Introduction to Classical Electrodynamics

Maxwell Equations
In macroscopic electrodynamics the singular character of charges and
their associated currents is avoided by considering charge densities and
current densities J.
~ In differential form and in SI units the macroscopic
Maxwells equations have the form1 : 1
Lukas Novotny and Bert Hecht. Prin-
ciples of Nano-Optics. Cambridge Uni-
B~ (r, t) versity Press, 1st edition, 2006
~ (r, t) =
E , (1a)
t
~
H~ (r, t) = D (r, t) + J~(r, t) (1b)
t
~ (r, t) = (r, t)
D (1c)
~ (r, t) = 0,
B (1d)

where E~ denotes the electric field, D

~ the electric displacement, H
~ the
magnetic field, B the magnetic induction. Maxwells equations combine
~
and complete the laws formerly established by Faraday, Ampere, Gauss,
Poisson, and others. The components of these vector and scalar fields
constitute a set of 16 unknowns. Depending on the considered medium ,
the number of unknowns can be reduced considerably.

Boundary Conditions
Since the material properties are discontinuous on the boundaries, equa-
tions in (1) are only valid in the interior of the domain. However,
Maxwells equations must also hold for the boundaries. Considering the
integral form of Maxwells equations (see Novotny and Hecht [2006], Sec-
tion 2.8 for reference), we obtain the following set of boundary conditions
between to medium 1 and 2:
 
n E ~2 = 0
~1 E (2a)
 
n H ~1 H
~ 2 = ~ (2b)
 
n D ~1 D~ 2 = k (2c)
 
n B ~2 = 0
~1 B (2d)

where ~ and k are the surface conductivity and surface charge, respec-
tively. equations (2a) and (2b) represent the boundary conditions for
the tangential components, and equations (2c) and (2d) the normal
components.
In most practical situations there are no sources in the individual do-
mains, and ~ and k consequently vanish. The four boundary conditions
are not independent of each other since the fields on both sides of the
interface are linked by Maxwells equations.
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 2

Consitutive Relations
Maxwells equations define the fields that are generated by currents and
charges in matter. However, they do not describe how these currents
and charges are generated. Thus, to find a self-consistent solution for
the electromagnetic field, Maxwells equations must be supplemented by
relations that describe the behavior of matter under the influence of the
fields. These material equations are known as constitutive relations.
Generally, J,
~ D ~ and B ~ are related to the electric field E ~ and the
magnetic field H through non linear relations. However, for many
~
dielectric materials, it is reasonable assume that the field strengths are
small enough to consider only linear terms2 . In such situations, the 2
John Joannopoulos, Steven Johnson,
amplitude of the electric displacement D, magnetic induction B, and the Joshua Winn, and Robert Meade. Pho-
tonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of
current density J, are given by: Light. Princeton University Press, 2nd
Z Z edition, 2008
D~ (r, t) = 0 (r r0 , t t0 ) E~ (r0 , t0 )dr0 dt0 (3a)
Z Z
B~ (r, t) = 0 (r r0 , t t0 ) H
~ (r0 , t0 )dr0 dt0 (3b)
Z Z
J~(r, t) = (r r0 , t t0 ) E~ (r0 , t0 )dr0 dt0 (3c)

where the tensor (r, t) is the relative permitivity or dielectric

constant, (r, t) the relative permeability, and (r, t) the electrical
conductivity. 0 and 0 are the permitivity and permeability of vacuum,
respectively. Both the (r, t) and (r, t) are non-dimensional parameters.
According to the form of equations in (3), the fields D, ~ B ~ and J~ at
time and position (r, t) depends respectively on the electric field and
magnetic fields at all times t0 previous to t (temporal dispersion), and at
the neighboring positions r0 (spatial dispersion). A spatially dispersive
medium is therefore called a non-local medium. Non-local effects can
be observed at interfaces between different media or in metallic objects
with sizes comparable with the mean-free path of electrons.
Fourier transform on the constitutive equations leads to the following
set of equations:
~ (k, ) = 0 (k, ) E
D ~ (k, )
~ (k, ) = 0 (k, ) H
B ~ (k, )
J~(k, ) = (k, ) E
~ (k, )

In general, it is very difficult to account for spatial dispersion in field

calculations. In most cases of interest the effect is very weak and we
can safely ignore it. Temporal dispersion, on the other hand, is a widely
encountered phenomenon and it is important to take it accurately into
account.
A final constitutive equation for (k, ) is established by charge
conservation equation, which is implicitly contained in Maxwells
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 3

equations:
(r, t)
J~(r, t) + =0 (5)
t
by applying Fourier Transform, we find the following relation between
the charge density and the electric field:
1 h i
(k, ) = ~k (k, ) E
~ (k, )
i

Electromagnetic Waves
Considering a local and isotropic medium, and applying Fourier transform
to the Maxwell equations, we get:

~k E
~ ( ) = i0 ( )H
~ ( )
~k H~ ( ) = i0 ( )E
~ ( ) + ( )E
~ ( )

~ ( ) = ~k ( ) E
~k 0 ( )E ~ ( )
i
~k 0 ( )H ~ ( ) = 0

which is the frequency domain Maxwells equation. Rearranging the

terms gives:

~k E~ ( ) = i0 ( )H~ ( ) (6a)
~k H ~ ( ) = i0 ( )E
~ ( ) (6b)
0 ( )~k E
~ ( ) = 0 (6c)
0 ( )~k H ~ ( ) = 0 (6d)

( )
where ( ) = ( ) i0 is the complex dielectric constant. In
this notation one does not distinguish between conduction currents and
polarization currents, which is related to the electrical susceptibility of
the material. Energy dissipation is then associated with the imaginary
part of the dielectric constant.
Applying "~k" to equations (6a) and (6b), and considering  equa-
tions (6c) and (6d) in the identity ~k ~k ~ = k 2 ~ ~k ~k ~ , we obtain:

2 2 ~ ( ) = 0
~ ( )
k2 E N ( )E (7a)
c20
2 2 ~ ( ) = 0
~ ( )
k2 H N ( )H (7b)
c20

where N ( ) = ( )( ) = n( ) + i( ) is the complex refraction

p

index
Each of the equations in (7) has the form of the wave equation for
~
the electric and magnetic fields, whose solution is of the form A0 ek~rit .
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 4

By replacing this into any of the equations in (7) gives the dispersion
relation for the wavevector k:

k= N ( ) (8)
c0
The equations in (6) provide some additional information regarding
the nature of the Electromagnetic waves. First from equations (6c)
and (6d), we can deduce that both electric field E
~ and magnetic field H~
are transverse waves (waves oscillating perpendicular to the direction of
propagation). Additionally either equation (6a) or equation (6b), tell us
that the electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular. With
all this information, we can express the solution of equations in (6) in
the following form:

~ ( ) = E0 e~k~rit e
E (9a)
~ ( ) = i E0 e~k~rit k e (9b)


H
Z
q
0
where Z = 0 is the wave impedance.

Reflection and Transmission of Electromagnetic Waves

Consider a plane wave traveling through a media 1 that is incident on
the interface between media 1 and 2 (fig. 1). Under this situation, due
to the impedance mismatch between both media, some portion of the
wave will be transmitted through media 2, while the rest will be reflected
back into media 1. The electric and magnetic fields at each media should Figure 1: Schematics of a plane wave
satisfy the boundary conditions given by equations in (2): incident at the interface between two
media. The plane formed between the
wave vector of the incoming wave and
  the vector normal to the surface is called
n E ~t |z =0 = 0
~ i |z =0 + E~r |z =0 E (10a) the plane of incidence. The polariza-
  tion of the electromagnetic wave can be
~ i |z =0 + 0 1 H
n 0 1 H ~ t |z =0 = 0
~r |z =0 0 2 H (10b) classified separating the electric field
waves traveling parallel to the plane
of incidence (p-polarization), form
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface of the interface, and those perpendicular to the plane of inci-
so each component in the equation correspond to the ones parallel to dence (s-polarization). Additionally
evanescence waves are formed at the
the surface. Here we assume that the mediums are isotropic, local and interface between the two media.
temporal dispersive, and so only two boundary conditions are needed
(D
~ and B ~ are related to the electric and magnetic fields thought the
constitutive relations).
Based on these considerations, the solution of the Maxwell Equations

on each media is given functions of the form exp i~k ~r it (plane
wave solution). Thus, each of equations in (10) will share the generic
structure:
~ ~ ~
( )ei(ki ~rk t) + ( )ei(kr ~rk t) ( )ei(kt ~rk t) = 0
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 5

where ~rk = ~r|z =0 .

Because boundary conditions must hold at all points on the plane,
and for all times, these exponential factors must be equal, i.e ~ki ~rk =
~kr ~rk = ~kt ~rk . Thus, we conclude the following3 : 3
David J. Griffiths. Introduction to
Electrodynamics. Addison Wesley, 3th
The incident, reflected and transmitted waves must lay on the same edition, 1999
plane, which is normal to the surface at the interface between both
media. We refer to this plane as the plane of incidence (fig. 1).

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, i.e. i = r .

The incident and transmitted angle hold the relation given by the
Snells Law:
N2 sin t = N1 sin i

Since the transverse components of the wavevector (kx , ky ) are con-

served, the magnitudes of the longitudinal wavenumbers are given by:

q
k12 kx2 + ky2 (11a)


kz1 =
q
= k22 kx2 + ky2 (11b)


kz2
q
where the transverse wavenumber kk = kx2 + ky2 can be expressed
conveniently in terms of the angle of incidence 1 , as:
q
kk = kx2 + ky2 = k1 sin 1

which, according to equations in (11), also allows us to express kz1 and

kz2 in terms of 1 .
An arbitrarily polarized plane wave E1 exp(~k1 ~r it) can always be
written as the superposition of two orthogonally polarized plane waves.
It is convenient to choose these polarizations parallel or perpendicular to
the plane of incidence defined by the k-vector of the plane wave and the
surface normal n of the plane interface (fig. 1).
(s) (p)
E1 = E1 + E1
(s) (p)
where E1 is parallel to the interface while E1 is perpendicular to the
(s)
wavevector k and E1 . The indices (s) and (p) stand for the German
words "senkrecht" (perpendicular) and "parallel" (parallel), respectively,
and refer to the plane of incidence. Upon reflection or transmission at
the interface, the polarizations (s) and (p) are conserved.
For the case of an p-polarized wave, equations in (10) become:

Ei cos i + Er cos i Et cos t = 0 (12a)

0 1 Hi 0 1 Hr 0 2 Ht = 0 (12b)
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 6

where we assumed the directions of the electric fields as shown in fig. 2,

and the direction of the magnetic fields from equation (9b).
Solution of equations in (12) in terms of the wavevectors, (consider
H = E/Z from equation (9b)) gives:
(p)
Er 2 k z1 1 k z2
r (p) = (p)
= (13a)
Ei 2 k z1 + 1 k z2
(p)
22 kz1
r
Et 2 1
t(p) = (p)
= (13b) Figure 2: Schematic of incident reflected
Ei 2 k z1 + 1 k z2 1 2 and transmitted p-polarized wave

where r (p) and t(p) are the Fresnel Coefficients for the reflected and
transmitted wave, respectively.
Similarly for a s-polarized wave, assuming the directions of the electric
field given by fig. 3, we get:
(s)
Er 2 kz1 1 kz2
r (s) = (s)
= (14a)
Ei 2 kz1 + 1 kz2
(s)
Et 22 kz1
t(s) = (s)
= (14b) Figure 3: Schematic of incident reflected
Ei 2 kz1 + 1 kz2
and transmitted s-polarized wave

Conservation of energy
The equations established so far describe the behavior of electric and
magnetic fields. They are a direct consequence of Maxwells equations and
the properties of matter. Although the electric and magnetic fields were
initially postulated to explain the forces in Coulombs and Amperes laws,
Maxwells equations do not provide any information about the energy or
forces in a system. Although also not a direct consequence of Maxwells
equations, Poyntings theorem provides a plausible relationship between
the electromagnetic field and its energy content. For later reference,
Poyntings theorem will be outlined below.
If the scalar product of the field E and equation (1b) is subtracted
from the scalar product of the field H and equation (1a) the following
equation is obtained:
~ ~
~ D J~E
~ B E
   
H~ E ~ E ~ H ~ = H ~
t t
 
Noting that the expression on the left is identical to E ~ H ~ ,
integrating both sides over space, and applying Gausss theorem ( V
R

f~dV = S f~ ndS) the equation above becomes:

R

1
Z   Z h i Z
~ H
E ~ ndS
+ D~ E~ +B~ H
~ dV = J~ EdV
~ (15)
S 2 t V V
This is the Poyntings theorem, and is a statement of the conservation
of energy for the electromagnetic field. The first term in the equation is
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 7

equal to the net energy flow in or out of the volume V , the second term
is equal to the time rate of change of electromagnetic energy inside V ,
and the last term on the right side refers to the rate of energy dissipation
inside V . According to this interpretation the energy flux density or
Poynting Vector is given by:
~=E
S ~ H
~ (16)

and the density of electromagnetic energy:

1 h~ ~ i
W = DE +B ~ H
~ (17)
2
Of special interest is the mean time value of S.
~ This quantity describes
the net power flux density and is needed for the evaluation of radiation
patterns. Assuming that the fields are harmonic in time and that the
media are linear, the time average of equation (15) becomes:
1
Z Z
hSi ndS
= Re{J~ E}dV
~ (18)
S 2 V
where the term on the right defines the mean energy dissipation within the
volume V , and hSi
~ represents the Time Average Poynting Vector:

1 ~ }
~ =
hSi ~ H
Re{E (19)
2

Dyadic Greens Functions

An important concept in field theory is the Greens functions: the fields
due to a point source. In electromagnetic theory, the dyadic Greens

function G is essentially defined by the field E ~ at the field point r
generated by a current. The derivation of the Greens function for the
electric field is most conveniently accomplished by considering the time-
harmonic vector potential A ~ and the scalar density J~(r0 ). potential in
an infinite and homogeneous space characterized by the constants and
. In this case, A ~ and are defined by the relationships:

~ (r ) = i A
E ~ (r ) (r ) (20a)
~ (r ) = 1 A
H ~ (r ) (20b)
0
Inserting equation (20a) and equation (20b) into Maxwells equations
gives 4 : 4
John David Jackson. Classical Elec-
trodynamics. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
~ =
 
2 i A (21a) New York, 3th edition, 1998
0
 
2 A ~ + i 2 0 0 A
~ A
~ i0 0 = 0 J~ (21b)

We now reduced the set of four Maxwell equations to two equations, but
they are still coupled equations. The uncoupling can be accomplished
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 8

by imposing the condition that A~ and need to satisfy the Lorenz

condition:
A ~ i0 0 = 0 (22)
With this, we can rewrite the equations in (21) as:
(r )
(23a)
 2
+ k 2 (r ) =

0
+ k A(r ) = 0 J~(r )
2 ~
(23b)
 2 

which is the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation. The term at the

right o the equal sign is called source term, and the wavevector k = c0 N .
We can find a solution for the Helmholtz equation by means of Scalar
Green Functions. For this, we look for a solution of the generic 28 Theoretical foundations
equation: The scalar Greens function can be introduced into Eq. (2.74) and the vector po-
+ k 2 G0 (r, r0 ) = (r r0 ) (24)
 2 
tential can be calculated by integrating over the source volume V . Thus, we are in
a position to calculate the vector potential and scalar potential for any given cur-
where we replace the source term by a single point source (r r0rent
). The
distribution j and charge distribution . Notice that the Greens function in
coordinate r denotes the location of the field point, i.e the point at applies only to a homogeneous three-dimensional space. The Greens
Eq. (2.75)
function of a two-dimensional space or a half-space will have a different form.
which the fields are to be evaluated, whereas the coordinate r0 designates
So far we have reduced the treatment of Greens functions to the potentials A
the location of the point source. Once we have determined G0 we and canbecause it allows us to work with scalar equations. The formalism becomes
more involved when we consider the electric and magnetic elds. The reason for
state the particular solution for the vector potential A and the electric
~
this is that a source current in the x-direction leads to an electric and magnetic eld
potential , as: with x-, y-, and z-components. This is different for the vector potential: a source
current in x only gives rise to a vector potential with an x-component. Thus, in
1
Z
(r ) = (r0 )G0 (r, r0 )dV 0 the case of the electric and magnetic elds we need a Greens function that relates
0 V all components of the source with all components of the elds, or, in other words,
the Greens function must be a tensor. This type of Greens function is denoted
Z
~ (r ) = 0
A J~(r0 )G0 (r, r0 )dV 0 as dyadic Greens function and has been introduced in the previous section. To
V determine the dyadic Greens function we start with the wave equation for the
electric eld Eq. (2.31). In a homogeneous space it reads as
In free space, the only physical solution of equation (24) is5 : 5
Lukas Novotny and Bert Hecht. Prin-
0 of
ciples Nano-Optics.
E(r) k 2 E(r)Cambridge
= i0 j(r) .
Uni- (2.76)
eik|rr | versity Press, 1st edition, 2006
G0 (r, r0 ) = We (25)
can dene for each component of j a corresponding Greens function. For ex-
4|r r0 | ample, for jx we have
The solution with the plus sign denotes a spherical wave that propagates Gx (r, r ) k 2 Gx (r, r ) = (r r )nx , (2.77)
out of the origin whereas the solution with the minus sign is a wave that
where nx is the unit vector in the x-direction. A similar equation can be formulated
converges towards the origin. This solution applies only to a homogeneous
for a point source in the y- and z-directions. In order to account for all orientations
three-dimensional space. The Greens function of a two-dimensional space
or half-space will have a different form.
For the electric and magnetic fields, the formalism of scalar Greens
functions cannot be directly applied, as a current in x-direction leads G(r,r')
j(r') E(r)
to an electric and magnetic field with x, y and z components (fig. 4).
r' r
Thus, in this case the Green Function must be a tensor, that relates all
V
components of the source with all components of the fields. We call this

especial type of functions as Dyadic Greens Function. Figureof4:
Figure 2.3 Illustration Illustration
the dyadic of theG (r,
Greens function r ). The Greens func-
dyadic
point r due to a single point source j at
tion renders the electric eld at the eld
From the Maxwell equations it follows that the electric and magnetic Greens
the source point r . Since function (r, r0 ).onThe
the eld at rGdepends Greens of j the Greens
the orientation
function must function
account forrenders the
all possible electric in
orientations field at the
the form of a tensor.
fields obeys to the equations: field point r due to a single point source
J~(r ) at the source poing r0 . Since the
~ k2 E
E ~ = iJ~(r ) (26a) field at r depends on the orientation of
J~ the Greens function must account for
~ k2 H
H ~ = J~(r ) (26b)
all possible orientations in the form of
a tensor.
 introduction to classical electrodynamics 9

Then we need a dyadic Greens function that satisfies the equation:

G(r, r0 ) k 2 G(r, r0 ) = I (r r0 ) (27)

where I is a unitary matrix.
The solution is 6 : 6
Lukas Novotny and Bert Hecht. Prin-
ciples of Nano-Optics. Cambridge Uni-
1
 

versity Press, 1st edition, 2006
G(r, r0 ) = I + 2 I G0 (r, r0 ) (28)
k

Thus, the general solution for the electric and magnetic fields are:
Z
~ ~
E (r ) = E0 + i0 G(r, r0 ) J~(r0 )dV 0 (29a)
V
Z h i
~ (r ) = H
H ~0 + G(r, r0 ) J~(r0 )dV 0 (29b)
V

where we consider the fact that the solution given by the dyadic greens
function, is a particular solution to the non-homogeneous Helmholtz
equations, and so we need to include a solution to the homogeneous
equation E~ 0 and H~ 0 to complete the general solution.
These equations are denoted as volume integral equations, and from the
basis of various formalism, such as the Boundary Element Method
(BEM). Is important to mention that the volume integral equations are
valid in the space outside the source volume V in order to avoid the

singularity of G at r = r0 .

References
David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Electrodynamics. Addison Wesley, 3th
edition, 1999.

John David Jackson. Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
New York, 3th edition, 1998.

John Joannopoulos, Steven Johnson, Joshua Winn, and Robert Meade.

Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light. Princeton University
Press, 2nd edition, 2008.

Lukas Novotny and Bert Hecht. Principles of Nano-Optics. Cambridge

University Press, 1st edition, 2006.