and other type heat exchangers to be decreased, and their temperatures
and flow rates to be reduced for a given heat transfer surface size. Some other
problems can also be solved. Optimal parameters of turbulators will be chosen for
specific conditions and, accordingly, the chosen method for heat transfer enhance-
ment evaluated. For example, in the system of an engine (or a vehicle), the heat
exchanger that provides the extremum of the engine or vehicle parameters will be
optimal. The specific fuel flow rate dependent on both the heat power of a heat
exchanger and the level of hydraulic loss can be a criterion for heat exchangers
used in the heat recovery system of a gas turbine plant. A minimum flow rate of
cooling air at a given temperature of a blade or a minimum temperature for a given
flow rate can be a criterion for cooling turbine blades.
However, the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement [209 to 2141 can be
evaluated in a general sense. Here, three criteria for evaluation of the efficiency
of heat transfer enhancement can be identified.
1. Comparison of heat transfer surfaces or volume of two heat exchangers:
one heat exchanger has smooth surfaces, and the other is equipped with
facilities for heat transfer enhancement. In this case, both heat exchangers
to be compared must have the same heat power, flow rate, and pumping
pressure loss.
2. Comparison of the heat power of heat exchangers with and without heat
transfer enhancement for the same volumes, flow rates, and pumping
pressure loss, i.e., the same pumping power.
3. Comparison of powers or pressure loss for pumping fluids of heat
exchangers with and without heat transfer enhancement when the volumes,
heat power, and flow rates are the same.
Comparison of the efficiency of heat enhancement is made individually for
flow inside the tubes and in the intertube space. Such a line of attack on the
problem allows mathematical manipulations to be simplified and comparisons to

be made more illustrative. For this, it will suffice to assume that the heat transfer
coefficient will be essentially lower for a surface compared to any other heat
transfer surface. Then, with a knowledge of the efficiency of heat transfer
enhancement inside tubes and in the intertube space, it is possible to evaluate the
efficiency for the heat exchanger as a whole depending on the heat transfer
coefficient ratio on both sides of the heat exchanger.
Criteria for evaluation of the heat transfer enhancement efficiency are derived
for tubular in-line heat exchangers in the intertube space, considering that the
heat transfer coefficient in the intertube space is much higher than that inside the
tubes. As will be shown below, the obtained conclusions are also valid for the
case in which heat transfer in the intertube space determines the size of heat
exchangers and that in which different-geometry heat exchangers are compared.
It is assumed that heat exchanger channels to be compared have the same
equivalent diameters, i.e., for example, tubular heat exchangers are fabricated
from tubes of the same diameter and are located in a bundle having the same
pitch. The diameter of the tubes and their pitch in the bundle are chosen to be
the minimum possible, i.e., heat transfer enhancement is the only way to
decrease heat exchanger size. We shall consider that heat exchangers are
single-pass.
First, let us derive a criterion to compare heat transfer surfaces or volumes of
heat exchangers with the same heat power, flow rates in the tubes, and hydraulic
resistance in the tube flow:
Q = Qsm
G = G,,
AP = APsm (1 17)
Since Q = a ATnDIN and Qsm= asmAKm nDlsmNSln,where CY is the heat
transfer coefficient inside the tubes, AT is the driving temperature difference, D
is the inner diameter of the tubes, I is the length of the tubes, N is the number of
tubes in a heat exchanger, and the temperature differences for both heat
exchangers are the same (AT = AGm), according to Eq. (1 15) we have
alN/(asmls,Nsm)= 1 (1 18)
Friction pressure loss is
1 pw2
Ap=(--
0 2
and Apsm = <s m--
pim
D2
where w is the mean fluid velocity in the tubes, p is the density, and ( is the
hydraulic resistance coefficient.
By Eq. (1 17) we arrive at
Since the fluid velocity in the tubes for a given total flow rate is inversely
proportional to their number, the Reynolds numbers relate as
For the smooth tubes, Nbm = CI Re:,, and tSm = C2 Re&. For turbulator-
provided tubes, the increase in heat transfer and hydraulic resistance is allowed
for by the ratios Nu/Nu,, and 5/tsm,which depend on the Reynolds number for
a given turbulator geometry.
Therefore,
where the subscript "Re" means that the ratios Nu/Nu,, and </tsm are taken so
that the Reynolds numbers for the rolled and smooth tubes are the same and in
the case considered are equal to the Reynolds number for the rolled tubes.
From Eqs. (1 18) to ( 1 22) it is possible to obtain the tube number-telength
ratio of the heat exchangers to be compared:
Since the tube pitch in the bundle for the heat exchangers to be compared is
constant, the heat exchanger cross-sectional area ratio is
The heat exchanger volume ratio is

308 E. K. KALININ A N D G . A. DREITSER
In turbulent flow, n = 0.8; ni = -0.2, and then we have
-F= - - N - (tItsmlORe5
Fsm Nsm (Numusm)oR:
- 1_ - 1
Ism (N~/Nusm>K,"ctlrsm)K
- v_ - (C/tsm)K'
Km (NU/Nusm)k:
As indicated by the above ratios, use of heat transfer enhancement always
reduces the heat exchanger length ( I < Ism]. The number of tubes in the bundle
decreases if </<,,, < Nu/Nu,, and increases for > (Nu/Nu,,,). The heat
exchanger reduces if t/(,, < (NU~NU,,~)' '. Numerical calculations of the
enhancement efficiency are made by our method for heat transfer enhancement
in channel flows.
Calculations have been made of I I L , FIF,, and V / V , for Re = 4 . lo4 and
4 . lo5 as a function of dlD and tlD. For given tlD and Re, Illsm decreases as
d/D decreases and FIF,, increases. VlV,, passes through its maximum. For
t / D = 0.5 and 0.25, the minimum volume of the heat exchanger is at dlD =
0.92, and for t / D = 1 it is at d/D = 0.9. The enhancement efficiency increases
as the Re number increases. As Fig. 101 suggests, use of heat transfer enhance-
ment permits exchanger volume to be decreased approximately 2 times.
For the flow transition region (Re = 2000 to SOOO), n = 0.3 to 1.5 and
m = -1 to 0.8. In this region the enhancement efficiency is high. V / K , as a
function of Re has a pronounced minimum over the range Re = 2500 to 4000. A
b'/ V."
2.0
1.6
12
08
0.4
0
0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 tf/D 0.66 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 iND
a b
FIG. 10 I . Heat exchanger volume variation with the rolling depth dlD: a, for different tlD and Re;
1-6, t / D = 1.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.5, 0.25 and Re = 4 . lo4, 4 . lo', 4 lo', 4 . lo', 4 . lo', 4 . lo5,
respectively; b, for t / D = 0.5 in the transition region and for different Re; 1-4, Re = 2510, 3150,
3980, 5000, respectively.
hrther increase in Re stabilizes the heat transfer, enhances the pressure losses
for pumping, and, hence, degrades the enhancement efficiency. Figure 101 plots
VIP& vs rolling depth dlD for tlD = 0.5 and different Re. The heat transfer
enhancement efficiency declines as the rolling depth decreases.
Heat powers of heat exchangers are compared when their flow rates, pressure
losses, and volumes are equal. Since heat exchangers to be compared are
composed of the same size tubes located in a bundle with the same pitch, they
have the same heat transfer surfaces, i.e., rcDlN = nDlsmNs,,,,from which it
follows that
and also
QIQm =a/asm (1 28)
if A T = A G m . Taking into account Eqs. (119) and (120) obtained from
Eqs. (1 16) and (1 17), as well as Eqs. (12 1) and (122), we can obtain
in turbulent flow
Use of heat transfer enhancement increases the number of tubes and, accord-
ingly, decreases their length. When the flow rates, pressure losses and volumes
of the heat exchangers are equal, use of heat transfer enhancement augments the
heat power if < (Nu/Nu,,)' '.
Figure 102a plots the calculated values of Q/&, for Re = 4 . lo4 and 4 . lo5
as a function of the rolling parameters. QIQ,nl as a function of rolling depth dlD
has a maximum in the vicinity of dlD = 0.92 to 0.93 at Re = 4 . lo4. For
Re = 4 . los, the maximum of Q moves to dlD = 0.94, for t1D = 0.25 and 0.5,
and to d / D = 0.9 for t / D = 1. As is obvious from the above plots, the use of
heat transfer enhancement permits the heat power of the heat exchanger to be
augmented by 70%.
Let us compare the heat exchangers with respect to pressure loss for fluid
pumping. In this case, the fluid flow rates, the volumes of the heat exchangers,
and the heat transfer surfaces, as well as the heat powers of the heat exchangers
are assumed to be the same. Hence, it follows that for the same temperature
differences we obtain
a = asm (130)
A PlAPS,
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 d/D 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 Cliu
a b
FIG.102. Influence of the roiling depth d / D on: a, variation of the heat power of the heat exchanger
for different tlD: b, variation of the hydraulic resistance of the heat exchanger (notations are the
same as on Fig. 101a).
From Eqs. (120) to (122), (127), and (130), we can obtain
In this case, the use of heat transfer enhancement also increases the number of
tubes and decreases their length. The power for fluid pumping decreases if
</Csm< (NU/NU~,,,)~. and increases if > (Nu/Nu,,)~.~.
The calculation results on AplAp,, for Re = 4 . lo4 and 4 lo5 are plotted in
Fig. 102b. AplAp,, as a function of dlD has a minimum. For Re = 4 . lo4, this
minimum corresponds to d/D = 0.92 to 0.93 irrespective of tlD, and for
Re = 4 . lo5, with the rolling pitches tlD = 0.5 and 0.25, the minimum is at
dlD = 0.94, and for t1D = 1.0, it is at dlD = 0.9. The efficiency of heat transfer
enhancement is augmented as Re increases. Use of heat transfer enhancement
allows the hydraulic resistance of the heat exchanger and, hence, the pumping
power to be decreased 5.5 to 5.6 times.
Thus, according to all three means of evaluating the efficiency of heat transfer
enhancement, it is evident in the turbulent region that rolling with the parame-
ters d/D = 0.92; t / D = 0.25 is most efficient. This rolling depth is also optimal
for tlD = 0.5; however, the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement is somewhat
lower than for tlD = 0.25. For the pitch t / D = 1 the efficiency degrades, and the
optimum is consistent with the rolling depth d / D = 0.9. It should be noted that
heat transfer enhancement is efficient according to all three criteria if
(Nu/Nu,,,)~.~ > ((/&,). Rolling with d D = 0.9 and r/D = 1 is most efficient for
the transition region.
In the calculations performed, the heat transfer was considered on one side of
the heat transfer surface and the thermal resistance was not allowed for on the
other side. An expression has been obtained for VlV,, when heat transfer
enhancement was considered on both sides of the heat transfer surface.
With the thermal resistance of the tube walls neglected, the volume ratio of
the heat exchangers is
where the subscript 1 stands for the inner surface and the subscript 2, the
outer surface.
Equation (132) can be transformed by using (V/V,,), = alsm/aand
(V/Vs,,J2 = a2.,,,/a2,where the subscripts 1 and 2 show that the ratios VlV,,,
are taken when heat transfer is considered to occur either only from the inner
surface or only from the outer surface by neglecting the thermal resistance of
another heat transfer surface.
Then
al/a2can be expressed as
B. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
ON THE CHOICEOF A MEANS
FOR HEATTRANSFER
ENHANCEMENTI N CHANNELS
From what has been said in the previous sections, recommendations on the
choice of the most efficient method for heat transfer enhancement might be
formulated for each particular heat exchanger. By a particular heat exchanger
will be understood a device for which, based on the volume requirements, the
design and the channel shape and size are chosen, and necessary calculations for
3 12 E. K.KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
smooth channels are made. Hence, it is a heat exchanger for which the problems
of heat transfer enhancement are clear and the limitations on the variation of
each parameter are known.
1. Relying on the data for smooth channels of the considered shape, an
analysis should be made of the heat transfer coefficients for the hot and cold
fluids, the flow structure, and design features. Using the data from Sec. 111, a
choice should be made of those flow regimes where it is profitable to increase
the turbulence intensity first.
2 . If it is a tube, a tube bundle with SID,,, > 1.1, an annular rectangular
channel, or, in general, any channel having no sharp corners, then the best
results would be expected when smoothly outlined transverse protrusions that
have been manufactured by rolling are used. Use of the rolled tubes along with
the combined protrusion-groove turbulators yields good results.
For other channels, as a first approximation, heat transfer can be calculated by
the available formulas obtained from studies of rectangular, triangular, semi-
circular, and other shapes of turbulators, bearing in mind that the hydraulic
resistance of the smoothly outlined protrusions will be smaller. This resistance
must then be refined experimentally. For the first calculations to be made it is
recommended that a turbulator pitch tlh 2 10 with a height h/&, 5 0.04 be
chosen. In any case, the turbulator height for the working range of the Re and Pr
numbers must simultaneously obey two requirements: the thickness,
h = h I J z , , / p / v 5 30, of the buffer layer in a smooth channel should not be
noticeably exceeded and should not be beyond the layer where the temperature
difference (Tw, - 7j ) in the smooth channel occurs. In doing so, the wall layer
y+ = 50 to 200 in thickness is turbulized.
The final value of the turbulator pitch and height should be chosen on the
basis of predicting the heat exchanger versions by using the design relations for
Nu/Nu,, and < / 5 , , , which optimally meet the requirements for the heat
exchanger.
3. For channels with sharp angles and narrow stagnation regions (longitudinal
flow past closely packed tube bundles with SID,,, < 1.1, triangular channels
with corners smaller than n/4,etc.), the narrow regions where the turbulence
intensity is low must be turbulized first.
However, use of turbulators shaped as transverse protrusions in these
regions will block up almost the entire section and only degrade the heat
transfer. Therefore, for such channels it is advantageous to use transverse
grooves as turbulators. The results of the investigations of heat transfer
enhancement in closely packed tube bundles due to transverse grooves are
cited in Sec. IV. This method is also appropriate for narrow rectangular and
annular channels.
4. In cases where a combination of finning and turbulization is used, e.g.,
transverse fins in annular channels, wire finning, etc., it is necessary to clearly
distinguish both effects in order to properly choose an optimal relationship

between them. When calculations of the finning effect are made, its efficiency
must be allowed for, because, other things being equal, it substantially depends
on fin material and shape. The final size and pitch of the fin should be chosen
with regard to its material, turbulizing effect, and hydraulic resistance by
predicting heat exchanger versions, meeting the requirements for the heat
exchanger and its manufacturing possibilities.
5. When other means for heat transfer enhancement (flow swirling, sonic
fields, etc.) are to be chosen and used, one should always begin with item 1 of
these recommendations. When the efficiency of the method is evaluated, all
energy consumption for its implementation should be taken into account.
C. CALCULATION
OF HEATTRANSFER
A N D HYDRAULIC
RESISTANCE
IN ANNULAR
TURBULATOR-PROVIDEDTUBES
Generul stutenzenis. The present recommendations can be extended to the
flow of gases and liquids inside tubes in the transition and turbulent regimes (for
Re > 2 . 10')). In Sec. 1II.E it has been shown that the shape of the turbulators
affects heat transfer enhancement. This section covers the data for Nu/Nu,, and
</<,, obtained on smoothly shaped turbulators within the limits A = 1.79 to 2 ,
for which we have obtained extensive experimental results.
The present section gives recommendations in the form of Nu/Nu,, and </tS,,,
as a function of Bow and turbulizer parameters and, if necessary, of the relations
for Nu,, and r,, for calculation of heat transfer and hydraulic resistance
coefficients when the annular turbulator-provided tubes are employed. When
making heat exchanger calculations, it is recommended that the ordinary
methods be used, allowing for the increase in heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance when the tubes are provided with annular turbulators. In all recom-
mendations, when the heat transfer coefficients in the annular turbulator-
provided tubes and in the tube bundles were determined, the heat transfer
surface increase was not taken into consideration, i.e., the heat flux density was
found over the surface of the smooth tube. When Re and 5 were determined, the
flow velocity was found using the flow area of the smooth channels. The
diameter and the wall thickness of the annular turbulator-provided tubes were
the same as those for the relevant smooth heat exchangers.
1. Reconiinendationsfor Calculation qf Heat Transfer and Hydraulic

Resistance in Annular Turbulatoi--Provided Tubes
Some of these relations are cumbersome for practical calculations. Because of
this, tabular data are also presented.
3 14 E. K. KALININ AND G. A. DREITSER
1. The experimental data on mean heat transfer with heating and cooling of
gases (T,/T/=0.13 to 1.6) are generalized by equations good to k 12%:
- Nu
=[l+
lg Ref - 4.6][ - exp[ - 18.2(1 - d/D)'.I3
NU?.ll 35 (tlD)0.326
'7
[Equation (135) is valid for d / D = 0.88 to 0.98 and t/D=0.25 to 0.81.
-=
Nus,
Nu [ 1 + Ig Ref-
30
. [(3,33 - 16.33 + 17.33 - 3.33 -
D 'I
[Equation (136) is true for dlD = 0.88 to 0.98 and tlD = 0.8 to 2.5.1 In both
(136)
equations, the Re number is evaluated using the bulk temperature of the gas.
For dlD = 0.9 to 0.97 and tlD = 0.5 to 10 the formula
1.14 - 0.28 -4
]( ]
Nu lg Re, - 4.6 9(1 - d/D)
-=[I+
Nu, 7.45 * 1.14 )
(t/D)0.58
(137)
can be adopted where Re, is evaluated using the mean wall temperature.
In Eqs. (135) to (137) Nusmis determined by the following relations:
Gas heating
Nu, = 0.0207Re0.8 (138)

where the evaluation temperature is the tube length-mean wall temperature.
Gas cooling
Nu,, = 0.0 192ReO.' (139)

where the evaluation temperature is the tube length-mean wall temperature or
Nu,, = 0.018Re0.8 ( 140)
at the evaluation bulk temperature along the tube.
Equations (135) to (140) are valid over the range Re = lo4 to 4 . lo5.
2. Mean heat transfer for liquids at tlD = 0.5 and dlD 2 0.94 (Re L Re*)
is
NuINu,, = [100(1 - d/D)]o.445 (141)
Here Nusmis calculated by
Nu, = 0.02 16Re0.8 ( 142)
where the evaluation temperature is the bulk temperature of the liquid along the
tube.
The value of Re*, at which the growth of NuINu, ceases as Re increases, is
determined from Eq. (17).
3. The data on the hydraulic resistance coefficients can be generalized with

an accuracy of *12% over the range Re = 4 * lo5 by the following:
For dlD = 0.90 to 0.97 and tlD = 0.5 to 10,
r
-=[I+
Ll
lOO(1g Re - 4.6)( 1 - d/D)'
exp(t1D)'
"1 - exp
[25( 1 - d1D)'
(t/D)' ' 5
"1 (143)
For dlD = 0.88 to 0.98 and tlD = 0.5,
For dlD = 0.90 to 0.98 and t1D

; )(
=
lg Re - 4.6]( 3 - - 2
6(Re/ 105)".33
0.25,
2.5- 1.5- ); [(
Xexp 17 1 - - g"'"]
In Eq. (143), rsm
is determined by the following relation:
0.316 j ~ f
rsm =-
(K)
where n = 0.14 for heating of gases, n = 0 for cooling of gases, n = 1/3 for
heating of liquids.
In Eqs. (144) and (145), &,, is determined by the relation:
t,,, = 0.182Re-'.' (147)
obtained in isothermal flow under the conditions of gas cooling.
4. The influence of the flow nonisothermity on the hydraulic resistance
coefficient in the turbulator-provided tubes with liquid heating should be eval-
uated by Eqs. (31) to (36).
5. Tables I, 11, and V provide the experimental data on c/cfsm
and NulNu,,, , in
terms of which the heat transfer enhancement in the channel flow of heat carriers
can be calculated.
2. Recommendations for Calculation of' Heat Transfer and Hydraulic

Resistance in Annular-Grooved Tube Bundles in Longitudinal Flow
Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of these bundles for S/D,,,, = 1.16 to
1.5, hld,, = 0 to 0.1, and tld,,, = 0.25 to 2 are generalized by the following:
For Re C Re,,
Nu/Nu,, = 1 (148)
TABLE V
VALUESOF NuINu,, AND c/<,, AS OF Re
FUNCTIONS AND dlD AT tlD = 0.25, 0.5, AND 1.0 FOR GASES
~ ~ ~
Re = lo4 R e = 2 . lo4 Re = 4 10 R e = 10 R e = 2 . 10 Re=4 10
dlD NuINu.,, <I<- NdNu, r/Cbm NuINu,, <It., , NulNk, clt,, NulNu, @tsm
Nu/Nu, <Itrn
tlD = 0.25
I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1
0.99 1.25 1.45 1.30 1.38 1.32 1.32 1.35 1.20 1.37 1.20 1.38 1.17
0.98 1.55 1.88 1.55 1.72 1.60 1.72 1.62 1.62 1.70 1.60 1.75 IS O
0.97 1.80 2.36 1.80 2.20 1.85 2.20 1.88 2.15 1.95 2.08 2.06 2.05
0.96 1.98 2.84 2.00 2.18 2.08 2.74 2.10 2.68 2.16 2.74 2.25 2.70
0.95 2.14 3.28 2.20 3.30 2.28 3.35 2.28 3.22 2.37 3.40 2.45 3.50
0.94 2.30 3.80 2.35 3.85 2.43 4.10 2.43 4.15 2.56 4.20 2.63 4.45
0.93 2.43 4.20 2.50 4.36 2.58 4.86 2.58 5.20 2.58 5.15 2.79 5.45
0.92 2.54 4.70 2.64 5.00 2.68 5.66 2.70 5.24 2.78 6.18 2.92 6.60
0.9 I 2.60 5.20 2.75 5.60 2.77 6.40 2.78 7.36 2.84 7.40 2.00 7.80
0.90 2.65 5.80 2.80 6.30 2.80 7.16 2.82 8.22 2.88 8.80 3.08 9.08
0.89 2.65 6.30 2.85 7.10 2.80 8.10 2.82 9.20 2.92 10.30 3.12 10.56
0.88 - - 2.87 - 2.80 ~ 2.82 - 2.96 - 3.16 ~
tID = 0.5
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.99 I .23 1.34 1.28 1.12 1.22 1.16 1.25 1.20 1.28 1.20 1.32 1.08
0.98 IS O 1.68 1.52 1.40 1.45 1.40 1.48 1.48 1.55 1.45 1.61 1.37
0.97 I .70 2.04 1.75 I .70 1.65 1.80 1.70 1.81 1.80 1.88 1.88 1.73
0.96 1.88 2.40 1.92 2.10 1.86 2.30 1.92 2.36 2.04 2.50 2.10 2.25
0.95 2.05 2.90 2.0R 2.9- 2.06 3.04 2.12 3.05 2.24 3.22 2.28 2.97
0.94 2.20 3.45 2.26 3.60 2.24 3.80 2.22 3.90 2.38 4.08 2.45 3.8 I
0.93 2.32 4.00 2.40 4.50 2.38 4.60 2.37 5.00 2.50 4.92 2.61 4.80
0.92 2.40 4.70 2.54 5.30 2.50 5.45 2.49 6.16 2.61 5.90 2.74 5.78
0.90 2.54 6.30 2.69 7.20 2.68 7.28 2.67 8.56 2.77 8.13 2.92 8.30
0.89 2.58 7.30 2.70 8.20 2.70 8.50 2.70 9.90 2.81 9.65 2.98 9.80
0.88 2.58 8.50 2.72 9.23 2.70 10.10 2.70 11.50 2.85 10.50 3.00 11.60
tlD = 1.0
I 1 I 1 I I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1
0.99 1.13 1.05 1.13 I .07 1.15 1.98 1.15 1.11 1.16 1.07 1.12 1.08
0.98 1.27 1.10 1.25 1.15 1.30 1.16 1.34 1.27 1.40 1.28 1.28 1.20
0.97 1.41 1.15 1.40 I .20 1.45 1.27 1.54 1.45 1.55 1.53 1.48 I .40
0.96 1.57 1.25 1.55 1.30 1.61 1.50 1.70 1.72 1.70 1.85 1.60 1.65
0.95 1.69 1.40 1.65 1.46 1.73 1.85 1.85 2.03 1.82 2.20 1.75 1.95
0.94 1.81 1.80 1.82 1.72 1.86 2.30 1.97 2.39 1.96 2.61 1.90 2.40
0.93 1.93 2.44 1.95 2.08 1.98 2.94 2.05 2.85 2.08 3.07 2.08 2.90
0.92 2.06 3.05 2.09 2.80 2.13 3.50 2.21 3.45 2.20 3.52 2.21 3.40
0.91 2.17 3.72 2.21 3.76 2.23 4.30 2.32 4.38 2.32 4.04 2.35 4.13
0.90 2.27 4.52 2 38 4.80 2.35 5.50 2.41 5.60 2.40 4.16 2.47 4.08
0.89 2.38 5.62 2.48 5.90 2.45 6.90 2.52 6.80 2.50 5.80 2.57 6.20
0.88 2.48 7.00 2.60 7.30 2.58 8.25 2.60 8.30 2.60 7.20 2.66 1.45
0.87 2.54 10.00 2.70 9.95 2.66 10.00 2.67 10.00 2.68 9.50 2.74 9.00
0.86 2.62 2.81 2.75 2.72 2.75 2.80
For Re, < Re < Re2,

Nu
-- - 1 + 0.6 lglg Re2
Re - lg Rel
Ig Rel
-
NUS,
(149)
For Re2 < Re < lo5,
Nu
For Re < 3 . lo3,

= 1 (151)
For 3 . 10 < Re < 2 . lo,
= +
1 {(7.55h/dtq,)(lg Re - 3.5) - 0.035 sin[( 1 - 22.44h/de,,)z])
<sm
X (1.4 - 0.488t/de,,) (152)

For Rez = 2 * lo4 to lo5,
5
- = 1 + {(3.2h/de,,)(lg Re - 2.27) + O.O9(lg Re - 4.3)
rsm
X sin[( 1 - 22.44h/de,,)n]}( 1.4 - 0.488t/de,,)
(153)
As seen from Eqs. (148) to (153), at Re < Re, annular grooves do not
influence heat transfer, and at Re > Rez heat transfer enhancement does not
depend on Re.
For Re, and Re2 it is possible to use the following equations:
Re, = (3.6 - 33.8 h/deq,)-104 ( 154)
Re2 = (4.7 - 18.85 h/d,,,).1O4 (1 5 5 )
In Eqs. (148) to (150), Nu,,, is defined from Eq. (4 1). In Eqs. (1 5 1) to (1 53), <\,,,
is defined from [215]
</&,be = 0.57 + 0.l8(S/DO,, - 1) + 0.53[1 - exp(-a)]
where for S/S,,, < 1.02,
a = 0.581 1 - exp[-70(S/D0,, - l)]} + 9.2(S/DO,, - 1) ( 1 56)
and for SiD,,,, > 1.02,
a = 0.58 + 9.2(S/DoUt- 1) ( 1 57)
for tube bundles with S/D,,, = 1 to 10.
Table VI contains the data on (/&,,, and NuINu,, as a function of t/deqz,
hld,,, , and Re.
TABLE VI
VALUESOF NuJNu, ( A ) AND <I<.,,, (5)AS FUNCTIONS
OF Re AND hld,, AT DIFFERENT
t/dcqm
Re 4 . 10 1o4 2.10~ 4.104 1oS

hid,,, A B A B A B A B A B
tfdeqz= 0.25
0.03 1.o 1.o 1.0 1.107 1.0 1.194 1.0 1.317 1.0 1.405
0.04 1 .o 1.025 1.0 1.179 1.0 1.295 1.417 1.394 1.417 1.473
0.05 1.o 1.066 1.0 1.258 1.0 1.403 1.456 1.465 1.456 1.530
0.06 1.o I .098 1.0 1.329 1.143 1.503 1.483 1.543 1.483 1.601
0.07 1.o 1.113 1.0 1.381 1.242 1.585 1.503 1.656 1.503 1.705
0.08 1.o 1.106 1.0 1.413 1.327 1.645 1.516 1.745 1.516 1.846
0.09 I .o 1.086 1.0 1.431 1.398 1.693 1.526 1.861 1.526 2.013
r l d , , = 0.5
0.03 1.0 I .o 1.0 1.096 1.0 1.175 1.0 1.287 1.0 1.366
0.04 1.o I .033 1.0 1.162 1.0 1.267 1.377 1.356 1.377 1.428
0.05 1.o 1.060 1.0 1.233 1.029 1.365 1.412 1.421 1.412 1.479
0.06 1 .o 1.089 1.0 1.298 1.130 1.455 1.437 1.491 1.437 1.543
0.07 1 .o 1.102 1.0 1.345 1.219 1.529 1.455 1.576 1.455 1.638
0.08 1 .o 1.095 1.0 1.373 1.196 1.564 1.467 1.673 1.467 1.767
0.09 1.o 1.018 1.0 1.390 1.361 1.627 1.475 1.281 1.475 1.915
tld,,, = 0.75
0.03 1 .o 0.993 1.0 1.086 1.0 1.157 1.0 1.256 1.0 1.328
0.04 1.o 1.010 1.0 1.145 1.0 1.239 1.377 1.318 1.377 1.383
0.05 1.o 1.053 1.0 1.209 1.026 1.326 1.369 1.376 1.369 1.429
0.06 1.o 1.080 1.0 1.266 1.116 1.407 1.391 1.439 1.391 1.486
0.07 1.o 1.091 1.0 1.309 1.196 1.473 1.406 1.514 1.406 1.521
0.08 1 .o 1.085 1.0 1.334 1.165 1.522 1.417 1.602 1.417 1.686
0.09 1.o I .069 1.0 1.349 1.323 1.561 1.425 1.698 1.425 1.819
tld,,, = 0.1.O
0.03 1.O 0.994 1.0 1.076 1.0 1.138 1.0 1.226 1.0 1.286
0.04 1.o 1.013 1.0 1.128 1.0 1.210 1.297 1.281 1.227 1.338
0.05 1.o 1.047 1.0 1.184 1.023 1.286 1.325 1.332 1.325 1.376
0.06 1.o 1.070 1.0 1.235 1.102 1.359 1.344 1.388 1.344 1.429
0.07 1.o 1.080 1.0 1.272 1.112 1.417 1.356 1.464 1.358 1.501
0.08 1.o 1.075 1.0 1.295 1.233 1.460 1.368 1.531 1.368 1.608
0.09 1 .o 1.061 1.0 1.308 1.285 1.494 1.374 1.616 1.374 1.723
tldcqE= 0.1.25
0.03 1 .o 0.995 1.0 1.060 1.0 1.120 1.0 1.196 1.0 1.250
0.04 1.o 1.016 1.0 1.111 1.0 1.182 1.257 1.243 1.257 1.293
0.05 1 .o I .04 1 1.0 1.160 1.020 1.249 1.281 1.288 1.281 1.323
0.05 1.o 1.061 1.0 1.203 1.083 1.31 1 1.198 1.336 1.298 1.371
0.07 1 .o I .069 1.0 1.236 1.149 1.361 1.310 1.393 1.310 1.436
0.08 1.o 1.065 1.0 1.255 1.202 1.399 1.318 1.460 1.318 1.524
0.09 1.o 1.053 1.0 1.267 1.246 1.428 1.324 1.553 1.324 1.626
3. Recommendations on Choosing Optimal Parameters of Turbulators

Used in Different-Purpose Heat Exchangers
The above design recommendations allow annular turbulator-provided tubes
to be used in various heat exchangers: at gas and liquid flow inside tubes in the
transition and turbulent regimes (at Re > 2 . lo)), including water with carbon-
ate hardness up to 20 mg.eq/L; at cross and longitudinal gas and liquid flow past
the intertube space. It is not recommended that annular turbulator-provided
tubes be used in apparatuses with laminar flow inside tubes or in apparatuses
containing suspended particles that are able to be deposited and adhere or are
able to cause erosion wear.
Single-Phase Heat Exchangers For these heat exchangers, the optimal rolling
parameters inside tubes will be rolling depth dlD = 0.93 to 0.95 and rolling
pitch tlD = 0.25 to 0.5. If pressure loss is not limited inside tubes, then the
rolling depth can be increased up to d / D = 0.9.
Evaporative Heat Exchangers In flow of single-phase liquids inside tubes,

the optimal rolling parameters are approximately the same as in single-phase
heat exchangers: dlD = 0.93 to 0.95 and tlD = 0.25 to 0.5. The heat transfer
increase outside tubes may be approximately considered to be the same as the
case of single-phase liquids, i.e., 15 to 20%.
In flow of single-phase liquids outside tubes, the rolling depth can be
increased up to dlD = 0.9 at the same pitches. In this case, coefficients of heat
transfer and hydraulic resistance in cross flow past a bundle will increase by 20
to 25%, as compared to a smooth tube bundle. The recommendations of Sec. X.C
are appropriate in the case of longitudinal flow past the interturbe space.
Heat transfer enhancement with surface boiling inside tubes and in forced
flow is determined by Eqs. (80) to (83).
Heat transfer enhancement with dispersed film boiling inside turbulator-
provided tubes is calculated by Eqs. (72) to (75).
Hydraulic resistance coefficients over the same ranges of parameters can be
determined by Eqs. (143) to (145) for single-phase flow in turbulator-equipped
tubes. In these relations, Re is replaced by the Reynolds number calculated for
the vapor phase (Re,,).
With film boiling inside tubes, the optimal parameters of turbulators inside
tubes are dlD = 0.89 to 0.9, t / D = 1.
Condensers In the considered tubular condensers, coolant flows inside tubes,

and condensation occurs outside tubes. The optimal rolling parameters outside
tubes are d,,,lDaU,= 0.9 to 0.91, tID,,, = 0.3 to 0.35, and RID,, = 0.5.
Equations (84) and (85) are used to calculate Q/CY,, with condensation on
horizontal tubes.
The increase in the coefficient of film condensation heat transfer from

stagnant water vapor outisde vertical tubes is determined by Eqs. (86) and (87).
Heat Transfer Enhancement in Longitudinal Flow Past Tube Bundles The

quantities Nu/Nu,, and cfI<,, for the commonly used tube pitches
SID,,, = 1.263 to 1.3 and for single-phase flow in the intertube space are
determined depending on hld,,, , Re, and tld,,, by Eqs. (148) to (156) or by the
data of Table VI. In conducting calculations, account must be taken of the fact
that for tubes used in heat exchangers, do,,r/D,,, usually is approximately 0.02 to
0.03 smaller than dlD, i.e., d,,,lD,,, = 0.9 to 0.92 corresponds to dlD = 0.93 to
0.95 for optimal flow inside tubes, and dO,,lDoL,, = 0.88 corresponds to
dlD = 0.9 where there are no limitations on pressure drop inside tubes.
Calculation of the Fouling Influence on the Decrease of Heat Transfer

Coefficient in Rolled Tube Heat Exchangers The influence of fouling on
heat transfer efficiency is allowed for by including the thermal resistance of the
fouling layer in the dependence of the linear heat transfer coefficient:
1
1
-
1
+-
1
In -+ Rl,fo,,l+ -
Dout
K, C Y ~ D2 5 D a2 D
where aIand a2are the coefficients of heat transfer inside and outside tubes and
is the linear thermal resistance of the fouling layer, determined outside
RI.~,,,~
tubes by Eqs. (1 10) and (1 12) and inside tubes by Eqs. (1 1 1) and (1 13).
When fouling is present on the outer surface of tubes the optimal parameters
of tubulators are as follows: d,,,lD,,, = 0.9 to 0.92, t/DOu,= 0.25 to 0.35; inside
tubes, dlD = 0.92 to 0.94, t/D = 0.25 to 0.5.
Acknowledgments
The support of the Russian Research Foundation under Project 96-15-98161 (The Program of
Support of Leading Scientific Schools) is gratefully acknowledged.
Nomenclature
a thermal diffusivity carbonate hardness of water

A constant salt concentration at the interface
B constant annular diaphragm diameter
B width of flat channel equivalent channel diameter
Bo parameter of boiling; dimensionless annular groove diameter
heat flux inner tube diameter
C heat capacity at constant pressure maximum oval diameter
C, , C2 constants outer tube diameter
Euler number S , , S?,S,' transverse. longitudinal, and

frequency diagonal tube pitches in a
heat-exchanger cross-sectional area cross-flow bundle
gravitation constant Sh Strouhal number
mass flow rate St Stanton number
Galileo number I turbulizer pitch
Grashof number T temperature
diaphragm height. groove depth T/ mean mass flow temperature
diaphragm height and groove depth T,, wall temperature
on outer surface of a combined I' heat exchanger volume
turbulizer-equipped tube M' mean flow rate velocity
height of flat channel M'O axial velocity
enthalpy II', \I,),, w, velocity components
~
heat transfer coefficient w1'.w,', it': components of pulsational velocity

Weber number
coefficients longitudinal coordinate (Secs. I to
mass tnnsfer coefficient at the VI); real vapor content (See. VII);
solid-liquid interface mass content in a mixture (Sec.
linear heat transfer coefficient VIII)
salt mass transfer coefficient in dimensionless velocity of phase
water change
constant of salt absorption by the distance from the wall
surface longitudinal coordinate (Sec. VII)
heat exchanger length dimensionless longitudinal
log,,, coordinate (Sec. VII)
quantity of the deposit per unit heat transfer coefficient
surface volume expansion coefficient
tube quantity in heat exchanger thickness
Nusselt number fouling thickness
pressure turbulent kinematic viscosity
Prandtl number coefficient
turbulent Prandtl number turbulent thermal difisity
heat flux density pressure drop
heat flux temperature drop
radius; latent heat mean temperature drop
tube radius dimensionless temperature drop
rounding-off radius fouling deposition rate
thermal resistance of a condensate fouling carry-away rate
film dimensionless liquid cooling
thermal resistance of a fouling thermal conductivity
layer dynamic viscosity coefficient
linear fouling thermal resistance kinematic viscosity coefficient
Reynolds number density
critical Reynolds number fouling density
Reynolds number at which the time
Nusselt number ratio Nu/Nu,, wall shear stress
becomes constant hydraulic resistance coefficient
tube pitch for a longitudinal-flow volume vapor content
tube bundle; helical tube twisting air content in mixture
pitch (SCC.IX)
E. K. KALININ AND G . A. DREITSER
SUBSCRIPTS
ac acetone max maximum
Car carry-away min minimum
cold cold mix mixture
cond condensate mod modification,
cr critical out tube out surface
d hop red reduced
kP deposition S saturation
eq equivalent sm smooth
equil equilibrium spec specific
f - fluid t turbulent
film condensate film tube tube
fin liming 0 vapor
foul fouling W wall
g gas M infinity
gasol gasoline inlet
h heating outlet
1 liquid onset
lim limits inner and outer surfaces of tubular
m middle heat exchanger
References
1. Dreitser, G. A., E. V. Dubrovsky, B. V. Dzyubenko, V. M. Iyevlev, E. K. Kalinin, V. M.
Shimonis, A. A. Shlanchiauskas, J. V. Vilemas, G. I. Voronin, S. G. Zakirov, A. A.
Zukauskas, and S. A. Yarkho. 1990. Enhancement of Heat Transfer. Heat Tmnsfer: Soviet
Reviews, Vol. 2, New York Hemisphere Publishing.
2, Kays, W. M., and A. L. London. 1958. Compact Heat Exchangers. New York McGraw-
Hill.
3. Petrovsky, Yu. V., and V. G. Fastovsky. 1962. Modern Eflcient Heat Exchangers. Moscow:
Gosenergoizdat.
4. Kays, W. M., and A. L. London. 1964. Compact Heat Exchangers, 2nd ed. New York
McGraw-Hill.
5. Antufiev, V. M. 1966. E8ciency of Dixerent Shapes of Convective Heat Sufaces. Leningrad
Energiya.
6. Buznik, V. M. 1969. Heat h n s f e r Enhancement in Ship Plants. Leningrad: Sudostroyeniye.
7. Merkulov, A. P. 1969. The Vortex Effect and Its Use in Technology. Moscow:
Mashinostroyeniye.
8, Shchukin, V. K. 1969. Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics of Interval Flows in Fields of Mass
Forces. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
9. Nakoryakov, V . E., E. P. Burdukov, A. M. Boldarev, and P. N. Tarleyev. 1970. Heat and Mass
Tmnsfir in a Sound Field. Novosibirsk Izd. Siberian Branch of Acad. Sci. SSSR.
10. Migai, V . K., V. S. Nazarenko, I. F. Novozhilov, and T. S. Dobryakov. 1971. Regenerative
Rotating Air Heaters. Leningrad: Energiya.
11. Fedotkin, I . M., and V. S. Linsman. 1972. Heat Pansjer Enhancement in Food Producing
Appamruses. Moscow: Pishch. Prom.
12. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and S. A. Yarkho. 1972. Heat Transfer Enhancement in
Channels. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
13. Kern, D. Q., and A. D. b u s . 1972. Extended Surfacefor Heat Tmnsfer. New York McGraw-
Hill.
14. Voronin, G. I., and E. V. Duhrovsky. 1973. Efficient Heat Exchangers. Moscow:
Mashinostroyeniye.
15. Baranovsky, I. V., L. M. Kovalenko, and A. R. Yastrebenetsky. 1973. Plate and Spiml Heat
Exchangers. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
16. Stasilyavichus, Yu., and A. Skrinska. 1974. Heat Transfer ,from Cross-Flow Finned Tube
Bundles. Vilnius: Mintis.
17. Rassolov, B. K., V. V. Gorshkov, and V. I. Matveev. 1976. Fluidized Bed Enhancement of
Heat Transfer in Air Coolers. Moscow: Pishch. Prom.
18. Sukomel, A. S., F. F. Tsvetkov, and R. V. Karimov. 1977. Heat Transfer and Hydraulic
Resistance in Gas Suspension Flow in Tubes. Moscow: Energiya.
19. Bologa, M. K., F. P. Grosu, and 1. A. Kozhukhar. 1977. Electric Convection and Heat Transjev.
Kishenev: Shtinitsa.
20. Roizen, L. I., and I. N. Dulkin. 1977. Thermal Design of Finned Sut$aces. Moscow: Energiya.
21. Galitseisky, 3. M., Yu. A. Ryzhov, and E. V. Yakush. 1977. Thermal and Hvdrodynamic
Processes in Oscillating F~oM~s. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
22. Tikhonov, A. M. 1917. Heat Regeneration in Aviation Gas-Turbine Engines. Moscow:
Mashinostroyeniye.
23. Yudaev, B. N., M. S. Mikhailov, and V. K. Savin. 1977. Heat Transfer,fmm Interaction ofJets
with Walls. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
24. Ustimenko, B. P. 1977. Turbulent Tmnsfkr Processes in Oscillating Flows. Alma-Ata: Nauka.
25. Shchukin, V. K. 1980. Heat Truns@- and Hydrodvnamics ?fInternal Flows in Fields ofMa.s.s
Forces. 2nd ed. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
26. Migai, V. K. 1980. Enhancement of the Eficiencj, of Modern Heat Exchangers. Leningrad:
Energiya.
27. Maslov, A. M. 1980. Apparatuses ,for Heat Eeatment ?f High-Viscous F1zrid.v. Moscow:
Mashinostroyeniye.
28. Migai, V. K. 1981. Modeling of' Heat Transfer Power Equipment. Leningrad:
Energoatomizdat,
29. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and S. A. Yarkho. 1981. Heat Transfer Enhancement in
Channels. 2nd ed. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
30, Goldshtik, M. A. 198 I , l6rte.x Flow. Novosibirsk: Nauka.
31. Vasiliev, L. L. 1981. Heat Pipe Heat Exchangers. Minsk Nauka i Tekhnika.
32. Kheifets, L. I., and A. V. Neimark. 1982. Multiphuse Processes in Porous Media. Moscow:
Khimiya.
33. Isakeev, A. I.. 1. G. Kiselev, and V. V. Filatov. 1982. efective Means,for Cooling yfPower
Semi-conductor Devices. Leningrad: Energoatomizdat.
34. Shchukin, V. K., and A. A. Khalatov. 1982. Heut Tiansfit: Mass 7'runsfer and Hydrodynumios
of Swirled Flows in Axisymmetric Channels. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
35. Gogolin. A. A.. G. 1. Danilova. V. M. Azarskov, and N. M. Mednikova. 1982. Heat 7'ransfl.r
Enhancement in Evaporators of Refrigerating Machines. Moscow: Legkaya i Pishchevaya
Prom.
36. Zhukauskas, A. A. 1982. Convective Pansfhr in Heat Exchangers. Moscow: Nuaka.
37. Yudin, V. F., 1982. Heat Transfer .from Transverse-Finned Tuhes. Leningrad:
Mashinostroyeniye.
38. Grigoriev, V. A,, and Yu. 1. Krokhin. 1982. Heat and Mass Transfer Apparatuses of Cryogenic
Technique. Moscow: Energoatomizdat.
39. Dyban, E. P., and A. 1. Mazur. 1982. Convective Heat Tmnsfer in Jef Flow Past Bodies. Kiev:
Naukova Dumka.
40. Vasiliev, L. L., S. V. Konev, and V. V. Krolenok. 1983. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Heat
Pipes. Minsk: Nauka i Tekhnika.
41, Labeish, V. G. 1983. Liquid Cooling of High-Temperature Metal. Leningrad: Leningrad
University Press.
42. Permyakov, V. A., E. S. Levin, and G. V. Divova. 1983. Viscous Fluid Heat Exchangers Used
at Power Stations. Leningrad Energoatomizdat.
43. Mikulin, E. I., and Yu. A. Shevich. 1983. Matrix Heat Exchangers. Moscow:
Mashinostroyeniye.
44. Spolding, D. B., J. Taborek, E. U. Schlunder, A. Zukauskas, T. F. Irvine, G. 1. Hewitt,
et a/. 1983. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Vols. 1-5. New York: Hemisphere
Publishing.
45. Isachenko, V. P., and V. I. Kushnyrev. 1984. Jet Cooling. Moscow: Energoatomizdat.
46. Kamenshchikov, F. T., V. A. Reshetov, V. K. Polyakov, and A. I. Emeliyanov. 1984. Pmblems
on Mechanics of Oscillating Flows and Heat Tmnsfir Enhancement in a Nuclear Power Plant.
Moscow: Energoatornizdat.
47. Eroshenko, V. M., and L. I. Zaichik. 1984. Flow and Heat Transfir on Permeable Surfaces.
Moscow: Nauka.
48. Lokai, V. I., M. I. Bodunov, V. V. Zhuikov, and A. V. Shchukin. 1985. Heat Transf2r in
Cooled Elements of' Gas-Turbine Engines of Vkhicles. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
49. Gryaznov, I. D., V. M. Epifanov, V. L. Ivanov, and E. A. Manushin. 1985. Heat Transfer
Facilities of Gas-Turbine and Combined Plants. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
50. Shklover, G. G., and 0. 0. Milrnan. 1985. Study and Design qf'Condensation Fuc
Vapour Turbines. Moscow: Energoatornizdat.
51. Danilov, Yu. I., B. V. Dzyubenko, G. A. Dreitser, and L.-V. A. Ashmantas. 1986. Analysis and
Design of Swirl-Augmented Heat Exchangers. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
52. Zhukauskas, A., and P. Ulinskas. 1986. Heat Pansferjkrn Cross-Flow Ttrbe Bundles. Vilnius:
Mokslas.
53. Polyaev, V. M., V. A. Maiorov, and L. L. Vasiliev. 1988. Flow and Heat TransJer in Porous
Elements of' Vehicle Designs. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
54. Dzyubenko, B. V., G. A. Dreitser, and L.-V. A. Ashmantas. 1988. tJnsteudy Heat Transfkr in
Helical Tube Bundles. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
55. Filippov, G. A., G. A. Saltanov, and A. N. Kukushkin. 1988. Flow and Heut Transfir in the
Presence of Surfactants. Moscow: Energoatomizdat.
56. Vilemas, Yu., V. Shimonis, and 1.-E. Adomaitis. 1989. Heat Truns/er Enhancement in Gas-
Cooled Channels. Vilnius: Mokslas.
57. Kalinin, E. K., Dreitser, G. A., and S. A. Yarkho. 1990. Heat Trans/er Enhancement in
Channels, 3rd ed. Moscow: Mashinostroycniye.
58. Danilov, Yu. I., B. V. Dzyubenko, G. A. Dreitser, and L. -V. A. Ashmantas. 1990. ,4nu!v.~i.s
and Design of Sw!irl-AugmentedHeat Exchangers. New York: Hemisphere Publishing.
59. Dzyubenko, B. V., G. A. Dreitser, and L.-V. A. Ashmantas. 1990. Unsteady Heat Tmnsfkr in
Helical Tiibe Bundles. New York: Hemisphere Publishing.
60. Vilemas, Yu., P. Poshkas. 1992. Heat Transfkr in Gus-Cooled Chunnels Affected by Thermog-
ravitational anti Centr(fuga1Forces. Vilnius: Mokslas.
61. Lokai, V. I., M. I. Bodunov, V. V. Zhuikov, and A. V. Shchukin. 1993. Heat Transjer in
Cooled Parts of' Gus-Turbine Engines, 2nd ed. Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
62. Webb, R. L. 1994. Principles of Enhunced Heat Tmn.$er New York Wiley-Interscience.
63. Bergles, A. E. 1978. Enhancement of heat transfer. In Heat Transfir-/978. Proc. Sixth Intern.
He& Trans/& COFIJ.,Toronto, Canada. August 7-1 1, 1978. Vol. 6, pp. 89-108.
64. Nakayama, W. 1982. Enhancement of heat transfer. In Heat Transfir-19H2. Proc. Seventh
Intern. Heat TPan$er Conf, Munich, Federal Republic of Germany, Vol. 1, pp. 223-240.
65. Shah, R. K. 1982. Advances in compact heat exchanger technology and design theory. In Heat
Transfir--1982. Proc. Seventh Intern. Heat Transfer Cot$, Munich, Federal Republic of
Germany, Vol. I, pp. 122-142.
66. Afgan, N. F. 1995. Fundamental heat and mass transfer research in the development of new
heat exchangers concepts. Journal of Enhanced Heat Trans& 2( 1-2): 1-16.
67. Zhukauskas, A. A. 1988. Problems of convective heat transfer enhancement. In Heat and Muss
Transfer-Vll, Proc. Seventh All-Union Conference on Heat and Mass Transfi.fer:Izd. ITMO AN
BSSR, Minsk, Vol. I, pp. 16-41.
68. Zhukauskas, A. A. 1986. Heat transfer augmentation in single-phase flow. In Heat Trunsfir-
1986. Proc. Eighrh Inlern. Heat Transfer Con$. San Francisco, USA, Vol. 1, pp. 47-57.
69. Zhukauskas, A. A. 1988. Heat transfer enhancement in single-phase flow. In Heat and Mass
Tian&r: Proc. Minsk Intern. Forum, Sec. 1-2, pp. 3-20.
70. Webb, R. L. 1994. Advances in modelling of enhanced heat transfer surfaces. In Heat
Transjer-I9Y4. Proc. Tenth Intern. Heat Transfer Con$, Brighton, UK, Vol. I , pp.
445-460.
71. Dreitser, G. A. 1996. Modem state-of-the-art of studies of heat transfer enhancement in
channels and the prospects for designing compact heat exchangers. In Heat and Mass Transfir
MIF-96. Proc. Minsk Intern. Forum, Sec. 10, part 1, pp. 26-39.
72. Mikhailov, A. I., V. V. Borisov, and E. K. Kalinin. 1962. Gas Turbine Closed-Cvcle Plants.
Izd. AN SSSR.
73. Ablott, D. E., and S. J. Kline. 1961. Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Flow over
Single and Double Backward Facing Steps. Report MD-5,Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Stanford University.
74. Hinze, J. 0. 1959. Turbulence: An Introduction to Its Mechanism. New York: McGraw-Hill.
75. Hsu, H. C. 1950. Characteristics of Mean Flow and Turbulence at an Abrupt Two-Dimen-
sional Expansion. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Mechanical Hydraulics, State University of
Iowa.
76. Rouse. H., T. T. Siao, and S. Nugartnam. 1958. Turbulence Characteristics of the Hydraulic
Jump. 1 Hydraul. Dit! Proc. ASCE, Febr., Paper 1528.
77. Runchal, A. K. 1969. Predictions and experimental results for flow past sudden enlargement in
a circular pipe. Proc. Intern Seminar on Hear and Mass Transfer in Flow with Separated Flow
and Merrsurement Techniques. Herceg-Novi, Yugoslavia.
78. Lin, C. K., S. J. Kline, and J. P. Johnston. 1966. An Experimental Study of Turbulent
Boundary Layer on Rough Walls. Report MD-I 5, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Stanford University.
79. Maull, D. F., and L. F. East. 1963. Three-dimensional flow in cavities. J Fluid Mech. 16:620.
80. Kline, S. J . , W. C. Reynolds, F. A. Schraub, et a/. 1967. The structure of turbulent boundary
layers. J Fluid Mech. 30: 741-772.
81. Williams, F., and I. Watta. 1970. The development of rough surfaces with improved heat
transfer performance, and a study of the mechanism involved. Proc. lnt. Heat Transfer Coqt
(Paris-Versailles). Vol. 1 I. Paper FC5.5, p. 1 I.
82. Person, L. N. 1980. Investigation of Steam-Wise Vortex Systems Generated in Certain
Classes of Curved Flow. Report ARL, Wright-Patterson AFB, 68-0134.
83. Pavlovsky, V. G. 1969. The turbulator shape influence on the thermal efficiency of the channel
wall surface. lnzh. Fiz. Zh. 17(1): 156159.
84. Paumerd, G . 1969. Forced convection in corrugated tubes. Proc. Inter. Seminar on Heat and
Mass Transfer in Floiv with Separated Regions and Measurement Techniques. Herceg-Novi,
Yugoslavia.
85. Petukhov, B. S. 1970. Heat transfer and friction in turbulent pipe flow with variable physical
properties. Adv. Heat Transfer 6: 503-564.
86. Kalinin, E. K. 1958. Study of Means for Heat Transfer Enhancement and for the Decrease of
Total Power Spent for Gas Pumping in Channels. Technical Report, Engine Laboratory of the
USSR Acad. Sci.
87. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, S. A. Yarkho, et a/. 1981. Regular Trends in Heat Transfer
Changes on the Channel Walls with Discrete Flow Turbulization at Forced Convection.
Discovery Diploma No. 242 (USSR), Bull. Inven. No. 35, p. 3.
88. Kalinin, E. K., and S. A. Yarkho. 1966. Flow intermittence and heat transfer in the
transition region from laminar to turbulent tube flow. Izv. AN BSSR. Ses Fiz- Techn. Nauk 1:
43-47.
89. Kalinin, E. K., and S. A. Yarkho. 1966. Flow intermittence and heat transfer under artificial
flow turbulization conditions in tubes. lm.AN BSSR, Sep: Fiz.-Techn. Nauk 2: 62-64.
90. Koch, R. 1958. Druckverlust und Warmeiibergang bei venvirbelter Stromung. VDI-Forsch.
469: 1-44.
91. Nunner, W. 1956. Warmeubergang und Druckabfal in rauhen Rohren. VDI-Forsch. 455(22):
5-39.
92. Cope, W. F. 1941. The friction and heat transfer coefficients of rough pipes. Proc. lnsf.Mech.
Eng. 145: 99-105.
93. Kalinin, E. K., and S. A. Yarkho. 1971. Study of heat transfer enhancement with gas and liquid
flow in tubes. Inzh. Fiz. Zh. 20(4): 592-599.
94. Smith, J. W., and R. A. Gowen. 1995. Heat transfer efficiency in rough pipes at high Prandtl
number. AICH Journal 1l(5): 941-943.
95. Kalinin, E. K., and S.A. Yarkho. 1966. Influence of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers on the
efficiency of heat transfer enhancement in tubes. Inzh. Fir. Zh. I l(4): 42&43 I .
96. Krasnikova, 0. K., V. V. Usanov, V. G. Pronko, et al. 1977. A Tubular Helical Heat
Exchanger. Authors Certificate No. 568829, C1. F28 D7/02 (USSR). Bulletin of Inventions
No. 30.
97. Filimonov, S. S., and B. A. Khrustalev. 1960. Prediction of heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance in laminar flow liquid in tubes. In Convective and Radiative Hear TmnsfiK 120-131.
Moscow: USSR Acad. Sci. Press.
98. Petukhov, B. S., and A. Ya. Yushin. 1957. Experimental study of heat transfer in mixed liquid
tube flow. 7): Mosk. Energ. Inst. 10: 38-46.
99. Migai, V. K. 1965. Convective heat transfer enhancement in channels due to artificial flow
turbulization. k v . AN USSR, Energetfka i Transport 6: 123-13 I .
100. Migai, V. K. 1968. Convective heat transfer enhancement in helical swirl-augmented tubes.
Teploenergetika I 1: 3 1-33.
101. Galin, N. M. 1967. Heat transfer in turbulent gas flow near rough walls. Teploenergetika 5 :
66-72.
102. Aronov, 1. Z., V. I. Gomon, and G. A. Dreitser. 1978. Study of heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance with water flow in annular turbulator-augmented tubes. In Modern Problems of
Hydrodynamics and Heat Tmnsfer in Power Plants Elements and Cvogenic Technique,
Tr.-Vses. Zaochn. Machinostroit. Inst. No. 7, 101-1 14.
103. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, V. A. Kuzminov, and A. S. Neverov. 1971. Influence of the
turbulator height and pitch on heat transfer enhancement in a tube. Izv. An BSSR, Set Fiz.-
Eneug. Nauk 3: 31-35.
104. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, V. A. Kuzminov, and A. S. Neverov. 1971. Efficiency of
heat transfer enhancement in tubes at gas cooling. Izv. AN BSSR, Sel: Fiz.-Energ. Nauk 3:
52-6 1.
105. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and S. A. Yarkho. 1967. The experimental study of heat transfer
enhancement under conditions of forced flow in channels. Proc. JSME, Semi-International
Symposium, Tokyo, 4-8 September, Vol. 1, pp. 65-77.
106. Kalinin, E. K.. G. A. Drcitser. S. A. Yarkho. e f a/. 1969. Local separation in turbulent channel
flow as a method of heat transfer enhancement. Proc. Intern. Seminar on Heut and Mass
Eunsfkr in Flow:)with Separated Regions and Mrasurement Techniqiies, Herceg-Novi, Yugo-
slavia, pp. 19-20.
107. Isachenko, V. P., S. G . Agababov, and N. M. Galin. 1965. Experimental study of heat transfer
and hydraulic resistance with turbulcnt water flow in artificial roughness-provided tubes. TK
Mask. Energ. Inst. 63: 27- 37.
108. Gomelauri, V. I. 1963. Artificial roughness influence on convective heat transfer. Tr. Physics
Insr. Georgian .4cad. Sci. 9: 1 1 1- 145.
109. Gomelauri. V. I. 1964. Influence of two-dimensional artificial roughness on convective heat
transfer. Int. J. Heat Mass Trumfrr 7: 653-663.
110. Dipprey, D. F., and R. H. Sabersky. 1963. Heat and momentum transfer in smooth and rough
tubes at various Prandtl numbers. lnr. 1 Hear Mass Tmns/er 6(5):329-353.
1 1 1 . Hustrup, R. C.. R. H. Sabersky, D. F. Bartz. and M . B. Noel. 1958. Heat transfer in smooth and
rough tubes. Jet Pmpulsion 28(4): 259-263.
112. Kandelaki, R. D., and V. 1. Gomelauri. 1967. On heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of
surfaces with roughness of the type boundary layer discontinuity. Commzmiccrtions qf the
Georgian Acad. Sci. 47(3): 669414.
113. Migai, V. K. 1968. Heat transfer in rough tubes. Izv. A N USSR, Giergrtika i 7iunsport 3:
97- 106.
114. Dreitser, G. A. 1993. High-effective turbular heat exchangers. Proc. First Intern. Con/; CJ/
Aerospace Heat Exchanger Technolog?: Palo Alto, CA, USA. In Aerospace Heat Exchangers
Technolo~v-lYY3. edited by R. K. Shah and A. Hoshimi. 581410. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
115. Sams, E. W . 1956. Heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of wire-coil turbulence
promoters. Pmc. Reactor Heat Eansfer Con/.,AEC Report, TID-7529, pp. 390-4 15.
116. Migai, V. K., and I . F. Novozhilov. 1965. Heat transfer in tubes equipped with transverse
protrusions. Izv. tUZov. Energetika 1 1 : 36-43.
117. Kalinin, E. K., and S. A. Yarkho. 1966. Nonisothermity influence on the hydraulic resistance
coefficient with turbulent water flow ti1 tubes provided with artificial flow turbulators. Tephfiz.
V ~ x v o k Temp.
. 4(5): 736-738.
118. Dreitser, G. A., A. S. Myakochin, L. S. Yanovsky, and I. V. Podporin. 1993. Investigation of
Hydrocarbon Fuels as Coolants of Spacecraft High-Temperature Structures. P roc. First Intern.
Con[ of Aerospace Heat Exchanger Technology Palo Alto, CA., USA. In Aerospace Heat
Exchanger Techno/ogj~-I9Y3.edited by R. K. Shah and A. Hoshimi, 31-44. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
119. Petukhov. B. S. 1968. Heat transfer in a single-phase medium at near-critical state parameters.
Teplofiz. Vyssok. Temp. 6(4): 732-745.
120. Dreitser, G. A,. and E. K. Kalinin. 1968. Study of heat transfer enhancement in a close-packed
tube bundle streamlined by the air flow. hzh-Fiz. Zh. 15(3): 408-415.
121. Kalinin, E. K., G . A. Dreitser, and A. K. Kozlov. 1972. Study of heat transfer enhancement in
longitudinal flow past tube bundles with different relative pitches. Inzh-Fiz. Zh.
22(2):242-247.
122. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and S. A. Yarkho. 1970. Augmentation of convective heat and
mass transfer. Papers Winter Annual Meeting ASME. pp. 80-90.
123. Inayatov, A Ya., and M. A. Mikheev. 1957. Heat transfer in longitudinal flow past tube
bundles. Teploenergeticu 3: 48-50.
124. Subbotin, V. I., P. A. Ushakov. and A. V. Zhukov. 1961. Study of heat transfer in longitudinal
water flow past a rod bundle with a relative pitch S/Dou,= 1.4. Inzh-Frz. Zh. 4(3): 3-9.
125. Gomon, V. I. and A. Y. Tkachuk. 1978. Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance in the intertube
space of shell-to-tube heat exchangers composed of annular turbulator-equipped tubes. In
Modern Problems OJ Flow and Hear Transfer in Power Plants Elements and Cryogenic
Technique, Tr.-Vses. Zaochn. Machinostroit. Inst. No. 7, 115-125.
126. Aronov, I. Z., N. M. Varfolomeev, V. I. Gomon, et ul. 1978. A Heat Transfer Tube. Authors
Certificate No. 612142. cl. F28F1142 (USSR). Bulletin of Inventions No. 23.
127. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and V. A. Kuzminov. 1972. Study of heat transfer enhancement
in annular channels. Inzh-Fiz. Zh. 23(1): 15-19.
128. Kemeny, C. A., and J. A. Cyphers. 1961. Heat transfer and pressure drop in an annular gap
with surface spoilers. Tmns. ASME 83(2): 189-193.
129. Brauer, A. 1969. Stromungswicerstand und Warmeiibergang bei Ringapalten mit tauhen
Kernrohr. Atomenergie 4: 152-166; 5: 207-21 1.
130. Bogdanov, F. F., A. P. Korshakov, and 0. N. Utlan. 1967. Heat transfer enhancement in
channels. Atom. Energ. 22(6): 428-432.
131. Isachenko, V. P., and N. M. Galin. 1965. Heat transfer in turbulent flow of liquid in an annular
channel. Izv. VUZov, Ser: Energetica No. 6: 68-73.
132. Danilov, I. Yu., and V. E. Keilin. 1962. Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance in longitudinal
flow past spiral-finned tubes. fnzh-Fiz. Zh. 5(9): 3-8.
133. Kremlev, 0. A., N. V. Zozulya, and A. A. Knavin. 1961. Longitudinally finned turbular sur-
faces for regenerators and air heaters of gas-turbine plants. Energomushinosfroyeniye 1: 5-8.
134. Petrovsky, Yu. V., V. G. Fastovsky, and L. I. Roizen. 1962. Heat transfer and hydraulic
resistance in longitudinal gas flow past transverse-finned tubes. Khirn. Prom. 6: 23-24.
135. Ritz, H. 1959. Fuel spiral-finned elements. Yadern. Energetica. Collection of Pupers ofSecond
Geneva Conzerence on Some Problems of Nuclear Power Engineering. Moscow: Izd IL, pp.
102-117.
136. Forteskie, P., and V. Hall. 1957. Study of heat transfer from fuel elements. Moscow: Voprosy
Yadern. Energ. No. 6, 21-33.
137. Hews, D., and M. Slack. 1959. Calculation of heat transfer from fuel elemcnts of reactors used
as a COz heat carrier. Yudern. Energetica. Collection of Pupers of Second Geneva Conference
on Some Problems ofNuclear Power Engineering. Moscow: Izd. IL, pp. 118-129.
138. Knudsen, J. G . and D. I. Katz. 1950. Heat transfer and pressure drop in annuli. Chern. Eng. P
46: 490-500.
139. Rampf, H., and G. Feurstein. 1970. Warmeiibergang und druckverleust an dreicksformigen
rauhigkeiten in turbulenter ringspaltstromung. In Heat Transfir f970. Preprint paper presented
at the Fourth Internat. Heat Transf. Conf. Paris-Versailles. 11, Forced Convection, Paper FC
5.3.
140. Feurstein. G., and H. Rampf. 1969. Der cinflub rechteckiger auhig keiten auf den warmeii-
bergang und den druckabfall in turbulent ringspaltstromung. Mirmr- und Stqfubertrugurig 2 :
19-30.
141. Sheriff, N., P. Gumley, and J. France. 1963. Heat transfer characteristics of roughened
surfaces. Reactor Group UK Atomic Energy Authority Rep. 44(R).
142. Puchkov, P. I., and 0. S. Vinogradov. 1964. Study of heat transfer and hydraulic resistances of
annular channels with a heat transfer inner surface. Teploenrrgetica 10: 6 2 4 5 .
143. Sheriff, N., and P. Gumley. 1966. Heat transfer and friction properties of surfaces with discrete
roughnesses. Internat. 1 Heat und Muss Tmnsfir 9( 12): 1298-1313.
144. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and A. K. Kozlov. 1966. Heat transfer enhancement in
longitudinal flow past transverse-linned tube bundles. Izv A N ESSR, Ser Fiz.-Techn. Nuuk. 2:
65-70.
145. Kattchee, N., and W. V. Mackewich. 1963. Heat transfer and fluid friction characteristics of
tube with boundary layer turbulence promotors. ASME Paper NHT-1.
146. Sutherland, W. A. 1967. Improved heat-transfer performance with boundary-layer turbulence
promotors. Internut. 1 Heat avid Muss Trunsjkr 10: 1589-1599.
147. Surtherland, W. A. 1968. Experimental heat transfer in rod bundles. In Heat Transfer in Rod
Bundles, Papers Winter Annual Meeting ASME, New York, December 3.
148. Ignatiev, M. P., S. A. Yarkho, G.A. Dreitser, and F. P. Kirpichnikov. 1983. A heat transfer
tube. Authors Certificate No. 1374029, CI. F28F1/42. Bulletin of Inventions No. 6.
149. Petukhov, B. S., and L. I. Roizen. 1964. Generalizing relations for heat transfer in turbulent gas
flow in annular tubes. Teplqfiz. Vysok. Temp. 2( 1): 78-81.
150. Han, J. C.. J. S . Park, and M. Y. Ibrahim. 1986. Measurement of heat transfer and pressure
drop in rectangular channels with turbulence promotors. NASA Contractor Rep. 4015, Texas
AEM. University College Station, Texas.
151. Han, J. C., and J. S. Park. 1988. Developing heat transfer in rectangular channels with rib
turbulators. Internat. 1 Heat and Mass Transfir 3 I ( 1 ): 183-1 95.
152. Edwards, F. J., and N. Sheriff. 1961. The beat transfer and friction characteristics for forced
convection air flow over a particular type of rough surface. Internat. Developments Heat
Trans&( P.3, Ser. A, ASME, New York, 415-425.
153. Wilkie, D., M.Cowin, F. Burnett, et al. 1967. Friction factor measurements in a rectangular
channel with identical and nonidentical roughness. Internat. 1 Heat and Mass Transfer lO(5):
610-622.
154. Dubrovsky, E. V. 1977. A method for relative comparison of the thermohydraulic efficiency of
heat transfer surfaces. IN. A N SSSR, Se,: Energetica i Transport 6 : 118-128.
155. Dubrovsky, E. V. 1978. Convective heat transfer enhancement in plate-fin heat transfer
surfaces. Izv. A N SSSR, Se,: Energetica i Transport 6: 116-127.
156. Dubrovsky, E. V. 1993. Highly effective fin-plate heat exchanger surfaces-from concept to
manufacturing. Proc. First Intern. Con/: ofAemspace Heat Erchanger Technology, Palo Alto,
CA, USA. In Aerospace Heat Exchangers Technology-1993, edited by R. K. Shah and A.
Hoshimi, 50 1-547. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
157. Dreitser, G. A,, R. Ulinskas. and F. Zinyavichyus. 1992. Heat transfer and resistance of
compact cross-flow annular-grooved tube bundles. Energetica (Luthanian Acad. Sci., Vilnius)
I : 92-101.
158. Koshkin, V. K.. E. K. Kalinin, G. A. Dreitser, and S. A. Yarkho. 1973. Unsteady Heat Transfer:
Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye.
159. Dreitser, G. A., V. P. Firsov, E. V. Abashechev, V. I. Panevin, and M. V. Kraev. 1995. Film
boiling heat transfer and hydrodynamics of dispersed flow in vertical pipes. In 7bo-phase Flow
Modelling and Experimentation, 1995. Proc. First Intern. Symposium on Two-Phase Flow
Modelling and Experimentation, Rome, Italy, 9-1 1 October. Pisa: Edizioni ETS, Vol. 2,
1219-1226.
160. Dreitser, G. A,, V. I. Panevin, and V. P. Fisov. 1995. Heat transfer and flow of cool down of
test cryogenic pipelines. In Two-phase Flow Modeling and Experimentation, 1995, Prac. First
Intern. Symposium on Tho-Phase Flow, Modelling and Experimentation, Rome, Italy, 9- I 1
October. Pisa: Edizioni ETS, Vol. 2, 1189-1 196.
161. Yarkho, S. A. 1978. Heat transfer at dispersed film boiling of cryogenic fluids. Inzh.-Fiz. Zh.
35( 1): 68-74.
162. Grachev, N. S., P. L. Kirillov, and V. A. Prokhorov. 1976. Experimental determination of
heat transfer in a vapor generating inner-finned tube. Teplofiz. Vysok. Temp. 14(6):
1234240.
163. Styrikovich, M. A,, Leontiev, V. S. Polonsky, and I. I. Malashkin. 1976. Study of heat transfer
in the supercritical region of smooth and rough vapor generating channels. In Heat and Mass
Trans& Ci Pmc. F$h All-Union Conj2rence on Heat and Mass Tmnsfer, Vol. 3, Pt. 2, pp.
41-48. Minsk: HMTl Press.
164. Dowson, D. A. 1972. Mass transfer at rough surfaces. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 15(7):
1317-1328.
165. Jones, J. K. 1979. Boiling heat transfer enhancement using integral fines inside tubes. SAE
Preprinfs. Automat. Eng. Congr. Detroit, 12-1 6 January.
166. Hynek, J. K. 1969. Forced convection dispersed flow film boiling. Dict. Th. ,4417:
167. Yarhko, S. A,, and A. L. Korolev. 1973. Evaluation of the efficiency of unsteady cooling of
pipelines in different film boiling regimes. Tr.-Vses. Zaochn. Machinostrit. Inst., Hydraul. 42):
183-1 89.
168. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and N. 0. Khasaev. 1975. Study of heat transfer enhancement at
dispersed film boiling. Tr. -Vses. Zaochn. Machinostrit. Inst., Hydraul. 29(4): 120-140.
169. Kalinin, E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and N. 0. Khasaev. 1978. Experimental study of heat transfer
enhancement at film boiling of clyogenic tube fluids. Izv. AN SSSR,Energetika i Transport 6:
106-1 18.
170. Kalinin. E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and 1. Z. Kopp. 1992. Modem means for heat transfer
enhancement at liquid boiling on real surfaces. Izv. RAN. Energetica 3: 121-136.
171. Dreitser, G. A., and 1. Z. Kopp. 1993. Effective heat exchange surfaces for vapor generation. In
E.uyerimenta1 Heat Trunsjk Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, 1993. Proc. Third World
Conference on Experimental Heat Tmnsjer: Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics. Honolulu,
HI, USA. 31 October-5 November, Vol. 2, pp. 1207-1214. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
172. Dreitser, G. A. 1993. Promising trends in designing effective heat transfer surfaces. In
Tmnsport Phenomena in Thermal Engineering, Vol. 2, 1021-1026. New York: Begell House
Inc. Publishers.
173. Dreitser, G. A., S. G. Zakirov, Kh. I. Turknienov, and A. V. Fartushnov. 1989. Enhancerncnt
of heat transfer at water surface boiling in annular turbulator-equipped tubes. Inzh.-Fiz. Zh.
47(4): 669-674.
174. Labuntsov, D. A. 1960. Generalized relations for heat transfer at nucleate boiling of liquids.
Teploenergeticu 5: 7 6 8 I.
175. Kutateladze, S. S.,and V. M. Borishansky. Handbook on Heut Transfhr: Leningrad-Moscow:
Gosenergoizdat.
176. Kutateladze, S. S. 1979. Fundamentals of Heat Dunsjer Theoty, 5th ed. suppl. Moscow:
Atomizdat.
177. Isachenko, V. P. 1977. Condc~nsationHeut Transfer: Moscow: Energiya.
178. Isachenko, V. P., V. L. Osipova, and A. S. Sukomel. 1981. Heat Transfir. 4th ed. Moscow:
Energoatomizdat.
179. Zozulya, N. V., V. A. Karkhu, and V. P. Borovikov. 1976. Analytical and experimental study
of heat transfer at vapor condensation on finned surfaces. In Heat and Muss Tinnster k: Proc.
Fifih All-Union Conf>rence 011 Hew und Mass Trans/eft.r:Vol. 3, Pt. 2, pp, 105-109. Minsk:
HMTl Press.
180. Rifert. V. G., P. A. Barabash, A. V. Golubev, et al. 1976. Study of vapor film condensation
affected by the enhancing action of surface forces. In Heut and Muss Dansfi?r K Proc. Fifih
All-Union Conference on Heat and M m s Ramfei: Vol. 3. Pt. 2. pp. 138-142. Minsk: HMTI
Press.
181. Dreitser. G. A,, E. K. Kalinin, A. S. Neverov. rt d. 1989. A heat transfer tube. Authors
Certificate No. 130721 I , CI. F28F1142. Bulletin of Inventions No. 16.
182. Dreitser, G. A., E. S. Levin, and A. V. Mikhailov. 1988. Enhancement of heat transfer at
water vapor condensation on horizontal annular-groovcd tubes. 1nzh.-Fiz Zh. 55(5):
789-794.
183. Kalinin, E. K.. G. A. Dreitser, N. V. Paramonov, et al. 1991. Comprehensive study of heat
transfer enhancement in tubular heat exchangers. Int. J. Experirnmtul Heut Truns/k Thermo-
&namics und Fluid Mechunics 4(6): 656-666.
184. Kalinin. E. K., G. A. Dreitser, and E. V. Dubrovsky. 1985. Compact tube and plate-finned heat
exchangers. Heat Trun.xfi.r Engineering 6( 1): 49-57.
H E A T TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN H E A T EXCHANGERS 33 1
185. Tsoi, V. I.. V. V. Galagan, 1. P. Zakirov, and K. F. Karimov. 1994. Study of heat transfer
enhancement at film condensation of substance vapours on the outer surface of horizontal
rolled tubes. Proc. 1st Ricssian Natioritd Cnnference on Heut Trunsfi>r.Vol. 8, Heur Transfer
Enhancement, 2 18-22 1. Mosk. Energ. Inst. Press.
186. Bogoniolov, Yu. N., V. P. Boronkov. L. V. Grigoriev, N. V. Zozulya, and V. A. Pemiyakov.
1984. Experimental results on pilot-commercial check of efficient use of profile tubes in steam
turbine condensers. In Hetrt Transfer Enhancement in P m w Equipment. 174-1 79. Leningrad:
Nauka.
187. Buglaev, V. N., and M. N. Livshits. 1982. Heat transfer enhancement at vapour condensation
on tubes. In Thermoph,wic.smid Hydrotlvnumics nf Boiling and Condensation Processes. Book
q/Ah.struc/s, Vol. 1 I,4CL41. Riga: Riga Politechnic Institute Press.
188. Kalinin, E. K., G . A. Dreitser, N. V. Paramonov. et ul. 1988. Modem problems of heat transfer
enhancement in tubular heat exchangers. Proc. Heur and A4us.s Trunsfer-IMF.,Sec. 10. I I , pp.
19-35. Minsk: HMTI Press.
189. Dreitser. G.A.. V. K. Migar. A. V. Mikhailov, E. S. Levin. and V. A. Pennyakov. 1989. A heat
transfer tube. Authors Certificate (USSR) No. 147435, CI. F28F1/42. Bulletin of Inventions
No. 15.
190. Dreitser, G. A., S. G. Zakirov, and Sh. K. Agzamov. 1084. Enhancement of heat transfer at
vapour condensation on the outer surface of vertical tubes. 1nzh.-Fi:. Zh. 47(2): 184-189.
191. Dreitser, G. A., S . G. Zakirov, Sh. K. Agzamov, and E. S . Levin. 1984. Experimental study of
heat transfer enhancement at vapour condensation on the outer surface of annular turbulator-
equipped tubes. In Boiling rind Cnnden.srrtion. 108 I IS. Riga: Riga Politechnic Institute Press.
192. Dreitser, G. A. 1993. Modern problems on designing high-effectiency tubular heat exchangers.
Prnc. I993 ICHMT Intern. Sympnsirrm on New L)evelo~~nic~nts in Hear Exchtingers. Lisbon.
Portugal, Paper 7.3.
193. Dreitser. G.A. 1995. Heat transfer enhancemcnt at the flow gas and liquids i n the channel. In
Hetrr and Ma.rs Trunsfer 95, Proc. nf the Second ISHMT-ASME Hcat und Muss Trunsfer
Conference, New Delhi; Tata McGraw Hill. 707-712.
194. Dreitser, G. A. 1995. Problems in creating compact tubular heat exchangers. Teploenergetica
(Moscow) 42(3): 19G197.
195. Dreitser. G . A., S. G. Zakirov. and V. N. Lukin. 1988. Visualization of condensation of binary
vapour mixtures on turbulator-provided surfaces. Second All-Union Con\i.renre on Heut
Transfer und Hvdrogusdwiumics of Boiling ond Condensation Processes, Book q#Abstracrs,
Vol. 1 I . 158-159. Riga: Riga Politechnic Institute Press.
196. Dreitser. G. A,, N. V. Paramonov. A. S. Neverov. rr (11. 1993. Comprehensive study of research
and practical problems on heat transfer enhancement in tubular heat exchangers. 1izzh.-Fiz. Zh.
65( 1): 25-32.
197. Dreitser, G . A., V. 1. Gomon, and I. Z. Aronov. 1984. Comparison of fouling in tubes with
annular turbulence promoters and in smooth tubes of shell- and tube heat exchangers. Heut
Transfer-souiet Research 15(1): 87-93.
198. Dreitser, G. A. 1993. Investigation of salt depositions when the water in flowing in channels
with discrete turbulizers. I n Experimentul Heut Trunsfer. Fluid Mechanics and Thermo+
namics, 1 993, Proc. Third World Conf i v e i r e on E.rperimentu/ Heat Tran.yfer, Fluid Mechan-
ics tmd Thermodynamics. Honolulu, HI, USA, 3 1 October-5 November, Vol. 2, pp.
1492-1499. Amsterdam: Elservier.
199. Dreitser, G. A. 1995. Study of fouling with water flow in discrete turbulizer-equipped
channels. Proc. the Engineering Foundation Int. Con.ference Fouling Mitigation of lndustricrl
Heat Exchangers. San Luis Obisco, CA.
200. Dreitser, G. A. 1996. Investigation of salt depositions at flow of the water with increased
carbonate hardness in channels with discrete tuirbulizers. Teploenergetica 3: 196197.
201. Knudsen, J. G., and B. U. Roy. 1982. Influence of fouling in heat transfer. In Heat Transfer,
7th International Heat Transfer Conference, Munchen, FRG, Vol. 2, pp. 289-300. Hemisphere
Publishing Corporation.
202. Pinheiro, J. de D. K. S. 198 1. Fouling of heat transfer surfaces. In Heat Exchangers-Thermal
Hydraulic Fundamentals and Design, edited by S. Kakas, A. E. Bergles, and F. Meinger,
1013-1035. New York: McGraw-Hill.
203. Chan, S. H. 1992. Heat and mass transfer in fouling. In Annular Reoiew ofHeat Transfer, Vol.
4, 363-402. New York: Hemisphere Publishing.
204. Miiller-Steinhagen, H. 1993. Fouling: The ultimate challenge for heat exchanger design. In
Transport Phenomena in Thermal Engineering, Vol. 2, 8 11-823. New York: Begell House
Inc. Publishers.
205. Risaev, T. R. 1986. Reducing the salt deposition process in heat exchanger surfaces. Thesis,
Tashkent Institute of Textile and Light Industry, 1986.
206. Inayatov, I. A. 1990. Study of heat transfer and flow in profiled tubes of salt deposition. Thesis,
Tashkent Polytechnic Institute.
207. Gomelauri, V. I., T. Sh. Magrakvalidze, and N. N. Lekvenshvili. 1992. Two-dimensional
roughness effect on the fouling process in heat exchange surfaces. Teploenergetica 8:
39-42.
208. Kim, M.-H., and R. L. Webb. 1990. Particulate fouling inside tubes having a re-shaped two-
dimensioned roughness by a flowing suspension of aluminium oxide in water. Proc. Ninth
International Heat Transfer Conference, Jerusalem, Israel, Vol. 5, pp. 139-144.
209. Dreitser, G. A,, V. A. Kuzminov, and A. S. Neverov. 1973. The simplest methods of
evaluating the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement. Izo. VUZoo, Energefica 12: 77-84.
210. Dreitser, G. A., V. A. Kuzminov, and A. S. Neverov. 1974. Estimates of the efficiency of heat
transfer enhancement by flow turbulization in heat exchangers. Tr.-Vses. Zaochn. Machinos-
pit. Inst., Hydraul. lO(3): 102-1 14.
21 I. Dreitser, G. A. 1979. A method of evaluating the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement in
channels. In Modern Problems of Flow and Heat Transfer in Elements of Power Plants and
Cryogenic Engineering, Tr.-Vses. Zaochn. Machinostroit. Inst. 8: 156-161.
212. Dreitser, G. A. 1990. A method of evaluating the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement in
cross-flow tubular heat exchangers. In Modern Problems of Flow and Hear Transfer in
Elements oJPower Plants and Cryogenic Engineering, Tr.-Vses. Zaochn. Machinostroit. Inst.
9: 98-103.
213. Dreitser, G. A. 1983. Efficiency of heat transfer enhancement in boiling heat carrier appara-
tuses. In Modern Problems of Heat Transfer in Aviation Technique, 65-71. Moscow: MA1
Press.
214. Dreitser, G. A. 1986. Compact Heat Exchangers. Moscow: MA1 Press.
215. Subbotin, V. I., M. H. lbragimov, P. A. Ushakov, er al. 1975. Hydrodynamics and Heat
Transfer in Nuclear Power Installations. Moscow: Atomizdat.

Kalinin1998 PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Kalinin1998 PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ADVANCES IN HEAT TRANSFER, VOLUME 31

Heat Transfer Enhancement

Heat exchangers are widely used in power engineering, chemical industries,

159 ADVANCES IN HEAT TRANSFER, VOL. 31

Along with turbulators, twisting facilities, and finning, low-heat-conducting

11. Choice of Heat Transfer Enhancement Method

From inequality ( 6 ) it follows that the efficiency of heat transfer enhancement

If the method of heat transfer enhancement is based on use of electric energy

Region I1 is the two-dimensional (n < x < m ) separate flow region character-

FIG. 2 Turbulence generation variation along the separated flow region

Figure 2 adequately shows that turbulence generation is maximum in region I

FIG.3. Distribution of the turbulence intensityR/M.O behind a single backward-facing step

A qualitatively similar mechanism for interaction between the separated flow

where 1 is the turbulence scale slightly varying in the

FIG. 5. Flow parameter distribution at an abrupt tube expansion from R / 2 to R (Re = 2 R w y

discrepancy reaches 30%. A. K. Runchal explains this discrepancy by noting

that depending on the smoothness of the profiles of the protrusions, visible

As shown by the studies of G. I. Voronin and E. V. Dubrovsky [ I , 141, the

Besides, as the thickness did,, increases, the coefficient 5 grows as a result of

Figure 11 plots the predicted distribution of the dimensionless parameters

it is easy to conclude that a will be most affected by the E , increase in the

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 rli;,

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0 2 rli;, I 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 r/ql

layer (0.05 to 0.1) ro or y' = y l v a = 60 to 160 in thickness, 60 to 70% of

D. CHOICE OF A RATIONALMETHODFOR HEATTRANSFER

FIG. 12. Annular turbulator-equipped tube.

by equally spaced vortex zones, it was possible to develop methods of

111. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Tubes

dlD 0.875 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.97 0.98

earlier onset of the flow intermittence and a narrower range of Reynolds

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 d/D

1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

As for the efficiency of artificial turbulization of the flow with weakly

1. Tube Length-Mean Heat Transfer

2. Hydraulic Resistance Coeficient

resistance coefficients. Therefore, for the temperature factor influence for

Theoretical studies of heat transfer enhancement in turbulent channel flows

Of interest are V. K. Migais data [26,28] estimating the limiting values of

as a function of y+. In doing so, c,Iv = f ( y ) is taken from Schleiher's experi-

From Fig. 21 it is possible to obtain an expression for the dimensionless

Equating the diaphragm height to the wall layer thickness yields

lo4 2 4 6 8 10' 2 Re,

N. M. Galin [ 1071, it is easy to conclude that Re* is essentially affected by the

length variation of the density as

the friction contribution to the total hydraulic resistance is essential, as is the

The relation NuINu, = increases for tlD = 0.25 as Re grows, attaining

D. INFLUENCE OF THE PRANDTL

same time, in individual experiments there is a suggestion that the enhancement

FIG.33. Limiting increase o f the heat transfer coefficient vs Pr.

E. INFLUENCE OF THE TURBULATOR

resistance coefficient were satisfactorily generalized at different t and h just by

4 6 810 20 40 60 100 tlh

small h, he reported that the hydraulic resistance coefficient increased dramati-

G. INFLUENCE OF THE TEMPERATURE FLOW

As is known, in the supercritical region of the state parameters, the thermo-

FIG.46. NulNu, and </(,, . vs Re at heating of supercritical kerosene in the turbulator-provided

Nu/Nu,,, can reach 5 as the NuiNu,, growth moves up in the Re numbers, at

It should be noted that in flow of supercritical hydrocarbon fuels, higher

IV. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Tube Bundles in

temperature head dT= 14 to 101C; temperature factor iT, = 1.046 f 1.25; z,

6 810' 2 4 6 810' Re,

begins to increase at Rel = (3.6 to 33.8. h/deql) 10' and is stabilized at

To choose optimal rolling parameters, it is necessary to allow for heat transfer