Topic Motives and

7 Personality
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the basic concepts of motivational personality psychology,
which are motives, need, press and apperception;
2. Explain the relationships between motives, need, press and
apperception;
3. Apply the Big Three Motives to the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT);
4. Distinguish the definition of motivation from the psychoanalytic
perspective and the humanistic approach; and
5. Evaluate the self-actualisation motive according to Maslow and
Rogers.

INTRODUCTION
In Topic 1 (Introduction to Personality), we learnt that personality psychologists
are interested in exploring the question Why people do what they do?
Motivational psychologists, on the other hand, are interested in examining the
question What drives people to do the things they do? More specifically,
motivational psychologists are interested in identifying the motives that make
people do the things they do. In this topic, we will discuss some of the main
theories on human motivation and how they perceive the process of personality
development. Some of the motivational theorists whom we will discuss in this
topic include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Essentially, theories of human
motivation see personality as being made up of a few general motives which we
all have or are capable of having. These motives operate primarily through
mental processes, either inside or outside of consciousness.

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SELF-CHECK 7.1

Discuss the general goals of motivational personality psychologists.

7.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATIONAL

PERSONALITY
First, let us discuss the basic concepts of motivational personality psychology
motives, need, press and apperception. We will also explore the relationship
among these concepts.

(a) Motives
Motives refer to internal mental processes that stimulate and guide
behaviour toward specific goals. A motive often arises because of a deficit
(a lack of something). For example, if you have not had anything to drink
the whole day, you would be motivated by thirst. Motives vary in intensity.
For instance, the intensity of the thirst motive varies depending on whether
a person is merely thirsty or dehydrated.

Motives are also often based on needs a state of tension within a person.
The state of tension (need) is caused by a deficit for example, the lack of
water causes the need for water. Next section, we will discuss need in
detail. The need for water creates the motive of thirst. The motive of thirst
causes you to look for water, to think about water all the time and maybe
even to start imagining water where there is no water. For example, a
person lost in the desert and feeling very thirsty may look at the sand dunes
and see an oasis instead. Motives drive people to act, think and perceive in
specific ways that satisfy the need. Figure 7.1 illustrates the relationship
between needs and motives.

Figure 7.1: The relationship between needs and motives

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(b) Need
The concept of need was defined by Henry Murray as a potentiality or
readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances...
(Murray, 1938). Needs organise action by driving a person to do what is
necessary to satisfy the need. For instance, a person who has a need for a lot
of money may work very hard and sacrifice a lot to earn that money. Needs
also organise perception by directing us to see what we want (or need) to
see. For example, a person with a high need for acceptance may perceive
every situation as an opportunity to gain acceptance from others (Carver
and & Scheier, 2008). As we discussed earlier, a need also refers to a state of
tension; thus, satisfying a need reduces tension. Murray proposes a list of
fundamental human needs. He suggests that each person has a unique
hierarchy of needs each persons need consists of a different level of
strength. For example, an individual may have a high need for
achievement, an average need for aggression and a low need for order.
Each need interacts with various other needs within the person. This
interaction makes the concept of motive dynamic. Table 7.1 briefly
describes several of Murrays needs.

Table 7.1: Description of Murrays Needs

Type of Need Sub-Need Description

Ambition Needs Achievement To accomplish difficult tasks
independently.
Exhibition To be the centre of attraction.
Order To desire for things to be orderly.
Needs to Defend Status Dominance The desire to have influence and power
over others.
Needs Related to Social Abasement To submit passively to fate.
Power To accept criticism and blame.
Aggression To forcefully overcome opposition.
To attack or injure another.
Autonomy To shake off restrictions and be free.
To be free to act according to ones
wishes.
Blame-avoidance To avoid humiliation and embarassment
or belittlement.
To refrain from action because of fear of
failure or worry over scorn from others.

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Social Affection Needs Affiliation To enjoy cooperation or reciprocal

interaction with others.
To win the affection of those you like.
To draw near to others.
To remain loyal to friends.
Nurturance To take care of others in need, to give
sympathy and gratify the needs of
helpless others (e.g. child and disabled
person).

Succour To receive aid from others. To have

ones needs gratified by another, to be
supported, protected and consoled.

Source: Adapted from Murray, H.A. (1938).

(c) Press
The concept of press is based on Henry Murrays idea that elements in the
environment affects a persons needs. For instance, if you have a high need
for affiliation, you might perceive the environment in a different way you
might be more sensitive to the social aspects of your environment such as
the number of people participating and if they look friendly and talkative.
A persons need for affiliation only affects the persons behaviour when an
appropriate environmental press is present (such as the presence of friendly
people). A person with a high need for affiliation is more likely to notice
other people and to see them as opportunities for interaction compared to a
person with a low need for affiliation. There are two types of press which
are alpha press and beta press.
(i) Alpha press refers to objective reality (real environment).
(ii) Beta press refers to reality as it is perceived (subjective reality).

The way one individual perceives something might be different from how
another person perceives it even though the situation is the same. For
example, imagine there are two people sitting on a bench and a third
person approaches and smiles at both of them. The person with a high need
for affiliation might perceive the smile as a friendly notion and proceed to
start a conversation. However, the person with a low need for affiliation
might perceive the smile as suspicious and avoid further eye contact. In
objective reality (alpha press), it was the same smile. However, in subjective
reality (beta press), it was a very different event for the two individuals
because of their differences in their need for affiliation.

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(d) Apperception and TAT

We have just learnt that an individuals needs affect his or her perception
towards the environment. The act of perceiving the environment is called
apperception. Essentially, our needs and motives affect apperception. How do
psychologists assess needs and motives? They use the Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT), which consists of ambiguous black and white drawings.

The individual is asked to make up a story about what is happening in the

picture. The presumption is that the individual will project current needs
and motives into the interpretation of the picture.

Example of Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Figure 7.2 is an example of black and white image used in the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT). Follow these instructions: First, look at the picture
below. Then, write a complete story about the picture you see. This should be
an imaginative story with a beginning, middle and an end. Finally, describe
who the people might be, what they are feeling, thinking and wishing.

Figure 7.2: An example of black and white image used in a

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Source: http://www.utpsyc.org/TATintro/

TAT can be used to measure different levels of needs and motives. For instance,
state levels of needs and trait levels of needs. State level needs are an individuals
current needs which can vary according to circumstances. Trait level needs refer

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to assessing an individuals average tendency. TAT is also known to be more

sensitive to the needs for achievement, power and intimacy.

Multi-Motive Grid is a newer form of assessing motives. It combines features of

TAT with features of self-report questionnaires.

ACTIVITY 7.1
The following link showcases the TAT.

http://www.utpsyc.org/TATintro/

There will be a black and white picture in the page. You are required to
write a complete story about the picture you see. After you have done
the test, you will be presented with the result which is the meaning of
your responses. Do the TAT and share your results with your
coursemates.

SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. Define and discuss deficits, motives, needs and press.
2. Discuss the relationships between deficit, motive and need.
3. Discuss Henry Murray's theory of needs. What is the function of a
need?
4. Discuss and give an example of Murray's concept of press.
5. Distinguish between alpha press and beta press.
6. Discuss Murray's concept of apperception.
7. What is the Thematic Apperception Technique test or TAT? What
is it designed to do?

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7.2 THE BIG THREE MOTIVES: ACHIEVEMENT,

POWER AND INTIMACY
In the previous topic, we discussed about motives. If you could still remember,
motives are usually based on needs. The big three motives shown in the title refer
to the needs for achievement, power and intimacy. Researches with the TAT
mostly focus on these three basic motives. Needs and motives are measured by
assessing stories written in response to TAT pictures. Let us now discuss each of
these important human motives.

(a) Need for achievement

The need for achievement can be defined as the desire to do things better, to
be successful and to feel competent. If you are motivated by a high need for
achievement, you will most probably gain satisfaction from
accomplishments, and even the anticipation of accomplishments. To sum it
up, people with a high need for achievement have the following
characteristics:
(i) They prefer challenging activities sometimes;
(ii) They enjoy tasks where they are personally responsible for the result;
and
(iii) They prefer to do tasks that give feedback on their performance
(Larsen and Buss, 2008).

The sex differences with regards to the need for achievement occur in two areas:
(i) First, the life outcomes predicted by a high need for achievement
The typical life outcome for men predicted by a high need for
achievement is focused mainly on achievement in business. For
women, it depends on whether the woman values family, work or
both. If a woman is concerned more about family rather than a career,
she may place greater emphasis and investment on relationships and
managing household and kids welfare, if she is a married woman.
(ii) Second, childhood experiences associated with the need for achievement
Childhood experiences and early family life experiences also affect the
need for achievement. Girls with mothers who are highly critical of
them, competitive toward them and somewhat less nurturing and
affectionate tend to have a high need for achievement. On the other
hand, men with a high need for achievement are more likely to have
an early family life characterised by parental care and support.

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Despite the sex differences, parents can still promote achievement

motivation in their children by placing an emphasis on independence
training. In independence training, parents should act in ways that
encourage autonomy and independence in their children. For example,
teaching your child how to eat on his own, instead of feeding him. Training
a child to be independent can promote a need for achievement in the child.

(b) Need for power

The need for power can be defined as the desire to have an impact, control
or influence over others. People with a high need for power are interested
in controlling people and situations. According to research findings using
the TAT, the need for power is positively correlated with being
argumentative, being assertive and acquiring more prestige possessions
such as expensive cars and properties (Larsen & Buss, 2008). In addition to
that, people with a high need for power do not cope well with frustration
and conflict. They tend to display intense stress responses (e.g. high blood
pressure) when their power is challenged. It has been found that impulsive
behaviours such as drinking, sexual exploitation and aggression are less
likely to occur if a person has received responsibility training. An example
of responsibility training is giving your children the responsibility to take
care of their younger siblings.

(c) Need for intimacy

The need for intimacy can be defined as the desire for warm and fulfilling
relationships with others. People with a high need for intimacy crave for more
intimacy and meaningful human contact than people who are low in their
need for intimacy. Other than that, people with a high need for intimacy also:
(i) Spend more time thinking about relationships;
(ii) Feel better when they are around other people; and
(iii) Spend more time writing letters and keeping in touch with people.

However, individuals with a high need for intimacy are not necessarily
extroverted. Rather, they prefer one-to-one meaningful conversations with
people as compared to gatherings with large groups of people. In fact,
people with a high need for intimacy prefer to just have a few good friends
as opposed to being in a group with the most popular people.

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ACTIVITY 7.2

Redo Activity 7.1. Then, write three stories that would score high on the:
(a) Need for achievement;
(b) Need for power; and
(c) Need for intimacy.

7.3 HUMANISTIC TRADITION: THE MOTIVE

TO SELF-ACTUALISE
The humanistic tradition approach to motivation focuses on conscious awareness
of needs, choice and personal responsibility. According to humanistic
psychology, the meaning of your life is found in the choices you make and your
accountability over the choices. The humanistic approach emphasises on the
human need for growth and the realisation of ones full potential.

In the humanistic tradition, motivation is understood as the need to grow and to

reach your highest potential. In the psychoanalytic perspective, motivation is
viewed as something which arises from a particular deficit or lack of something.
All the motives we discussed in subtopic 7.2 which are achievement, power and
intimacy are all deficiency motives. However, in the humanistic tradition, the
motive to self-actualise is seen as the most important driving force which is based
on growth rather than deficiency. Abraham Maslow (1968) coined the term self-
actualisation to describe the process of becoming everything that one is capable
of becoming.

SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. Describe the key assumptions of humanistic personality
psychologists.
2. What is the main difference between motivation in the humanistic
tradition and motivation in the psychoanalytic perspective?

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7.3.1 Maslows Contributions

Abraham Maslow (refer to Figure 7.3) defines needs by its goals. Maslow believes
that needs are arranged according to a hierarchy where the more basic needs are at
the bottom, and the higher level needs (self-actualisation) are at the top of the
hierarchy (refer to Figure 7.4). According to Maslow, we must first meet the basic
needs at the bottom of the hierarchy before we can proceed to satisfy the other
needs. In fact, it is common sense that we first satisfy our hunger and thirst before
worrying about how we might gain more confidence or improve our self-esteem. It
is also important to note that the lower level needs become more powerful when
they are not satisfied compared to the higher level needs. Oftentimes, however,
people work at satisfying different level needs at the same time (Pervin, 2003).

Figure 7.3: Abraham Maslow

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow

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Figure 7.4: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

How do self-actualised individuals behave? Table 7.2 describes the characteristics

of self-actualised persons from Maslows case studies.

Table 7. 2: Characteristics of Self-actualised Persons

Characteristic of a Self-
Characteristic
Actualised Person
1. Efficient perception of Does not allow ones own desires to affect perception.
reality Able to detect fake behaviours and deceit.
2. Acceptance of themselves, Realises that people make mistakes and accepts this
others and nature or fate fact. Natural events and disasters are also accepted as
part of life.
3. Spontaneity Behaviour is characterised by simplicity and no extra
frills. They trust their impulses.
4. Problem focus Interested in the bigger philosophical and ethical
problems of their times. Petty issues are considered
uninteresting.
5. Affinity for solitude Comfortable being alone.
6. Independence from They are not attracted to fads. Rather, they prefer to
culture and environment follow their own interests.
7. Continued freshness of Every event is experienced as if for the first time. They
appreciation appreciate the ordinary and find awe in the mundane.

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8. More frequent peak Peak experiences refer to a momentary feeling of

experiences extreme wonder and awe. These special experiences
are very meaningful to those that experience them.
9. Genuine desire to help the Care deeply and sincerely for fellow human beings.
human race
10. Deep ties with relatively They usually have a few very good friends, and tend
few people to prefer privacy allowing only a few people to
really know them.
11. Democratic values They respect and value all people, and hold no
prejudices and stereotypes about people based on
superficial characteristics such as race, religion and
sex. They treat other people as individuals rather than
members of groups.
12. Ability to discriminate Enjoy doing something for its own sake, and not
between means and ends because of the goals the activity can fulfil.
13. Philosophical sense of Enjoy making jokes of human foolishness rather than
humour making fun of an inferiority of a person or group.
14. Creativity The ability to see connections between things (not
usually seen by other people). More likely to be
creative because of their fresh perception of ordinary
things.
15. Resistance to Remain detached from culture-bound rules. Often
enculturation look and act differently from the crowd.

Source: Adapted from Maslow, A.H. (1987).

SELF-CHECK 7.4
Discuss Maslows key contributions to humanistic personality
psychology.

ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Based on Maslows hierarchy of needs, why do you think some
people work even when they are not paid well?
2. Identify a person whom you consider as a self-actualised person.
Review Maslows list of 15 characteristics of self-actualisers and
find the characters in the person you have chosen. Try to provide
concrete examples from the persons life to illustrate the
characteristics.

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7.3.2 Contributions of Carl Rogers

Similar to Maslow, Carl Rogers also believed that our primary motive in life is
the motive to self-actualise. However, Carl Rogers main emphasis was on the
ways of promoting and attaining self-actualisation rather than on the
characteristics of self-actualised persons which was Maslows focus. Rogers
believed that on the individuals way towards self-actualisation, they become
blocked or sidetracked sometimes. His theory explains how some individuals
lose their direction. Rogers also suggested techniques to help people get back on
their track to self-actualisation. Rogers theory is known as the person-centred
approach. Rogers concept of the fully functioning person describes an individual
who is on his or her way towards self-actualisation (Carver & Scheier, 2008).

According to Rogers, all children are born with a need for positive regard the
need to be loved and accepted by their parents and significant others. However,
many times parents place many conditions on their children before they can
receive positive regard. For example, only if the child receives good grades in
school will the parent show him positive regard. The requirements set by parents
or significant others for earning positive regard are called conditions of worth.
Children may become preoccupied with living up to these conditions of worth
rather than discovering what makes them happy. As they mature into adulthood,
they remain preoccupied with satisfying conditions of worth to receive positive
regard from others. By this time, they have been working to please others for so
long that they have forgotten what they want in life. They have lost their
direction and are not moving towards self-actualisation anymore.

How can this outcome be avoided? Rogers believes that positive regard from
parents and significant others should be given freely without conditions or
strings attached (unconditional positive regard). The key to development of
unconditional positive self-regard (accepting yourself for who you are) and
moving toward self-actualisation is the gift of unconditional positive regard from
parents and significant others.

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SELF-CHECK 7.5

1. Discuss the self-actualisation motive according to Maslow and

Rogers.
2. Discuss Rogers key contributions to humanistic personality
psychology.
3. Discuss what Roger meant by the following terms: fully
functioning person, positive regard, conditions of worth,
unconditional positive regard and unconditional positive self-
regard.

Motivational psychologists are interested in finding out the motives that

make people do the things they do.

Motives refer to internal mental processes that stimulate and guide behaviour
toward specific goals. A motive often arises because of a deficit (a lack of
something).

The concept of need was defined by Henry Murray as a potentiality or

readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances...
(Murray, 1938).

The concept of press is based on Henry Murrays idea that elements in the
environment affect a persons needs.

TAT is used to measure different levels of needs and motives.

Abraham Maslow believes that needs are arranged according to a hierarchy

where the more basic needs are at the bottom, and the higher level needs
(self-actualisation) are at the top of the hierarchy.

Similar to Maslow, Roger also believes that our primary motive in life is the
motive to self-actualise. However, Carl Rogers main emphasis was on ways
of promoting and attaining self-actualisation rather than on the characteristics
of self-actualised persons (Maslows focus).

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Alpha press Positive regard

Apperception Press
Beta press Self-actualisation
Conditions of worth Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Fully functioning person Unconditional positive regard
Motives Unconditional positive self-regard
Need

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2008). Perspectives on personality (6th ed.). New
York: Pearson.
Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). New York: Harper &
Row.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Larsen, R. J., & Buss, D. M. (2008). Personality psychology: Domains of
knowledge about human nature (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pervin, L. A. (2003). The science of personality (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Oxford
University Press.

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