Bowhead whale

The bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) is a species of Studies in the 2000s nally provided clear evidence
the family Balaenidae, in suborder Mysticeti, and genus that the three living right whale species do comprise a
Balaena, once thought to include the right whale. phylogenetic lineage, distinct from the bowhead, and that
A stocky dark-colored whale without a dorsal n, it can the bowhead and the right whales are rightly classied
into two separate genera.[9] The right whales were thus
grow 14 to 18 m (46 to 59 ft) in length. This thick-
bodied species can weigh from 75 to 100 tonnes (74 conrmed to be in a separate genus, Eubalaena. The re-
cladogram below:
to 98 long tons; 83 to 110 short tons).[3] They live en- lationship is shown in the
tirely in fertile Arctic and sub-Arctic waters, unlike other Balaena prisca, one of the ve Balaena fossils from
whales that migrate to low latitude waters to feed or re- the late Miocene (~10 Mya) to early Pleistocene (~1.5
produce. The bowhead was also known as the Green- Mya), may be the same as the modern bowhead whale.
land right whale or Arctic whale. American whalemen The earlier fossil record shows no related cetacean after
called them the steeple-top, polar whale,[4] or Russia Morenocetus, found in a South American deposit dating
or Russian whale. The bowhead has the largest mouth back 23 million years.
of any animal.[5] An unknown species of right whale, the so-called Swe-
The bowhead was an early whaling target. The popula- denborg whale which was proposed by Emanuel Swe-
tion was severely reduced before a 1966 moratorium was denborg in the 18th century, was once thought to be a
passed to protect the species. Through conservation ef- North Atlantic right whale by scientic consensus. How-
forts, the bowhead population has since recovered and ever based on later DNA analysis those fossil bones
is now rated Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of claimed to be from Swedenborg whales were conrmed
Threatened Species.[2] to be from bowhead whales.[11]

1 Taxonomy 2 Description
See also: Evolution of cetaceans

Carl Linnaeus rst described this whale in the 10th edi-

tion of his Systema Naturae (1758).[6] Seemingly iden-
tical to its cousins in the North Atlantic, North Pacic
and Southern Oceans, they were all thought to be a sin-
gle species, collectively known as the right whale, and
given the binomial name Balaena mysticetus.
Today, the bowhead whale occupies a monotypic genus, Skeleton of a bowhead whale
separate from the right whales, as was proposed by the
work of John Edward Gray in 1821.[7] For the next 180
years, the family Balaenidae was the subject of great
taxonometric debate. Authorities have repeatedly recat-
egorized the three populations of right whale plus the
bowhead whale, as one, two, three or four species, ei-
ther in a single genus or in two separate genera. Even-
tually, it was recognized that bowheads and right whales
were in fact dierent, but there was still no strong consen-
sus as to whether they shared a single genus or two. As
recently as 1998, Dale Rice, in his comprehensive and
otherwise authoritative classication, Marine mammals
of the world: systematics and distribution, listed just two
species: B. glacialis (the right whales) and B. mysticetus
(the bowheads).[8] Stamp showing drawing of mother and calf from Faroe Islands

1
2 3 BEHAVIOR

The bowhead whale has a large, robust, dark-colored 3 Behavior

body and a white chin/lower jaw. The whale has a
massive triangular skull, which the whale uses to break
through the Arctic ice to breathe. Inuit hunters have
reported bowheads surfacing through 60 cm (24 in) of
ice.[12] The bowhead also has a strongly bowed lower jaw
and a narrow upper jaw. Its baleen is the longest of that of
any whale, at 3 m (9.8 ft), and is used to strain tiny prey
from the water. The bowhead whale has paired blow-
holes, at the highest point of the head, which can spout a
blow 6.1 m (20 ft) high. The whales blubber is the thick-
est of that of any animal, with a maximum of 4350 cm
(1720 in).[13] Unlike most cetaceans, the bowhead does
not have a dorsal n.[14]
Bowhead whales are comparable in size to the three
species of right whales. According to whaling captain
William Scoresby Jr., the longest bowhead he measured
was 17.7 m (58 ft) long, while the longest measurement
he had ever heard of was of a 20.4 m (67 ft) whale
caught at Godhavn, Greenland, in early 1813. He also
spoke of one, caught near Spitsbergen around 1800, that
was allegedly nearly 21.3 m (70 ft) long.[15] In 1850, an
American vessel claimed to have caught a 24.54 m (80.5
ft) individual in the Western Arctic.[16] It is question-
able whether these lengths were actually measured. The
longest reliably measured lengths of the sexes were 16.2
m (53 ft) in a male and 18 m (59 ft) in a female, both
landed by natives in Alaska.[17] On average, female bow-
heads are larger than males.
Analysis of hundreds of DNA samples from living whales
and from baleen used in vessels, toys, and housing mate- Resting on water surface in Foxe Basin
rial has shown that Arctic bowhead whales have lost a sig-
nicant portion of their genetic diversity in the past 500
years. Bowheads originally crossed ice-covered inlets and
straits to exchange genes between Atlantic and Pacic
populations. This conclusion was derived from analyz-
ing maternal lineage using mitochondrial DNA. Whaling
and climatic cooling during the Little Ice Age, from the
16th century to the 19th, is supposed to have reduced the
whales summer habitats, which explains the loss of ge-
netic diversity.[18]
A 2013 discovery has elucidated the function of the bow-
heads large palatal retial organ. The bulbous ridge of
highly vascularized tissue, the corpus cavernosum maxil-
laris, extends along the center of the hard plate, forming
two large lobes at the rostral palate. The tissue is his-
tologically similar to that of the corpus cavernosum of Breaching o Alaskan coast
the mammalian penis. It is hypothesized that this organ
provides a mechanism of cooling for the whale (which
is normally protected from the cold Arctic waters by 40
cm (16 in) or more of fat). During physical exertion, the 3.1 Swimming
whale must cool itself to prevent hyperthermia (and ulti-
mately brain damage). It is now believed that this organ See also: Whale surfacing behaviour
becomes engorged with blood, causing the whale to open
its mouth to allow cold seawater to ow over the organ, Bowhead whales are not social animals, typically trav-
thus cooling the blood.[19] eling alone or in small pods of up to 6. They are able
to dive and remain submerged underwater for up to an

hour. However, the time spent underwater in a single dive approximately 1,000 kg (2,200 lb), and grows to 8.2 m
is usually limited to 918 minutes.[12] Bowheads are not (27 ft) within the rst year.[17]
thought to be deep divers but they can reach a depth of
up to 500 ft (150 m). These whales are slow swimmers,
normally traveling at about 25 km/h (1.23.1 mph).[20]
When eeing from danger, they can travel at a speed of 10 4 Health
km/h (6.2 mph). During periods of feeding, the average
swim speed is reduced to 1.12.5 m/s (3.68.2 ft/s).[21] 4.1 Lifespan
3.2 Feeding
The head of the bowhead whale comprises a third of its
body length, creating an enormous feeding apparatus.[21]
Bowhead whales are lter feeders, feeding by swimming
forward with mouth wide open.[12] The whale has hun-
dreds of overlapping baleen plates consisting of keratin
hanging from each side of the upper jaw. The mouth
has a large upturning lip on the lower jaw that helps to
reinforce and hold the baleen plates within the mouth.
This also prevents buckling or breakage of the plates from
the pressure of the water passing through them as the
whale advances. To feed, water is ltered through the
ne hairs of keratin of the baleen plates, trapping the
prey inside near the tongue where it is then swallowed.[22]
The diet consists of mostly zooplankton which includes
copepods, amphipods, and many other crustaceans.[21]
Approximately 2 short tons (1.8 long tons; 1.8 t) of food
is consumed each day.[22] While foraging, bowheads are
solitary or occur in groups of two to ten or more.[13]
3.3 Vocalization
Bowhead whales are highly vocal[23] and use low fre-
quency (<1000 Hz) sounds to communicate while travel-
ing, feeding, and socializing. Intense calls for communi-
cation and navigation are produced especially during mi-
gration season. During breeding season, bowheads make
long, complex, variable songs for mating calls.[20]
3.4 Reproduction
See also: Whale reproduction
Sexual activity occurs between pairs and in boisterous
groups of several males and one or two females. Breeding
season is observed from March through August; concep-
tion is believed to occur primarily in March when song
activity is at its highest.[20] Reproduction can begin when
a whale is 10 to 15 years old. The gestation period is 13
14 months with females producing a calf once every three
to four years.[17] Lactation typically lasts about a year. To
survive in the cold water immediately after birth, calves
are born with a thick layer of blubber. Within 30 minutes
of birth, bowhead calves are able to swim on their own. A
newborn calf is typically 44.5 m (1315 ft) long, weighs
3
Bowhead whales are known to be among the longest-
living mammals, living for over 200 years.[24] In May
2007, a 15 m (49 ft) specimen caught o the Alaskan
coast was discovered with the head of an explosive
harpoon embedded deep under its neck blubber. The 3.5
in (89 mm) arrow-shaped projectile was manufactured
in New Bedford, Massachusetts, a major whaling cen-
ter, around 1890, suggesting the animal may have sur-
vived a similar hunt more than a century ago.[25][26][27]
This whale was estimated to be 211 years old.[28] Other
bowhead whales found on the whaling expedition were
estimated to be between 135 and 172 years old. This
discovery showed the longevity of the bowhead whale is
much greater than originally thought.
4.2 Genetic causes
It was previously believed the more cells present in an or-
ganism, the greater the chances of mutations that cause
age related diseases and cancer.[29] Although the bow-
head whale has thousands of times more cells than other
mammals, the whale has a much higher resistance to can-
cer and aging. In 2015, scientists from the US and UK
were able to successfully map the whales genome.[30]
Through comparative analysis, two alleles that could
be responsible for the whales longevity were identied.
These two specic gene mutations linked to the bowhead
whales ability to live longer are the ERCC1 gene and the
proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) gene. ERCC1
is linked to DNA repair as well as increased cancer re-
sistance. PCNA is also important in DNA repair. These
mutations enable bowhead whales to better repair DNA
damage, allowing for greater resistance to cancer.[29] The
whales genome may also reveal physiological adapta-
tions such as having low metabolic rates compared to
other mammals.[31] Changes in the gene UCP1, a gene
involved in thermoregulation, can explain dierences in
the metabolic rates in cells.
5 Ecology
5.1 Range and habitat
The bowhead whale is the only baleen whale to spend
its entire life in the Arctic and sub-Arctic waters.[32]
The Alaskan population spends the winter months in the
4 5 ECOLOGY

Alaskan Natives continue to hunt small numbers of Bow-

head Whales for subsistence purposes. The Alaska Es-
kimo Whaling Commission, an Alaska Native organiza-
tion that manages the Bowhead subsistence harvest under
a cooperative agreement with the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, sets the harvest quota for
each whaling village. The Alaskan villages that partici-
pate in the Bowhead subsistence harvest include: Barrow,
Point Hope, Gambell, Savoonga, Wainwright, Kivilina,
Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, Wales, and little Diomede.[40] The an-
nual subsistence harvest of the Western Arctic stock has
Drawing of an adult in 1884 ranged from 14 to 72, amounting to an estimated 0.1-
0.5% of the population.[41]

southwestern Bering Sea. The group migrates north-

ward in the spring, following openings in the ice, into the 5.2.2 Ban Bay and Davis Strait
Chukchi and Beaufort seas.[33] It has been conrmed the
whales range varies depending on climate changes and In March 2008, Canadas Department of Fisheries and
on the forming/melting of ice.[34] Oceans stated the previous estimates in the eastern Arc-
tic had under-counted, with a new estimate of 14,400
Historical range could have been broader and more south- animals (range 4,80043,000).[42] These larger numbers
ern than that of currently regarded as bowheads had been correspond to prewhaling estimates, indicating the pop-
abundant among Labrador and Newfoundland (Strait of ulation has fully recovered. However, if climate change
Belle Isle), and northern Gulf of St. Lawrence at least substantially shrinks sea ice, these whales could be threat-
until 16th and 17th century although it is unclear this was ened by increased shipping trac.[43]
whether or not due to colder climate of those periods.[35]
Distributions of Balaena during Pleistocene were far The status of other populations is less well known. There
more southerly as fossils have been excavated from Italy were about 1,200 o West Greenland in 2006, while
and North Carolina, and thus could have overlapped be- the Svalbard population may only number in the tens.
tween those of Eubalaena based on locations where fos- However, the numbers have been increasing in recent
sils have been excavated.[36] years.[44]

5.2.3 Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin

5.2 Population

It is generally recognized that there are ve stocks of

Bowhead Whales. These include: 1) the Western Arctic
stock in the Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, 2) the
Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin stock, 3) the Ban Bay and
Davis Strait stock, 4) the Sea of Okhotsk stock, and 5)
the Svalbard-Barents Sea Spitsbergen stock. However,
recent evidence suggests that the Hudson Bay and Foxe
Basin stock, and the Ban Bay and Davis Strait stock
should be considered one stock based on genetics and
movements of tagged whales.[37]

5.2.1 Western Arctic

The Western Arctic Bowhead population, also known

as the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort population, has recov-
ered since the commercial harvest of this stock ceased.
A 2011 study estimated that the Western Arctic Bow-
head population was 16,892 (95% CI: 15,074-18,928),
more than triple the population estimate in 1978.[38] This
study puts the yearly growth rate at 3.7% (95% CI = 2.8-
4.7%) from 1978 to 2011. This data suggests that the
Western Arctic Bowhead stock may be at or near its pre-
commercial whaling level.[39]
Sighting locations by researchers and hunters
Hudson Bay Foxe Basin population is distinct from the
Ban Bay Davis Strait group.[45] Original population
size of this local group is unclear, but possibly around 500
to 600 whales annually summered in the northwestern
part of the bay in 1860s.[46] Likely, the number of whales
actually inhabit within Hudson Bay is much smaller than
the total population size of this group,[47] and despite cur-
5.2 Population 5

rent population size is rather unclear, reports from local

indigenous people indicate this population is at least in-
creasing over decades.[48] Larger portions of usages of
the bay is considered to be summering while wintering
is on smaller scale where some animals winter in Hudson
Strait most notably north of Igloolik Island and northeast-
ern Hudson Bay. Distribution patterns of whales in this
regions are largely aected by presences of killer whales
and bowheads can disappear from normal ranges due to
recent changes in killer whales occurrences within the
bay possibly because of changes in movements of ice oes
by changing climate.[48] Whaling grounds in 19th century
covered from Marble Island to Roes Welcome Sound and
to Lyon Inlet and Fisher Strait, and whales still migrate
through most of these areas.
Mostly, distributions within Hudson Bay is restricted in
northwestern part[45] along with Repulse Bay, Frozen
Strait, northern Foxe Basin, and north of Igloolik in
summer,[48] and satellite tracking[49] indicates that some
portions of the group within the bay do not venture further
south than areas south of Coasts and Mansel Islands. Cow
calf pairs and juveniles up to 13.5 m (44 ft) in length
consist of majority of summering aggregation in north-
ern Foxe Basin while matured males and non-calving fe- Whale spyhops in Ulbansky Bay, northwestern Okhotsk Sea.[53]
males may utilize northwestern part of Hudson Bay.[48]
Fewer whales also migrate to west coast of Hudson Bay,
Mansel and Ottawa Islands.[48] Bowhead ranges within right whale[57] ). First documented report of the species
Hudson Bay are usually considered not to cover south- in Japanese waters was of a strayed infant (7 m [23 ft])
ern parts,[47][50] but at least some whales migrate into caught in Osaka Bay on 23 June 1969,[58] and the rst
further south such as at Sanikiluaq and Churchill river living sighting was of a 10 m (33 ft) juvenile around
mouth.[51][52] Shiretoko Peninsula (the southernmost of ice oe range
Congregation within Foxe Basin occurs in a well-dened in the northern hemisphere) on 21 to 23 June 2015.[59]
area at 3,700 km (2,300 mi) north of Igloolik Island to Fossils have been excavated on Hokkaido,[60] but it is un-
Fury and Hecla Strait and Jens Munk Island and Giord clear whether or not northern coasts of Japan once had
Fiord, and into Gulf of Boothia and Prince Regent Inlet. been included in seasonal or occasional migration ranges.
Northward migrating along western Foxe Basin to eastern Genetic studies suggest Okhotsk population share com-
side of the basin also occurs in spring seasons.[48] mon ancestry with whales in Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort
Seas, and repeated mixings had occurred between whales
in two seas.[61]
5.2.4 Sea of Okhotsk

Not much is known about the endangered Sea of Okhotsk 5.2.5 Svalbard-Barents Sea
population. To learn more about the population, these
mammals have been regularly observed near the Shantar See also: Russian Arctic National Park
Islands, very close to the shore, such as at Ongachan
Bay.[54][55] Several companies provide whale watching The most endangered but historically largest of all
services which are mostly land-based. According to Rus- bowhead populations is the Svalbard/Spitsbergen
sian scientists, this total population likely does not exceed
population.[62] Occurring normally in Fram Strait,[63]
400 animals.[53] Scientic research on this population Barents Sea and Severnaya Zemlya along Kara Sea[44] to
was seldom done before 2009, when researchers study- Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea regions, these whales
ing belugas noticed concentrations of bowheads in the were seen in entire coastal regions in European and Rus-
study area. Thus, bowheads in the Sea of Okhotsk were sian Arctic, even reaching to Icelandic and Scandinavian
once called forgotten whales by researchers. WWF coasts and Jan Mayen in Greenland Sea, and west of
welcomed the creation a nature sanctuary in the region[56] Cape Farewell and western Greenland coasts.[64] Also,
Possibly, vagrants from this population occasionally reach bowheads in this stock were possibly once abundant in
into Asian nations such as o Japan or Korean Penin- areas adjacent to the White Sea region, where few or no
sula (although this record might or might not be of a animals currently migrate, such as the Kola and Kanin
6 6 WHALING

Peninsula. Today, the number of sightings in elsewhere

are very small,[65] but with increasing regularities[66]
with whales having strong regional connections.[67]
Whales have also started approaching townships and
inhabited areas such as around Longyearbyen.[68] The
waters around the marine mammal sanctuary[69] of Franz
Josef Land is possibly functioning as the most important
habitat for this population.[70][71]
Current status of population structure of this stock is
unclear; whether they are remnant of the historic Sval-
bard group, re-colonized individuals from other stocks,
or if a mixing of these two or more stocks had taken
place. In 2015, discoveries of the refuge along eastern
Eighteenth century engraving showing Dutch whalers hunting
Greenland where whaling ships could not reach due to ice bowhead whales in the Arctic
oes[72] and largest numbers of whales (80100 individ-
uals) ever sighted between Spitsbergen and Greenland[73]
indicate that more whales than previously considered sur-
vived whaling periods, and ows from the other popula- Commercial bowhead whaling began in the 16th cen-
tions are possible. tury, when the Basques killed them as they migrated
south through the Strait of Belle Isle in the fall and early
winter. In 1611, the rst whaling expedition sailed to
5.2.6 Possible moulting area on Ban Island Spitsbergen. By mid-century, the population(s) there had
practically been wiped out, forcing whalers to voyage into
During expeditions by a tour operator 'Arctic King- the West Icethe pack ice o Greenland's east coast.
dom', a large group of bowheads seemingly involved By 1719, they had reached the Davis Strait,[80]and by the
in courtship activities were discovered in very shallow rst quarter of the 19th century, Ban Bay.
bays in south of Qikiqtarjuaq in 2012.[74] Floating skins In the North Pacic, the rst bowheads were taken o the
and rubbing behaviors at sea bottom indicated possible eastern coast of Kamchatka by the Danish whaleship Nep-
moulting had taken place. Moulting behaviors had never tun, Captain Thomas Sodring, in 1845.[16] In 1847, the
or had seldomly been documented for this species before. rst bowheads were caught in the Sea of Okhotsk, and the
This area is an important habitat for whales that were ob- following year, Captain Thomas Welcome Roys, in the
served to be relatively active and to interact with humans bark Superior, of Sag Harbor, caught the rst bowheads in
positively, or to rest on sea oors. These whales belong the Bering Strait region. By 1849, 50 ships were hunting
to Davis Strait stock. bowheads in each area. By 1852, 220 ships were cruising
Isabella Bay in Niginganiq National Wildlife Area is the around the Bering Strait region, which killed over 2,600
rst wildlife sanctuary in the world to be designed spe- whales. Between 1854 and 1857, the eet shifted to the
cially for bowhead whales. However, moultings have Sea of Okhotsk, where 100160 ships cruised annually.
not been recorded in this area due to environmental During 18581860, the ships shifted back to the Bering
factors.[75] Strait region, where the majority of the eet would cruise
during the summer up until the early 20th century.[81]
An estimated 18,600 bowheads were killed in the Bering
Strait region between 1848 and 1914, with 60% of the
5.3 Predation total being reached within the rst two decades. An
estimated 18,000 bowheads were killed in the Sea of
The principal predators of bowheads are humans.[76] Okhotsk during 18471867, 80% in the rst decade.[82]
Killer whales are also known predators.[77] Bowheads
seek the safety of the ice and shallow waters when threat- Bowheads were rst taken along the pack ice in the north-
ened by killer whales.[20] eastern Sea of Okhotsk, then in Tausk Bay and North-
east Gulf (Shelikhov Gulf). Soon, ships expanded to the
west, catching them around Iony Island and then around
the Shantar Islands. In the Western Arctic, they mainly
6 Whaling caught them in the Anadyr Gulf, the Bering Strait, and
around St. Lawrence Island. They later spread to the
The bowhead whale has been hunted for blubber, meat, western Beaufort [81]
Sea (1854) and the Mackenzie River
oil, bones, and baleen. Like the right whale, it swims delta (1889).
slowly, and oats after death, making it ideal for Commercial whaling, the principal cause of the popula-
whaling.[78] Before commercial whaling, they were esti- tion decline, is over. Bowhead whales are now hunted
mated to number 50,000.[79] on a subsistence level by native peoples of North Amer-
 7

Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort stock Lower risk con-

servation dependent

The bowhead whale is listed in Appendix I[87] of the

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals (CMS), as this species has been catego-
rized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a
signicant proportion of their range. CMS Parties strive
towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or
restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles
to migration, and controlling other factors that might en-
danger them.[78]
Inuit woman and child standing on bowhead whale after a 2002
subsistence hunt

ica.[83] 8 Gallery
Media related to Balaena mysticetus at Wikimedia Com-
6.1 Subsistence whaling in Alaska mons

Main article: Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale

Some Alaska Native peoples continue by tradition to hunt

bowhead and beluga whales on a subsistence level, with
low annual bowhead total quotas set by the International
Whales swimming in the
Whaling Commission in conjunction with individual vil-
Lindholm Strait of the Shantar Islands, in the
lage limits set by the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commis-
northwestern Sea of Okhotsk[88]
sion.[84]
Bowhead hunting is limited to whaling crews which are:

Iupiat

St Lawrence Island Siberian Yupik

Cavorting whale in north-
For the Native peoples of Alaska, bowhead subsistence western part of Sea of Okhotsk[53]
hunting occurs during the northward spring migrations
based from the ice and from small boats during the re-
turning fall migrations.[85]

7 Conservation
Blowholes
The bowhead is listed in Appendix I by CITES (that
is, threatened with extinction). Some populations
are listed by the National Marine Fisheries Service as
endangered under the auspices of the United States
Endangered Species Act. The IUCN Red List data are
as follows:[78]
Resting in Foxe Basin

Svalbard population Critically endangered

Sea of Okhotsk subpopulation Endangered

Ban Bay-Davis Strait stock Endangered

Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin stock Vulnerable (Esti- Fluke up before diving

mated to be 1,026 individuals in 2005 by DFO)[86]
8 10
Whale showing one of
pectoral ns
Tip of whitish chin visible
Map of the bowhead whale
ranges centered over the North Pole
9 See also
List of cetaceans - whale and dolphin species
10 References
[1] Mead, J.G.; Brownell, R. L. Jr. (2005). Order Cetacea.
In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the
World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.).
Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723743. ISBN
978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
[12] Wrsig, B. and C. Clark (1993). Behavior. In Burns, J.
[2] Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown,
M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S.,
Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G., Urbn,
J. & Zerbini, A.N. (2012). Balaena mystice-
[13] Lowry, L. F. (1993). Foods and Feeding Ecology. In
tus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T2467A17879018.en
[3] Rugh, David J.; Shelden, Kim E. W. (2008). Bowhead
Whale. In Perrin, William F.; Wrsig, Bernd; Thewis- [14] Haldiman, J. T. and R. J. Tarpley (1993). Anatomy &
sen, J. G. M. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (Second
ed.). Academic Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-12-373553-
9.
[4] Scammon, Charles M. (1874) The Marine Mammals of
the North-Western Coast of North America, New York:
G.P. Putnams Sons, ISBN 1-59714-061-9.
[5] Guinness World Records (14 November 2007). Whale
of a time!". Archived from the original on 17 November
2007. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
REFERENCES
[6] Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria natu-
rae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum char-
acteribus, dierentiis, synonymis, locis. [System of na-
ture through the three kingdoms of nature, according to the
classes, orders, genera, species, with the characters, the dif-
ferences, synonyms, places.] (in Latin). I (tenth, reformed
ed.). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824. Archived from
the original on 19 March 2015.
[7] Reilly, S.B.; Bannister, J.L.; Best, P.B.; Brown, M.;
Brownell Jr., R.L.; Butterworth, D.S.; Clapham, P.J.;
Cooke, J.; Donovan, G.P.; Urbn, J.; et al. (2012).
"Balaena mysticetus". IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. Version 2012.2. International Union for Conser-
vation of Nature. Retrieved 18 October 2012. The tax-
onomy is not in doubt.... Concerning common names, the
species was once commonly known in the North Atlantic
and adjacent Arctic as the Greenland Right Whale. How-
ever, the common name Bowhead Whale is now generally
used for the species.
[8] Rice, Dale W. (1998). Marine mammals of the world: sys-
tematics and distribution. Society of Marine Mammalogy
Special Publication No. 4. ISBN 1-891276-03-4.
[9] Kenney, Robert D. (2008). Right Whales (Eubal-
aena glacialis, E. japonica, and E. australis)". In Per-
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11 External links
Bowhead whale: 200 year old whales. BBC Ocean
Giants. October 2013.

The Bowhead Whale. Voices in the Sea, Univer-

sity of California San Diego. October 2013.

Bowhead Whale (Balaena mysticetus)". Oce of

Protected Resources, NOAA Fisheries. October
2013.

Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus)". ARKive.

October 2013.

Harpoon may prove whale was at least 115 years

old. World History Blog. October 2013.

In Search of the Bowhead Whale. NFB.ca. Octo-

ber 2013. A documentary by Bill Mason from 1974
following an expedition that searches out and meets
the bowhead and beluga.

Balaena mysticetus. The TerraMar Project.

March 2016.
12 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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Tannin, Pcb21, NuclearWinner, Jimfbleak, Cherkash, RodC, Tjunier, Tpbradbury, Kristof vt, Romanm, Naddy, Smallweed, UtherSRG,
Seano1, Mattaschen, Abigail-II, Jason Quinn, Gdr, Yath, JoJan, RetiredUser2, Neutrality, Kate, A-giau, Rich Farmbrough, Andrew
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Preslethe, King of Hearts, Chobot, Tene, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Wjfox2005, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Jimp, Conscious, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius,
CambridgeBayWeather, Grafen, Apokryltaros, BOT-Superzerocool, Psy guy, Zero Gravitas, Leptictidium, Lt-wiki-bot, Dspradau, Quad-
pus, SmackBot, CyclePat, Od Mishehu, Gilliam, Calliopejen~enwiki, Matt77, Suicidalhamster, Eliezg, SirIsaacBrock, SashatoBot, Bcast-
erline, Reade, John, Kevmin, Mgiganteus1, Scientistatwork, Billism, MTSbot~enwiki, Dl2000, Smalone, Pimlottc, Whhalbert, Aepryus,
Oos, Outriggr (2006-2009), ONUnicorn, Beastie Bot, Doctormatt, Cydebot, MC10, Gogo Dodo, Lo2u, LarryQ, Gimmetrow, Casliber,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Headbomb, Bouchecl, Davidhorman, Activist, Tishers, Malcolm, Lfstevens, Golgofrinchian, RadioKAOS, .anacond-
abot, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, DXRAW, Poeloq, Anaxial, Rosi Crane, J.delanoy, Quailman, Uncle Dick, Dbiel, Ijustam, Shawn in Mon-
treal, Bramblez, Ybk33, Vanished User 4517, DadaNeem, Dennis Myts, DorganBot, IceDragon64, Acefabo, VolkovBot, Uyvsdi, Oshwah,
Oxfordwang, Figmillenium, Sandhillcrane, Brightguy88, RaseaC, Thunderbird2, PGWG, Sfmammamia, SieBot, Dusti, Brenont, Rlendog,
Judeeclare, Dawn Bard, Jonas Poole, Merotoker1, Flyer22 Reborn, FlyingMeeces, Jasonarno, Alex.muller, Dastarddoo, ImageRemovalBot,
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BOTarate, ZhiRandom, DumZiBoT, Thorongil CVI, Dthomsen8, Ost316, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Addbot, Roentgenium111, Ron-
hjones, SpillingBot, Favonian, Erutuon, Lightbot, 55 ,, Gail, Jarble, Dogdream, Luckas-bot, Yobot, EchetusXe, Librsh, Amirobot,
Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Grolltech, Materialscientist, Gamera1123, Citation bot, Hgriggs, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Gigemag76,
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heim21, EmausBot, BrickBreak, John of Reading, Spontaneouscombustion, Immunize, Dcirovic, Kmoksy, ZroBot, Ofekalef, Josve05a,
Krd, 7partparadigm, Wo0dstock79, Citron, Flying whaleshark, GhostsintheSnow, ClueBot NG, Jga49143, 2z, OldBabyBlue, Floortile14,
Pluma, Helpful Pixie Bot, Regulov, BG19bot, SaberToothedWhale, Vagobot, Wiki13, Lesless, CMS Marine Mammals, Arctofelitor, Cy-
berbot II, Hsp90, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Stranden1, JYBot, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Corinne, MarchOrDie, SHFW70, Bowhead
Whale, Howicus, FrigidNinja, Jakec, MrAwesome888, Eoneill728, Cherryboomed, RhinoMind, AntiCompositeNumber, PhysalusAn-
tiquorum, Papyrus-winged ninja Akil, Filedelinkerbot, Vieque, Elmidae, Dunkleosteus77, Yu.ste, Daniel0816, InternetArchiveBot, Sound-
connection, Swange3, Ggarcia16, Obie36, John Goliano, , Woodstop45, ST1849, Bender the Bot, Magic links bot and Anonymous:
202

12.2 Images
File:18th_century_arctic_whaling.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/18th_century_arctic_whaling.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ellis, R. 1994. Monsters of the Sea. Robert Hale Ltd. Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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File:A_bowhead_whale_spyhops_off_the_coast_north_western_Sea_of_Okhotsk_by_Olga_Shpak,_Marine_Mammal_
Council,_IEE_RAS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/A_bowhead_whale_breaches_off_the_
coast_of_western_Sea_of_Okhotsk_by_Olga_Shpak%2C_Marine_Mammal_Council%2C_IEE_RAS.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: http://ria.ru/earth/20140219/995484804.html Original artist: Olga Shpak
File:Balaena_mysticetus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Balaena_mysticetus.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.archive.org/details/
suggestionstokee00true'>Suggestions to the keepers of the U.S. life-saving stations, light-houses, and light-ships; and to other observers,
relative to the best means of collecting and preserving specimens of whales and porpoises</a> True, Frederick William, 1858-1914 Orig-
inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bowhead-1_Kate_Stafford_edit_(16272151841).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/
Bowhead-1_Kate_Stafford_edit_%2816272151841%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: bowhead-1 Kate Staord edit
Original artist: Bering Land Bridge National Preserve
File:Bowhead_Whale_2002-08-10.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Bowhead_Whale_2002-08-10.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ansgar Walk
File:Bowhead_whales_cavorting_in_the_coastal_water_of_north_western_Sea_of_Okhotsk_by_Olga_Shpak,_Marine_
Mammal_Council,_IEE_RAS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/A_bowhead_whale_is_
tail-slapping_in_the_coastal_waters_of_western_Sea_of_Okhotsk_by_Olga_Shpak%2C_Marine_Mammal_Council%2C_IEE_
RAS.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://ria.ru/earth/20140219/995484804.html Original artist: Olga Shpak
File:Bowhead_whales_swimming_in_Lingolm_strait_by_Vladislav_Raevskii.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Bowhead_whales_swimming_in_Lingolm_strait_by_Vladislav_Raevskii.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: https:
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