School Psychology International

http://spi.sagepub.com

Assessment of Coping Styles and Strategies with School-Related Stress

Kazimierz Wrzesniewski and Joanna Chylinska
School Psychology International 2007; 28; 179
DOI: 10.1177/0143034307078096

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://spi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/28/2/179

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

International School Psychology Association

Additional services and information for School Psychology International can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://spi.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://spi.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav

Citations http://spi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/28/2/179

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Assessment of Coping Styles and Strategies with
School-Related Stress

KAZIMIERZ WRZESNIEWSKI and JOANNA CHYLINSKA

Faculty of Psychology, Warsaw University, Poland

ABSTRACT A review of the relevant literature indicates a lack of

measurement techniques for coping styles and strategies with school-
related stress. This study presents the procedure of constructing The
Coping with School-related Stress Questionnaire (CSSQ), which makes
it possible to investigate dispositional as well as situational aspects of
coping. Theoretical assumptions are based on the interactive model of
coping with stress, which distinguishes styles and strategies of coping
with school-related stress. CSSQ consists of 2 forms: Form A is
designed to examine coping styles; Form B is designed to examine
strategies of coping with school-related stress. On the basis of several
factorial analyses three scales of the CSSQ have been distinguished:
task, emotion and avoidance coping. The score is assessed for each
scale separately. The psychometric coefficients of CSSQ are satisfac-
tory. CSSQ is designed for adolescents, aged 1516. Further research
concerning its diagnostic qualities among different age groups needs to
be conducted.

KEY WORDS: assessment of coping; coping strategies; coping styles;

interactive model of coping; school-related stress

Introduction
The interactive paradigm, encompassing both situational and disposi-
tional factors has become increasingly popular and has proved to be
useful in research (see Carver et al., 1989; Endler and Parker, 1999;
Wrzesniewski, 1996; Wrzesniewski and W!odarczyk, 2001; Zeidner,
1995). This approach, however, encounters difficulties when empirical
verification of both groups of variables is required. One of the questions
to answer is the selection of appropriate measurement techniques.

Please address correspondence to: Dr Kazimierz Wrzesniewski, Warsaw

University, Faculty of Psychology, 00183 Warsaw, ul. Stawki 517, Poland.
Email: jchylinska@engram.psych.uw.edu.pl
School Psychology International Copyright 2007 SAGE Publications (Los
Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore), Vol. 28(2): 179194.
DOI: 10.1177/0143034307078096

179

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

Usually, authors use separate assessment devices for measuring differ-

ent categories of coping with stress. Subsequently, the interpretation of
the results becomes rather difficult. The case is especially complex
when we want to conduct research on coping with stress among chil-
dren and adolescents as measures need to take account of the age of the
participants.
It has been shown that the number of strategies applied in a stress-
ful situation increases with age or with experience in that kind of
situation (Blount et al., 1991). Moreover, the type of chosen response
also changes, as is demonstrated in a number of studies documenting
differences in the use of certain coping strategies depending on the age
of participants. Ryan (1989) found that the strategy used most often by
8-year-olds was social support, but by 9-year-olds, verbal aggression
and avoidance. Eleven-year-olds displayed most physical activity and
12-year-olds preferred relaxation and cognitive activities. Differences
were also reported among adolescents aged 1318 (Groer et al., 1992).
Moreover, there is some evidence that, when coping with uncontrol-
lable events, youngsters tend to use emotion-focused coping, while
problem-oriented responses targeting modification of the situation
are less in evidence. Age differences in applied coping strategies are
apparent regardless of the type of assessment measure used (see also
Frynberg and Lewis, 1991; Ryan, 1989; Seiffke-Krenke, 1990; 1993).
Some coping strategies are employed in relation to environmental
and personal factors. Age of investigated children and adolescents may
play a crucial role in distinguishing the importance of these factors.
The results show that 1519 year-old adolescents use consistent
patterns of coping strategies, but this consistency remains only within
a certain domain. In other words, young people react differently when
their problems pertain to school and when the stressor is connected
with parents (Seiffke-Krenke, 1990, 1993). The study of Boekaerts
(1996) showed that one type of strategy dominates when school
stressors are considered and another when we take into account inter-
personal stressors. Additionally, the type of events that trigger
stress, changes with age. Amongst children and adolescents up to
the age of 14, the most salient role play stressors concern the family
environment, while older groups name school problems and peer
stressors as the most relevant (Compas et al., 1989).
The importance of school-related stress is difficult to overestimate.
Lohman and Jarvis (2000) reported that the most prevalent cause
of stress named by adolescents was problems related to school, as
reported by 100 percent of girls and 96 percent of boys. Also, some
researchers have hypothesized that difficulties in coping with school-
related stress may be a first step toward development of chronic fatigue
syndrome (Kulik and Szewczyk, 2003). A growing body of studies

180

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

concerning examination stress, which might be also considered as

school-related stress, adds to the importance of this subject (Schwarzer
and Buchwald, 2003). For these reasons it was considered worthwile to
prepare a measuring technique designed specifically for this distinctly
important area of adolescent life.
Existing questionnaires that measure coping with stress in children
and adolescents do not take account of all the conditions mentioned
above. Authors of stress assessment devices often do not specify what
kind of coping they intend to measure: a stable disposition in the
form of coping with stress or responses of a person in a certain type of
stressful encounter (Boekaerts, 1996). Another quite common short-
coming, of questionnaires for adults as well, is that the instruments are
not derived from a theoretical framework (Schwarzer and Schwarzer,
1996; Zeidner, 1995).
There are quite a few measures which assess coping strategies
among adolescents, however, it is difficult to identify even one which is
designed to assess coping with school-related stress directly. Usually,
scales tend to contain items regarding school problems, but the score is
considered to indicate strategies of coping with stress in general.
A variety of available techniques is presented in Boekaerts (1996)
work. She discusses three groups of techniques: (1) questionnaires list-
ing stressful events or daily hassles; (2) observation and case studies
and (3) coping strategies inventories. It seems, that the second group
could be extended also by interviews.
Since there is an available literature discussing the subject, we limit
the presentation of various techniques to single examples from each
group, with particular attention given to the problem of including the
school-related stress and coping aspects.
(1) The first group of instruments mentioned above does not actually
pertain to coping, but deals with an amount of stress experienced by
adolescents. As has been mentioned, there is no scale which considers
school-related stress only. Authors wishing to conduct research usually
have to rely on single items derived from more general lists. An exam-
ple of this approach is the study of Torsheim et al. (2003) who used two
subscales in their research (one derived from Health Behaviour in
School-aged Children, consisting of three items and a two-item High
Academic Expectations scale (Samdal et al., 1998).
(2) In the study of Seiffge-Krenke et al. (2001) The Coping Process
Interview (Seiffge-Krenke, 1993) was used to evaluate coping with
school-related stress, understood in terms of getting a bad grade. The
interview consists of seven open questions pertaining to information in
the following domains: (i) the definition of the situation a description
of the stressful event in detail; (ii) the context in which the event
occurred; (iii) the subjective interpretation of the causes; (iv) the

181

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

appraisal of the event as threatening, challenging or loss; (v) the

coping process including thoughts, feelings, and actions to deal with
the stressor; (vi) the evaluation of intended and achieved effects and
(vii) the reappraisal. The interview covers a wide variety of issues,
moreover, it makes it possible to investigate school-related stress.
However, it should be conducted individually and is therefore rather
time consuming.
(3) The method elaborated by Dise-Lewis (1988) Life Events and
Coping Inventory (LECI) is a combination of a checklist of 125 poten-
tially stressful life events and 49 coping strategies. On the base of a
factor analysis five empirical scales have been formed: Aggression,
Stress recognition, Distraction, Self-destruction and Endurance. The
questionnaire is appropriate for 1114 years old. Participants are
asked to select events that they have experienced within the recent
year, rate their stressfulness and identify appropriate coping strate-
gies. However, the questionnaire does not rely on a theory as the
process of construction was empirical. Furthermore, it does not address
the problems of school-related coping directly.
The facts reported above were the inspiration for the construction of
a questionnaire for adolescents, which would be free of the identified
weaknesses. Preceeding work on the stress assessment tool, the follow-
ing rules were established. First of all, the questionnaire should be
well settled in a specific psychological theory. Secondly, it had to cover
both facets of coping and, as a result, assessment of both dispositional
and situational factors should be possible. Thirdly, it was required to
clearly state the category of stressful situations and age of people it
was designed for. Fourthly, it should be characterized by satisfactory
reliability and validity coefficients.
Theoretical assumptions of the Coping with School-Related Stress
Questionnaire (CSSQ) are discussed below. Further we briefly outline
the procedure of preparing the questionnaire, studies aimed at identi-
fying diagnostic items, as well as reliability and validity research.
Finally, we present the questionnaires psychometric properties and
possible ways of application.

Theoretical bases of the Coping with School-related Stress

Questionnaire (CSSQ)
In the well known theory of Lazarus and Folkman, coping with stress is
understood in terms of a transactional process (Folkman et al., 1986;
Lazarus, 1980, 1993; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, 1987). That implies
that there is not only an interaction between a person and an environ-
ment, but there are also simultaneous changes within the person and
the environment over time. This approach triggers several theoretical

182

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

and, in particular, methodological difficulties (Wrzesniewski, 1996;

Wrzesniewski and W!odarczyk, 2001). The most important one regards
empirical verification of such a complex and dynamic process. Measur-
ing the phenomenon, when all the variables change as well as
interactions between them, is very difficult. Troubles start from the
very beginning when a decision about the aspect of coping which is
going to be assessed is required, then, difficulties with identification of
appropriate indicators emerge and finally, acquired results might be
difficult to interpret. For this reason an interactional model rather
than the transactional approach is proposed. In this model coping
styles, strategies and coping processes are distinguished (Wrzesniews-
ki, 1996; 2001; Wrzesniewski and Wlodarczyk, 2001). Coping style is
defined as a stable personality disposition to cope with different stress-
ful situations in a given way. This disposition does not depend on any
kind of a stressful encounter, as it is an attribute of the person. Never-
theless, that does not mean that it influences coping with all stressful
situations in the same way, as coping with a particular situation
depends on several other factors. Coping strategies are cognitive
and behavioural efforts people make to manage a specific stressful
situation. Truancy during a test or instrumental aggression after a
quarrel with a colleague are examples of a coping strategies in school
environment The coping process is a sequence of altering strategies
accompanying changes within the situation (Wrzesniewski, 1996;
Wrzesniewski and W!odarczyk, 2001).
In their conception, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) ascribe a funda-
mental part in coping with stress to stress appraisal. A similar
assumption is made in the interactional model. In the proposed inter-
actional model two kind of stress appraisal were distinguished:
dispositional and situational. Dispositional stress appraisal is a stable,
personality based tendency to appraise different stressful situations in
a similar way. This disposition determines individual differences in
perceiving and interpreting occurring events. This variable allows us to
explain why different people perceive the same situation differently
and why the same person perceives different situations in similar
categories (Wlodarczyk, 1999; Wrzesniewski and Wlodarczyk, 2001).
The distinction between dispositional and situational stress
appraisal is coherent with the previously given distinction between
coping styles and coping strategies. It corresponds very well with the
commonly known conception of trait-state anxiety by Spielberger
(Spielberger et al., 1970).
Strategies of coping with school-related stress depend directly and
indirectly on several factors. As well as the coping style and situational
appraisal mentioned earlier, an equally important part is played by
current psycho-physical conditions of a person and their family

183

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

School-related Gender,
Present life
stressful personality and
situation
situation other stable
individual traits

Current Situational Dispositional

Psycho-physical stress stress
state appraisal appraisal

COPING COPING
STRATEGY STYLE

Figure 1 Interactive model of coping with school-related stress

situation (especially noteworthy is the nature of their relationship with

their parents, relationship between parents and economic status of the
family). An applied strategy is also influenced by gender, personality
(e.g. self-efficacy, level of need of achievement, level of optimism) and
other stable characteristics of an individual, such as temperament. The
directions of the relationships between components of the model as
illustrated in Figure 1 are hypothetical and require further empirical
verification. The theoretical assumptions, briefly discussed here,
compose a framework for the Coping with School-related Stress
Questionnaire.

Preliminary version of the Coping with School-related Stress

Questionnaire (CSSQ)
When preparing to construct the questionnaire, a rational-empirical
approach was chosen. Based on the specific theoretical framework,
the preliminary version of the questionnaire was prepared and then
administered to a group of participants. Factor analysis was performed;
empirically derived factors were then compared with theoretical scales.
Referring to the work of Endler and Parker (1994, 1999), three types
of coping with stress were defined: task-oriented, emotion-oriented and
avoidance-oriented.
In the first type of coping an individual engages in activities or

184

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

behavioural reconstruction of the situation. In the second type of

coping an individual focuses on the self and his/her own emotional
experiences and at the same time acts so as to reduce the emotional
tension related to the stressful situation. The third type of coping
demonstrates the tendency to avoid thinking, feeling and experiencing
the stressful situation by engaging in substitute activities.
For each of three categories 30 items were prepared and rated by an
independent, competent judge. The task of a judge was to give each
item a rating, ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 meaning that the item did not
reflect the category at all; 2 that the item was poorly reflected; 3 that
the item was rather reflected; 4 that the item was well reflected and 5
that the item very well reflected the category. Seventy-six items match-
ing the category well or very well were included in the preliminary
version. In this set, there were 21 items dealing with task-oriented
coping, 37 dealing with emotion-oriented coping and 18 dealing with
avoidance-oriented coping.
This preliminary questionnaire was administered to 293 high-school
students, 114 boys and 179 girls, aged 1516. The task of each partici-
pant was to recall a stressful situation that had happened recently at
school and then, to mark on a four-point Liekert scale whether a par-
ticular response occurred due to the recalled situation. A statement
was included into a factor when a factor loading was 0.35 or more
and had simultaneous negative or low loadings of the remaining two
factors. Obtained empirical scales were compared with rational scales.
Only the items consistent on both the theoretical and empirical level
were included in the final questionnaire. On the basis of this selection
42 items were acquired, among which 15 were task-oriented, 13
emotion-oriented and 14 avoidance-oriented (Zalewska, 1994).1
Since a few empirical items were inconsistent with theoretical
scales, and also since 34 items were nondiagnostic, work on the final
version of the CSSQ was continued. Another argument in favour of
further elaboration of the CSSQ was the wish to construct an instru-
ment which could be used to diagnose both styles and strategies of
coping with school-related stress.

Coping style and coping strategies questionnaire

By this means, two versions of the questionnaire, A and B, were pre-
pared. The major difference between the two is in the instruction. Form
A is designed to assess coping styles. Pupils are asked to respond by
indicating how they usually behave in different school-related stressful
situations. Form B is concerned with coping strategies. Participants
are asked to mark answers with reference to a specific stressful
encounter related to school. The items in the two questionnaires

185

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

Table 1 Factorial analysis of the CSSQ, Form A and Form B for

girls, n = 393
Form A Form B
Item Factor I Loadings Item Factor I Loadings

Factor 1 17 0.708 17 0.695

28 0.674 3 0.683
3 0.666 28 0.670
2 0.624 37 0.653
22 0.619 12 0.634
25 0.619 31 0.628
31 0.618 2 0.612
37 0.573 25 0.610
12 0.573 22 0.582
6 0.506 34 0.545
34 0.506 6 0.524
32 n.s.
Eigenvalue 4.557 4.785
% of Explained Variance 13.8 14.5

Form A Form B
Item Factor II Loadings Item Factor II Loadings

Factor II 33 0.662 10 0.657

14 0.603 29 0.648
16 0.581 20 0.589
1 0.559 39 n.s.
42 0.552 13 0.527
24 0.541 35 0.476
36 0.536 38 0.465
11 0.392 7 0.439
27 0.366 23 0.432
5 n.s. 4 0.424
Eigenvalue 3.434 3.361
% of Explained Variance 10.4 10.2

Form A Form B
Item Factor III Loadings Item Factor III Loadings

Factor III 10 0.654 33 0.712

29 0.640 14 0.588
13 0.561 36 0.586
35 0.524 24 0.546
20 0.511 1 0.502
23 0.479 21 0.474
7 0.471 16 0.469
39 n.s. 27 0.460
32 0.388 42 0.429
38 n.s. 11 0.353
4 n.s. 5 n.s.
21 n.s.
Eigenvalue 2.561 2.958
% of Explained Variance 7.8 9.0

186

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

also differ with respect to grammatical form. Both forms of the CSSQ
consist of 42 items. New items were substituted for the ones which did
not conform with the theoretical scales. The questionnaires, thus
prepared, were administered to 696 1st-grade high-school pupils (393
girls and 303 boys), aged 1516 from five secondary schools in Warsaw.
In between the completion of the first and the second questionnaire
pupils were given the Marlow-Crown Social Desirability Scale and the
BWZ Questionnaire measuring Type A behaviour pattern (these data
were analysed elsewhere). Half of the participants filled in Form A of
the CSSQ first and Form B second, the other half filled in the question-
naires in the opposite order.
The responses were factor-analysed (Varimax rotation), with a limi-
tation to three factors (three types of coping), separately for boys and
girls. As in the previous studies, the criteria of inclusion in a factor
were a factor loading of 0.35 or more and negative or low loadings on
the remaining factors.
Table 1 provides a comparison of positive loadings for girls on Forms
A and B on each of the three factors. It can be seen that a considerable
degree of concordance occurs with the exception of items 4, 5, 11, 21, 35.
A similar comparison for boys of factor loadings on Forms A and B is
shown in Table 2. Here a slightly different strength of effect is shown
on factors two and three. The slightly weaker loadings here are seen on
items 5, 11, 21, 32. Table 3 provides the factor loadings for the whole
group taken together on Forms A and B.
The next step was to compare empirically derived scales with theo-
retical ones. We acquired full concordance between empirical Factor
one and a scale theoretically defined as Task-oriented coping. Nine out
of ten items on Factor two were consistent with the theoretical scale
defined as emotion-orieted coping.
The final three scales of the CSSQ are presented in Appendix 1. Each
scale is scored separately by summing up the reponse weights accord-
ing to the scoring key.
Conducted correlation analysis confirm also considerable independ-
ence of the scales.
Correlation between scales coefficients obtained separately for girls
and boys, in Form A and Form B are low and range from 0.017 to
0.286.
Correlational analyses were also conducted for the purpose of the
assessment of the possible social desirability bias. The obtained coeffi-
cients between three scales of the CSSQ and the Marlow-Crown Social
Desirability Scale range from 0.06 to 0.20. These findings confirm
that the responses in both forms of the CSSQ are not biased by social
desirability.

187

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

Table 2 Factorial analysis of the CSSQ, Form A and Form B for

boys, n = 303
Form A Form B
Item Factor I Loadings Item Factor I Loadings

Factor 1 28 0.762 31 0.742

6 0.748 2 0.705
2 0.745 28 0.695
17 0.741 12 0.693
12 0.719 25 0.688
25 0.692 22 0.662
22 0.679 17 0.653
31 0.630 37 0.651
37 0.628 6 0.606
34 0.597 34 0.503
3 0.566 3 0.364
Eigenvalue 5.975 5.461
% of Explained Variance 18.1 16.5

Form A Form B
Item Factor II Loadings Item Factor II Loadings

Factor II 14 0.704 33 0.628

33 0.637 36 0.615
36 0.615 5 0.583
24 0.609 14 0.582
16 0.581 16 0.530
42 0.579 24 0.529
5 0.543 27 0.525
27 0.506 1 0.474
1 0.449 42 0.463
21 0.375 11 n.s.
11 n.s. 21 n.s.
Eigenvalue 3.887 3.477
% of Explained Variance 11.8 10.5

Form A Form B
Item Factor III Loadings Item Factor III Loadings

Factor III 39 0.694 29 0.653

29 0.669 39 0.634
23 0.646 10 0.567
4 0.604 7 0.552
10 0.591 20 0.518
20 0.500 4 0.511
13 0.444 13 0.497
38 0.383 35 0.456
7 n.s. 38 0.406
32 n.s. 23 0.397
35 n.s. 32 n.s.
Eigenvalue 2.788 2.747
% of Explained Variance 8.4 8.3

188

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

Table 3 Factorial analysis of the CSSQ, Form A and Form B, for the
entire group, n = 696
Form A Form B
Item Factor I Loadings Item Factor I Loadings

Factor 1 17 0.720 28 0.684

28 0.703 17 0.681
2 0.676 31 0.678
25 0.649 12 0.660
22 0.636 2 0.655
12 0.632 37 0.650
3 0.628 25 0.644
31 0.621 22 0.611
6 0.614 3 0.566
37 0.594 6 0.558
34 0.545 34 0.522
32 n.s.
Eigenvalue 5.110 5.066
% of Explained Variance 15.5 15.4

Form A Form B
Item Factor II Loadings Item Factor II Loadings

Factor II 29 0.732 29 0.725

39 0.642 39 0.680
23 0.633 10 0.621
10 0.613 20 0.558
20 0.550 23 0.539
4 0.525 38 0.504
13 0.488 13 0.486
35 0.453 35 0.476
38 0.417 4 0.470
7 0.372 7 0.447
32 n.s.
Eigenvalue 3.589 3.332
% of Explained Variance 10.9 10.1

Form A Form B
Item Factor III Loadings Item Factor III Loadings

Factor III 14 0.659 33 0.658

33 0.622 14 0.597
24 0.590 36 0.565
16 0.577 24 0.544
42 0.555 27 0.504
36 0.530 16 0.494
1 0.509 1 0.486
27 0.452 5 0.445
5 0.413 42 0.440
11 0.345 21 0.399
21 n.s. 11 0.365
Eigenvalue 2.683 2.983
% of Explained Variance 8.1 8.9

189

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

Table 4
Gender CSSQ. Form A CSSQ. Form B

Task Emotion Avoidance Task Emotion Avoidance

Girls (N=393) 0.856 0.790 0.742 0.843 0.775 0.725
Boys (N=303) 0.863 0.783 0.737 0.840 0.757 0.704

Reliability and validity

The reliability of CSSQ was calculated by the internal consistency co-
efficient. Values of the Cronbach alpha for CSSQ Forms A and B are
presented in Table 4.
The theoretical validity of the CSSQ was assessed by comparing the
items which made up the empirical scales (following factor analyses)
with the theoretical scale items. As already mentioned, each of the
items producing the respective empirical scales was also included in
the theoretical scales. The procedure used in the study corresponds
with the method of distinguishing coping styles by Endler and Parker.
Present findings show that percent of explained variance changes
depending on the aspect of coping as well as on the examined sub-
sample. Three factors of Form A in girls account for 32 percent of
explained variance, for 38.30 percent in boys and for 34.50 percent in
the entire group. Analogical results for Form B are 33.70 percent for
girls, 35.30 percent for boys and 34.40 percent for the entire group.
Data presented in Tables 1 to 6 are very consistent, as the same factor
structure was revealed in all the analyses. Additionally, independence
of the three scales of the CSSQ was confirmed in the study, which is in
full concordance with theoretical assumptions.

Discussion and conclusions

The elaborated Coping with School-related Stress Questionnaire is
based on the interactive paradigm of coping with stress and is designed
for adolescents, aged 1516. One of the unquestionable strengths of the
present instrument is its settlement in the psychological theory. The
construction of many coping inventories targeting children and youth
was mainly empirical, and not well balanced with rational procedures,
while in case of the CSSQ the scales emerged as a result of both types of
steps. What is noteworthy is, unlike other coping inventories, the
CSSQ addresses school-stress directly and is designed for a specific age
group.
The presented model encompasses situational and dispositional
factors. Subsequently, the CSSQ consists of two forms: A and B. Form

190

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

A is for coping styles and Form B is used to assess strategies employed

Therefore, it meets the standards of covering both facets of coping.
Both forms consist of the same 42 items, the difference is in the instruc-
tion given to participants. In Form A, a person is asked to respond by
indicating how he or she usually behaves in various stressful situations
at school. In Form B answers pertain to a specific stressful encounter
given in the instruction. A subject responds to each item on the
four-pont Liekert scale. Thirty out of 42 items are diagnostic: 11 for
task-oriented coping, nine for emotion-oriented coping and ten for
avoidance-oriented coping. The remaining 12 items are buffers. The
score is assessed for each scale separately, in Form A as well as in
Form B.
As a result of several factorial analyses, three scales of the CSSQ
were distinguished: task, emotion and avoidance coping. Therefore, the
technique is compatible with the leading coping instruments. Although
a stable factor structure was obtained in the study, only moderate per-
cents of explained variance were acquired. These findings give support
for the interactional model of coping, where specific aspects of coping
are strongly related to various factors named in the model, however,
further research on validity of the measure is necessary.
Another limitation of the study pertains to the sample of partici-
pants, who came from Warsaw secondary schools. In order to generalize
conclusions it would be necessary to perform wider randomized trials.
In general, it has to be concluded that the presented instrument may
be successfully applied in the school context for measuring coping
among adolescents. It is designed specifically for this age group and
relates to school stress understood in a broad sense. These qualities
make the CSSQ a valuable measurement technique. Further research
concerning its diagnostic qualities among different age groups should
be conducted, which is an especially vital issue for practicing school
psychologists, who wish to use this method for diagnostic purposes.
Until the normative data are gathered, the CSSQ should be applied as
a research technique only.

Notes
Support for this work was partly provided by the Department of Psychology,
Warsaw University, grant number 1695/15.
1. The data were partly collected within the Master thesis of H. Zalewska.

191

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

References
Boekaerts, M. (1996) Coping with Stress in Childhood and Adolescence, in M.
Zeidner and N. S. Endler (eds) Handbook of Coping, pp.45284. New York:
John Wiley and Sons.
Blount, R. L., Landolf-Fritsche, B., Powers, S.W. and Sturges, J.W. (1991)
Differences Between High and Low Coping Children and Between Parent
and Staff Behaviours During Painful Medical Procedures, Journal of
Pediatric Psychology 16: 795809.
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F. and Weintraub, J. K. (1989) Assessing Coping
Strategies: A Theoretically Based Approach, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 56: 267283.
Compas, B. E., Phares, V. and Ledoux, N. (1989) Stress and Coping Preventive
Interventions for Children and Young Adolescents, in L. A. Bond and B. E.
Compas (eds) Primary Preventions and Promotion in the Schools, pp. 319
41. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Endler, N. S. and Parker, J. D. A. (1994) Assessment of Multidimensional
Coping: Task, Emotion and Avoidance Strategies, Psychological Assessment
6: 50-60.
Endler, N. S. and Parker, J. D. A. (1999) Coping Inventory for Stressful Situa-
tions (CISS): Manual (Revised Edition). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R., Dunkel-Schetter, C., De Longis, A. and Gruben, R. J.
(1986) Dynamics of Stressful Encounters: Cognitive Appraisal, Coping and
Encounter Outcomes, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50:
9921003.
Frydenberg, E. and Lewis, R. (1991) Adolescent Coping: The Different Ways in
Which Boys and Girls Cope, Journal of Adolescence 14: 11933.
Gror, M. W., Thomas, S. P. and Shoffner, D. (1992) Adolescent Stress and
Coping: A Longitudinal Study, Research in Nursing and Health 15: 20917.
Lohman, B. J. and Jarvis, P. A. (2000) Adolescents Stressors, Coping Strate-
gies, and Psychological Health Studied in The Family Context, Journal of
Youth and Adolescents 29: 1543.
Kulik, A. and Szewczyk, L. (2003) Radzenie sobie ze stresem u nastolatkw z
.
rznym poziomem zmeczenia [Coping Among Adolescents with Different
Levels of Fatigue], in Z. Juczynski and N. Oginska-Bulik (eds) Zasoby
osobiste i spo eczne sprzyjaja ce zdrowiu jednostki, pp. 17695. "dz,:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu "dzkiego.
Lazarus, R. S. (1980) The Stress and Coping Paradigm, in L. A. Bond and J. C.
Rosen (eds) Competence and Coping During Adulthood, pp. 2874. Hanover:
University Press of New England.
Lazarus, R. S. (1993) Coping Theory and Research: Past, Present and Future,
Psychosomatic Medicine 55: 23447.
Lazarus, R. S. and Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York:
Springer.
Lazarus, R. S. and Folkman, S. (1987) Transactional Theory and Research on
Emotions and Coping, European Journal of Personality 1: 14169.
Ryan, N. M. (1989) Stress-Coping Strategies Identified From School Age Chil-
drens Perspective, Research in Nursing and Health 12: 11122.
Samdal, O., Nutbeam, D. Wold, B. and Lkannas L. (1998) Achieving Health

192

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 Wrzesniewski and Chylinska: Coping Styles and Strategies

and Educational Goals Through Schools A Study of the Importance of

the School Climate and the Students Satisfaction with School, Health
Education Research 13(3): 38397.
Schwarzer, C. and Buchwald, P. (2003) Introduction. Examination Stress:
Measurement and Coping, Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 16(3): 24749.
Schwarzer, R. and Schwarzer, C. (1996) A Critical Survey of Coping Instru-
ments, in M. Zeidner and N. S. Endler (eds) Handbook of Coping, pp. 107
32. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Seiffke-Krenke, I.(1990) Developmental Processes in Self-Concept and Coping
Behaviour, in H. Bosma and S. Jackson (eds) Coping and Self-Concept in
Adolescence, pp. 5168. Berlin: Springer.
Seiffge-Krenke, I. (1993) Coping Behavior in Normal and Clinical Samples.
More Similarities Than Differences?, Journal of Adolescence 16: 285303.
Seiffge-Krenke, I.,Weidemann, S., Fentner, S., Aegenheister, N. and Poeblau,
M. (2001) Coping with School-Related Stress and Family Stress in Healthy
and Clinically Referred Adolescents, European Psychologist 6(2): 12332.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorush, R. L. and Lushene, R. E. (1970) Manual for the
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Torsheim, T., Aaroe, L. and Wold, B. (2003) School-Related Stress, Social
Support, and Distress: Prospective Analysis of Reciprocal and Multilevel
Relationships, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 44(2): 15360.
Wlodarczyk D. (1999) Rola i miejsce oceny poznawczej w radzeniu sobie ze
stresem [The Role of Cognitive Appraisal in Coping With Stress], Nowiny
Psychologiczne 4: 5773.
Wrzesniewski, K. (1996) Style a strategie radzenia sobie ze stresem. Problemy
pomiaru [Coping Styles and Strategies. Measurement Issues], in I. Heszen-
Niejodek and Z. Ratajczak (eds) Cz owiek w sytuacji stresu. Problemy
teoretyczne i metodologiczne, pp. 4464. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwer-
sytetu Sla skiego.
Wrzesniewski, K. and W!odarczyk, D. (2001) The Role of Cognitive Appraisal
in Coping With Stress After Myocardial Infraction: Selected Theoretical and
Methodological Issues, Polish Psychological Bulletin 32: 10914.
Zalewska, H. (1994) Strategie radzenia sobie ze stresem szkolnym stosowane
przez uczniw pierwszych klas licew panstwowych i spo!ecznych [Coping
Strategies With School-Related Stress Among First Year High-School
Pupils Attending Public and Private Schools], unpublished masters thesis.
Psychology Department, Warsaw University, Poland.
Zeidner, M. (1995) Adaptive Coping With Test Situations: A Review of the
Literature, Educational Psychologist 30(3): 12333.

193

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009

 School Psychology International (2007), Vol. 28(2)

Appendix 1

Item
number Task-oriented coping

2 I try to anticipate and prevent possible further troubles

3 I attempt various forms of action to solve the problem
6 I seek information which could help me to solve my problem
12 I try to analyse my position and find the cause of my problem
17 I try to get rid of my problems systematically and gradually
22 I concentrate completely on solving the problem
25 Before taking any steps I consider what choice to make
28 I try to act methodically and rationally
31 I organize my life and what I am to do
34 I try to develop my skills and potentials
37 I change these elements in my behaviour which may have con-
tributed to the problem

Emotion-oriented coping

4 I complain to someone in the family

7 I think of times when I felt better
10 I feel sorry for myself
13 I imagine how different things could be
20 I ask various people to give me their opinion about what has
happened to me
23 I relieve myself by crying
29 I complain to friends
32 I accuse myself of procrastinating
35 I am mad and yell at people
38 I ask a classmate for help
39 I talk with friends about what I experience

Avoidance-oriented coping

1 I listen to music
5 I watch TV
11 I sleep more
14 I go to the cinema
16 I go shopping, buy myself something I like
21 I miss classes
24 I watch films on the video
27 I drink beer, wine or liquor
33 I socialize
36 I spend time with my sweetheart
42 I joke and retain my sense of humor

194

Downloaded from http://spi.sagepub.com by taman mihaela on October 13, 2009