SCHOOL OF HOUSING, BUILDING AND

PLANNING

REG 162

INTRODUCTION OF STRUCTURE

NAME: NORKAMALIAH BINTI SHAHRIN

MATRIC NO.: 103034

MAJOR: URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

LECTURER: DR. NORIZAL MD. NORDIN

SUBMISSION DATE: 17.3.2009

LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 1

TITLE:

Beam in reaction.

OBJECTIVE:

To examine reaction in beam is supported short and experience concentrated burden.

INTRODUCTION:

Beam is one structural member which supported load on longitudinal axis its. Beam is
one long and slender structure. Beam is in the event horizontal customary. Found 4 types
beam namely, beam with hanging end, simply supported beam, continuous beam and
cantilever beam.

Load can be divided into 2 namely, secondary main burden and burden. Main load was
dead load, applied load or life, snow and wind loading load. Secondary load also was
load contraction, heat load, deposit and dynamic load.

APPARATUS:

Spring and weight scale.

2
PROCEDURE:

Arrange the apparatus followed diagram 1 and 2. Make sure the beam really horizontal
condition using regulator screw.

1. Load the beam with a convergent mass, in a variety distance (x) from left
supporter (A). The reaction value of the beam record for every convergent (M)
which is using and attention to every distance.
2. Convergent mass of two (M1, M2) as diagram 2 and all the reaction and distance
recorded with conscientiously.
3. A convergent mass M3 put it at Y distance. Record the reaction at balance with
attention. The value of M3 and Y not give and need to find from the experiment.

The reaction of R1, R2, R3, and R4 calculate by using moment principle and compare the
value with the reading from the balance spring.

RESULT:

Single Load for M = 2kg

Distance X (mm) Reaction of R1 to A Reaction R2 to B

375 26-12 = 14 20-12 = 8
500 22-12 = 10 22-12 = 10
750 18-12 = 6 27- 12 = 15
1000 12-12 = 0 32-12 = 20

Two load for, M1 = 0.5kg, M2 = 1.5kg.

Distance m (mm) Distance n (mm) Reaction of R3 to A Reaction of R4 to B

125 875 20-12 = 8 26-12 = 14
250 750 21-12 = 9 25-12 = 13
375 625 22-12 = 10 24-12 = 22

3
ANSWER

Calculation for M3 and y

M3

Y
1050-Y

1N (A) 14 N (B)

F = F ; M3 = 1+14
= 15 N

Moment at A, 15Y=14(1050)
Y=980

Moment at B, 1000=15(1050-Y)
15750-15Y=1050
15Y=14700
Y=980
So, M3 = 15/9.81
= 1.52 kg

M3:15N

Elucidate Reason inaccuracy reason and give your conclusion.

Other reason happened outcome of experiment inaccuracy was:

There are several problems rises during experiment carried out namely problem in
experiment apparatus. For example, when reading taken from spring scale,
parallax error may happen. Eye's condition that does not parallel can influence
value achieved.

Decision inaccuracy also attributed environmental factor. Rugged floor surface,

apparatus blowing of wind and equipment unstable could cause reading
inaccuracy.

4
 Experiment equipment also influence decision inaccuracy. Many apparatus used
already long. Among its causes by problem of spring scale. Spring in its not able
like clockwork and right verdict unobtainable.

DISCUSSION:

Had been differences between which decision achieved through experiment and through
work method (theory). Case this is because may be consequences occurance of error such
as zero error, apparatus error no accurate or inaccurate reading when making experiment.

CONCLUSION:

Dutchman will react with force when one load imposed upper beam. Beam would stay in
equilibrium condition when internal and external force number same. Distance influence
in load distribution moment in beam.

Reading inaccuracy could be overcome with take some reading to count average reading
and replace new experiment equipment. Here by inaccuracy problem reading is able to
overcome.

REFERENCES:

Pengenalan Analisis Struktur (Zulkifli Md. Salleh & Saiful Anuar A.Rahim)
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 1991.

Struktur Untuk Arkitek (Bryan J.B Gauld penterjemah Supiah Samsudin) Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka 1992.

5
LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 2

TITLE:

Determine bending moment at beam with easy support.

OBJECTIVE:

1. To comprehend the action of the moment of resistance within beam.

2. To measure the bending moment at a normal section of a loaded beam and to
compare it with the theoretical value.

INTRODUCTION:

A length of material supported horizontally at two points in such a way that it will carry
vertical loads is called a beam. The loading perpendicular to its longitudinal axis causes
bending and it most cases transverse shearing. In the simplest example the loads and
supporting reactions act in a vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis, and the beam
has a rectangular cross section.

The loads and support reactions are the external forces acting on the beam and they must
be in equilibrium. But in order to study the strength of the beam it is necessary to know
how these external forces affect it. As the theory appendix shows, the mathematical
method is to assume the beam is cut into two parts by a transverse section and then to
examine the equilibrium of each part. To maintain equilibrium it is evident that certain
forces must be introduced at the cut is not there these same forces exist internally in the
material of the beam.

In this experiment a horizontal beam has actually been cut into two part (A) and (B) by a
vertical cross section, and is then held together with spring (or spring balances) which
must produces a system of forces equivalent to those which would exist internally in the
beam at that section if it had not been cut. Since the forces in part (A) acting on part (B)
must be equal and opposite to those in (B) acting on (A), it follows that the same values
will be obtained by working to the right or left of the section plane.

Given a horizontal beam with vertical loading the internal forces will be

1. For vertical equilibrium a shearing forces in the section plane.

2. For equilibrium of moments a moment of resistance due to compression in the top
half of the beam section and tension in the bottom half.

6
In the experimental beam the second system of forces is replaced by compression at a
hinge in the beam and tension in the under slung spring balance. The vertical restraint is
provided by the half housing at the end of part (A) which fits on the ball bearing pinned
to the mating end of part (B).
APPARATUS:

The experimental beam is in two parts, the smaller left hand part being (A) and the larger
right hand part being (B). At the section normal to the beam axis where they join a pair of
ball bearings pinned in (B) fits in half housings fixed in (A), thus forming a frictionless
hinge. A moment of resistance about the hinge is provided by an under slung spring
balance which acts at a lever arm of 150mm.

Two and bearing on stands support the beam, and the several stirrup shaped load hangers
can be threaded onto the two parts of the beam.

A sprits level is provided to help set up the beam. However, it is generally sufficient to
line up parts (A) and (B) by eye, and to re-align them by adjusting the screw on the
spring balance each time the load is altered.

PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the beam supports permanently as shown above to provide a span of 900mm.
2. Make a pencil mark on the side of the beam 300mm from the face of the shear
section. Use this to position the beam on its supports.
3. Make pencil marks on top of the beam at 100mm from the left hand support and
400mm from the right hand support. Suspend two of the load hangers at these
positions and set up the other hanger in the groove just to the right of the shear
section.
4. The apparatus is now ready for part 1 of the experiment.

7
 5. The should also be a pencil mark on the top of the beam at 300mm from the right
hand support in readiness for part 2.
6. A spirit level is provided to help in aligning the beam, but it is just as good to take
a line of sight along the rear top corner of the beam.
The beam support have been fixed check at 900mm span as described in the diagram
above and that the beam is positioned so that the bearing pin in part (B) is 300 mm from
the left hand support A.

Part 1

1. Position the load hanger 100mm from A, the second hanger in the groove just to
the right of the section (300mm from A) and the third hanger 300mm from B.
2. Align the two parts of the beam using the adjustment on the spring balance and
note the initial no load reading in Table 1.
3. Place a 10 N weight on the first hanger, re-align the beam and read the balance.
4. Move the weight to the second and third hangers in turn repeating the procedure.
Repeat the whole procedure using a 20 N weight.

Part 2

1. Without altering the load hangers put a 5N weight on the second hanger, align the
beam and record the balance reading.
2. Then add 10N weight to the first and the third hangers, align, and re-read the
balance. Enter the result in Table 2.
3. Move the third hanger to 400mm from B and after aligning the beam record the
new no load reading. Try two arrangements of the same total loading by placing
5N on the first hanger and 12N on the third hanger for one balance reading
followed by moving the 10N from the third to second hanger for the next reading.

RESULT:

Part 1

8
 Table 1
Spring balance readings for bending moment at C

Load Balance Rdg. (N) / Net Force (N) for load at

(N) W1 W2 W3
0 15 15 15
10 19 28 22
20 23 39 29

Part 2

A C B

W1 W2 W3

Table 2
Spring balance reading for bending moment at C

Loading Balance Rdg. Net Force Bending Moment

(N) (N) (N) (Nmm)
5 22
25 32

Loading Balance Rdg. Net Force Bending Moment

(N) (N) (N) (Nmm)
0 15
1 28
2 32

PENGIRAAN
Bahagian 1
Contoh kiraan (A) dalam Jadual 3.

9
 10N
100mm
800mm

A B
C
Ay By
a) Jumlah daya ufuk,

Fx = Fx
Ax = Bx
=0

b) Ambil momen pada titik B,

B = B
10 (800) = Ay (900)
Ay = 80 9 N

c) Jumlah daya pugak,

Fy = Fy
Ay + By = 10
By = 10 80 9
= 10 9 N

Keratan rentas pada C:

i. Bahagian kiri, A
Ambil momen pada C,
C = C
10 (200) + M = 80 9 (300)
M = 667 Nmm
ii. Bahagian kanan, B
Ambil momen pada C,
C = C
10 9 (600) = M
M = 667 Nmm

Bahagian 2(b)
Contoh kiraan (B) dalam Jadual 4.

10
 10N

200mm

200mm
5N 2N

100mm 400mm

A B
C
Ay By

a. Jumlah daya ufuk,

Fx = Fx
Ax = Bx
=0

b. Ambil momen pada titik A,

A = A
By (900) = 5 (100) + 10 (300) + 2 (500)
By = 5 N

c. Jumlah daya pugak,

Fy = Fy
Ay + By = 17 N
Ay = 17 5
= 12 N

Keratan rentas pada C:

1) Bahagian kiri, A
Ambil momen pada C,
C = C
5 (200) + M = 12 (300)
M = 2600 Nmm

2) Bahagian kanan, B
Ambil momen pada C,
C = C
2 (200) + M = 5 (600)
M = 2600 Nmm

11
12
Presumption:

- Moment in left side, A equal to moment in right side, B.

Part 2(a)

5N

600mm
300mm
A B
C

3.33N 1.67N
3.33N

0 C
0
A B
-1.67N

999Nmm

0 0
A C B

-1002Nmm

13
14
 5N 10N 2N

100mm 200mm 200mm 400mm

A B
C

12N 5N
12N
7N

0 C
0
A B

1400Nmm -3N
1200Nmm -5N

0 0
A C B

-2000Nmm
-600Nmm

10N 5N 10N

100mm 200mm 300mm 300mm

A B
C

15.56N 9.44N
15.56N
5.56N
0.56N
0
0
A C B

1112Nmm
1556Nm -9.44N
m
168Nmm

0 0
A C B

-2832Nmm
15
Part 2(b)

16
 5N 12N

100mm 400mm 400mm

A
B

9.78N
7.22N
9.78
N 4.78N

0 0
A -7.22N B
1912Nmm
978Nmm

0
0
B
A
-2888Nmm

Issue:
1. Do outcome of experiment consistence with theory?

Yes. Although had been differences between decision and value in theory
calculation, but it is not big his difference. This difference may have been caused
by several factors. Among them was may have been caused by spring elasticity in
spring balance. Reading am being recorded may not be equal with real value if
spring has been lost elasticity.

2. How far results from Part 1 explain linear behavior that structure?

In Part experiment 1, all positions hanger be in same place during experiment. Then
nett force of any burden any hanger can be evaluated in proportion form values got in
Part 1. Although decision Part 1 other of Part 2, but value get from still ably defined
linear behavior that structure. This are because value ratio found will be small,
namely 0.97 only.

DISCUSSION:

Those problems faced:

17
 A) Pursuance bending moment determination test in simply supported beam, there
are several problems namely experiment error arise. For example error parallax
may happen when reading taken from balance.

B) Apart from that, found distance movement x during burden adding to suspensors
and level beam do not stay accurately horizontal because laboratory floor rugged.
This problem is able to overpower with rotate spring balance by slow to seek
smoother horizon level.

C) By pushing value 'no load' at every spring reading counterbalance, we may

determine force 'net' which produces moment in C moment flexible can be
computed by multiplying this figure with 150mm.

D) Moment = force x distance perpendicular. That System consist linear structure

elastic, reading- individual reading may be added to burden case assessment
various.

E) When burden doubled, bending moment also doubled on C of which decision

achieved found experimental value was large by average.

CONSLUSION:

Beam is defined as an element is supported by horizon on two point and support

vertical burden. Burden vertical to his longitude axis result in curve and shear. Burden
and reaction in supporter officiated in vertical plane to beam simplest.

Objectives carry out bending moment in beam was understand moment of

resistance action in beam and measure bending moment in normal section beam is
burdened and compare his value with value of theory.

LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 3

TITLE:

To determine shear force at beam with simply support.

OBJECTIVE:

1. To observe and understand the action of a shear in a beam.

18
 2. To measure the shear force at a normal section of a loaded beam and to check its
agreement with theory.

INTRODUCTION:

1. Beam was element is supported by horizon on two point further support vertical
burden.
2. Assume a beam light AB string in horizontal plane above two supporter in every
his end, where one 2W's burden set amidst that span.
3. Ps part cut make PB being divided past go down because be instability in that
part.
4. To avoid it its happened, a vertical force kea on, S placed and a M's moment,
imposed on beam that, take action in fighting clockwise direction
5. This proven that, part beam PB has create one same force his magnitude with S,
and a its moment that magnitude same with moment, M just now.
6. Inner strength which acted that is, S named 'shear force' .It measures parallel and
like-minded with material surface.
7. While M, was bending moment formed in beam that.
2W

A B
P C

a a

P ---------

W S
APPARATUS:

Load hanger, spring counterbalance, steel bearings, hinge smooth, horizon determinant
mercury, pin bearings, beam steel .

PROCEDURE:

Part 1

19
 1. Position one load hanger 100mm from A, the second hanger in the groove just to
the right of the shear section C ( 310mm from A ) and the third hanger 400mm
from the right hand support B ( 500mm from A ). Use the tensioning adjustment
on the under slung spring and the spring balance to align the two part of the beam.
The spring balance reading should be recorded as the no load datum value.
2. Place a 10N weight on the third hanger 400mm from B and re-align the beam
using the tensioning adjustments. Read and note spring balance force. The
different between this force and the datum value is the shear at C due to the 10N
load.
3. Repeat the procedure with 20N on the third hanger, remove the 20N load and
place 10N on the second hanger. Re-align the beam and recorded the spring
balance force. Finally transfer the 10N load to the first hanger and re-align the
beam. Recorded the spring balance force, which should be less than the datum
values showing that the shear at C is negative.

Part 2

1. Upload the beam and move the third hanger to 300mm from B. Align the beam
and note the new no load datum value of the spring balance.
2. Place 5N on the first hanger and 12N on the third. Record the balancing shear
force of the re-aligned beam in a table such as below.

RESULT:

Value of the load as shown below,

Part 1
A.
Load on 3rd hanger (N) 0 10 20

20
 ( 400mm from B )
Spring balance force (N) 6.8 11.3
Shear force Qc (N) 0 4.3 8.8
Theoretical (N) 0 4.44 8.89
Ratio expt./ theory 0.97 0.99

B.
Load on 2nd hanger (N) 0 10
( 310mm from AB )
Spring balance (N) 2.5 9.0
Shear (N) 0 6.5
Theory (N) 0 6.56
Ratio 0.99

C.
Load on 1st hanger (N) 0 10
Spring balance force (N) 2.5 1.4
Shear force Q (N) 0 -1.1
Theoretical Q (N) 0 -1.1
Ratio expt./ theory 1.0

Part 2

Load (N) at positions Balance Shear force Qc (N)

W1 W2 W3 Force (N) Expt Theory Ratio
0 0 0 2.0 0 0
5 00 12 5.6 3.6 3.44 1.05
5 2 10 63 4.3 4.1 1.05
5 10 10 11.3 9.3 9.3 1.0

Average of Ratio Expt. / Theory = 1.01

Comment:
The flexing of the under slung spring appears to affect the spring balance
readings by about 1.15N. The datum value * in Part 2 is too low ( this can be
checked by comparing the datum values of Part 1 and @ given a load hanger
weighs 2N).

QUESTION ANSWER AND DISCUSSION:

Outcome of experiment would be consistent with theory. For example, for experiment
Part 1, experimental value which placed 10N's burden in hanger first was 8.8 N while
value get theoretically namely 8.89 N both this value having as much as deviation,
(8.89-8.8) x 100% = 1.02%
8.8
fugginess show that this outcome of experiment is pretty similar with outcome of theory.

21
 2.

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the part AX of the beam if it is cut by a section at X

There must be a force Qx acting within the material of the beam such that

Qx = RA

And the section the equal and opposite internal force Qx acting on the part XB isin
equilibrium with and R that is:

Qx = P- RB

Qx Qx = 0

RA (P-RB) = 0

RA + RB = P

Discussion:

Throughout the experiments and the text books the definition of positive shear is that it is
produced by an upward external force acting to the left of the section. With reference to
the above diagram the shear force at section XX is + RA.
It follows that to the right of the section downward external forces produce positive shear
that is in the above example the shear force at section XX is also given by RB + P. As P
is greater than R this is also positive.

Shear Force Diagram

22
Using the length of the beam as a base, the ordinates of a shear force diagram give the
value of the shear force at the corresponding section of the beam for one fixed position of
the loading.

Multiple Point Loads

By moment about A

RB = 1/L Wx

Shear force at C

C
Q = -RB + W
B

310

Reaction. Take moment about A

1000 RB (500X10) (200X5) = 0

23
 RB = 6(N)

By vertical equilibrium RA = 15 - 6 = 9(N)

Section XX (to the right)

Shear force Qx = -6 + 10 = +4(N)

Shear force Qx = 9 - 5 = +4(N)

Consider the beam is resting on supports at A and B and supporting a load P. If the beam
is cut by a vertical section XX, then for the beam to remain in equilibrium each part must
be in equilibrium. Neglecting the self weight of the beam any extra forces acting on part
(A) to preserve equilibrium must be transmitted from part (B) across the section XX, and
vice versa. Also the action of part (A) on part (B) must be equal and opposite to that of
(B) and (A).

As the load is solely vertical and in the plane of the beam there cannot be horizontal
reaction, so equilibrium yield two conditions:

1. Vertical equilibrium
2. Equilibrium of moment

In the first place these are used for beam as a whole to the reaction at A and B.

For equilibrium of moments take an axis as shown in the section XX to eliminate Q. Then
using the sign convention given for part (A) of the beam

24
Internal moment, Mx = RA.a

And for part (B) of the beam

Mx = RB.b P (b-l)

It can easily be proved that these have the same value by substituting for R and Pl as
follow:

Mx = (P - RA) b Pb + Pl

= Pb- RAb Pb + Pl

= - RA b + RA (a + b)

= RA a

Discussion:

The normal sign convention for beam, which have been used throughout the experiments
and test books, is to regard the bending moment that causes sagging as positive. The
corollary of this of this is that a negative bending moment procedures hogging curvature.

Bending Moment Diagram

Using the longitudinal axis of the beam as a base, the ordinates of a bending moment
diagram give the value of the moment at the corresponding section of the beam for one
fixed position of the loading.

Numerical example

310

Reactions. Take moment about A

25
1000RB (500 X 10) (200 X 5) = 0

RB = 6(N)

By vertical equilibrium RA = 15 - 6 = 9(N)

Section XX (to the right)

Bending moment MX = 6 X 700 10 X 200

= 2200 (N.mm)

(or to the left)

Bending moment MX = 9 X 300 5 X 100

= 2200 (N.mm)

s
APPARATUS

26
 1. Fix the beam supports permanently as shown above to provide a span of 900mm.
2. Make a pencil mark on the side of the beam 300mm from the face of the shear
section. Use this to position the beam on its supports.
3. Make pencil marks on top of the beam at 100mm from the left hand support and
400mm from the right hand support. Suspend two of the load hangers at these
positions and set up the other hanger in the groove just to the right of the shear
section.
4. The apparatus is now ready for part 1 of the experiment.
5. The should also be a pencil mark on the top of the beam at 300mm from the right
hand support in readiness for part 2.
6. A spirit level is provided to help in aligning the beam, but it is just as good to take
a line of sight along the rear top corner of the beam.

CONCLUSION:

Beam is defined as an element is supported by horizon on two point and support vertical
burden. Burden vertical to his longitude axis result in curve and shear. Burden and
reaction in supporter officiated in vertical plane to beam simplest.

Objectives carry out bending moment in beam was to be watching and understand effect
shear in a beam and to measure degree shear along a section beam is burdened and make
compare between outcome of experiment and theory.

Experiment value may be said can validate value of theory because percentage error will
be small. Apart from that, when burden doubled, shear force found double.

LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 4

TITLE:

Steel tensile test

OBJECTIVE:

To examine the behavior and mild steel specimen nature when stress with tested.

INTRODUCTION:

27
Decisions of tension tests (or compression) usually discussed in stress and strain form
resultant in specimen when load imposed. Stress () is force extremity and as force is
uniformly allocated all over cross section surface area, so () = load imposed/ surface
area.

Load imposed causing long transformation in specimen. Strain () can be defined as long
transformation / long original. Long transformations are measured at specific length
(known as gauge length for load test). Strain () usually will be small and sometimes
phrased as percentage.

Decisions from tension test (or compression) presented as tension arc fight strain.
Something material usually is classified based on arc forms this strain tension (Diagram
1).

All arc in diagram 1 in started its show linear relationship between () and . This is
ELASTIC area and OA's slope is Modulus Elastic Young of material tested. If load
imposed to specimen in this elastic in areas throw out, specimen shall get back to form
originally. If specimen is burdened until release B, arc will become nonlinear and that
material is alleged is in plastic range. Stress in B known as that Yield Stress to load.
Material classifications are predicated to his behavior in this area. Some broke material
almost only reach to B. Materials like this are brittle (e.g.: cast iron). Other matters
(aluminum, mild steel) can be load release B's point they said to be ductile. When one
metal ductile is burdened up to plastic range and then that load is throw out, that material
be back from C's point through parallel CD's line with OA and a permanent set (OD)
formed when all load throw out. If specimen is load again, it will follow DC's line until it
converges with strain stress arc in C.

Else expansion in strain need stress expansion, strain hardening or hardening work
happened. Load may be borne by specimen reach maximum to the level in E Tensile in E
known as tensile tension ultimate for that material. When release E, specimen no has been
stable, cross sectional area decrease quickly (necking allegedly occurred) and that
material broke and wide when broke reduction percentage is measurement to elasticity of
that material.

Stress () is force extremity and as force is uniformly allocated all over cross section
surface area,

So () = load imposed
surface area.

Strain () can be defined = long transformation

long original.

Decisions from tension test (or compression) presented as tension arc fight strain.
Something material usually is classified based on arc forms this strain tension (Diagram
1).

28
29
APPARATUS:

1. Torsees Universal Testing Machine.

2. Puncher.
3. Stress Examine Specimen.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure with exact at specimen centre at other mark in gauge length area.
Measure the cross-section area.
2. Puncher the specimen with two marks. Raise the specimen in jowl machine.
3. Slowly load the specimen and similar.
4. When it come to yield stress for specimen. Slowly, plus the load and similar to
specimen crack. Recorded the load.

TEST PROCEDURE:

1. Dimension Survey

30
 1.1 Using the calipers, measure diameter at 3 place of steel length and find out
the mean, D (mm).

1.2 Using the rule ( D/4 @ j) calculate the cross-section of area A (mm).

2. Mark for Length Percentages

2.1 With Titanium Alloy Puncher do two marks in the steel at distance 5D
(E.g. Diameter 10mm, 5D = 5 (10) = 50mm @ Lo)

3. Load using Torsees Universal Testing Machine.

3.1 Raise the specimen to machine with clamp at chuck at crosshead up and
down.

3.2 Started load the specimen with 10 N/mm s.

3.3 Yield Point load detected when red and black needle paused, black needle
back track a little and increase again.

3.4 Maksimum's load or ultimate detect at red needle in highest reading.

3.5 Crack load detected during heard specimen explosive sound broken.

4. Lenght Percentages

4.1 Combined the steel already eximened (crack) and measure the distance
between 2 first mark L

4.2 Value of the length percentages calcutate using formula:

L - L x 100
L

5. Others Data

5.1 Diameter of spesimen measure after crack.

5.2 Value of Yeild Stress, Tensile Stress to find.

DISCUSSION AND RESULT:

Data from the tensil strees test

31
1. Yield Load(kg)-Yield Stress(Nmm)

Formula, = Yield Load x 9.81(Nmm)

Cross-section Area

= P (yield) x 9.81
A

2. Ultimate/Maximum load - Tensile stress (N/mm)

Formula, = Ultimate Load/Maximum x 9.81(Nmm)

Cross-section Area

= P (ultimate) x 9.81
A

Where,

P (yield) = Yield Load (kg)

P (ultimate) = Ultimate Load/Maximum (kg)

A = Cross-section Specimen Area (mm)

(d/4 @ j)

3. Load after crack.

4. Length Percentage (%) = Length Before Test Length x 100

= L - L x 100
L

Calculation:

Cross-section Area = M
0.0785 x L

32
 = 0.550 kg
(0.0785 x 0.620)

= 113.01 mm

Mild Steel Diameter = d/4

4A = [d

4A = d

= [4A

= [4(113.01)

= 11.99 @ 12 mm

High TensileDiameter:

Weight scale (m) = 0.93kg

Timber tebal = 0.61mm

Formula, so = m______
L X 0.00785

= 194.2mm

Lenght of high tensile and mild steel:

= 80.0mm

1) Value of strees and strain:

A) Mild steel

Stress:
Formula, = Load x 9.81(Nmm)

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 Cross-section area

= P x 9.81
A

= 0.93 x 9.81
198.8

= 0.046N/mm

Strain:
Formula, = Length
Length

= (106.5- 80.0)
80

= 0.33

B) High tensile

Stress:
Formula, = Load x 9.81(Nmm)
Cross-section area

= P x 9.81
A

= 0.93 x 9.81
194.2

= 0.047N/mm

Strain:
Formula, = Length
Length

34


= (100.57-80.0)
80

= 0.26

2) Young Modulus, (E)

A) Mild steel:
Formula E = Stress
Strain

= 0.046N/mm
0.33

= 1.53 N/mm

B) High tensile
Formula E = Strees
Strain

= 0.047N/mm
0.26

= 0.18 N/mm

Yield load (mild steel)= Yield load x 9.81(Nmm)

Cross-section area

= P(yield) x 9.81
A

= 6778.0 x 9.81
198.8

= 334.47

Yield Load (high tensile) = Yield load x 9.81(Nmm)

35
 Cross-section area

= P (yield) x 9.81
A

= 10274x 9.81
194.2

= 518.9

Ultimate/Maximum load = Ultimate/Maximum load x 9.81(Nmm)

( mild steel) Cross-section area

= P(ultimate) x 9.81
A

= 10249 x 9.81
198.9

= 505.49

Ultimate/Maximum load = Ultimate/Maximum load x 9.81(Nmm)

(mild steel)) Cross-section area

= P(ultimate) x 9.81
A
= 12368.2 x 9.81
194.2

= 624.8

Length Percentage:

A) Mild steel

Length percentage = Length after test length x 100

length

L = 60

L = 83.73

= L - L x 100
L

= 83.73 60 x 100

36
 60

= 39.55 %

B) High tensile

Length percentage = Length after test length x 100

length

L = 60

L = 74.60

= L - L x 100
L

= 74.60 60 x 100
60

= 24.33 %

CONCLUSION:

Between qualities which indicated by mild steel and tension was:

Strength
Steel capable of holding tension and compression. However,long steel will be bent when
imposed compression. Steel imposed tension force or compression will experience
tension and strain.

Elasticity
Elasticity refering to rate of straining experienced by steel with stress imposed. Modulus
elasticity,or modulus young(E) regarded as stress ratio and strain. Each material having
modulus certain elasticity. When material imposed stress experience small distortion,it
allegedly having modulus high spring.

Elasticity
Material ductile was material can meet with strain after elastic limit. As Such, elasticity
was steel ability through limit plastic before broken or broke. Elasticity can be gauged as
elongation percent before broke or broken. Elasticity can be gauged as elongation percent

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before broke or broken. Contraction percent has happened at zone before broke or broken
can be also used to measure elasticity. Mild steel is material ductile.

Corrosion Resistance
Presence of water and oxygen against steel produce ferrous oxide dehydrated or fondly
known as rust. Sulphur dioxide of industrial and salt smoke of sea would accelerate rust
process. Corrosion process continuum this will reduce strength of steel. Exposed steel
structure to atmosphere could cause corrosion. Such as, to avoid corrosion, steel need to
be swept with paint, chrome, oil and others.

Fire resistance
Steel outstanding feature were weak on high heat change imposed on its. Exposure in
high-temperature exceeding 55C in long durations will change steel molecular bond.
Strength of steel would be inclined although have been cooled in normal temperature.
Steel structure experience long fire need to be replaced because working stress or stress
terizinnya has been dropping.

Such as, in structure construction reinforced concrete, concrete closing used to prevent
heat pouring off steel with instantly and protect steel of fire heat.

Contraction and Expansion

Steel was material easy to experience pegembangan when imposed warm temperatures
and easy contract when cold compared other material such as concrete, wood and brick.
Such as, between steel purposes bends at his end is to binding both that material. Apart
From that, also found steel which possess flower to increase bond between both the
materials.

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