JET

ENGINES
1-JET ENGINE/GAS TURBINE TYPES
Subsonic engines
Turbojet
A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with a compressor
(axial, centrifugal, or both) and mixes it with fuel burning the mixture in the combustor, and
then passes the hot high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle. The compressor is
powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it.
The engine converts internal heat energy into kinetic energy producing thrust.

Turbofan
A turbofan engine is a gas turbine engine, very similar to a turbojet but differing in that they
have an additional component, a fan. Like the compressor, the fan is powered by the
turbine section of the engine. Unlike the turbojet, some of the flow accelerated by the
fan bypasses the gas generator core of the engine and is exhausted through a nozzle. The
bypassed flow is at lower velocities, but a higher mass, making thrust produced by the fan
more efficient than thrust produced by the core. Turbofans are generally more efficient
than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but they have a larger frontal area generating more drag.

Two types:
Low bypass (By-pass ratio 2:1): Often used
a mixed exhaust nozzle meaning that the
bypassed flow and the core flow exit
from the same nozzle.

High bypass (By-pass ratio 2:1): They

produce much more thrust than low
bypass turbofans or turbojets because of
the large mass of air that the fan can
accelerate, and are often more fuel
efficient.
Turboprop
A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine similar to a turbojet but with additional stages in
the turbine to recover more power from the engine to turn a usually constant speed propeller,
coupled to the turbine through a reduction gear converting the high RPM & low torque output
to low RPM & high torque to avoid tip blades supersonic speeds (The gearbox is part of the
engine, whereas in a turboshaft/helicopter, rotor reduction gearbox is remote from the
engine). It is designed specifically for this application, with almost all of its output being used to
drive the propeller and the engine's remaining propulsion exhaust gases representing about 7%
of the thrust.
They have better performance than turbojets or turbofans at low speeds where propeller
efficiency is high and are mostly used where high-performance short-takeoff and landing
(STOL) is required and in remote areas where the avgas is not available, but, on the other
hand, they become increasingly noisy and inefficient at high speed.
It consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle:
-Some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
-The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller.
-Further expansion of the gases in the propelling nozzle provides a relatively small
proportion of the thrust.

Turboprops ground-idle RPM: around 70% of max. power.

***Most modern turboprops start using a free turbine engine, i.e a Turboshaft engine!
***While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use axial-flow compressors,
turboprop engines, because of their small size, usually contain at least one stage
of centrifugal compression due to being difficult/expensive to manufacture robust blading
for the rear stages of small axial-flow compressors.

Turboshaft

A turboshaft engine is a gas turbine engine similar to a turboprop optimized by an additional

turbine expansion to extract heat energy from the exhaust (spin a free rotating shaft) and
convert it into output shaft power used to power machinery rather than propeller and jet
thrust (as seen in turboprop). This leads to slightly larger engines but an easier maintenance as
the free turbine/power section is not physically connected to the core turbine.

However, there is little or no residual thrust in the exhaust and it is less powerful and less
fuel efficient compared to turboprops.

In a turboshaft the main gearbox is part of the vehicle (e.g. helicopter rotor reduction
gearbox), not the engine.

At a given power output, compared to the equivalent piston engine, a turboshaft is

extremely compact and lightweight.

Turboshaft are mainly used to power: helicopters, ships, tanks, .

Turboshafts ground-idle RPM: around 58% of max. power.

***Today practically all smaller turbine engines come in both turboprop and turboshaft
versions, differing primarily in their accessory systems.

Propfan
A propfan engine (unducted fan/open rotor/ultra-high bypass) is a jet
engine that uses its gas generator to power an exposed fan, similar to
turboprop engines generating most of their thrust from the propeller and
not the exhaust jet but the propeller blades on a propfan are highly swept
to allow them to operate at speeds around Mach 0.8, which is competitive
with modern commercial turbofans. These engines have the fuel
efficiency advantages of turboprops with the performance capability of
commercial turbofans. While significant research and flight testing has
been conducted, no propfan engines have entered production.
Supersonic engines
Turbojet with Super-cruise
Engines flying over 1.0M without afterburners being more fuel efficient than the others
(E.g. Concorde at 2.2M, Tu144 at 1.6M, Euro-fighter and F22).

Turbojet with afterburners

Ram powered engines

They rely only on air compressed through the inlet/diffuser and are the most simple type
of air breathing jet engine as they contain no moving parts. Unable to work at low speeds.

Ramjet
3 sections: inlet, combustor and nozzle. They
require high speed to compress the incoming
air and so, they cannot operate at standstill
and are most efficient at supersonic speeds.
However they are limited to approx. Mach 5 as
the supersonic incoming air is dramatically
slowed through the inlet to subsonic speeds
for combustion, reducing efficiency. Mainly
used in Rockets, in military a/c after reaching
the speed needed and in advanced helicopters
placed at the tip of the rotor blades as a
support for the standard propulsion system.

Scramjet (Supersonic combusting ramjet)
Very similar to ramjets but it does not slow the
airflow to subsonic speeds for combustion, i.e. they
use supersonic combustion and thus they can
operate at speeds above Mach 6 where Ramjets are
inefficient. On the other hand Ramjets compress the
airflow through the inlet but Scramjets take
advantage of the high operating speeds to compress
the air by generated oblique shock waves (Very few
scramjet engines have ever been built and flown. In
May 2010 the Boeing X-51 set the endurance record
of 200 seconds). NASA scramjet at 9.6M

(QUESTIONS DEFINITIONS)

Turbojet
The propulsive efficiency of a turbojet is the ratio of Propelling nozzle thrust to energy supplied
to the nozzle.

Turbofan

The fan in a high by pass ratio turbo jet engine produces the greater
part of the thrust.

The by-pass air in a turbofan promotes lower specific fuel consumption by causing an overall
decrease in exhaust gas flow average velocity and higher propulsive efficiency.

Turboprop

The control of free turbine engines on turbo props, is accomplished by:

- a propeller control lever used to select propeller RPM
- a fuel control lever used to select torque & turbine temperature

Torque is measured in a turbo prop engine at the Reduction gearbox (Torque can be
determined by measuring the oil pressure at the fixed crown of an epicycloidal reducer of
the main engine gearbox)

When a turbo prop anti-icing system is switched on whilst at cruise:
-Propeller RPM remains unchanged, turbine temperature rises and torque reduces.

Turboshaft (Free turbine)

In an engine having a Free turbine there is a mechanical connection between the power
output shaft and the turbine (The mechanical link between the gas generator and the propeller
turbine is removed).

A free turbine is directly connected to a propeller or gearbox and to nothing else.

In a free turbine engine, the energy delivered by the free turbine stages is dependent on the
rotational speed of the gas generator.

The greatest risk created by a free turbine overspeed is bursting of the free turbine disk.

2-PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A gas turbine engine operates in accordance with the Brayton cycle.

Speed, TC & velocity

Compressor:

After air has passed through the compressor, the TC will be higher than the inlet TC.

Pressure increases in both the rotor and stator and speed remains constant or decreases
slightly in the compressor.

Turbine:

The turbine or propelling nozzle is designed in order to increase the gas stream velocity
and decrease its pressure.

Nozzle guide vanes (stator) form convergent ducts which direct the gas onto the turbine
blades (Convergence accelerates the gas and reduces its pressure).

Air pressure "decreases" and its velocity "increases" as it passes over the impulse/reaction
turbine blades or nozzle guide vanes.

*As the gas flows through the turbine: Pressure, velocity and T gradually decrease (see above)

Newtons 3rd Low of Motion: where the principles underlying the effects of jet propulsion are set out in.

IMPULSE - REACTION

Turbine blade stages may be classified as either impulse or reaction:
-In an Impulse Turbine, the pressure drops across the nozzle guide vanes and remains constant
across the rotor blades (An impulse turbine is a turbine in which the expansion takes place
fully at the stator).
-In a Reaction Turbine, the pressure drops across the nozzle guide vanes and the rotor blades.

3-THRUST

Following the principles of propulsion, to achieve acceleration, the air exiting the engine
must be faster than the air at the inlet. On a supersonic engine both speeds need to be
higher than the speed of sound.


THRUST DISTRIBUTION
At the start of the cycle, air is induced into the engine and is compressed. The rearward
accelerations through the compressor stages and the resultant pressure rise produces a
large reactive force in a forward direction. On the next stage of its journey the air passes
through the diffuser where it exerts a small reactive force, also in a forward direction.
From the diffuser the air passes into the combustion chambers where it is heated,
and in the consequent expansion and acceleration of the gas large forward forces are
exerted on the chamber walls. When the expanding gases leave the combustion chambers
and flow through the nozzle guide vanes they are accelerated and deflected on to the
blades of the turbine. Due to the acceleration and deflection, together with the subsequent
straightening of the gas flow as it enters the jet pipe, considerable drag results; thus the
vanes and blades are subjected to large rearward forces, the magnitude of which may be
seen on the diagram. As the gas flow passes through the exhaust system, small forward
forces may act on the inner cone or bullet, but generally only rearward forces are produced
and these are due to the drag of the gas flow at the propelling nozzle.

THRUST PERFORMANCE

Effect of TC (Trip fuel & Specific range unaffected. However, lower OAT = shorter flight time)
With cold air, density increases and the air mass entering the compressor for a given
engine RPMs is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p, is higher. However, denser air increases
the power required to drive the compressor or compressors and thus FF increases to
maintain the same engine RPMs otherwise it will run at a reduced engine speed.
With warm air, the opposite will occur and the fuel control system will decrease FF for
same RPMs (E.g: At a temperature of 45C. a thrust loss of up to 20% may be experienced.
This means that some sort of thrust augmentation, such as water injection, may be
required).

Effect of altitude
With increasing altitude, air pressure/density and TC are reduced:
-The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into the engine for
a given engine RPMs. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall.
-The fall in air TC increases the density of the air, and so, the air mass entering the
compressor for a given engine speed is greater.

***Summarizing, the mass airflow will reduce but at a lower rate due to being
compensated for TC decrease up to the tropopause where TC then remains constant
(lower density prevails over TC and thus thrust decreases) .

Effect of humidity: humid air is less dense, and thus thrust decreases.

Effect of speed
Jet engine thrust declines with speed until about M0.5 , whereafter ram recovery steadily
restores the thrust to approximate static speed values in the vicinity of M0.75 (High by-
pass engines). After that, thrust in SOME turbojet engines will exceed static thrust.

Intake momentum drag (velocity effect): As the airplane speed increases, the intake air
hitting the fan creates drag reducing thrust until M0.5.

Intake pressure (ram effect): On the other hand, the increased intake pressure due to ram
effect/compressibility increases thrust after M0.5.

Net thrust = Gross thrust Intake momentum drag

Effect of RPMs Thrust difference between jet engine types
Thrust increases with the square of the RPMs.















Engine thrust tips
Engine thrust depends on the OAT + Pressure (less density less thrust)
The selection of bleed air to ON will cause a decrease in power (about 10%), an increase in
EGT, jet engine RPMs decrease (turboprop RPMs constant).
With a given throttle setting selected (constant FF), as the aircraft increases altitude
engine rpm will increase and thrust will reduce.
In a gas turbine engine, the power changes are normally made by controlling the FF.
The mass airflow through the engine will vary if density, fuel flow and forward speed vary.
At constant thrust and altitude, the FF increases slightly with airspeed.
At constant MACH, thrust and FF decreases if ambient pressure decreases at constant TC.
At constant RPM, thrust increases in proportion to speed.
A sand filter located at the air intake of a jet engine reduces the efficiency of the air intake.
If air is tapped from a gas turbine HP compressor, EPR decreases and EGT increases.


Miscellaneous
Engine thrust is limited by its:
Max. internal pressure
Max. EGT.
Max. RPMs

The thrust of a turbo jet, at the selection of full power:
Equals the product of the exhaust gas mass flow and the exhaust gas velocity
Is equivalent to zero mechanical power since the aeroplane is not moving


FLAT-FULL RATED ENGINE

A flat rated engine is an engine constrained in thrust to a lower setting than the maximum
achievable along a determined range maintain a constant thrust before Tref (about 30), where
it falls below the maximum output. The engine is Flat rated (max. thrust available) below Tref.
and Full rated (below max. thrust) above. Note: EGT decreases 3 per every degree below Tref.

Derated T/O

Fixed engine thrust reduction allowing better T/O performances (e.g. 22k, 24k, 26k).
The crew will not be able to set max. thrust should they need it at any phase of the T/O.

E.g. When operating on wet + short rwys, V1 is too high limited by Vmcg and a T/O is not
possible. Reducing engine thrust results in a better global performance allowing a T/O to
be performed by adding a small penalty to the TOR/TOD.

Reduced thrust (Flexible T C AIRBUS, Assumed TC BOEING)

Punctual thrust reduction technique used on most of the T/Os when power is in excess. It
will always be done under the CPTs discretion and max. thrust will remain available should
the crew need it at any moment (Boeing - levers full forward).

It increases an engines life, reduce its maintenance costs, earn fuel over a long term period
and increase an engines reliability.

*Note: After assuming a T, find out the new V1, Vr & V2 at ATOW but with the assumed
TC as real. For every 3 between the OAT and the assumed T, the expected T/O distance
decreases 1% with respect to the published distance should the T be real that day.

Forbidden when:

-Periodically the maintenance program publishes mandatory full thrust T/Os.

-Antiskid inop (In some companies also if reverse thrust or auto spoilers inop)
-Contaminated rwys: Snow, slush, ice+mud (some companies: windshear, TW, icing, T inversion).


Engine stations

Pt2: Total inlet pressure

Pt8: Total discharge pressure
Tt2: Total inlet TC
Tt8: Total discharge TC
Ps2: static inlet pressure
ITT: Interstage turbine TC
THRUST INDICATION

N1
N1 reading gives an alternative but less accurate assessment of thrust than EPR.

EPR (engine pressure ratio)

EPR tips:
1) At a constant EPR, thrust decreases if altitude increases.
2) At a constant EPR, thrust increases with Mach number.
3) At same environmental conditions, a given EPR setting maintains the thrust irrespective of
engine wear due to ageing.

*If compressor inlet pressure sensor is blocked by ice on take-off, the EPR gauge would
over read and insufficient thrust would be set for take-off (EPR should be crossed checked
against the expected N1 reading).

EPR setting on T/O roll
EPR on T/O roll must be set at 80k because thrust and the EPR reading decreases as airspeed
increases due to intake momentum drag. If the EPR is set later than 80k, the setting is not valid
and engine over temperature may occur. All tables and charts are calibrated to 80k indications.







THRUST AUGMENTATION
The two types of thrust augmentation are After burning (50-70% more thrust) & Water-
methanol injection (up to 20% more thrust. Compressor or comb chamber injected).
The main reason why methanol is mixed with water is to prevent the mixture from
freezing (optimum mixture 60% water and 40% metanol).

JATO/RATO take off (Jet assisted or rocket assisted. Both terms mean the same)

4-STARTING SYSTEMS

The usual methods of starting civil aircraft engines are air

starter motor (60-80.000 rpms) or electrical starter motor.

START-UP TYPES
For a turbine engine self-sustaining speed = run without any external assistance (idle speed).

Wet start
Failure to start after the fuel has been delivered to the engine (normally an ignition problem).

Indications:
-EGT doesnot rise
-RPMs stabilize at starter maximum

Actions:
-Close the fuel lever ASAP
-Motor over the engine to blow out the fuel for approx. 60s.

Hung start
Failure of an engine to acc. to its idle speed caused by insuff. airflow to support combustion due to:
-Low air density (high TC, high altitude)
-Inefficient compression
-Low starter rpms (attempting to ignite the fuel before the engine has been accelerated
sufficiently by the starter)

Indications:
-High EGT
-RPMs below idle speed

Actions:
-Close fuel lever
-Motor over the engine to blow out the fuel for approx. 60s.

Hot start
Engine ignites and reaches idle but combustion is unstable & EGT rises rapidly over its max. limit.

Causes:
-Over fuelling (throttle open)
-Air intake/exhaust blocked
-Tailwind causing the compressor to run backward
-Seized engine (e.g ice blockage)

Indication:
-EGT rising rapidly

Actions:
-Close fuel lever before reaching EGT limit
- Motor over the engine to blow out the fuel for approx. 60s.
5-SUPERSONIC INTAKES

Normal shockwaves create near the intake of an engine flying supersonic (Fig 4.8). This
shockwaves are efficiently the poorest because they cause a large total pressure loss,
much more than the oblique shockwave and for this reason designers look for the oblique
one. The oblique shockwaves present in one hand a less total pressure loss but in the
other hand they have also a smaller velocity drop so after the shockwave we may have a
supersonic speed and a normal shockwave will form, represented in red at Fig. 4.10. The
objective is to create as many oblique shocks as possible before the, usually inevitable,
normal shock which will now form farther forward, inside the intake, rather that outside.

We have to types of oblique shockwaves:

The 2D oblique planar shockwaves are much more easy to apply with less mathematics's
complexity and in many air inlets that are close to the fuselage the intakes are rectangular so
the planar shockwave is more recommended (See Fig. 23-9, 4.13 and Fig. 4.14). However at
high Mach number the deceleration of the variable throat area intake/convergent shape is
not enough and we must adopt a 3D shockwave exterior / interior compression intake (Fig
23-8).

The 3D oblique conical shockwaves are used in circle intakes with a movable cone in the
middle that creates a shockwave that fits with the intake's frame and decelerates all the
airflow entering the engine. Depending on the airplane speed, the central cone will move
forward o rearwards to adjust the oblique shockwaves. At higher speeds the cone will be
positioned much forward than in lower speeds (Fig 23-8 and 4.9).

The supersonic air intakes may well have fitted a secondary intake for T/O and a spill port for
supersonic flight. As aircraft speed increases above MACH1, so does the intake compression
ratio and it is necessary to have a variable throat area intake and spill valves to accommodate
and control the changing volumes of air. At supersonic speeds, the airflow velocity must be
decreased to subsonic between the intake and the engine air inlet so the engine can efficiently
use it. The angle of the variable throat area intake automatically varies with aircraft speed and
positions the shock wave to decrease the air velocity at the engine inlet and maintain
maximum pressure recovery within the inlet duct. This type of intake produces a series of mild
shock waves without excessively reducing the intake efficiency. The ideal situation for max.
supersonic intake efficiency (recovery factor) is known as "Critical Operation".

6-COMPRESSION

Convergence/divergence
The flow duct of the axial flow compressor of a turbo jet engine is tapered (convergent) so as
to maintain a constant axial speed in cruising flight.

Compressor types
Axial compressor characteristics
1) A low pressure ratio by stage (but higher overall pressure ratio)
2) The possibility of compressing a large mass airflow
3) Expensive to manufacture
4) Greater vulnerability to foreign object damage

Centrifugal compressor characteristics
1) a high pressure ratio by stage (but lower overall pressure ratio)
2) Limited airflow and large diameter
3) Cheap to manufacture
4) Lower vulnerability to foreign object damage
In a centrifugal compressor the air enters the impeller axially at the eye and leaves at the
periphery tangentially. As air flows through the eye to the tips of the impeller blades,
velocity increases, pressure increases and temperature increases.

*A centrifugal compressor will produce about 5:1 ratio per stage (i.e. impeller & diffuser)
compared to an axial that gives about 1.2:1 per stage. However the use of multi stage axial
compressors gives a bigger overall ratio.
*By comparison with an axial flow compressor, a centrifugal compressor is more robust and
technologically less complicated.

Engine stages & spools

Each set of rotors and stators is called a "stage".
In a "single spool" gas turbine engine, the "compressor rpm is the same as turbine rpm".
In a multi-spool turbo fan engine, the fan is driven by the rear most turbine (twin spool or
multi-spool if more than 2).
About a twin spool compressor: The low pressure spool (N1) runs at a lower rpm that the high
pressure spool (N2).
A fan stage of a ducted fan turbine engine is driven by the low pressure turbine.

By comparison with a single spool axial flow turbo-jet, a twin spool engine is more flexible in
operation, less prone to surge and with higher compression ratios and a better overall
performance.

Example: The CFM56 its a boosted twin spool engine with 13 stages
N1 (Low pressure spool, 4 stages): The fan and 3 booster stages.
N2 (High pressure spool, 9 stages): 1 stage of variable IGV, 3 VSV stages and 5 fixed stator
stages.

Compression blades

In a gas turbine engine, compressor and turbine blades, which are not rigidly fixed in position when
the engine is stationary, take up a rigid position when the engine is running due to:

a) The resultant of aerodynamic and centrifugal forces-------Correct
b) Thermal expansion ------------------------------------------Incorrect (Fan cruise TC = TAT, e.g -30)

The noise you hear is because the fan blades are installed in what is known as a fir tree assy,
not fitting tightly when the engine is not turning. However, with the engine turning, centrifugal
force forces the blades outward tighting them in the retainers. The reasoning behind this "tip
shake" is to increase the fans resistance to fod ingestion (ie: birdstrikes) by allowing the fan
blades to better absorb the initial impact of a foreign object.

VIGV (variable inlet guide vanes)
-They reduce engine surging.
-They ensure air velocity is at a maximum and
the airflow direction is correct prior to entry
to the 1st compressor blades stage.




VSV (Variable stator vanes)
It controls primary airflow through the
HP compressor by varying the angle of
the VIGV and three VSV stages.

VBV (Variable Bleed valves)

They control airflow quantity of the HP

compressor to reduce engine surging.

Its purpose is to reduce the airflow across the rear or HP compressor and increase it across
the early stages to prevent stall/surging, so, by bleeding off some of the flow to the by-pass
airstream at an intermediate stage (usually between the LP and HP compressor of an axial
compressor) preventing surge/stall of the LP compressor.

They are fully open during during low compressor RPM (start-up and shutdown), rapid
accelerations and reverse thrust operation.

-Closing of the compressor bleed valves (or even just one) can be very damaging to the unit.

-High pressure bleed valves reduce the engine pressure ratio.

Example: PW4460 Principle of operation

The 4th stage bleed valve controls the quantity of air

that goes into the high pressure compressor (HPC) (At
low engine RPM, the low pressure compressor (LPC)
supplies more air than is necessary for operation and
thus air is discharged to the by-pass airflow. The valve
closes when the engine RPM is sufficient to let the full
flow of fan air go into the N2 compressor. This makes
the compressor more stable at start, during transient
operation, and during reverse thrust operation).

The two HPC 9th stage bleed valves (one for engine
starting & the other for stability) give increased
compressor stability during engine start (smoother
accelerations to idle during start), decelerations, and
shutdown as well as prevent possible compressor
surges/stalls during operation. The bleeds are
controlled as a function of N2 speed and engine inlet
total temperature (T2).

7-STALL (UPSET) & SURGE (CHOKE)

Introduction (Flyaround 6638, 3905, 3988)

Just like what happens to the airflow over a wing, if the airflow over the rotor airfoils
exceed an AOA set value and separates, the airfoils enter a STALL (The relative airflow is
made up of two flows: a flow due to rotation and a horizontal flow). On an airplanes wing,
the wing no longer generates sufficient lift and the airplane descends. However, here,
once the airflow separates/breaks down over the rotor blades they become stalled, that
airfoil looses the ability to continue to move the air through the engine toward the rear.
When this happens, there is nothing to prevent the higher pressure air further aft in the
engine from flowing forward to the lower pressure stages farther forward. This reverse
flow is called a SURGE and is extremely violent and damging. Surges dont last long; only
small fractions of a second, but thats enough. The stall and surge are technically different
phenomena, but they are very closely related, as you can see.

*A one stage stall will not be noticed neither heard by any member of the crew nor give a
surge. Not all Stalls result in Surges.
* A surge only occurs if the whole compressor stalls. A violent explosion will be heard.

STALL (Causes, Indications and How to overcome)

Causes: Jet turbine engines are designed to operate using a clean uniform airflow pattern
obtained at a normal attitude. However, beyond the aircrafts normal angles of incidence
and slip, or anything that disrupts smooth airflow into the engine intake, the engines can
experience a variation in the ingested airs pressure/density, volume, AOA & velocity
properties changing the incidence of the air onto the compressor blades causing it to stall
and generating a vibration (extremely severe turbulence, x-winds during T/O, the actual
rotation of the engine inlet during T/O rotation, rapid changes in aircraft attitude, foreign
object ingestion like a bird, rapid accelerations or very rapid throttle movements, etc).

Indications: A STALL can be identified by an increase in EGT, engine vibration and RPM
fluctuations.

To overcome STALL, the Fuel Control Unit (FCU) gives the order to open the surge bleed valves
(blow off valves/compressor bleed valves/blow-in-doors) at the air inlets providing the
engine with additional air at high power settings and low air speeds maintaining the flow
across the early stages.
On the other hand VIGV and VSV are directed at angle of attacks less than stalling onto the
blades when axial flow rates are low.

An axial compressor, when operating below its design speed, has a tendency to stall in the
front stages.

Surge/Stall margin

Jet engines have a defined surge margin ensuring they never run in regions of their
operational envelope where surge could be an issue. This margin includes allowances for
many parameters such as intake icing, bird ingestion and unsteady flows brought about by
rapid maneuvering.

Surge margins at different power settings are however maintained by the use of engine
bleeds and variable intake guide vanes on both twin and triple spool engines.

*The intake design has to be able to deliver the correct "quality" of air to the compressor
face to avoid any chance of the engine experiencing a surge.

*The exhaust gasses exit the turbine and pass through the jet pipe to the nozzle. The
purpose of the nozzle is to control the flow out of the engine. The nozzle can adjust its
area to both increase the thrust of the engine and also to help controlling engine surge.

SURGE (Causes and how to avoid)

A surge is the reversal of airflow through an engine, an extremely violent and damaging
event due to compressor stall, where the high-pressure air in the combustion chamber is
expelled forward through the compressors, with a loud bang and a resulting loss of engine
thrust. A surge is caused when:

1- All the compressor stages stall (e.g. negative gs maneuver).

2- An excessive fuel flow creating a high pressure in the rear of the engine. The engine will
then demand a pressure rise from the compressors to maintain its equilibrium, but when
the pressure rise demanded is greater than the compressor blades can sustain, a surge
occurs, creating an instantaneous breakdown of the flow through the machine.

*A surge is indicated by a total loss of thrust & a large increase in EGT. If air is tapped from
a gas turbine HP compressor, EPR decreases and EGT increases.

*To overcome surge: close throttles smoothly and slowly, adjust the aircrafts attitude to
unstall the engines, which lead to the surge and slowly and smoothly reopen the throttles.

8-COMBUSTION (usually 1700C may peak at 2100C)
In a gas turbine engine, the maximum gas temperature is attained within the combustion
chamber where combustion takes place continuously.

Both gas turbine and piston engines utilise a cycle of induction, compression, combustion and exhaust,
however, in gas turbines these processes are "continuous" and comb occurs at "constant pressure".
Inconel is a nickel based alloy which is often used in the combustion chamber.

The overall air/fuel ratio of a typical gas turbine combustion chamber varies between 45:1-
130:1 with 60:1 being normal (remember the ratio being rich on the swirler and lean on the
rear part). However, as the kerosene burns most efficient at 15.6:1, on which it achieves the
max. T and thus generates max. NOx emissions, modern combustors work always above the
stoichiometric ratio to reduce NOx (reciprocating engines 14.7 and diesel 14.6).

A divergent duct (diffuser) in the combustion chamber inlet and in the flame tube reduces inlet
air velocity to a speed suitable for stable combustion.

Secondary air holes increase engine cooling with the secondary airflow cooling the gas flow
prior to entering the flame tube, air casing material and NGV (nozzle guide vanes).

Air flow paths

Primary air: It is the combustion air fed through

the main channels in the dome of the combustor and the first set of liner holes. This air is
mixed with fuel, and then combusted.

Intermediate air: Air injected into the combustion zone through the second set of liner
holes cooling the air down and diluting the high concentrations of CO & H2.

Dilution air: Airflow injected through holes in the liner at the end of the combustion
chamber to help cooling the air to before it reaches the turbine stages.

Cooling air: Airflow injected through small holes in the liner to generate a layer (film) of
cool air protecting the liner from the combustion temperatures. Design carefully so it does
not directly interact with the combustion air and process.
Components

Case (air casing): The case is the outer shell of the combustor.

Diffuser: it slows the high speed highly compressed air to a

velocity optimal for the combustor.

Liner: It contains the combustion and introduces the airflows

(intermediate, dilution, and cooling) into the combustion zone.

Snout: Extension of the dome acting as an air splitter, separating

the primary air from the secondary air flows (intermediate, dilution, and cooling air).

Dome / swirler: (aparently they do not move)

It generates turbulence on the primary air passing through to rapidly mix the air with fuel and
reduce its speed. However, the higher the turbulence or speed reduction, the higher the
pressure loss for the combustor, so the dome and swirler must be carefully designed.

Fuel injector: Introduces fuel to the combustion zone and, along with the swirler, mixes
the fuel and air. There are 4 types:

-Pressure atomizing: High fuel pressure atomizes the fuel. Simple but the fuel tends to
be heterogeneously atomized, resulting in incomplete combustion whith pollutants + smoke.

-Air blast injector: Fuel blasted with a stream of air diverted through the injector, rather
than the swirler. Homogeneous droplets. Smokeless combustion. Lower fuel pressure.

-Vaporizing fuel injector: same as air blast injector but the fuel-air mixture vaporizes
while traveling through a tube within the combustion zone (mixing it better). Less thermal
radiation protecting the liner, but the tube can be seriously damaged by heat.

-The premixing/prevaporizing injectors work by mixing or vaporizing the fuel before it

reaches the combustion zone. This method allows the fuel to be very uniformly mixed with
the air, reducing emissions from the engine but fuel-air misture may combust before
reaching the combustion zone and the combustor can be seriously damaged.
Combustion process + flow distribution

Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity up to 500
feet per second and is thus decelerated for combustion (there will be a loss of about 5-7%
of air pressure upon reaching the combustion chamber due to the deceleration).

An electric spark from an igniter initiates combustion and the flame is then self-sustained.

The air from the swirl vanes and that from the secondary air holes interacts and creates a
vortex of low velocity recirculation which has the effect of stabilizing and anchoring the
flame. The conical fuel spray from the nozzle should intersect the recirculation vortex at its
center. This action, together with the general turbulence in the primary zone, assists in
breaking up the fuel and mixing it with the incoming air.

The fuel must be burned within only the primary combustion zone before the dilution air
enters the flame tube. This is achieved by means of a flame tube (combustion liner) that
has various devices for metering the airflow distribution along the chamber.

***The design of a combustion chamber and the fuel injection may vary as well as the
airflow distribution like the GEnx engine where all the air passes through the swirl.

20% of the airflow passes to the primary combustion zone throught the snout:
8% perforated flare + 12% swirl vanes (The swirling air induces a flow upstream of the
center of the flame tube and promotes the desired re-circulation).

80% of the airflow flows into the annular space between the flame tube and the air
casing:
-20% to the primary zone
-60% is therefore introduced progressively into the flame tube to reduce the combustion
gases TC (1.800 to 2.000 C) in order to be able to entry to the nozzle guide vanes (20%
used to lower the gas T in the dilution zone before it enters the turbine. 40% used for
cooling the walls of the flame tube by a film of cooling air flowing along the inside surface
of the flame tube wall, insulating it from the hot combustion gases).

Combustion chamber types
Note: The injector is sorrounded by the flame tube, and the flame tube by the air casing.
(The blue indicates cooling flow path, the orange indicates the combustion product flow
path. The small orange circles are the fuel injection nozzles).

Multiple-Can (pressure drop across the can is 7%)
Self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers. The chambers are disposed around the
engine and compressor air passes into each individual chamber. Each "can" has its own
fuel injector, flame tube and air casing. However, the separate flame tubes are all
interconnected allowing each tube to operate at the same pressure and allowing flame
propagation to adjacent chambers (only 2 igniters per engine).

Heavier and larger engine diameter but burners are individually removable for inspection
and the air-fuel mixture patterns are easier to control.

Used on modern centrifugal compressor turboshaft engines and earlier axial flow compressor
engines as modern engines -particularly for aircraft applications- do not use can combustors
as they weigh more than alternatives.

Cannular (pressure drop 6%)

It bridges the evolutionary gap between the multiple and annular types. A number of flame
tubes are fitted inside a common air casing (annulus) allowing air to flow circumferentially.
This arrangement combines the ease of overhaul and testing of the can combustor with the
compactness of the annular system. It makes good use of available space, it is lighter and the
common annular housing allows for good control of fuel and airflow patterns having a more
uniform temperature profile, which is better for the turbine section. E.g: P&W JT8D & GE J79

Annular (pressure drop 5%)

This type of combustion chamber consists of a single flame tube, completely annular in
form, which is contained in an inner and outer air casing.

Advantages:
-More uniform combustion (elimination of combustion propagation problems from
chamber to chamber)
-Space optimization due to a shorter size (the length of the chamber is 75% of a can-annular:
Less surface area, lighter, less material and flame tube walls cooling airl is less, raising the
combustion efficiency) fitting better with the compressor and turbine.
-Very uniform exit temperatures, lowest pressure drop of the three designs and simpler,
although testing requires a full size test.

Most used combustor on modern engines and on which research and development
focuses (e.g. CFM56).

Double annular combustor (DAC)
Annular combustor variation. It has two
combustion zones inside the flame tube; a pilot
zone (acting like a single annular combustor and
is only operating at low power levels) and a main
zone (at high power levels increasing air and
mass flow through the combustor).
GE's implementation of this type of combustor
focuses on reducing NOx and CO2 emissions.
9 - FF - FADEC (Full authority digital engine control)

In some engines the output is controlled by a FADEC.

The FADEC has its own internal engine driven power source, supplemented by aircraft
power at low N1. A FADEC that uses EPR as its primary thrust measurement may have an
N1 mode as a fall-back.

Functions:
FF regulation (*)
Automatic and manual starting sequence
Engine data transmission to EFIS
Thrust management and operating limits protection (**)
Monitoring of thrust reverses

* The FADEC adjusts fuel flow to achieve the demanded EPR or N1 while keeping the
engine inside its operating limits. It will take thrust lever angle, OAT, TAT at the engine
intake, altitude, Mach number and the degree of bleed take-off for pressurisation and
other services and calculate a reference EPR. The actual EPR is then compared to the
reference and FF is then adjusted to match the actual and reference EPR.

**FADEC protects the engine from overspeed, from exceeding the EGT limits and from
surge. Turbine engine maximum thrust ratings are limited by either engine RPM or EGT.

10-IGNITION
Most igniters in gas turbine applications are electrical spark igniters. In some systems
ignition-assist techniques are used where oxygen is fed to the ignition area, helping the
fuel easily combust. This is particularly useful in some aircraft applications where the
engine may have to restart at high altitude.

The use of igniters is necessary on a turbo jet:

1) For ground starts
2) For in-flight relights
3) During turbulence in flight
4) Under heavy precipitation or in icing conditions

When a gas turbine engine is fitted with can-type combustion chambers a total of only two
igniters are usually fitted since the chambers are inter-connected.

11-TURBINES
Blade Creep: It is the increase in length of turbine rotor blades during their operating life due
to heat and stress. Creep of turbine blades is caused by high blade temperature whilst under
centrifugal loading.

A gas turbine engine turbine section may employ active clearance control to provide enhanced
clearances between the blade tips and the casing.

A tip shroud is fitted to a turbine blade to increase turbine efficiency by preventing tip losses.

NGV (nozzle guide vanes- turbine stator vanes):

After heating, air passes from the combustor through the nozzle guide vanes to the
turbine. They increase the gas velocity to as high a speed as possible and guide the stream at
the correct angle onto the turbine blades. The propelling nozzle must be designed to obtain
the correct balance of pressure and velocity to prevent flow separation.

While flowing through a turbine blade, gas velocity "Reduces

from root to tip".

12-EGT (usually 700C)
Where is EGT measured?
a) Between the gas generator turbine and the free power turbine -- Correct
b) HP turbine outlet --------------------------------------------------------------Correct
c) Between the stages of the gas generator turbine ---------------------Incorrect
d) In the jet pipe------------------------------------------------------------------ Incorrect


At constant fuel flow, if engine compressor air is bled off for engine anti-icing or a similar
system, the turbine temperature will rise.

Which part of the gas turbine engine limits the temperature? The Turbine.

On landing and prior to shut down, a gas turbine engine should be run at GROUND IDLE for a
short period. This allows the core temperature to diminish.

Severe compressor stall can be indicated amongst others by rise in turbine gas temperature
(TGT) and a change in vibration level.

On most gas turbine engines the Take off power has a time limit of 5 minutes unless an
emergency exists which requires this power.

13-EXHAUST NOZZLE

Following the principles of propulsion we know that for achieving an acceleration the air
exiting the engine must be faster than the air at the inlet.

Subsonic nozzle
The shape of the exhaust unit is slightly "Divergent and pressure increases".
A diffuser in a gas turbine converts kinetic pressure into static pressure.
The axial airflow velocity through a turbo jet engine is greatest on exit from the propelling
nozzle.

Supersonic nozzle

In a supersonic engine inlet+exhaust speeds will need to be higher than the speed of sound.
If we have a subsonic engine we must try to find a way to decelerate the air entering the
engine and another way to accelerate the air after the turbine reaching speeds over M = 1.

A convergent-divergent duct located in a gas turbine exhaust unit allows acceleration of

the gas to supersonic speeds in the convergent part of the exhaust unit (Mach 1) and then
uses the properties of a divergent duct under supersonic flow conditions to continue to
accelerate the gas flow to the maximum speed possible.

Case 1 - It is a typical convergent-divergent nozzle working at subsonic speeds, with an exit
pressure equal to the ambient pressure and very similar to the inlet pressure. The air is
accelerated in the convergent section of the jet pipe and reaches its top speed at the
minimum area but as the Mach number still under 1 the divergent sector instead of
accelerating will decelerate the speed as seen at Fig. 5.9. This is a nonsense example
because we would prefer a convergent nozzle to accelerate the flow in subsonic range.

Case 2 - The Mach number at the throat is equal to 1 but a shockwave is formed so the
speed becomes subsonic again and thereafter no acceleration exists in the divergent sector
(Fig. 5.10). This nozzle's design is not operated in those regimes because of its efficiency.

Case 3 - It is the ideal condition giving max thrust. The air is first accelerated reaching sonic
speed at the minimum area and then continues growing in speed until the exit of the jet pipe.
The exit pressure is equal to the ambient pressure and any shock is found on the flow (Fig. 5.11).

Case 4 - Similar to case 3 but at the exit, the ambient pressure is a little higher than the
exit pressure so when flow exits the nozzle it needs to pass through a compression wave
what will cause an increase on pressure but a velocity drop (Fig. 5.12). As the pressure rise
in the shockwaves is very radical after the compression wave we will find an expansion
wave followed by another compression wave until the pressures are equaled (Fig. 5.13)

Case 5 - Here we find that the ambient pressure is slightly below the exit pressure so we
find something similar to the precedent. The under expanded flow must be expanded
using shockwaves and it will follow a complex 2D pattern with expansion and compression
waves. Those waves will form, as before, a series of figures visible to sight (Fig. 5.16). The
Mach variation is practically identical to Case 4 with the exception of the slightly
acceleration after the air leaves the nozzle seen at Fig. 5.14.

Case 6 - This one is different from the others because it does not exist pressure continuity
from the nozzle inlet to the exit. The outside pressure is over the designed exit pressure of
the nozzle and a shockwave or series of small shocks create inside the nozzle decelerating
the fluid to subsonic speed. It is also an over-expanded case quite similar to number four
with the exception that the shock is formed inside the nozzle. See Fig. 5.15.

7. Case 7 - It is a derivation of the precedent case. If the pressure variation between the
nozzle designed and the ambient is very few, the Shockwave will be formed just at the exit
so the discontinuity will be found when the nozzle finishes. There is a difference between
number 7 and numbers 4 and 5. In this a normal shockwave appears which reduces the
speed and rises the pressure instantly (Fig. 5.17.) while in Case 5 and 6 there was an
oblique shock decelerating the flow gradually.

Choked nozzle
Air is considered to be compressible, and there is a maximum flow that can pass through a
given area. This area is choked when this flow is reached. This maximum flow rate per unit
of area is achieved at M = 1. To increase the flow rate, area must be increased (a higher
speed of the flow would cause a normal shockwave and the decrease in density will be
higher in respect to the speed acceleration so the flow rate will decrease. On the other
hand a slower speed would decrease the flow rate). It is very important for engines
working in a wide range of speeds to have a variable throat nozzle allowing several flow
rates to keep always sonic speed at the point of minimum area avoiding a chocked nozzle.

Rockets

Independently of the fuel used (liquid or solid) rockets thrust is given by:
Thrust = mVl +(Pl P0)Al

(P0 is the free stream pressure. The Vl will depend on the convergent-divergent shape).

Rockets have constant pressures so the throat area can be fixed to a value and so the exit
area (Al) for an optimum speed. The big difference between a rocket engine and the others is
that in this case air is not taken from the atmosphere because the propulsion gas is given by
an oxidant that acts as propulsion mass (m). Liquid rockets are used in space operations since
they give more power, while solid fuel rockets are more simple and are found or missiles.
14-NOISE The noisiest part is the Jet efflux at the jet pipe.

15-THRUST REVERSE
On a high by-pass ratio (fan) engine, reverse thrust is achieved by reversing only the direction
of the fan airflow.
Clamshell doors are mechanically selected and pneumatically actuated to change the direction
of the exhaust gas stream. Normally, thrust reversers can only be unlocked if the landing
gear squat switch is closed.

16-GEARBOX ACCESSORY UNITS
The accessory units driven by the accessory gearbox of a turbo jet engine are the:
1) Tacho generator N1
2) AC generator and its Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
3) Oil pumps
4) Hydraulic pumps
5) High pressure fuel pumps

6) Tacho generator N2 (incorrect)
7) Thrust reverser pneumatic motors (incorrect)

Engine auxiliary gearboxes provide the drives for a

wide variety of services and may even provide for
the support of the engine in the airframe.

17-OIL SYSTEM
Oil viscosity (resistance to flow/density) decreases if T increases.

Oil system types:
-Pressure relief: the oil flow to the bearings is controlled limiting the feed line pressure to a det. value.
(If the spring pressure relief valve does not seat correctly it would result in a "Low" oil pressure).
-Full flow systems: oil is directly supplied to the bearings providing them with progressively
increased pressure as engine rpm increases as the pressure relief system was unable.

Dry/wet sump system
Engine oil reservoirs are sometimes located at the front of the
engine to allow the hot oil to heat the air intake.

Vents in oil tanks are primarily to prevent excessive pressure

from building up in tank.

In a wet oil sump system, oil is kept in the Engine and Sump.
The air space in the top of the oil tank of a dry sump
lubrication system is for Expansion and Foaming.

The capacity (volume) of a scavenge pump in a "Dry Sump" oil

system is greater than the pressure pump in order to ensure
that the engine sump remains dry.

When the engine is stopped the oil in the crankcase will drain into the sump. As the engine
is started there will be a quantity of oil, which, if the pumps were the same size, would not
be removed. Therefore, to maintain a dry sump it is necessary for the scavenge pump to
be of a larger capacity than the pressure pump. In practice the scavenge pump capacity is
25-30% larger than that of the pressure pump.

Magnetic chip detector: The oil system of a gas turbine engine
may be fitted with a magnetic plug/chip detector warning of
impending failure without having to remove the filters for
inspection.

Oil to fuel heat exchanger
A low pressure fuel-cooled oil cooler is located between the L.P. fuel pump and the inlet to
the fuel filter. Heat is transfered from the oil to the fuel preventing blockage of the filter
element by water ice particles. When heat transference by this means is insufficient, the
fuel is passed through a second heat exchanger where it absorbs heat from a
thermostatically controlled airflow taken from the compressor. On the other hand, the oil
pressure in the oil cooler is limited by a by-pass valve between inlet and outlet
connections.


It allows:
a) Jet engine oil cooling through thermal exchange with fuel flowing from tanks----Correct
b) Automatic fuel heating by the engine oil so as to prevent icing in fuel filter ------Incorrect
(the engine oil does not automatically calculate how much does the fuel need to be heated but
the secondary bleed air heat exchanger with a fitted TC control)

Others
The oil used in gas turbine lubrication system is synthetic anti freeze oil.



18-GENERATOR SYSTEM

19-ANTI-ICE
A fan or bypass engine spinner is designed such that Rain/Hail can be deflected into the bypass duct.

20-WARNING EXHAUST

21-APU
In addition to fire detention/protection, most auxiliary power units (APUs) have automatic
controls for stalling, stopping and maintaining operation within safe limits. These controls
provide correct sequencing of the starting cycle as well as protection against:

1) High turbine gas temperature (TGT)
2) Overspeed
3) Loss of oil pressure
4) High oil temperature

The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) has its own AC generator which supplies the aircraft with
three-phase 115-200V, 400 Hz AC.