ndex

introduction................................................................................................................................. 2

Phone .......................................................................................................................................... 3

Allophone ................................................................................................................................... 4

Reasons For Allophones ............................................................................................................. 5

Distinctive Feature ...................................................................................................................... 6

Major-Class Features .................................................................................................................. 6

Laryngeal Features ..................................................................................................................... 7

Manner Features ......................................................................................................................... 7

Place Features ............................................................................................................................. 9

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 12

Bibliografia ............................................................................................................................... 13
 Introduction

Phonetic and phonology is concerned with speech, whit the ways I which human
produce and hear speech. Listening and talking to each other are so much part of oral life that
they often seem unremarkable. Phonetic can be viewed as a group of phonetic sciences
separated as anatomy and physiology of speech, articulatory phonetic. The following work
talk about the same parts of phonetic and phonology as Phone, Allophone, and Distinctive
Features Fonotatic.

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 Phone

A phone can be defined as unit sound of a language. Its a unit sound because the whole
of the phone must be substituted to make a difference word. [tv]is aunit sound in English and
hence a phone, because the whole of it must be replaced by [dv] to change tea into Dee. [tr] is
a phone because it must be replaced entirely by [dr] to change trip into drip. However, [tv]
and [tr] are not DISTINCTIVE unit sounds (and hence are not phonemes) because there are
no English words in which the only difference is that [tv] is replaced by [tr].

In phonetics, a "phone" is a unit of speech sound. The word "phone" may refer to any
speech sound or gesture considered a physical event without regard to its place in the
phonology of a language. Its the same to say that a "phone" is a speech segment that
possesses distinct physical or perceptual properties, and serves as the basic unit of phonetic
speech analysis.

E.g.
Example: [b], [j], [o]

The problem with the concept of a phone (and hence of an allophone) is that its
boundaries are blurred. Although its hard for English speakers to hear the difference between
[tv] and [tr], its fairly clear that a slightly different tongue position is involved. The words
bin, spin and pin involve the closely similar English phones [b], [p] and [p]. They differ in the
time difference between the release of lip closure and the start of vocal cord vibration
(voicing). The somewhat idealized diagram below shows that in [b], voicing begins at lip
opening; in [p], voicing begins very soon after lip opening; in [p], voicing is delayed (hence a
significant puff of air escapes via the open vocal cords and lips).Phones, on the other hand,
are phonetic variants of a phoneme, and all the variations of a certain phoneme are called
allophones of that phoneme.

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 Three important points can be illustrated by these three phones. Firstly, PERCEIVED
differences between phones do not depend on actual differences. A sound spectrograph shows
clearly the differences between [b] and [p] and between [p] and [p]. Objectively these three
phones are easily recognizable. Yet English speakers normally notice only the first difference.
the phones [p] and [p] are not DISTINCTIVE in English since they are allophones of the
same /p/ phoneme. There are no two words whose only difference is that [p] is replaced by
[ph], so English speakers dont need to learn to distinguish them. To an English speaker [p]
and [ph] represent the same sound, even though they are actually different.

The phone altho are phonetic units and it appear in square brackets, when we have a set
of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we refer to them as the allophones of
that phoneme. That is, phones are variations or different pronunciation of the same phoneme;

E.g

in English language, the sound // is pronounced slightly differently in the word shoe
than it is in the word she. The // in shoe will be pronounced with rounded lips because of the
influence of the neighbouring rounded vowel sound /U/. So, we can say that // is rounded
when preceded by a rounded vowel. In pronouncing she//, however, the lips will not be
rounded, but spread. We can say that there are two phones - // with lip-rounding and //
without lip-rounding. Therefore, the two //, with and without lip-rounding, are allophones of
//.that there is no puff of air after the [t]).

Phones that belong to the same phoneme, such as [t] and [t] for English /t/, are called
allophones. A common test to determine whether two phones are allophones or separate
phonemes relies on finding minimal pairs: words that differ by only the phones in question.
For example, the words tip and dip illustrate that [t] and [d] are separate phonemes, /t/ and /d/,
in English.

Allophone

This term refers to the realisation of a phoneme. Bear in mind the phoneme is a unit in
the sound system of a language. This means that it is an abstract unit. For instance, one can
talk about /l/ in English without referring to either of the two forms [l], [1] which it can take
(the bracketing used for allophones is similar to that for phones: [ ], square brackets). What

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one is then doing is talking about the phoneme, the abstract unit which is part of the sound
system of English. In actual speech, various l-sounds occur.

These are realisations of the phoneme /l/. Those at the beginning of a word with turn up
as [l] and those at the end as [1]. What one can now say is that [l] and [1] are non-distinctive
realisation of a phoneme. One could argue that this is in theory impossible in English as the
[l] and [1] cannot occur in the same position in a word. This is true, the allophones are in
complementary distribution because cannot occur in the same position in a syllable. But even
those sounds which are in free variation, for instance the different forms of /r/ in English,
cannot form the basis for a distinction in meaning.

Reasons for allophones

There are various reasons why different allophones of a phoneme may exist. For
instance, the two types of /l/ in English are determined by syllable position (in RP, not
necessarily in other varieties).

However, long vowels occur as allophones before /r/ as one can see in a word pair like
soi[swa] be-SUBJUNCTIVE and soir[swa:r] evening. In English all voiceless stops are
aspirated (spoken with a small puff of air at the end), e.g. top [t,>p] but when they follow an
/s/ this is not the case, e.g. stop [st>p] (try saying this word very slowly and you will realise

Certainly, phonemically analyses customarily describes as allophone only those major

variants that can be categorized and represented in a segmental transcription , and this tend to
represent variant which is not universal, even if found in a substantial number of languages,
variability that is revealed only by instrumental analysis is ignored. Same examplos follows:

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 Distinctive Feature

Features may or may not have values. A binary feature either has the value +' or the
value (- ). The claim here is that both the group of segments that has the minus value and the
group that has the plus value form natural classes. For instance, the assumption of the binary
feature [+ voice] implies that languages refer to groups of voiceless segments as well as to
groups of voiced segments. Ever since they were first proposed in Jakobson et al. (1952),
distinctive features have standardly been assumed to be binary.

In recent years, phonologists have proposed univalent features (e.g. Ewen 1995). In
this case, reference can only be made to the class of segments that has the feature, not to the
collection of segments that does not possess it. Other terms for univalent are unary, single-
valued or privative. For instance, the feature [labial] allows reference to the group of labial
segments, but we cannot express any generalization involving all non-labial segments.

Major-class features

There are three major-class features, [ consonantal], [ sonorant] and [approximant].

[consonantal]. [+ cons] segments have a constriction somewhere along the centre line in the
vocal tract which is at least as narrow as that required for a fricative; [+ cons] segments lack
such a constriction. Thus, [+ cons] are plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals, laterals and [r],
while [cons] are vowels, glides like [,w,j], and because their stricture is in the larynx rather
than the vocal tract [h, ,]

[sonorant]. This feature distinguishes obstruents ( - [son]) from sonorant consonants

and vowels ([+ son]). [+ son] segments are produced with a constriction in the vocal tract
which allows the air pressure behind it and in front of it to be relatively equal, while this is not
the case for [- son] segments. That is, either [- son] segments have an oral constriction which
causes a significant increase in the air pressure behind it (e.g. [s], [d]), or there is no
constriction in the vocal tract. Since the vocal tract does not include the larynx, [h] and [] are
[ - son]. So [son] are all vowels, glides like [,w,j], liquids and nasals, while [- son] are
plosives, fricatives, affricates and laryngeal segments.

3.[ approximant]. [+ approx] are those segments which have a constriction in the vocal
tract which allows a free (frictionless) escape of air, while for [ - approx] segments this is not
the case (Ladefoged 1971: 46, Clements 1989). Vowels and non-nasal sonorants, like [l, ,],
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are [+ approx] segments. (The term lateral is used for any l-type sounds, while the term
rhotic refers to any r-type sound; laterals and rhotics are often referred to as liquids.)

Laryngeal features

There are three laryngeal features, [ voice], [ spread glottis] and [ constricted
glottis].

1. [ voice]. [ voice] are segments for which the vocal cords are close enough together
to allow vibration, while for [- voice] this is not the case. Thus, [+ voice] are vowels
(e.g. [i,,,ai]), sonorant consonants (e.g. [m,,l,r,,w], voiced obstruents (e.g.
[b,z,,] and [ ]), while [ - voice] are voiceless obstruents [(e.g. [p,,,ts,h]).
2.
2. [ spread glottis]. [+ spread] segments have a vocal cord configurationthat produces
audible friction in the glottis, while [- spread] segments lacksuch a configuration.
Thus, aspirated segments like [p,k ] and [h, ] are [+spread], while other segments
are [- spread].
3. [ constricted glottis]. For [+ constr] segments the vocal cords are tenseand drawn
together, while for [- constr] segments this is not the case. Thus [], laryngeal zed
vowels (e.g.[]), and laryngealized sonorant consonants (e.g.[m]), glottalized
obstruents (e.g. preglottalized [p] or ejective [p]) are [+ construe]. So are implosives
([,,]). Other segments are [- constr].

Manner features

1. There are four manner features, [ continuant], [ nasal], [strident] and

[lateral]. [ continuant]. [ cont] segments lack a central occlusion in the vocal tract, while [-
cont] segments are produced with such an occlusion. Thus, plosives(e.g. [p,d,]), nasal
consonants (e.g. [m,]), affricates (e.g. [t]) and laterals (e.g. [l]) are [cont], other segments
are [cont]. Some languages apparently treat laterals as [ cont], which is phonetically
understandable in the sense that while these segments have a central occlusion, they have a
lateral aperture.

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 2. [ nasal]. [+ nas] segments (e.g. [m,n,]) are produced with the velum (soft
palate) lowered, [-nas] segments have the velum in its closed (raised) position. Nasal
consonants and nasalized vowels are [+nas], other segments are [-nas].

3. . [ strident]. [ strident] is relevant for obstruents only, and refers to a type of

friction. [+strident] segments cause a noisier kind of friction than [- strident] segments.
[+strident] voiceless fricatives are [f,s,,], [ strident] ones are [,,x]. Together with
[CORONAL], the feature can be used to capture sibilants ([s,z,,,t,d]), needed for a correct
description of the context for English i-insertion.

The features other task is to distinguish plosives from affricates, both of which are [son,
cont]. Such contrasts are common, as in German [tl] mad vs [tsl] import duty, English
[taim] time vs [taim] chime, or Corsican [' alu] freeze1SG vs [dalu] yellow. The
representation of affricates is controversial. A widely supported view, however, is that they
are [strident] plosives (Rubach 1984; Clements 1999). For one thing, it is at least suggestive
that affricates typically have strident friction after the release of the closure, as in [pf,ts,t,k]
rather than [p,t, c,kx].

4. [lateral]. [lat] segments have a central tongue contact in the oral cavity with one or
both sides of the tongue being held away from the roof of the mouth, allowing the air
to escape there, like alveolar [l] and prepalatal []. Other sounds are [lat]. A lateral
escape of the air is also possible for obstruents, like the lateral fricatives [] (voiceless)
and [] (voiced) and the lateral affricates [t] and [d].

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 PLACE FEATURES

LABIAL [labial] segments are articulated with the lips, like [f,p,m], or in the case of vowels
are formed with lip rounding, like [y,o, ]. Segments that are [labial] may be specified for
[round].

1. [round]. [+round] segments have lip rounding, like [p,t,o,u,];

[round] segments do not.
2. Coronal
[coronal] segments are articulated with a raised crown of the tongue, i.e. a raised tip
and/or blade, ranging from a dental [] to a prepalatal [j]. Examples of [coronal]
segments are [t,z,l,,j,, ,r]. [Coronal] segments are further specified for the features
[anterior] and [distributed], and in the case of coronal fricatives and affricates also
for [strident].

[anterior]. For [ant] segments, the crown articulates with the alveolar ridge or
somewhere further forward, while for [ant] segments, the crown articulates with a point
behind the alveolar ridge. Thus, [t,s,] are [ant], while prepalatal or post alveolar and
retroflex consonants (e.g.[,, ,c,j] are [ ant].

[ distributed]. Segments that are [distr] are produced with a constriction that extends for a
relatively great distance along the vocal tract, while for [ distr] segments this is not the case.
Thus, consonants produced with the tip of the tongue (apical consonants like British English
[t,d,n]) are [distr], as are [s,z] (Clements 1985). Blade-articulated (laminal) consonants like
[,t,]) are [distr].

Dental consonants like [,,l ,t ] are also [distr], because even where it is only the tip
that touches the front teeth, the blade is close to the alveolar ridge and in fact contributes to
the acoustic effect. Retroflex consonants are [distr]: the tip articulates with the part of the
palate immediately behind the alveolar ridge. Australian languages frequently have a four-
way opposition, utilizing the four possibilities given by these features. Four coronal stops and
nasals contrast in Kayardild, for instance, as shown in (4) (Evans 1995).2

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 Dorsal
[dorsal] sounds are articulated with bunched dorsum: [k,[dorsal] segments are further
specified for a set of features that specify just where the bunch of the tongue body is located,
the tongue body features.

1. [high]. Segments that are [high] raise the dorsum to a position close to theroof of the
mouth, while [high] segments do not. Thus, [high] segmentsare [i, i, y, y, , , u], as well as
[], and [k, , x, , ], while [, e, o, a] are[high], for instance.

2. [low]. [low] segments have the bunched dorsum low in the mouth, while [low] segments do
not. Thus, [low] segments are [a, , ], for instance.
3. [back]. [back] segments have the bunch of the tongue positioned in thecentre or further
back, while [back] segments have the bunch in the front.

Thus, [back] segments are velar and uvular consonants (e.g. [k, , ]) andvowels like [u,
,o, , ], while [back] segments are fronted velars like [k] and [], and vowels like [i,y,,]. It
is emphasized that [], although classed with the palatal consonants [c,j,] in the IPA chart (i.e.
with the [coronal] consonants), is interpreted as a fronted velar, i.e. a [dorsal] consonant.
Many languages have [] and [x] in complementary distribution depending on the backness of
the preceding or following vowel. For instance, Greek [ri] hand begins with the same
phoneme as [xari] charm (cf. Q38).
4. [tense]. [tense] vowels like [i,e,a,o,u] are produced with a more peripheral and somewhat
closer tongue position than their [tense] counterparts [i, , , , ]. The feature is only relevant
if the language has vocalic oppositions like [i i], [y y], [u ], etc.

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 [ATR] involves a forward position of the tongue body, with concomitant enlargement of
the pharynx, while [RTR] involves a retraction and lowering of the tongue body, with
concomitant narrowing of the pharynx. Akan has four plain vowels and five [ATR] vowels,
three ofthe former type occurring in [ATR] [b] stone, and three of the latter in [ATR]
[ebuo] nest. Baiyinna Orochen has nine plain and nine [RTR] vowels, and [RTR] [olo ] to
cook, for instance, contrasts with [RTR] [l] to wade. The features [tense], [ATR] and
[RTR], while phonetically somewhat different, appear never to co-occur in the same language
(cf. Halle and Clements 1983: 7; Ladefoged and Maddieson 1996: 300).

Radical
[radical] (also [pharyngeal]) sounds are articulated with the root of the tongue. A voiceless
fricative [] occurs in many varieties of Arabic, as does a pharyngeal approximant []. See
Ladefoged and Maddieson (1997) for more information.,,] (velars), as wellas [,k] (fronted
velars) and uvulars (e.g. [,q]). In addition, all vowels are [dorsal].

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 Conclusion
Its concluded that phones are variations or different pronunciation of the same phoneme;
Phones, on the other hand, are phonetic variants of a phoneme, and all the variations of a certain
phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme. But allophones, are those variations (they can
be two or three) of the same phoneme. Finally distinctive features can characterize the segment
inventories of the languages of the world. The features come in the following groups: major-class
features, which classify segments into segment types like vowel and obstruent; laryngeal
features, which specify the glottal properties of the segment, manner features, which specify the type
of constriction, or more generally the manner of articulation; and place features, which encode the
place of articulation.

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 Bibliography
Jacob, C. G. (2011). Uderstandig Phonology. Lodo: Holder Education.

Roach, P. (1983). English Phonetic and Phonology. United King Dom: Cambridge University Press.

Victrio, C. (2013). English Phonetic and Phonology. maputo.

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