COMPUTER APPRECIATION

INTRODUCTION

BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The Development of the Computer

Many of us think only in terms of electronic computers, powered by electricity. (If you cant
plug it in, is it a computer?) But as the definition in Funk and Wagnalls Standard College
Dictionary makes clear to Compute| is to ascertain (an amount or number) by calculation
or reckoning. In fact, the first computers were invented by the Chinese about 2500 years ago.
They are called abacus and are still used throughout Asia today.

The Abacus
The Abacus, shown in Figure 1.1, is a calculator. Its first record use was circa 500 B.C. The
Chinese used it to add, subtract, multiply and divide. However, the abacus was not unique to
the continent of Asia; archeological excavations have revealed an Aztec abacus in use around
900 0r 1000 A.D.

The Analytical Engine (A Pre Electronic Computer)

The first mechanical computer was the analytical engine, conceived and partially constructed
by Charles Babbage in London, England between 1822 and 1871. It was designed to receive
instructions from punched cards, make calculations with the aid of a memory bank and print
out solutions to math problems. Although Babbage lavished the equivalent of $6,000 of his
own money and $17,000 of the British governments money on this extraordinarily
advanced machine, the precise wok needed to engineer its thousands of moving parts was
beyond the ability of the technology of the day to produce in large volume. It is doubtful
whether Babbages brilliant concept could have been realized using the available resources of
his own century. If it had been, however, it seems likely that the analytical engine could have
performed the same functions as many early electronic computers.

The First Electrically Driven Computer

The first computer designed expressly for data processing was patented on January 8, 1889,
by Dr Herman Hollerith of New York. The prototype model of this electrically operated
tabular was built for the U.S. Census Bureau to compute results of the 1890 census.

Using punched cards containing information submitted by respondents to the census

questionnaire, the Hollerith machine made instant tabulations from electrical impulses
actuated by each hole. It then printed out the processed data on tape. Dr Hollerith left the
Census Bureau in 1896 to establish the Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture and sell
his equipment. The company eventually became IBM, and the 80 column punched card
used by the company, shown in Figure 1.2, is still known as Hollerith card.
The Digital Electronic Computer

The first modern digital computer, the ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer), was built in a
basement on the Iowa State University campus in Ames Iowa, between 1939 and 1942. The
development team was led by John Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics and
Clifford Berry, a graduate student. This machine utilized concepts sill in use today: binary
arithmetic, parallel processing, regenerative memory, and separate memory and computer
functions. When completed, it weighed 750 pounds and could store 3000 bits (.4 KB) of data.
The Technology developed for the ABC machine was passed from Atanasoff to John W.
Mauchly who, together with engineer John Presper Eckert, developed the first large scale
digital computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). It was built at the
University of Pennsylvanias Moore School of Electrical Engineering. Begun as a classified
military project, ENIAC was designed to prepare firing and bombing tables for the U.S.
Army and Navy. When finally assembled in 1945, ENIAC consisted of 30 separate units, plus
a power supply and forced air cooling. It weighed 30 tons, and used separate 19,000
vacuum tubes, 1500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
It required 200 kilowatts of electrical power to operate.

Although programming ENIAC was a mammoth task requiring manual switches and cable
connections, it became the workhorse for the solution of scientific problems from 1949 to
1952. ENIAC is considered the prototype for most of todays computers.

Another computer history milestone is the Colossus I, an early digital computer built at a
secret British government research establishment at Bletchley Park, Buckinghamshire,
England, under the direction of Professor Max Newman. Colossus I was designed for a single
purpose: cryptananalysis, or code breaking. Using punched paper tape input, it scanned and
analyzed 5000 characters per second. Colossus became operational in December 1943 and
proved to be an important technological aid to the Allied victory in World War II. It enabled
the British to break the otherwise impenetrable German Enigma codes.

The 1960s and 1970s marked the golden era of the mainframe computer. Using the
technology pioneered with ABC, ENIAC, and Colossus, Large computers that served many
users (with accompanying large scale support) came to dominate the industry.

As these highlights show, the concept of the computer has indeed been with us for quite a
while. The following table provides an overview of the evolution of modern computers it is
a timeline of important events
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

Computer is an electronic device that accepts input data, processes the data and gives a
desirable output. It can also be used to store information.
STAGES OF COMPUTER DATA PROCESSING

In this lesson, we discuss the stages of computing and how they relate to the constituent parts
that make up the modern PC.
Input

Input is the first stage of computing, referring to any means that moves data (information)
from the outside world into the processor or from one component of the computer to
another. Todays PC can support a wide variety of Input devices. Keyboards, mouse devices,
voice recognition devices, sound cards, modems, scanners, tape drives, CD/DVD drives and
digital cameras are some of the most common.
Processing

Processing is the second stage of computing. This is the actual manipulation of data by the
computer. Processing on early computers involved the tedious task of number crunching
and then, later, storing large amounts of often-redundant data. Today, computers process an
ever-expanding list of activities, including scientific and business tasks, as well as processing
information for education, entertainment, organization and much more. Computer processing
technology also hides in many everyday appliances. Microprocessors run most of our
mechanical and electronic devices including cars, cameras, VCRs, Microwave ovens,
telephones and even supermarket checkout systems.
Output

Output is the third stage of computing. All the input and processing in the world wont do us
any good unless we can get the information back from the computer in a computer in a
comprehensible and usable form. Output devices today come in many forms: monitors,
printers, fax machines, modems, plotters, CD-Rs, sound cards and more.
Input, Processing and Output

Whenever you sit down at a computer and run an application whether it is a game,
spreadsheet, database, or word processor- you are an active part of the input, processing and
output operation of that computer.
Diagrammatic representation of the Stages of a computer system

PROCESSING
OUTPUT
IN
P
U
T
STORAGE

PARTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The various parts of the computer are: 1) System Unit, 2) Monitor (V.D.U.), 3) Key board, 4)
Mouse, 5) Speaker, 6) Printer, 7) UPS, 8) Scanner etc
Assignment:
Draw and label the computer system.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified generally into the following:

1. Analog Computers

These are computers that use a variable physical quantity to represent data. They are
specific in function, that is, they can only be used for a specific function. Examples of
analog computers include: mercury-in-glass thermometer, barometer, wind vane, etc.

2. Digital Computers

These are computers that store and perform series of mathematical and logical operations
on data expressed as discrete signals interpreted as numbers, usually in the form of binary
notation. They are usually multi-purpose in function. Virtually all modern computers are
 digital. Based on how they work, digital computers are divided, in increasing order of size
and complexity, into:

a. Personal or Micro Computers

b. Mini Computers
c. Mainframe Computers
d. Super Computers

3. Hybrid Computers

These are computers that combine the features of analog and hybrid computers. They are not
found in Nigeria, they are found in research institutions in America and Europe

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTERS
Com pute
r

Hardw ar
Softw are
e
Applicati
Operatin on
g System Program
s
Computers can be broken down into the Following:
1. Hardware 2. Software

Hardware: They are the physical component of the computer system that can be seen and
touched. They are divided into input, output and storage devices. Examples of hardware are:
System Unit, Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, Speaker, UPS, Printer, Scanner, e.t.c

Software: They are programs written by programmers to perform a specific task within the
computer system. It serves as an interface between the hardware and the computer user. They
can be divided into operating system software and application software. Operating system
software are software that enables the user to operate the computer system e.g
MS_Windows, MS_Vista, Linux etc. Application software are software that enables the user
to perform a specific task e.g MS_Word, MS_Excel, CorelDraw etc.

COMPUTER VIRUSES
A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself and spread from one
computer to another. The term "virus" is also commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to
other types of malware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not
have a reproductive ability. Malware includes computer viruses, computer worms, Trojan
horses, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware and other malicious or unwanted software,
including true viruses. Viruses are sometimes confused with worms and Trojan horses, which
are technically different. A worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself
automatically to other computers through networks, while a Trojan horse is a program that
appears harmless but hides malicious functions. Worms and Trojan horses, like viruses, may
harm a computer system's data or performance. Some viruses and other malware have
symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many are surreptitious or simply do nothing to
call attention to themselves. Some viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves.

Anti-virus software and other preventive measures

Many users install anti-virus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the
computer downloads or runs the executable. There are two common methods that an anti-
virus software application uses to detect viruses. The first, and by far the most common
method of virus detection is using a list of virus signature definitions. This works by
examining the content of the computer's memory (its RAM, and boot sectors) and the files
stored on fixed or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those files
against a database of known virus "signatures". The disadvantage of this detection method is
that users are only protected from viruses that pre-date their last virus definition update. The
second method is to use a heuristic algorithm to find viruses based on common behaviors.
This method has the ability to detect novel viruses that anti-virus security firms have yet to
create a signature for.

Users must update their software regularly to patch security holes. Anti-virus software also
needs to be regularly updated in order to recognize the latest threats.

One may also minimize the damage done by viruses by making regular backups of data (and
the operating systems) on different media unconnected to the system (most of the time). This
way, if data is lost through a virus, one can start again using the backup. If a backup session
on optical media like CD and DVD is closed, it becomes read-only and can no longer be
affected by a virus (so long as a virus or infected file was not copied onto the CD/DVD).

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
A network is defined as a system used to link two or more computers together for the purpose
of communicating and sharing information and other resources. Most networks are
constructed around a cable connection that links the computers. The connection permits the
computers to talk ( and listen) through a wire .More recently, a number of wireless solutions
have become available. infrared ports, Bluetooth radio links, and other protocols allow
variety of new devices to link PCs.

Basic Requirements of a Network

In order for a network to function, three basic requirements must be met: The network must
provide connections, communications, and services.
Connections
Connections must operate so that any computer can send or receive electrical signals (data)
across the physical media that link them. Connections include the hardware (physical
components) required to hook up a computer to the network. Two terms are important to
network connections:

The Network medium :- the network hardware that physically connects one
computer to another. This is the cable between the computers or a wireless
connection.

The network interface :- The hardware that attaches a computer to the network acts
as an interpreter between the computer and the network. Attaching a computer to a
network requires an add-in board known as a network interface card (NIC).
Communications

Communications establish the rules concerning how computers talk and understand each
other. Communications must function so that when one computer sends a message, the
receiving computer can listen and understand the message. Because computers often run
different software , to communicate with each other they must shared a language. Without
shared communications, computers cannot exchange information, and they remain isolated.
Services

Computers on a network must either provide a service to other computers or make use of a
service provided by other computers. A service defines those things a computer shares with
the rest of the network. For example, a computer can share a printer or specific directories or
files .Unless computers on the network are capable of sharing resources, they remain isolated,
even though physically connected.

Components of a Network
A network has three layers of components: application software, network software, and
network hardware.

Application software permits the sharing of information, such as files, graphics, and video,
and resources, such as printers and disks. One type of application software is called client-
server. Client computers send requests for information or requests to use resources to other
computers, called servers, that control data and applications. Another type of application
software is called peer-to-peer. In a peer-to-peer network, computers send messages and
requests directly to one another without a server intermediary.

Network software consists of computer programs that establish protocols, or rules, for
computers to talk to one another. These protocols are carried out by sending and receiving
formatted instructions of data called packets. Protocols make logical connections between
network applications, direct the movement of packets through the physical network, and
minimize the possibility of collisions between packets sent at the same time.

Network hardware is made up of the physical components that connect computers. Two
important components are the transmission media that carry the computer's signals, typically
on wires or fiber-optic cables, and the network adapter, which accesses the physical media
that link computers, receives packets from network software, and transmits instructions and
requests to other computers. Transmitted information is in the form of binary digits, or bits
(1s and 0s), which the computer's electronic circuitry can process.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Local Area Networks

A LAN (local area network) is a network that covers a limited distance (usually a single site
or facility) and allows sharing of information and resources. A LAN can be simple as two
connected computers. This type of network is very popular because it allows individual
computers to provide processing power and utilize their own memory, while programs and
data can be stored on any computer in the network. Some older LANs also include
configurations that rely totally on the power of a mini- or mainframe computer (a server) to
do all the work. In this case, the workstations are no more than dump terminals (a keyboard
and a monitor). With the increased power of todays PC, these types of networks are rare.

Wide Area Networks

A wide area Network (WAN) spans relatively large geographical areas. Connections for these
sites require the use of ordinary telephone lines, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
lines, radio waves, and cable or satellite links. WANs can be accessed through dial up
connections, using a modem or leased-line direct connection. The leased-line method is more
expensive but can be cost-effective for transmission of high volumes of data.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network design is called topology, which describes the appearance or layout of a network
and how data flows through the network. Common topologies used to arrange computers in a
network are point-to-point, bus, star, ring, and mesh. Point-to-point topology is the simplest,
consisting of two connected computers. The bus topology is composed of a single link
connected to many computers. All computers on this common connection receive all signals
transmitted by any attached computer. The star topology connects many computers to a
common hub computer. This hub can be passive, repeating any input to all computers similar
to the bus topology, or it can be active, selectively switching inputs to specific destination
computers. The ring topology uses multiple links to form a circle of computers. Each link
carries information in one direction. Information moves around the ring in sequence from its
source to its destination. On a mesh network, topology can actually change on the fly. No
central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data back and forth
between computers. Instead, each computer includes everything it needs to serve as a relay
point for sending information to any other computer on the network. Thus, if any one
computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is dynamically rerouted to
other computers.

Network Interface Cards

NICs link a computer to the network cable system. They provide the physical connection
between the computers expansion bus and the network cabling. The low-powered digital
signals that transmit data inside a computer are not powerful enough to travel long distances.
An NIC boosts these signals so they can cross a network cable.

METHODS OF NETWORK CONNECTION

There are two major ways of connecting a network. Viz: Cable and Wireless connection.
Cable connection can be achieved through the use of networking cables. Such as UTP cable,
STP cable, Fibre optic cable etc. Wireless Connection can done using the following:
Wireless LAN card, Bluetooth etc.

INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET

What is the Internet?

The word internet is used to describe a global system of interconnected computer networks
which incorporate a very large and complicated set of equipment and serve billions of users
worldwide. To understand the internet, there are three areas of discussion which are very
helpful. These include the various services provided across the internet, the functions that
enable the internet to work, and the various organizations that are part of the internet.

Internet Services
The main services use on the internet includes:

Web browsing Supported by the HTTP (hyper-text transfer protocol) protocol, this
functions allows users to view web pages using a web browser.
E-mail Allows people to send and receive electronic messages using SMTP (simple
mail transfer protocol).

Other lesser used services include telnet (allows remote login to computers), FTP (file
transfer protocol) (Allows quick file transmission to remote computers), instant messaging
(chatting), social networking, e-commerce, e-learning and so on.

Internet Functions
The internet provides for the following two functions which support communications.
Without the communications support mentioned below, the internet could not function.

Physical lines that data is sent across.

Routing of data There are special machines on the internet called routers, that
determine where data needs to go to get from the sender of the data to the receiver of
the data.

Internet Organizations
ISPs (Internet Service Providers) They provide the connection to the internet for
users and also provide routers that direct internet traffic.
Corporations or Web hosting providers with mail servers and web servers - they
provide the information posted on the internet and virtual data connections to other
mail servers.
There are also organizations that regulate the internet, providing communication standards
and designing new communication standards for improvements. These communication
standards are also known as protocols.
Accessing the Internet
People use an internet browser to access web pages that are available across the internet.
Internet browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Apples Safari,
Mozilla Firefox, and others.

Web pages are created in a marked up form of text file called HTML (Hyper Text Markup
Language). All web pages are located in the part of the internet called the World Wide Web
(www); this is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by
hyperlinks and URLs and is one of the numerous services provided by the Internet.

When people are browsing of surfing the Internet, they usually go from place to place by
clicking on links. These links are locations for specific pages and indicate the three things:
1. Protocol being used such as http or ftp
2. The domain that the web page is found on. This will point to a specific organizations
or companys web server.
3. The location of the page on the server including the directory path and file name.

A link or URL is usually written in the form: protocol://hostname.domain/sub-path. An

example of a link is http://www.comptechdoc.org/basics/bastutorial/osintro.html. In this case
http is the protocol being used, the comptechdoc is the hostname while .org is the domain and
it indicates the nature of the organization or where the organizations web server is, and the
/basics/bastutorial/osintro.html part of the string indicates the folders the file is in and the
name of the file.

SOME INTERNET TERMS

Protocol: A set of rules guiding how different forms of information (data) are transmitted
over the internet.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of rules that enables
different types of computers and networks on the Internet to communicate with one another.
http (hyper-text transfer protocol): Protocol for transmitting html documents or web pages
over the internet
ftp (file transfer protocol): Protocol for transmitting files from one computer to another over
the internet.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Protocol for transmitting electronic mail over the
internet.
Voip (Voice over internet protocol): Protocol for transmitting voice data over the internet
www: World wide web
URL (Uniform Resource Locator): Specifies the location of items on the Web.
e-mail: Electronic mail
Bandwidth: A term used to describe the speed of an internet connection. The higher the
bandwidth, the greater the speed.
ISP: Internet service provider