Chapter 1 Introduction

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It
is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often
accomplished by means of friction. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces
pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods
of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the
energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic
energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current
brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or
rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into
different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the
surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of
braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes
with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity, an object moving at 10 m/s has 100
times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the
theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice,
fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may
have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on
the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.
Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter
aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a
steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed
undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking
then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines
to brake. When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against

1
the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows
the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the
drum which also slows the wheel down.

Brakes are essential to safely operating a motor vehicle. Without the ability to slow and stop our
vehicles, accidents would occur at every stoplight, yield sign and drive-thru in America. The way
brakes are built has evolved over time, but modern braking systems are comprised of service
brakes, parking brakes and emergency brakes. Each type of brake is involved in particular activities
in a motor vehicle, and drivers should be familiar with how to operate each safely.

Brake Components

Before learning about the different types of brakes that make up modern braking systems and the
different systems that an automobile can have, its helpful to know some of the parts that comprise
a typical automotive braking system.

This list includes:

Brake Pads: steel backing plates used in disk brakes; friction material is bound to the
surface facing the rotor and is usually made of ceramic, metal or other hard-wearing
composite materials
Brake Shoes: 2 pieces of sheet steel welded together that carry the brake lining
Brake Drum: rotating drum-shaped component used in drum brakes
Brake Lining: heat-resistant, soft but tough material with a high friction characteristic
housed inside a brake shoe
Rotor: cast iron brake disc connected to wheel and/or axle; sometimes made of reinforced
carbon-carbon, ceramic matrix or other composite
Piston: a moving component contained by a cylinder
Calliper: a device on which brake pads and pistons are mounted
Floating Callipers: moves relative to rotor; uses a piston on a single side of disc to push
inner brake pad into braking surface before pulling calliper body in to apply pressure on
opposite side of disc; also known as a sliding calliper
Fixed Callipers: does not move relative to rotor and is sensitive to imperfections; uses one
or more single pairs of opposing pistons to clamp from each side of the rotor

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 Master Cylinder: a device that converts the non-hydraulic pressure from your foot into
hydraulic pressure and controls slave cylinders at the opposite end of the hydraulic system
Vacuum Servo/Brake Booster: a component used to enhance the master cylinder and
augment pressure from a drivers foot through the use of a vacuum in the engine intake;
only effective while vehicles engine is running

These mechanical terms are used when we describe how brakes work. Understanding the parts that
can compose a brake will help when learning about the different types of brakes used in a modern
braking system.

Proper maintenance can prevent brake failure by stopping causes of sticking, corrosion and piston
failure.

3
Chapter 2 Service Brakes
When you think of your vehicles brakes, you are most likely thinking of service brakes. These are
the components of your braking system that control speed, stop your vehicle and allow the
automobile to remain stationary at intersections. You operate the service brakes by using the left
pedal beneath your steering column.

Service Brake Characteristics

There are three common characteristics of service brake systems that can be found in modern day
vehicles, including:

Frictional

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using
an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a
working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean
pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use
friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating
wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating
drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum,
commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that
pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but
less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with
an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc
brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between
the disc surfaces and expand laterally.

A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that press
against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating road wheel hub.

Drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However, because of their low
production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on the rear of some low-cost newer vehicles.
Compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat.

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Pumping

Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an
internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping
losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to
greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative
brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the
machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a
generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad
locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and
dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor
but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit.
Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which
actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called
"electromagnetic brakes" as well).

5
Chapter 3 Characteristics
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The
peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause
a wheel skid.
Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be
dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous
power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.
Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs are
inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.
Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake
force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction brakes
without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and
leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.
Power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force leads
to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This notion of
"powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a
brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower
(worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.
Pedal feel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a
function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake and
other factors.
Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of
the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under braking
with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition.

6
 Durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be trade-
offs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.
Weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further, brakes
are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in some
circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support
structure.
Noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.

3.1. Brake boost

Fig. 3.1. Brake booster from a Geo Storm.

Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force applied
to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[4] This additional force is supplied by the manifold
vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the throttle on a running engine. This force is
greatly reduced when the engine is running at fully open throttle, as the difference between ambient
air pressure and manifold (absolute) air pressure is reduced, and therefore available vacuum is
diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver takes the right foot off
the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot braking is used.

Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often accompanied
by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine, having an open throttle,
is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in
vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will automatically downshift upon
application of the brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-wheels in contact
with the road surface.
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3.2. Inefficiency
A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative braking which
is not perfectly efficient. Therefore, a good metric of efficient energy use while driving is to note
how much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of
braking, one is squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of
the fuel economy-maximizing behaviours.

While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences efficiency is
"off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated. After a braking
event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system, allowing the brake calliper pistons to retract.
However, this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well
as thermal distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the
contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing surface.
During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to significant
parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and overall vehicle performance.

8
Chapter 4 Classification and types of brake systems

4.1. Classification of Brake system:

1. On the basis of mode of actuation:
Foot brake (also called main brake) operated by foot pedal
Hand brake it is also called parking brake operated by hand

2. On the basis of mode of operation

Air brakes
Electric brakes
Hydraulic brakes
Mechanical brakes
Vacuum brakes

3. On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels

Front-wheel brakes
Rear-wheel brakes

4. On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact

Externally contracting brakes
Internally expanding brakes

4.2. Types of Brake Systems

Depending on the vehicle you are driving, there are different types of brake systems. For instance,
many modern passenger cars use an antilock brake system, whereas semi-trucks and trailers may
require an air brake system.

Disc Brakes: A friction system using a wheel brake to slow the rotation of the automobiles
wheels; brake pads are pushed against the brakes rotor with a set of callipers

9
 Drum Brakes: A friction system using a set of shoes or pads to press against a brake drum.
Single-Circuit Hydraulic Brakes: A master cylinder fed by a reservoir of hydraulic brake
fluid and connected by a system of metal pipes and rubber fittings attached to wheel
cylinders; each wheel has opposing pistons on band or drum brake; pressure is produced
to push pistons apart and force brake pads into wheel cylinder
Dual-Circuit Hydraulic Brakes: consists of a command circuit that activates when brakes
are pressed, and a second circuit controlled by the cars computer that calculates applied
force and applies it to the hydraulic pump system
Brake-by-wire: a system of electronic wires that, when brake pedal is pushed, measures
electrical resistance and sends signals to the cars computer, which calculates applied force
and applies it to the hydraulic pump system
Antilock Braking System (ABS): an electrical control unit, hydraulic actuator and
individual wheel speed sensors that work together to prevent brakes from locking up when
they are slammed on by rapidly pumping brakes when a potential lockup is detected; each
wheel is controlled individually to maintain traction
Power Brake Booster: a system utilizing the vacuum power naturally produced in an
engine to amplify a drivers foot pressure to stop even very heavy vehicles
Air Brakes: a system using air instead of hydraulic fluid to activate a standard disc or
drum brake, usually used in buses, trucks and trailers
Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS): an autonomous safety system that
employs sensors to monitor a vehicles proximity to others in the vicinity and automatically
applies emergency braking mechanisms to avoid an imminent collision

Brake systems, whether powered by air, hydraulics or computer, are engineered for automotive
safety. Service brakes allow drivers to stay safe while manoeuvring their vehicle in ordinary
driving situations. Another form of brakes makes up the system in a passenger vehicle, in order to
protect from a collision while stopped parking brakes.

Parking Brakes

A parking brake allows for a vehicle to remain stationary when parked on an incline or flat surface,
and prevents rolling while a vehicle is not in operation. The parking brake is usually operated by
a small pedal near the drivers side door beneath the steering column, or by a lever in the centre
10
console, either requiring mechanical force to operate. Some newer-model vehicles have replaced
these devices with a simple button.

The mechanism uses a latching system with a cable that directly connects the brakes to the pedal
or lever inside the vehicles cab, which in turn uses a ratchet-locking device. Usually, the cable
used in a parking brake will bypass the service braking system to ensure the vehicle is able to stop
in the event of service brake failure.

Emergency Brakes

The parking brakes double as emergency brakes, so the mechanisms used to control both are the
same. The difference in the terms is situational, and the way the vehicle responds when using the
parking brake as an emergency brake can be extremely different than using service brakes. When
the parking/emergency brake is applied in a vehicle, the cable connecting the device and the brake
system passes to an intermediate lever, which causes the force to increase while passing through a
part called an equalizer. The equalizer then splits the cable in two, and divides the force between
the rear wheels to slow the automobile.

Because emergency brakes are only applied to the rear wheels, when they are used while a vehicle
is in motion, it is likely that the brake balance of the car may be upset, which can contribute to loss
of control. It is also probable that the force applied by the emergency brake may not be sufficient
to stop the vehicle. Emergency brakes are intended for use in cases of service brake failure as a
means of backup.

The type of braking system used often depends on the size and weight of a vehicle, as well as the
vehicles intended purpose. It is possible for a vehicle to possess more than one of these types of
service brakes, working in unison to create a stronger, more effective system. Your mechanic will
be familiar with the different mechanisms used on your car, and how to properly maintain your
braking system to keep you, your passengers and others on the road safe from harm.

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Chapter 5 Brakes in detail

5.1. Drum Brakes

A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press outward
against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum.

Fig 5.1 drum brake arrangement

The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum.
When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where the drum is
pinched between two shoes, similar to a conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch
drum brake, though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses a
flexible belt or "band" wrapping around the outside of a drum.

5.1.1. Components

Backing Plate

The backing plate provides a base for the other components. The back plate also increases the
rigidity of whole set-up, supports, protects the housing from foreign materials like dust, debris and
also absorbs the torque reactions that is why back plate is also termed as "Torque Plate. Since all
braking operations exert pressure on the backing plate, it must be strong and wear-resistant. Levers
for emergency or parking brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were also added in recent
years.

12
Brake drum

The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-conductive and wear-
resistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the brakes, the lining pushes
radially against the inner surface of the drum, and the ensuing friction slows or stops rotation of
the wheel and axle, and thus the vehicle. This friction generates substantial heat.

Wheel cylinder
One wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two pistons operate the shoes, one at each
end of the wheel cylinder. The leading shoe (closest to the front of the vehicle) is known as the
primary shoe. The trailing shoe is known as the secondary shoe. Hydraulic pressure from the
master cylinder acts on the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing them against
the drum. When the driver releases the brakes, the brake shoe springs restore the shoes to their
original (disengaged) position.

Brake shoe
Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of steel welded together. The friction material is
either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. The crescent-shaped piece is called the
Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for return springs, hold-down hardware,
parking brake linkage and self-adjusting components. All the application force of the wheel
cylinder is applied through the web to the lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining table
generally has three V"-shaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs. The nibs rest against the
support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed. Each brake assembly has two
shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the front of the vehicle and
has the lining positioned differently from the secondary shoe. Quite often, the two shoes are
interchangeable, so close inspection for any variation is important.

Linings must be resistant to heat and wear and have a high friction coefficient unaffected by
fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Materials that make up the brake shoe include, friction
modifiers (which can include graphite and cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc,
brass, aluminium and other metals that resist heat fade, binders, curing agents and fillers such as
rubber chips to reduce brake noise.

13
In the UK two common grades of brake shoe material used to be available. DON 202 was a high
friction material that did not require a brake power servo. The disadvantage was that the lining was
prone to fading on steep hills (calculate the kilowatts dissipated by a one-ton car descending a 15%
hill at a constant 60 mph) A harder lining, the famous VG95 was produced but this required a
brake servo. The other snag was that the parking brake would often fail the annual MOT test unless
the high friction linings were installed just for the test.

5.1.2. In Operation

Normal braking
When the brakes are applied, brake fluid is forced under pressure from the master cylinder into the
wheel cylinder, which in turn pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on
the inside of the drum. This rubbing action reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled
to the wheel. Hence the speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the pressure is released, return
springs pull the shoes back to their rest position.

Automatic self-adjustment
As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the drum. When the
distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the
rest position of the shoes so that they are closer to the drum. Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough
to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it
unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a little
more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to the drum. Typically the
adjusters only operate when the vehicle is going in reverse and the brakes are engaged.

Emergency brake
The parking brakes (emergency brake) system controls the brakes through a series of steel cables
that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is that the system is fully
mechanical and completely bypasses the hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought to a
stop even if there is a total brake failure. Here the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the brake and
is directly connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of bypassing the wheel cylinder and
controlling the brakes directly.

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5.1.3. Advantages

Due to the fact that a drum brake's friction contact area is at the circumference of the brake, a drum
brake can provide more braking force than an equal diameter disc brake. The increased friction
contact area of drum brake shoes on the drum allows drum brake shoes to last longer than disc
brake pads used in a brake system of similar dimensions and braking force. Drum brakes retain
heat and are more complex than disc brakes but are often the more economical and powerful brake
type to use in rear brake applications due to the low heat generation of rear brakes, a drum brake's
self-applying nature, larger friction surface contact area, and long life wear characteristics (%life
used/kW of braking power).

To list advantages of drum brakes:

less expensive to produce

Slightly lower frequency of maintenance due to better corrosion resistance compared to disks.
Built-in self energizing effect requires less input force (such as hydraulic pressure).
Wheel cylinders are somewhat simpler to recondition compared to callipers.
Minor weight savings, primarily from much smaller and lighter hydraulic cylinders vs.
callipers.

5.1.4. Disadvantages

Drum brakes, like most other brakes, convert kinetic energy into heat by friction.[4] This heat
should dissipate into the surrounding air, but can just as easily transfer to other braking system
components. Brake drums must be large to cope with the massive forces involved, and must be
able to absorb and dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to air can be aided by incorporating cooling
fins onto the drum. However, excessive heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking, which
can cause the drum to distort, leading to vibration under braking.

The other consequence of overheating is brake fade. This is due to one of several processes or
more usually an accumulation of all of them.

15
1. When the drums are heated by hard braking, the diameter of the drum increases slightly
due to thermal expansion, so the shoes must move farther and the driver must press the
brake pedal farther.
2. The properties of the friction material can change if heated, resulting in less friction. This
can be a much larger problem with drum brakes than disc brakes, since the shoes are inside
the drum and not exposed to cooling ambient air. The loss of friction is usually only
temporary and the material regains its efficiency when cooled, but if the surface overheats
to the point where it becomes glazed the reduction in braking efficiency is more
permanent. Surface glazing can be worn away with further use of the brakes, but that takes
time.
3. Excessive brake drum heating can cause the brake fluid to vaporize, which reduces
the hydraulic pressure applied to the brake shoes. Therefore, the brakes provide less
deceleration for a given amount of pressure on the pedal. The effect is worsened by poor
maintenance. Brake fluid that is old and has absorbed moisture has a lower boiling point,
so brake fade occurs sooner.

16
5.2. Disc Brake
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses callipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc in order
to create friction that retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its
rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which
must be dispersed. Hydraulic disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor
vehicles but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft. Compared
to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is more readily
cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when brake components
overheat. Disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective
than dry ones).

Fig. 5.2. Disc brake arrangement

Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast,
a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to the pressure
placed on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal, or lever. This
tends to give the driver better "feel" and helps to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone
to "bell mouthing" and trap worn lining material within the assembly, both causes of various
braking problems.

5.2.1. Components

Braking Disc

The brake disc is the component of a disc brake against which the brake pads are applied. The
material is typically grey iron, a form of cast iron. The design of the disc varies somewhat. Some

17
are simply solid, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two
contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process). The weight and power of the
vehicle determines the need for ventilated discs. The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the
generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavily-loaded front discs.

Beginning in the 1960s on racing cars, it is now common for high-performance cars, motorcycles
and even bicycles, to have brakes with drilled holes or slots. This "cross-drilling" is done for a
number of reasons: heat dissipation, surface-water dispersal, brake squeal elimination, mass
reduction, or marketing cosmetics. An alleged disadvantage of cross drilling for racing or other
severe conditions is that the holes might become a source of stress cracks.

Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing
dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove gas and water
and to deglaze brake pads. Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not
used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal of
material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification of their
surfaces.

As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping, the disc is sometimes mounted in a
half loose way to the hub with coarse splines. This allows the disc to expand in a controlled
symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat transfer to the hub.

On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because the holes
or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads. Cross-drilled discs may
eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue. Cross-drilled brakes that are manufactured
poorly or subjected to high stresses will crack much sooner and more severely.

Callipers

The brake calliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are usually
made of plastic, aluminium or chrome-plated steel.

Callipers are of two types, floating or fixed. A fixed calliper does not move relative to the disc and
is thus less tolerant of disc imperfections. It uses one or more pairs of opposing pistons to clamp
from each side of the disc, and is more complex and expensive than a floating calliper.

18
A floating calliper (also called a "sliding calliper") moves with respect to the disc, along a line
parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the inner brake
pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the calliper body with the outer
brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc. Floating calliper (single piston) designs
are subject to sticking failure, caused by dirt or corrosion entering at least one mounting
mechanism and stopping its normal movement. This can lead to the callipers pads rubbing on the
disc when the brake is not engaged or engaging it at an angle. Sticking can result from infrequent
vehicle use, failure of a seal or rubber protection boot allowing debris entry, dry-out of the grease
in the mounting mechanism and subsequent moisture incursion leading to corrosion, or some
combination of these factors. Consequences may include reduced fuel efficiency, extreme heating
of the disc or excessive wear on the affected pad. A sticking front calliper may also cause steering
vibration.

Another type of floating calliper is a swinging calliper. Instead of a pair of horizontal bolts that
allow the calliper to move straight in and out respective to the car body, a swinging calliper utilizes
a single, vertical pivot bolt located somewhere behind the axle centreline. When the driver presses
the brakes, the brake piston pushes on the inside piston and rotates the whole calliper inward, when
viewed from the top. Because the swinging callipers piston angle changes relative to the disc, this
design uses wedge-shaped pads that are narrower in the rear on the outside and narrower on the
front on the inside.

Pistons and cylinders

The most common calliper design uses a single hydraulically actuated piston within a cylinder,
although high performance brakes use as many as twelve. Modern cars use
different hydraulic circuits to actuate the brakes on each set of wheels as a safety measure. The
hydraulic design also helps multiply braking force. The number of pistons in a calliper is often
referred to as the number of 'pots', so if a vehicle has 'six pot' callipers it means that each calliper
houses six pistons.

Brake failure can result from failure of the piston to retract, which is usually a consequence of not
operating the vehicle during prolonged storage outdoors in adverse conditions. On high-mileage
vehicles, the piston seals may leak, which must be promptly corrected.

Brake pads

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Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the
process of bedding while wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two parts. They are:
adhesive and abrasive.

Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad and the disc and the configuration and
the usage, pad and disc wear rates will vary considerably. The properties that determine material
wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity.

The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending on pad material, and drive style),
and some are equipped with a mechanism that alerts drivers that replacement is needed, such as a
thin piece of soft metal that rubs against the disc when the pads are too thin causing the brakes to
squeal, a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that closes an electric circuit and lights a
warning light when the brake pad gets thin, or an electronic sensor.

Generally road-going vehicles have two brake pads per calliper, while up to six are installed on
each racing calliper, with varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum
performance.

Early brake pads (and linings) contained asbestos, producing dust which should not be inhaled.
Although newer pads can be made of ceramics, Kevlar, and other plastics, inhalation of brake dust
should still be avoided regardless of material.

Brake Squeal

Sometimes a loud noise or high pitched squeal occurs when the brakes are applied. Most brake
squeal is produced by vibration (resonance instability) of the brake components, especially the
pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation). This type of squeal should not negatively
affect brake stopping performance. Techniques include adding chamfer pads to the contact points
between calliper pistons and the pads, the bonding insulators (damping material) to pad backplane,
the brake shims between the brake pad and pistons, etc. All should be coated with an extremely
high temperature, high solids lubricant to help reduce annoying squeal. This allows the metal to
metal parts to move independently of each other and thereby eliminate the build-up of energy that
can create a frequency that is heard as brake squeal, groan, or growl. Cold weather combined with
high early-morning humidity (dew) often worsens brake squeal, although the squeal generally
stops when the lining reaches regular operating temperatures.

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Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal and commercial brake cleaning products are designed to
remove dirt and other contaminants.

Some lining wear indicators, located either as a semi-metallic layer within the brake pad material
or with an external "sensor", are also designed to squeal when the lining is due for replacement.
The typical external sensor is fundamentally different from the noises described above (when the
brakes are applied) because the wear sensor noise typically occurs when the brakes are not used.

5.2.2. Used in

Motorcycles and scooters

Lambretta introduced the first high-volume production use of a single, floating, front disc brake,
enclosed in a ventilated cast alloy hub and actuated by cable, on the 1962 TV175, followed by the
range-topping GT200 in 1964. The 1969 Honda CB750 introduced hydraulic disc brakes on a large
scale to the wide motorcycle public, following the lesser known 1965 MV Augusta 600, which
had cable-operated mechanical actuation.

Unlike car disc brakes that are buried within the wheel, bike disc brakes are in the airstream and
have optimum cooling. Although cast iron discs have a porous surface which give superior braking
performance, such discs rust in the rain and become unsightly. Accordingly, motorcycle discs are
usually stainless steel, drilled, slotted or wavy to disperse rain water. Modern motorcycle discs
tend to have a floating design whereby the disc "floats" on bobbins and can move slightly, allowing
better disc centering with a fixed calliper. A floating disc also avoids disc warping and reduces
heat transfer to the wheel hub. Callipers have evolved from simple single-piston units to two-,
four- and even six-piston items. Compared to cars, motorcycles have a higher mass:
wheelbase ratio, so they experience more weight transfer when braking. Front brakes absorb most
of the braking forces, while the rear brake serves mainly to balance the motorcycle during braking.
Modern sport bikes typically have twin large front discs, with a much smaller single rear disc.
Bikes that are particularly fast or heavy may have vented discs.

Early disc brakes (such as on the early Honda fours and the Norton Commando) sited the callipers
on top of the disc, ahead of the fork slider. Although this gave the brake pads better cooling, it is
now almost universal practice to site the calliper behind the slider (to reduce the angular

21
momentum of the fork assembly). Rear disc callipers may be mounted above (e.g. BMW R1100S)
or below (e.g. Yamaha TRX850) the swinging arm: a low mount is marginally better for CG
purposes, while an upper siting keeps the calliper cleaner and better-protected from road obstacles.

Bicycles
Mountain bike disc brakes may range from simple, mechanical (cable) systems, too expensive and
powerful, multi-piston hydraulic disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes.
Improved technology has seen the creation of the first vented discs for use on mountain bikes,
similar to those on cars, introduced to help avoid heat fade on fast alpine descents. Although less
common, discs are also used on road bicycles for all-weather cycling with predictable braking,
although drums are sometimes preferred as harder to damage in crowded parking, where discs are
sometimes bent. Most bicycle brake discs are made of steel. Stainless steel is preferred due to its
anti-rust properties. Some lightweight discs are made of titanium or aluminium. Discs are thin,
often about 2 mm. Some use a two-piece floating disc style, others use a floating calliper, others
use pads that float in the calliper, and some use one moving pad that makes the calliper slide on
its mounts, pulling the other pad into contact with the disc. Because the "motor" is small, an
uncommon feature of bicycle brakes is that the pads retract to eliminate residual drag when the
brake is released. In contrast, most other brakes drag the pads lightly when released so as to
minimise initial operational travel.

Heavy vehicles
Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road vehicles, where previously large
drum brakes were nearly universal. One reason is that the disc's lack of self-assist makes brake
force much more predictable, so peak brake force can be raised without more risk of braking-
induced steering or jack-knife on articulated vehicles. Another is disc brakes fade less when hot,
and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and engine braking are small parts of total braking force,
so brakes are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade can occur in a single stop.
For these reasons, a heavy truck with disc brakes can stop in about 120% the distance of a
passenger car, but with drums stopping takes about 150% the distance. In Europe, stopping
distance regulations essentially require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are
allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase price, despite higher total lifetime cost
and more frequent service intervals.

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5.3. Hydraulic Brakes
The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically
containing glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism
to the braking mechanism.

Fig. 5.3. Mechanism of Hydraulic brake

5.3.1. Construction

The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters,
and mopeds, consists of the following:

Brake pedal or lever

A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one or two
pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets/ O-rings and a fluid reservoir)
Reinforced hydraulic lines
Brake calliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminium or chrome-plated
steel pistons (called calliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also
called a brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.

The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake fluid (other fluids may also be used).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later, disc
brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have shown

23
better heat dissipation and greater resistance to 'fading' and are therefore generally safer than drum
brakes. So four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but
the most basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum
brake for the rear wheel.

5.3.2. System Operation

In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston
in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber
through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic
system, forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more callipers where it acts upon
one or more calliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage of the
fluid).

The brake calliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the spinning
rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be generated,
slowing the vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels
in the rotor or is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials
such as Kevlar or sintered glass.

Alternatively, in a drum brake, the fluid enters a wheel cylinder and presses one or two brake
shoes against the inside of the spinning drum. The brake shoes use a similar heat-tolerant friction
material to the pads used in disc brakes.

Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring in the master cylinder assembly to
return the master piston back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the
calliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the calliper assembly, moving it back into its
housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.

The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system,
none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use. Leakage
may happen, however, from cracks in the O-rings or from a puncture in the brake line. Cracks can
form if two types of brake fluid are mixed or if the brake fluid becomes contaminated with water,
alcohol, antifreeze, or any number of other liquids.

24
An example of a hydraulic brake system

Hydraulic brakes transfer energy to stop an object, normally a rotating axle. In a very simple brake
system, with just two cylinders and a disc brake, the cylinders could be connected via tubes, with
a piston inside the cylinders. The cylinders and tubes are filled with incompressible oil. The two
cylinders have the same volume, but different diameters, and thus different cross-section areas.
The cylinder that the operator uses is called the master cylinder. The spinning disc brake will be
adjacent to the piston with the larger cross-section. Suppose the diameter of the master cylinder is
half the diameter of the slave cylinder, so the master cylinder has a cross-section four times smaller.
Now, if the piston in the master cylinder is pushed down 40 mm, the slave piston will move 10 mm.
If 10 newtons (N) of force are applied to the master piston, the slave piston will press with a force
of 40 N.

This force can be further increased by inserting a lever connected between the master piston, a
pedal, and a pivot point. If the distance from the pedal to the pivot is three times the distance from
the pivot to the connected piston, then it multiplies the pedal force by a factor of 3, when pushing
down on the pedal, so that 10 N becomes 30 N on the master piston and 120 N on the brake pad.
Conversely, the pedal must move three times as far as the master piston. If we push the pedal
120 mm down, the master piston will move 40 mm and the slave piston will move the brake pad
by 10 mm.

5.3.3. Advantages

Advantages of hydraulic brake are given bellow:

All of the four cylinder total braking effort is equal for each.
System construction is very simple.
Less rate of wear.
High mechanical advantage.

25
5.4. Air Brakes
An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for
vehicles in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake
pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those
having multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers,
and semi-trailers in addition to their use in railroad trains. George Westinghouse first developed air
brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5, 1872. Westinghouse
made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which led to various
forms of the automatic brake. In the early 20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway
use, it was adopted by manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles.

Fig. 5.4. Mechanism of Air Braking System

5.4.1. Design and Function

Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of service
brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking brake, there's
a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring
pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring break" parking brakes. For the
service brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal
is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx. 100120 psi or 690830 kappa or 6.89-8.27 bar)
to the brake chamber, causing the brake to be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum
brakes, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The
air compressor draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs
at around 120 psi (830 kappa; 8.3 bar). Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view,
indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones

26
or lights. A mechanical "wig wag" that automatically drops down into the driver's field of vision
when the pressure drops below a certain point is also common. Setting of the parking/emergency
brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the
brakes, thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure
would result in full spring break pressure immediately. A compressed air brake system is divided
into a supply system and a control system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies
high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems
(gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).

5.4.2. Supply system

The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or directly from
the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and cooling systems.
Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture
and oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and smaller purge
reservoir. As an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti-freeze
device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also called a wet tank)
from which it is then distributed via a four way protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit
air reservoir, a parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The system
also includes various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves. Air brake systems may
include a wig wag device which deploys to warn the driver if the system air pressure drops too
low.

5.4.3. Control system

The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit and
the trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel circuits
which receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air
leak. The service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates both
circuits. The parking brake is the air operated spring break type where its applied by spring force
in the spring brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The trailer
brake consists of a direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate control or
service line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from the prime mover park brake air tank
via a park brake relay valve and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The

27
operating signals for the relay are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air valve, trailer service
brake hand control (subject to local heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime mover park brake
hand control.

5.4.4. Advantages

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such
as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake
pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for large multitrailer
vehicles

The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating fluid, as
hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.
Airline couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines eliminating the risk of air
getting into hydraulic fluid since there is no hydraulic fluid. Air brake circuits on trailers can
be easily attached and removed by operators with appropriate training.
Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy. So it
can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be designed
with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.

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5.5. Vacuum Brakes
The vacuum brake is a braking system employed on trains and introduced in the mid-1860s. A
variant, the automatic vacuum brake system, became almost universal in British train equipment
and in countries influenced by British practice. Vacuum brakes also enjoyed a brief period of
adoption in the United States, primarily on narrow-gauge railroads. Its limitations caused it to be
progressively superseded by compressed air systems starting in the United Kingdom from the
1970s onward. The vacuum brake system is now obsolete; it is not in large-scale usage anywhere
in the world, other than in South Africa, largely supplanted by air brakes.

Fig. 5.5. Vacuum braking system

5.5.1. Introduction

In the earliest days of railways, trains were slowed or stopped by the application of manually
applied brakes on the locomotive and in brake vehicles through the train, and later by steam power
brakes on locomotives. This was clearly unsatisfactory, but the existing technology did not offer
an improvement. A chain braking system was developed, requiring a chain to be coupled
throughout the train, but it was impossible to arrange equal braking effort along the entire train.

A major advance was the adoption of a vacuum braking system, in which flexible pipes were
connected between all the vehicles of the train, and brakes on each vehicle could be controlled
from the locomotive. The earliest scheme was a simple vacuum brake, in which vacuum was
created by operation of a valve on the locomotive; the vacuum actuated brake pistons on each
vehicle, and the degree of braking could be increased or decreased by the driver. Vacuum, rather

29
than compressed air, was preferred because steam locomotives can be fitted with ejectors; venturi
devices that create vacuum without moving parts.

The simple vacuum system had the major defect that in the event of one of the hoses connecting
the vehicles becoming displaced (by the train accidentally dividing, or by careless coupling of the
hoses, or otherwise) the vacuum brake on the entire train was useless. The automatic vacuum brake
had been developed: it was designed to apply fully if the train becomes divided or if a hose
becomes displaced, but opposition on the grounds of cost (particularly by the LNWR and its
chairman Richard Moon) to the fitting of the automatic type of brake meant that it took a serious
accident at Armagh in 1889 before legislation compelled the automatic system. In this accident
at Armagh, a portion of a train was detached from the locomotive on a steep gradient and ran away,
killing 80 people. The train was fitted with the simple vacuum brake, which was useless on the
disconnected portion of the train. It was clear that if the vehicles had been fitted with an automatic
continuous brake, the accident would almost certainly not have happened, and the public concern
at the scale of the accident prompted legislation mandating the use of a continuous automatic brake
on all passenger trains.

5.5.2. How automatic vacuum brake works

In its simplest form, the automatic vacuum brake consists of a continuous pipe, the train pipe
running throughout the length of the train. In normal running a partial vacuum is maintained in the
train pipe, and the brakes are released. When air is admitted to the train pipe, the air at atmospheric
pressure acts against pistons in cylinders in each vehicle. A vacuum is sustained on the other face
of the pistons, so that a net force is applied. A mechanical linkage transmits this force to brake
shoes which act on the treads of the wheels.

The fittings to achieve this are:

a train pipe: a steel pipe running the length of each vehicle, with flexible vacuum hoses at
each end of the vehicles, and coupled between adjacent vehicles; at the end of the
Train, the final hose is seated on an air-tight plug;
an ejector on the locomotive, to create vacuum in the train pipe;
controls for the driver to bring the ejector into action, and to admit air to the train pipe;
these may be separate controls or a combined brake valve;

30
 a brake cylinder on each vehicle containing a piston, connected by rigging to the brake
shoes on the vehicle; and
A vacuum (pressure) gauge on the locomotive to indicate to the driver the degree of
vacuum in the train pipe.

The brake cylinder is contained in a larger housingthis gives a reserve of vacuum as the piston
operates. The cylinder rocks slightly in operation to maintain alignment with the brake rigging
cranks, so it is supported in trunnion bearings, and the vacuum pipe connection to it is flexible.
The piston in the brake cylinder has a flexible piston ring that allows air to pass from the upper
part of the cylinder to the lower part if necessary.

When the vehicles have been at rest, so that the brake is not charged, the brake pistons will have
dropped to their lower position in the absence of a pressure differential (as air will have leaked
slowly into the upper part of the cylinder, destroying the vacuum).

When a locomotive is coupled to the vehicles, the driver moves the brake control to the "release"
position and air is exhausted from the train pipe, creating a partial vacuum. Air in the upper part
of the brake cylinders is also exhausted from the train pipe, through a non-return valve.

If the driver now moves his control to the "brake" position, air is admitted to the train pipe.
According to the driver's manipulation of the control, some or all of the vacuum will be destroyed
in the process. The ball valve closes and there is a higher air pressure under the brake pistons than
above it, and the pressure differential forces the piston upwards, applying the brakes. The driver
can control the amount of braking effort by admitting more or less air to the train pipe.

5.5.3. Limitations

The progress represented by the automatic vacuum brake nonetheless carried some limitations;
chief among these were:

the practical limit on the degree of vacuum attainable means that a very large brake piston and
cylinder are required to generate the force necessary on the brake blocks; when a proportion
of the British ordinary wagon fleet was fitted with vacuum brakes in the 1950s, the physical
dimensions of the brake cylinder prevented the wagons from operating in some private sidings
that had tight clearances;

31
 for the same reason, on a very long train, a considerable volume of air has to be admitted to
the train pipe to make a full brake application, and a considerable volume has to be exhausted
to release the brake (if for example a signal at danger is suddenly lowered and the driver
requires to resume speed); while the air is traveling along the train pipe, the brake pistons at
the head of the train have responded to the brake application or release, but those at the tail
will respond much later, leading to undesirable longitudinal forces in the train. In extreme
cases this has led to breaking couplings and causing the train to divide.
The existence of vacuum in the train pipe can cause debris to be sucked in. An accident took
place near Ilford in the 1950s, due to inadequate braking effort in the train. A rolled newspaper
was discovered in the train pipe, effectively isolating the rear part of the train from the driver's
control. The blockage should have been detected if a proper brake continuity test had been
carried out before the train started its journey.

32
 CONCLUSION
There have been many braking system types created for our safety. The brake was created to make
our vehicle stop in time to avoid accidents by inhibiting the motion of the vehicle. In most
automobiles there are three basic types of brakes including; service brakes, emergency brakes, and
parking brakes. These brakes are all intended to keep everyone inside the vehicle and traveling on
our roadways safe.

The type of braking system used often depends on the size and weight of a vehicle, as well as the
vehicles intended purpose. It is possible for a vehicle to possess more than one of these types of
service brakes, working in unison to create a stronger, more effective system. Your mechanic will
be familiar with the different mechanisms used on your car, and how to properly maintain your
braking system to keep you, your passengers and others on the road safe from harm.

33
REFERENCE

[1] Bhandari, V.B. (2010). Design of machine elements. Tata McGraw-Hill.

p. 472. ISBN 9780070681798. Retrieved 9 February 2016.

[2] "Definition of brake". The Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 9 February 2016.

[3] "Glossary of Brake Terminology".

[4] Nice, Karim (2000-08-22). "How Power Brakes Work". Howstuffworks.com.

Retrieved 2011-03-12.

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