TOPICS

FOR
BUILDING
TECHNOLOGY 1
1. Wood and wood products

2. Building stone
3.1 Classifications of building stone

3. Metals
3.1 Ferrous metals
3.2 Non-ferrous metal

4. Glass and Glazing

5. Concrete and concrete products

5.1 Cement

6. Aggregates
7. Adhesive and Sealant

8. Waterproofing, damp- proofing, termite control systems

and Insulation (thermal)

9. Paints and Paint Products

10. Plastic and Synthetic Materials

11 Indigenous materials

11.1 Non-conventional materials such as saw dust,

rice husk, Ipil, coco lumber, etc.
11.2 Recyclable material and other alternative
building materials
12. Fundamentals of building processes, methods and
techniques in Construction, Erection, Addition, Repairs,
and Renovation of buildings/ structures

12.1 Carpentry and Joinery

12.2 Hardware and Ironmongery
12.3 Sheet metal and Tinsmithry
12.4 Structural Steel Construction
12.5 Fenestration
12.6 Specialized Works
 WOOD and
WOOD PRODUCTS
WOOD
a natural organic material that has been
used for many centuries for the construction
of buildings, bridges and a variety of other
structures

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WOOD
Still the most common materials for small to
medium-scale project in other countries

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WOOD

Traditional building material

Easy to work with
Durable
Beautiful
Lightweight
Rust and corrosion free
Has varied uses

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WOOD

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WOOD

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WOOD
In the Phils, wood was widely used during the
Spanish period and until 1960s

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WOOD

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WOOD

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WOOD

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WOOD

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WOOD & TIMBER

WOOD is the hard, fibrous material that

makes up the tree under the bark

TIMBER is a wood which retains its natural

physical structure and chemical composition
and is suitable for various construction works

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Timber is a live material. Its properties are anisotropic,
they change with changes in environmental conditions and
load duration has also a significant effect upon strength
and deformation.

The properties not only vary from species to species but

even within a particular species. Due to climatic differences
and different forestry practices, spruce from Northern
Europe, for example, has different properties than spruce
from Southern Europe.
 Advantages of Timber

Environmentally friendly
material

Good appearance, aesthetic

appeal

Low weight to strength ratio

Light, easy to handle, easily

joined

Suitable for prefabrication of

components (reduce amount
of site work)
 Undesirable Characteristics of
Wood

Not perfectly straight nor precise

Size & shape affected by moisture

Contains growth defects

Can spilt & warp

Burns easily

Decays

Susceptible to Insect Damage
 Identifiers of Timber
 Grain - Depending on the actual alignment, the grain may be
straight, spiral, interlocked, wavy or irregular.
Spiral Grain
Interlocked Grain
Wavy Grain

 Texture - In hardwoods, the texture depends upon the size

and distribution vessels and rays. In softwoods, it is determined
by the size and distribution of tracheid . ( Tracheids are
elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plants that serve in the
transport of water and mineral salts)
 Identifiers of Timber
 Luster- is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly.

 Workability- the relative case in which wood is shaped cut

and fastened together than the others.

 Warping- is the general term used to describe any variation

from a true surface.

 Moisture content- is a percentage of the mass of water

over the mass of wood fibre in a piece of timber.

 Specific Gravity- is the ratio found by dividing the weight

of a substance by the weight of an equal volume of pure
water.
 Identifiers of Timber

General Properties
 Color a darker color in wood indicates greater durability.
 Odor it is present only on freshly cut trees.
 Hardness is the ability of wood to withstand indentations
caused by harder bodies.
 Density densest woods are generally the strongest.
 Timber - General Properties
1. Flexibility and Strength:
This property is due to the abundance of interlocked fibers to provide strength. The
direction and structure of the cells also effects the strength of the timber, straight
grained timber is stronger than a cross grained or wavy timber. Defects like cracks,
decay or a knot will decrease the strength of the timber.

2. Toughness:
Toughness is the ability of timber to change its shape. It is dependent on the strength
and elasticity so that it can be bent without breaking. A timber that has been used for
steam bent work is Beech as it has these two properties. A timber is tough if it has an
interlocked cell structure that makes it difficult to split.

3. Durability:
Durability is being able to withstand disease or insect attack. Impregnated in the cell
walls during growth are chemical substances, oils, resins that cause the timber to be
durable. Impregnating the wood with a suitable preservative can increase durability.
Softwoods/Hardwoods and light or heavy timbers can all be durable.
 Timber - General Properties
4. Hardness:
This can be gauged in different ways. The timbers resistance to nails, the difficulty in
sawing and working, and the resistance to wear. As a rule, hardwoods are more resistant
to wear than softwoods as they have small thick walled cells, and the softwoods
generally have thin walled cells. The thickness of the cell wall and the smallness of the
cell cavities make the wood hard. The moisture content of the wood and the maturity of
the timber also affects the hardness.

5. Density or Weight:
Heavy timbers have thick cell walls and small cell cavities; this means that it is made up
of a lot of wood substance and little air. Whereas light timbers have thin cell walls and
large cavities, these have little wood and a lot of air. Balsa is an excellent example of
light timber as only 7% of its volume is solid wood, the remaining is air cavities.

6. Resistance to Fire:
All timber or wood burns, but as we have learnt, different timbers can have extremely
different properties. The denser the timber the longer it takes to ignite. Jarrah, Teak and
Kauri are all dense and partially fire resistant and can be used in construction. Chemical
treatments are available to apply to timber providing added fire resistances as well as
specialised fire resistant paint products.
 Timber - General Properties
7. Smell:
Whilst being planed or sawn several timbers have strong distinctive smells. Certain oils
being present in the wood usually cause this. Some people can recognize a timber from
its scent alone. Some scents are very useful for example cedar and camphorwood have
an smell that is pleasant to us but not to insects therefore they are an ideal timber for
making clothes chests. This works both ways as some timbers have a very unpleasant
smell, e.g. the Australian Walnut and Stinkwood, which would not be desirable as clothes
chests.
 Mechanical Properties

Cleavability High resistance for cleavage is important for nailing and

screwing while low splitting strength is important for used as firewood.

Brittleness is use to describe the property of suffering little deformations
before breaking.

Torsion Strength is used to determine the torsion strength of the timber
and the specimen is loaded up to failure.

Hardness is important in case of timber for paving blocks flooring bearings
and other similar purposes.

Stiffness - This property is important to determine the deflection of a timber
under a load
 Mechanical Properties

Tensile Strength Timber is stronger in tension along the rain but its quite
difficult to determine this because of the difficulties in conducting test.

Compressive Strength The strength along the grain is important for

columns, props, and post.

Shear Strength Shear strength is important in the case of the beam and
slabs.

Bending Strength or Flexural Strength This refers as the strength of the

timber as a beam.
 Timber - Uses
1. Timber flooring:
A very popular flooring that cannot be matched for its lasting beauty
and durability. The boards are all pre-finished with coating already
applied, so it can be installed in half the time of traditional flooring.
Pre-finished engineered flooring also comes in Raw, so you can choose
the level of gloss as required.
Pre-finished engineered flooring is comprised of 4 or 5 layers of timbers
fused together into long planks then pre-finished ready to lay.
Even though pre-finished, the boards can be sanded many times giving
them the same lifespan as traditional timber flooring.
 Timber - Uses
2. Timber Elements:
If you have a timber floor then you might want to add
some timber elements. Timber elements can be almost
anything from a coat rack through to ceiling fans. They
create an air of class as well as a natural look for your
home. However, if you are using many different timber
elements there are many different colors and shades so
you want your timber elements to match.
 Timber - Uses
3. Timber Outdoors:
Timber features are extremely popular for outdoor use but
they will need to be treated in order to prevent warping,
staining and general degradation.
Timber decks look amazing and they create a more easily
maintained entertainment space and are often being used
to replace some grassed areas. It is much easier to use
some decking oil every six months rather than mow the
lawn every week.
 Timber - Uses
4. Timber in the Kitchen:
Timber in the kitchen can sometimes look a little dated but
if you use it in combination with other modern elements it
can look amazing. Ornate kitchen cabinets are out but
chunky timber cupboards look great and wooden bench
tops can be amazing. However, some of these options will
be more costly than traditional kitchen options such as
stainless steel or tiles.
 Timber - Uses
5. Timber in the Bathroom:
Timber in the bathroom can work well but like outdoor
timber it needs to be done carefully. Due to the amount of
moisture in a bathroom there is a huge risk of warped
timber and even moisture rot. It is best to consult with a
professional before installing anything timber in a wet area.
 Timber - Uses
6. Furniture:
Wood veneers are ideal for doors, panels and curved
surfaces as they are thin and can be glued over the edges
and rounded surfaces. They are used a lot in furniture.
APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Flooring Narra

Molave

Pine Benguet

Toog (Phil. Oak)

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Doors & Windows Narra

Tanguile

Apitong

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Outdoor Deck Yacal

Molave

Guijo

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Ceiling Panel & Joists Molave

Pine Benguet

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Railing & Balustrade Narra

Molave

Pine Benguet

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Exposed Structural Member Molave

Pine Benguet

Yacal

Lauan

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Paneling Narra

Pine Benguet

Almaciga

Dao

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APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Furniture & Cabinets Narra

Molave

Pine Benguet

Almaciga

Kamagong41
APPLICATION: Philippine Timber

Structural Members &

Molave
Framing

Yacal

Guijo

Pine Benguet

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Examples of PHILIPPINE TIMBER

First Group
Narra most expensive, for floors, doors,
furniture, panelings, veneers
Molave for posts & girders, trusses, framings,
floors, jambs, furniture, & other purpose
esp. those exposed to weather

Yacal & Guijo for posts & girders, jambs, wooden

decks & railings exposed to weather
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Examples of PHILIPPINE TIMBER

First Group
Pine Benguet for flooring, panelings, sidings &
furniture. Also for framings, trusses
Tanguile & Apitong the most common lumber in
the market. Used for framings, joists,
trusses, nailers, etc.

Lauan (white & red) for framings, furnitures

Kamagong for furnitures
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Examples of PHILIPPINE TIMBER

First Group
Dao for panelings & veneers
Almaciga for panelings & veneers
Mahogany
Ipil
Kalantas
Kalamansanai
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WOOD STRUCTURE

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WOOD STRUCTURE

Bark

Bast

Sapwood

Heartwood

Pith

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WOOD STRUCTURE

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TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS
CROSS-SECTION OF A TREE

Annual or growth rings - in temperate
climates there are two distinctive growth
seasons, spring and summer - the spring growth
is rapid and is shown as a broad band whereas
the hotter, dryer summer growth shows up
narrow. In tropical countries the growth rings
are more even and difficult to distinguish.

Bark - the outer layer, corklike and provides
protection to the tree from knocks and other
damage.

Cambium - layer of living cells between the
bast and the sapwood.

Heartwood - mature timber, no longer
carries sap, the heart of the tree, provides
the strength of the tree. Usually a distinctive
darker colour than the sapwood.

Medulla ray - (rays) food storage cells
radiating from the medulla - provides a
decorative feature found in quarter cut
timber.

Pith or medulla - the centre of the tree,
soft and pithy especially in the branches.

Sapwood - new growth carries the raw sap

up to the leaves. Usually lighter in colour
than the heartwood, especially in softwoods.

Bast - the inner bark carries enriched sap

from the leaves to the cells where growth
takes place.
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
Timber is a natural product, drawn from the wood in
the trunks of trees.
Its character is consistent with the species of tree
and the form and growth over time of the wood in it.

Endogenous

Trees grows inwards

Example are bamboo
& palm

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CLASSIFICATION OF TREES

Exogenous

Trees grows outwards

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CLASSIFICATION OF EXOGENOUS TREES
(based on broad botanical distinction)

Softwoods

Generally needle-
leaved coniferous
trees that bear their
seed in cones
Example are pine &
cedar
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Softwoods (gymnosperms). Softwoods
are coniferous trees and the timber is not
necessarily 'soft'. They are 'evergreen'.
(The larch is an exception)

Their general characteristics are:
Straight, round but slender, tapering trunk.
The crown is narrow and rises to a point.
Softwoods : Conifer Trees (pine, fir, spruce)
for framing and sheathing

It has needle like or scale-like shaped
leaves and it's fruit, i.e. it's seeds are
carried in cones.

The bark is course and thick and

softwoods are evergreen and as such do
not shed their leaves in autumn.

E.g. pine, bitter wood, redwood, cypress,

red cedar, douglas fir, cedar damsel, yew,
eucalyptus, sitka spruce, juniper, ginkgo
 Structure of Softwoods

Tracheids - These are hollow, needle-shaped units
closely packed together so that a cross-section
through them resembles a honeycomb.

Storage Tissues (Rays and Wood Parenchyma
Cells) - They are too small to be seen individually
and are not of much in identification.

Resin Canals - these canals are not cells but are
cavities in the wood lined by the parenchyma cells.

Growth Rings - these are normally distinct in
softwoods.
PROPERTIES OF SOFTWOOD:

Contract with heat & moisture

Have lower density than hardwoods (good
for acoustic & thermal insulation
Good for interior finishes & for furniture
Solid but soft
Flexible & strong
Not water resistant
Cost : low

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CLASSIFICATION OF EXOGENOUS TREES
(based on broad botanical distinction)

Hardwoods

Generally broad-
leaved deciduous
trees
Example are oak,
narra, molave,
maple, etc
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Hardwoods (angiosperms). They shed
their leaves in the autumn. Their timber is
not necessarily hard. For instance, balsa
(the timber used for making model planes)
is a hardwood.

The general characteristics are:

Stout base that scarcely tapers but divides

into branches to form a wide, round crown.

The leaves are broad and may have single
or multi lobes.

The bark may be smooth or course and

varies in thickness and colours.

Its fruit may be: nuts, winged fruits, pods,

berries, or fleshy fruits.

E.g. lignum vitae, oak, sycamore, teak, ash,

bulletwood, cotton, tamarind, white cedar,
mahoganies, satin wood, mahoe, poplar
 Structure of Hardwoods

Pores or Vessels these are tubular elements running in a
vertical direction and serve to conduct water and mineral
nutrients.

Inclusions the pores or vessels are normally open to enable

conduction but many times, particularly in the heartwood, they
become filled with inclusions of various types.

Parenchyma or Soft Tissues - these are storage tissues and

consist of small, thin-walled, rectangular or brick-shaped cells.
These are vertically aligned.

Rays - are groups of horizontally aligned parenchyma cells

running in a radial direction and their function is horizontal
conduction and storage.
Hardwoods - Deciduous trees (leaf trees)
Like maple, oak ash, beech, birch
Used for Flooring, moldings, furniture
 Structure of Hardwoods

Fibres These are vertically-aligned, thick-

walled elements with pointed, tapering ends
which make up the bulk of the weight of the
wood.

Intercellular cells These are long tubular
cavities seen in the horizontal or vertical
direction.
PROPERTIES OF HARDWOOD:

Contract with heat & moisture

Stronger, denser, & homogenous than
hardwoods (good for framing system)
Good for interior finishes & for furniture
Resist fire better than softwood
Nearly impervious to water (some varieties)
Cost : high

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

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GOOD LUMBERING PRACTICE

Lumbering- term applied to the operations

performed in preparing wood for
commercial purposes

Logging
Felling
Storing
Sawing
Drying

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 Felling and Conversion

Felling and Transporting the Timber

 Felling is done by a clean saw cut as near to the base as

possible.

 Transporting the log to saw mill is done either by road

transport or dragging (by elephants) to the nearest river
and floating them down in rafts.
FELLING

Timber felled during summer is more

readily susceptible to mold. During this
period, the quantity of sap is at its greatest
& the state of swelling, acidity, etc. are very
much unfavorable
Coniferous trees is ideal to be felled during
full moon because the resins were well
drawn out of the roots & into the trunk

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STORAGE

Timber stored in water after felling reduces

the risks of molds & insect damage

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 LUMBER CONVERSION

Conversion is the cutting of log into

marketable timber for commercial use.

There are two main methods of converting

timber:

Through and through (or Plain or Crown
sawn), which produces tangential boards and

Quarter Sawn, which produces radial boards.

 Felling and Conversion

Sawing
 Methods of Sawing
 Ordinary or Flat Sawing
 Tangential Sawing
 Radial Sawing
 Quarter or Rift Sawing
 Combination Sawing

Quarter sawn (radial, figured) is far more
expensive because of the need to double (or
more) handle the log. There is also more
wastage. It is however more decorative and
less prone to cup or distort. Such timber is
expensive due to the multiple cuts required
to convert this board. Annual growth rings
form an angle greater than 45 degrees.

Through and through produces mostly
tangentially sawn timber and some quarter
sawn stuff. Tangential timber is the most
economical to produce because of the relatively
less repetitive production methods. It is used
extensively in the building industry

Tangential boards (crown, plain or flat sawn)
are used extensively for beams and joists. They
are stronger when placed correctly edge up with
the load in the tangential axis. These type of
boards suffer from 'cupping' if not carefully
converted, seasoned, and stored properly.
Annual growth rings form an angle less than 45
degrees.

Rift sawn is the cut which falls between
crown and true quarter sawn. Quality floor
boards are prepared from rift sawn timber
because it wears well and shrinks less.
Annual growth rings form an angle
between 30 and 60 degrees.
SPLITTING/SAWING

Should take place while the

trees is still very damp

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CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD TIMBER

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DRYING

70-90% of the original moisture must be

removed from the timber before this could
be used for construction?..a reason why
routine drying is important

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 SEASONING

Seasoning is the controlled process of
reducing the moisture content (MC) of the
timber so that it is suitable for the
environment and intended use.

For construction grade timber the timber must be
below 20% MC

For framing and outside finish 15% MC

For Cabinet and furniture 7 to 10% MC

(see timber seasoning lecture)

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