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Greg Fasshauer
Fall 2010
Definition
A real symmetric matrix A is called positive semi-definite if its
associated quadratic form is non-negative, i.e.,
N X
X N
cj ck Ajk 0 (1)
j=1 k =1
for c = [c1 , . . . , cN ]T RN .
If the quadratic form (1) is zero only for c 0, then A is called positive
definite.
Since the eigenvalues of a positive definite matrix are all positive a
positive definite matrix is non-singular.
We therefore look for basis functions Bk that generate a positive
definite interpolation matrix.
This leads to positive definite functions.
Definition
A complex-valued continuous function : Rs C is called positive
definite on Rs if
X N XN
cj ck (x j x k ) 0 (2)
j=1 k =1
Remark
For theoretical reasons the definition employs complex-valued
functions.
All of our applications will only be real-valued.
Because of the inequality in (2) we know that any (strictly) positive
definite function must have a real-valued quadratic form.
fasshauer@iit.edu MATH 590 Chapter 3 6
Positive Definite Matrices and Functions
Remark
History (i.e., analysts in the 1920s and 30s) defined positive
definite functions in analogy to positive semi-definite matrices.
This concept is not strong enough to guarantee a non-singular
interpolation matrix and so we need to define strictly positive
definite functions as in [Micchelli (1986)].
This leads to an unfortunate difference in terminology used in the
context of matrices and functions.
Sometimes the literature is confusing about this and you might
find papers that use the term positive definite function in the strict
sense, and others that use it in the way we defined it above.
Hopefully, the authors are clear about their use of terminology.
Example
The function
B (x) = eixy , y Rs fixed,
is positive definite on Rs since its quadratic form is
N X
X N N X
X N
cj ck B (x j x k ) = cj ck ei(x j x k )y
j=1 k =1 j=1 k =1
N
X N
X
= cj eix j y ck eix k y
j=1 k =1
2
N
X
ix j y
= cj e 0.
j=1
Remark
At this point we dont require to be radial.
In fact, the interpolant obtained via Pf of (3) is translation invariant.
We will later specialize to strictly positive definite functions that are
also radial on Rs .
One can also generalize this setup by introducing (strictly) positive
definite kernels (a bit more later). Then we may even give up
translation invariance.
(1) Non-negative finite linear combinations of positive definite functions are positive
definite. If 1 , . . . , n are positive definite on Rs and cj 0, j = 1, . . . , n, then
n
X
(x) = cj j (x), x Rs ,
j=1
|(x)| (0).
Proof.
Properties (1) and (2) follow immediately from Definition 2.
Property (5) follows immediately from (4).
Property (6) follows from Schurs theorem in linear algebra which
ensures that the elementwise (or Hadamard) product of positive
(semi-)definite matrices is positive (semi-)definite.
We will now give details for Properties (3) and (4).
For more details see [Cheney and Light (1999)] or
[Wendland (2005a)].
Proof (cont.)
To show (3) we let N = 2, x 1 = 0, x 2 = x, and choose c1 = 1 and
c2 = c.
Then we have the quadratic form
2 X
X 2
cj ck (x j x k ) = (1 + |c|2 )(0) + c(x) + c(x) 0
j=1 k =1
for every c C.
Now we can take c = 1 and c = i.
These, respectively, imply that both
must be real.
This, however, is only possible if (x) = (x).
Proof (cont.)
For the proof of (4) we let N = 2, x 1 = 0, x 2 = x, and choose
c1 = |(x)| and c2 = (x).
Then we get the quadratic form
2 X
X 2
cj ck (x j x k ) = 2(0)|(x)|2 (x)(x)|(x)| 2 (x)|(x)|
j=1 k =1
0.
2(0)|(x)|2 2|(x)|3 0.
Example
1 ix
cos x = e + eix .
2
By our earlier example the function B (x) = eixy is positive definite for
any fixed y Rs .
Therefore, 1 (x) = eix and 2 (x) = eix are positive definite, and the
cosine function is positive definite by Property (1).
Definition
Given an arbitrary set X and a -algebra A of subsets of X , a measure
on A is a function : A [0, ] such that
(1) () = 0,
(2) for any sequence {Ai } of disjoint sets in A we have
[
X
( Ai ) = (Ai ).
i=1 i=1
fasshauer@iit.edu MATH 590 Chapter 3 18
Integral Characterizations for (Strictly) Positive Definite Functions Some Important Concepts from Measure Theory
Definition
If X is a topological space, and O is the collection of open sets in X ,
then the -algebra generated by O is called the Borel -algebra and
denoted by B(X ).
If in addition X is a Hausdorff spacea , then a measure defined on
B(X ) that satisfies (K ) < for all compact sets K X is called a
Borel measure.
The carrier of a Borel measure is given by the set
Definition
The Fourier transform of f L1 (Rs ) is given by
Z
1
f () = p f (x)eix dx, Rs ,
(2)s Rs
s2
where J s2 is the classical Bessel function of the first kind of order 2 .
2
Remark
The Hankel inversion theorem [Sneddon (1972)] ensures that the
Fourier transform for radial functions is its own inverse, i.e., for radial
functions we have
Fs [Fs ] = .
Proof.
There are many proofs of this theorem.
Bochners original proof can be found in [Bochner (1933)]. Other
proofs can be found, e.g., in [Cuppens (1975)] or
[Gelfand and Vilenkin (1964)].
A proof using the Riesz representation theorem to interpret the Borel
measure as a distribution, and then taking advantage of distributional
Fourier transforms can be found in [Wendland (2005a)].
We will prove only the one (easy) direction that is important for the
application to scattered data interpolation.
Proof (cont.)
We assume is the Fourier transform of a finite non-negative Borel
measure and show is positive definite.
Thus,
N
N X N
N X Z
X 1 X
i(x j x k )y
cj ck (x j x k ) = p cj ck e d(y)
j=1 k =1
(2)s j=1 k =1 Rs
Z N N
1 X X
= p cj eix j y ck eix k y d(y)
s
(2) R j=1
s
k =1
2
N
Z X
1 ix j y
= p cj e d(y) 0.
s
(2) Rs j=1
Remark
Bochners theorem shows that for any fixed y Rs the function
B (x) = eixy , x Rs ,
Theorem
Let be a non-negative finite Borel measure on Rs whose carrier is a
set of nonzero Lebesgue measure. Then the Fourier transform of is
strictly positive definite on Rs .
Proof.
As in the proof of Bochners theorem we have
N
N X N X
N Z
X 1 X
i(x j x k )y
cj ck (x j x k ) = p cj ck e d(y)
j=1 k =1
(2)s j=1 k =1 Rs
Z N N
1 X X
= p cj eix j y ck eix k y d(y)
s
(2) Rs j=1 k =1
2
N
Z X
1 ix j y
= p cj e d(y) 0.
(2)s Rs j=1
Now let
N
X
g(y) = cj eix j y ,
j=1
Proof (cont.)
Since the x j are distinct the functions
y 7 eix j y
Remark
Another sufficient condition is given in [zu Castell et al. (2005)].
A complete integral characterization of functions that are strictly
positive definite on Rs is to my knowledge still missing. The case
s = 1 is covered in [Chang (1996)].
Complete characterizations of strictly positive definite functions on
compact spaces (such as spheres) do exist in the literature.
Proof.
This is a special case of the previous theorem in which the measure
has Lebesgue density f . Thus, we use the measure defined for any
Borel set B by Z
(B) = f (x)dx.
B
Then the carrier of is equal to the (closed) support of f . However,
since f is non-negative and not identically equal to zero, its support
has positive Lebesgue measure, and hence the Fourier transform of f
is strictly positive definite by the preceding theorem.
fasshauer@iit.edu MATH 590 Chapter 3 32
Integral Characterizations for (Strictly) Positive Definite Functions Extensions to Strictly Positive Definite Functions
Theorem
Let be a continuous function in L1 (Rs ). is strictly positive definite if
and only if is bounded and its Fourier transform is non-negative and
not identically equal to zero.
Here
cos r for s = 1,
s (r ) = s2
s 2 2
2 r J s2 (r ) for s 2,
2
s2
and J s2 is the classical Bessel function of the first kind of order 2 .
2
Remark
Now we can view the function (x) = cos(x) as the fundamental
positive definite radial function on R.
We will see in the next chapter that the characterization of the
previous theorem immediately suggests a class of (even strictly)
positive definite radial functions.
Above we saw that any function that is (strictly) positive definite and
radial on Rs is also (strictly) positive definite and radial on R for any
s.
Therefore, we are interested in those functions which are (strictly)
positive definite and radial on Rs for all s.
The characterization for positive definite functions is from
[Schoenberg (1938a), pp. 817821] and the strictly positive definite
case from [Micchelli (1986)]:
Theorem (Schoenberg)
References I
Buhmann, M. D. (2003).
Radial Basis Functions: Theory and Implementations.
Cambridge University Press.
Cheney, E. W. and Light, W. A. (1999).
A Course in Approximation Theory.
Brooks/Cole (Pacific Grove, CA).
Cuppens, R. (1975).
Decomposition of Multivariate Probability.
Academic Press (New York).
Fasshauer, G. E. (2007).
Meshfree Approximation Methods with M ATLAB.
World Scientific Publishers.
Gelfand, I. M. and Vilenkin, N. Ya. (1964).
Generalized Functions Vol. 4.
Academic Press (New York).
References II
Iske, A. (2004).
Multiresolution Methods in Scattered Data Modelling.
Lecture Notes in Computational Science and Engineering 37, Springer Verlag
(Berlin).
Rudin, W. (1973).
Functional Analysis.
McGraw-Hill (New York).
Schlkopf, B. and Smola, A. J. (2002).
Learning with kernels: Support vector machines, regularization, optimization, and
beyond.
MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachussetts.
Sneddon, I. H. (1972).
The Use of Integral Transforms.
McGraw-Hill (New York).
References III
References IV
Chang, K. F. (1996).
Strictly positive definite functions.
J. Approx. Theory 87, pp. 148158. Addendum: J. Approx. Theory 88 1997,
p. 384.
Micchelli, C. A. (1986).
Interpolation of scattered data: distance matrices and conditionally positive
definite functions.
Constr. Approx. 2, pp. 1122.
Schoenberg, I. J. (1938a).
Metric spaces and completely monotone functions.
Ann. of Math. 39, pp. 811841.