Literature

This article is about the art of written work. For the during the Romantic period, in which it began to demar-
card game, see Literature (card game). For literature in cate imaginative writing.[4][5] Contemporary debates
the eld technical publications, see Academic publishing. over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning
to older, more inclusive notions; Cultural studies, for in-
stance, takes as its subject of analysis both popular and
Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of
written works. More restrictively, literature is writing minority genres, in addition to canonical works.
that is considered to be an art form, or any single writ- The value judgment denition of literature considers it
ing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often to cover exclusively those writings that possess high qual-
due to deploying language in ways that dier from or- ity or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-
dinary usage. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived lettres ('ne writing') tradition.[6] This sort of denition
itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was used to re- is that used in the Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh Edi-
fer to all written accounts, though contemporary deni- tion (191011) when it classies literature as the best ex-
tions extend the term to include texts that are spoken or pression of the best thought reduced to writing.[7] Prob-
sung (oral literature). Literature can be classied accord- lematic in this view is that there is no objective denition
ing to whether it is ction or non-ction and whether it is of what constitutes literature": anything can be litera-
poetry or prose; it can be further distinguished according ture, and anything which is universally regarded as liter-
to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; ature has the potential to be excluded, since value judg-
and works are often categorized according to historical ments can change over time.[6]
periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or The formalist denition is that literature foregrounds
expectations (genre). poetic eects; it is the literariness or poetic of liter-
The concept has changed meaning over time: nowa- ature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other
days it can broaden to have non-written verbal art forms, kinds of writing (e.g., journalism).[8][9] Jim Meyer con-
and thus it is dicult to agree on its origin, which siders this a useful characteristic in explaining the use
can be paired with that of language or writing itself. of the term to mean published material in a particular
Developments in print technology have allowed an ever- eld (e.g., "scientic literature"), as such writing must use
growing distribution and proliferation of written works, language according to particular standards.[1] The prob-
culminating in electronic literature. lem with the formalist denition is that in order to say
that literature deviates from ordinary uses of language,
those uses must rst be identied; this is dicult because
1 Denitions "ordinary language" is an unstable category, diering ac-
cording to social categories and across history.[10]
There have been various attempts to dene literature.[1] Etymologically, the term derives from Latin liter-
Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to answer the atura/litteratura learning, a writing, grammar, orig-
question What is Literature?" with the observation: inally writing formed with letters, from litera/littera
letter.[11] In spite of this, the term has also been applied
The quest to discover a denition for lit- to spoken or sung texts.[1][12]
erature is a road that is much travelled, though
the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom
satisfactory. Most attempted denitions are
broad and vague, and they inevitably change
2 Major forms
over time. In fact, the only thing that is cer-
tain about dening literature is that the deni- 2.1 Poetry
tion will change. Concepts of what is literature
change over time as well. [2] Main article: Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and
Denitions of literature have varied over time: it is a cul- rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in ad-
turally relative denition.[3] In Western Europe prior to dition to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible meaning.[13]
the eighteenth century, literature denoted all books and Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by
writing.[3] A more restricted sense of the term emerged its being set in verse;[lower-alpha 1] prose is cast in sentences,

1
2 2 MAJOR FORMS

it from the chivalric romance;[23][24] in most Euro-

pean languages the equivalent term is roman, indi-
cating the proximity of the forms.[24] In English, the
term emerged from the Romance languages in the
late fteenth century, with the meaning of news"; it
came to indicate something new, without a distinc-
tion between fact or ction.[25] Although there are
many historical prototypes, so-called novels before
the novel,[26] the modern novel form emerges late
in cultural history roughly during the eighteenth
century.[27] Initially subject to much criticism, the
novel has acquired a dominant position amongst lit-
erary forms, both popularly and critically.[24][28][29]

Novella: in purely quantitative terms, the novella

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem
in which the written words are arranged in such a way to produce
a visual image.
poetry in lines; the syntax of prose is dictated by meaning,
whereas that of poetry is held across metre or the visual
aspects of the poem.[18] Prior to the nineteenth century,
poetry was commonly understood to be something set in
metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a denition of poetry
is any kind of subject consisting of Rythm or Verses.[13]
Possibly as a result of Aristotle's inuence (his Poetics),
poetry before the nineteenth century was usually less a
technical designation for verse than a normative category
of ctive or rhetorical art.[4] As a form it may pre-date
literacy, with the earliest works being composed within
and sustained by an oral tradition;[19][20] hence it consti-
tutes the earliest example of literature.
2.2 Prose
Main article: Prose
exists between the novel and short story; the pub-
lisher Melville House classies it as too short to
be a novel, too long to be a short story.[30] There
is no precise denition in terms of word or page
count.[31] Literary prizes and publishing houses of-
ten have their own arbitrary limits,[32] which vary ac-
cording to their particular intentions. Summarising
the variable denitions of the novella, William Gi-
raldi concludes "[it is a form] whose identity seems
destined to be disputed into perpetuity.[33] It has
been suggested that the size restriction of the form
produces various stylistic results, both some that are
shared with the novel or short story,[34][35] and oth-
ers unique to the form.[36]
Short story: a dilemma in dening the short story
as a literary form is how to, or whether one should,
distinguish it from any short narrative; hence it
also has a contested origin,[37] variably suggested
as the earliest short narratives (e.g. the Bible),
early short story writers (e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or
the clearly modern short story writers (e.g. Anton
Chekhov).[38] Apart from its distinct size, various
theorists have suggested that the short story has
a characteristic subject matter or structure;[39][40]
these discussions often position the form in some re-
lation to the novel.[41]
2.3 Drama

Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax Main article: Drama
and natural speech rather than rhythmic structure; in
which regard, along with its measurement in sentences Drama is literature intended for performance.[42] The
rather than lines, it diers from poetry.[18][21] On the his-
form is often combined with music and dance, as in opera
torical development of prose, Richard Gra notes that and musical theatre. A play is a subset of this form, refer-
"[In the case of Ancient Greece] recent scholarship has ring to the written dramatic work of a playwright that is
emphasized the fact that formal prose was a compara- intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiey
tively late development, an invention properly associ- dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic
ated with the classical period".[22] or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A closet
drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read
Novel: a long ctional prose narrative. It was the rather than to be performed; hence, it is intended that
forms close relation to real life that dierentiated the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on the
 3

page.[43] Nearly all drama took verse form until compar- quite possible to decipher facts through things like char-
atively recently. acters actions and words or the authors style of writing
Greek drama exemplies the earliest form of drama of and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more
which we have substantial knowledge. Tragedy, as a dra- than just entertainment purposes; within it lies informa-
matic genre, developed as a performance associated with tion about economics, psychology, science, religions, pol-
religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or develop- itics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing
ing upon well-known historical or mythological themes. literature becomes very important in terms of learning
Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With about our history. Through the study of past literature
we are able to learn about how society has evolved and
the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-
stage media have been added to this form. War of the about the societal norms during each of the dierent pe-
riods all throughout history. This can even help us to un-
Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of literature writ-
ten for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have derstand references made in more modern literature be-
cause authors often make references to Greek mythol-
been adapted for lm or television. Conversely, tele-
vision, lm, and radio literature have been adapted to ogy and other old religious texts or historical moments.
Not only is there literature written on each of the afore-
printed or electronic media.
mentioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved
throughout history (like a book about the history of eco-
nomics or a book about evolution and science, for exam-
3 History ple) but one can also learn about these things in ctional
works. Authors often include historical moments in their
Main article: History of literature works, like when Lord Byron talks about the Spanish and
The history of literature follows closely the development the French in Childe Harolds Pilgrimage: Canto I[48]
and expresses his opinions through his character Childe
Harold. Through literature we are able to continuously
uncover new information about history. It is easy to see
how all academic elds have roots in literature.[49] In-
formation became easier to pass down from generation
to generation once we began to write it down. Eventu-
ally everything was written down, from things like home
remedies and cures for illness, or how to build shelter
to traditions and religious practices. From there people
were able to study literature, improve on ideas, further
our knowledge, and academic elds such as the medical
eld or trades could be started. In much the same way as
the literature that we study today continue to be updated
as we continue to evolve and learn more and more.
Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II",
from the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom As a more urban culture developed, academies provided
a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical
of civilization. When dened exclusively as written work, literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence
Ancient Egyptian literature,[44] along with Sumerian lit- of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and
erature are considered the worlds oldest literatures.[45] Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier pe-
The primary genres of the literature of Ancient Egypt riods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or di-
didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and taleswere al- dactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the
most entirely written in verse;[46] while use of poetic de- Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also devel-
vices is clearly recognisable, the prosody of the verse is oped as urban culture provided a larger public audience,
unknown.[47] and later readership, for literary production. Lyric po-
etry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the special-
Dierent historical periods are reected in literature. Na- ity of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East
tional and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristoc-
and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral racy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book
or spiritual messages predominate in the pre-urban eras. of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-
The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually
age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, inuenced poetry in the literary medium.
have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, sur-
viving like the older myths through oral tradition for long In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused
periods before being written down. on philosophy, historiography, military science, agricul-
ture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper mak-
Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, ing and woodblock printing, produced the worlds rst
whether the literature itself be factual or ctional, it is still
4 4
print cultures.[50] Much of Chinese literature originates
with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that oc-
curred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769-269 BCE).
The most important of these include the Classics of
Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as
well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art
of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records
of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had
a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very de-
tailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative his-
tory of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was com-
piled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind
5th century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.
In ancient India, literature originated from stories that
were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included
drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature
begins with the Vedas, dating back to 15001000 BCE,
and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India.
The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhi-
tas (vedic collections) date to roughly 15001000 BCE,
and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of
the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a
Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millen-
nium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[51]
The period between approximately the 6th to 1st cen-
turies BC saw the composition and redaction of the two
most inuential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down
to the 4th century AD. Other major literary works are
Ramcharitmanas & Krishnacharitmanas.
In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the
Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works
and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and
most inuential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical
Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiogra-
phy, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored
philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western
philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were inuential lyric po-
ets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek his-
torians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece,
of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed dur-
ing the classical age, only a limited number of plays
by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only
real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old
Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in
fact used to dene the genre.[52]
Roman histories and biographies anticipated the exten-
sive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous
chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle
Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes
magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controver-
sial, religious, political and instructional literature prolif-
erated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention
of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into
a more character-based and psychological form of nar-
rative, the novel, of which early and important examples
AWARDS
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer and author of the
Faust books
are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books.
In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and specula-
tions on history and human nature integrated literature
with social and political developments. The inevitable
reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later
18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fan-
tastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and as-
serted the primacy of individual experience and emo-
tion. But as the 19th-century went on, European ction
evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous
documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the
output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and inu-
enced social and political change, but 20th century ction
and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasis-
ing unconscious motivations and social and environmen-
tal pressures on the individual. Writers such as Proust,
Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend
of documenting internal rather than external realities.
Genre ction also showed it could question reality in its
20th century forms, in spite of its xed formulas, through
the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alterna-
tive realities of science ction. The separation of main-
stream and genre forms (including journalism) con-
tinued to blur during the period up to our own times.
William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S.
Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong
subjective statements after the second World War, and
post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective
realism in general.
4 Awards
Main article: List of literary awards
There are numerous awards recognising achievement and
contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the eld,
awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form,
6.3 Psychology 5

genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for rst-time become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of
writers or debut novels).[53] mathematics.
The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel
Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895,[54]
and is awarded to an author on the basis of their
body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work
itself.[lower-alpha 2] Other literary prizes for which all na- 6.3 Psychology
tionalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International
Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize
and the Franz Kafka Prize. Literature allows readers to access intimate emotional as-
pects of a persons character that would not be obvious
otherwise.[55] It benets the psychological development
5 Essays and understanding of the reader. For example, it allows
a person to access emotional states from which the per-
son has distanced himself or herself. An entry written
An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an au- by D. Mitchell featured in The English Journal explains
thors personal point of view, exemplied by works by how the author used young adult literature in order to re-
Michel de Montaigne or by Charles Lamb. experience the emotional psychology she experienced as
Genres related to the essay may include the memoir and a child which she describes as a state of wonder.[56]
the epistle. Hogan also explains that the temporal and emotional
amount which a person devotes to understanding a char-
acters situation in literature allows literature to be con-
6 Other prose literature sidered ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion.[57]
This can be understood in the sense that literature unites a
Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientic writ- large community by provoking universal emotions. It also
ings are traditionally ranked as literature. They oer allows readers to access cultural aspects that they are not
some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and exposed to thus provoking new emotional experiences.[58]
prose stories earned the names "ction" to distinguish Authors choose literary device according to what psy-
them from factual writing or nonction, which writers chological emotion he or she is attempting to describe,
historically have crafted in prose. thus certain literary devices are more emotionally eec-
tive than others.[59]
Furthermore, literature is being more popularly regarded
6.1 Natural science as a psychologically eective research tool. It can be con-
sidered a research tool because it allows psychologists to
As advances and specialization have made new scientic discover new psychological aspects and it also allows psy-
research inaccessible to most audiences, the literary na- chologists to promote their theories.[60] For example, the
ture of science writing has become less pronounced over print capacity available for literature distribution has al-
the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in lowed psychological theories such as Maslows Hierarchy
journals. Scientic works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and of Needs to be universally recognized.
Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in
them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve Maslows Third Force Psychology Theory even allows
for scientic instruction. Yet, they remain too technical literary analysts to critically understand how characters
to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside reect the culture and the history in which they are con-
of "history of science" programmes, students rarely read textualized. It also allows analysts to understand the au-
such works. thors intended message and to understand the authors
psychology.[61] The theory suggests that human beings
possess a nature within them that demonstrates their true
6.2 Philosophy self and it suggests that the fulllment of this nature
is the reason for living. It also suggests that neuro-
Philosophy has become an increasingly academic dis- logical development hinders actualizing the nature be-
cipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation cause a person becomes estranged from his or her true
than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new self.[62] Therefore, literary devices reect a characterss
philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major and an authors natural self.[59] In his Third Force Psy-
philosophers through historyPlato, Aristotle, Socrates, chology and the Study of Literature, Paris argues "D.H.
Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzschehave be- Lawrence's 'pristine unconscious is a metaphor for the
come as canonical as any writers. Some recent philoso- real self.[63] Thus Literature is a reputable tool that al-
phy works are argued to merit the title literature, but lows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to the
much of it does not, and some areas, such as logic, have nature of emotions.
6 10 LEGAL STATUS

6.4 History a work: whether a work is narrated in rst-person or from

another perspective, whether to use a traditional linear
A signicant portion of historical writing ranks as litera- narrative or a nonlinear narrative, or the choice of literary
ture, particularly the genre known as creative nonction, genre, are all examples of literary technique. They may
as can a great deal of journalism, such as literary jour- indicate to a reader that there is a familiar structure and
nalism. However, these areas have become extremely presentation to a work, such as a conventional murder-
large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to mystery novel; or, the author may choose to experiment
record data or convey immediate information. As a re- with their technique to surprise the reader.
sult, the writing in these elds often lacks a literary qual-
In this way, use of a technique can lead to the develop-
ity, although it often(and in its better moments)has that
ment of a new genre, as was the case with one of the rst
quality. Major literary historians include Herodotus,
modern novels, Pamela by Samuel Richardson. Pamela
Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canoni-
is written as a collection of letter-writing correspondence,
cal literary gures.
called epistolary technique"; by using this technique,
Pamela strengthened the tradition of the epistolary novel,
6.5 Law a genre which had been practiced for some time already
but without the same acclaim.
Law oers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato Literary technique is distinguished from literary device,
and Aristotle, the law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon, as military strategy is distinguished from military tac-
or even the early parts of the Bible could be seen as tics. Devices are specic constructions within the narra-
legal literature. Roman civil law as codied in the tive that make it eective. Examples include metaphor,
Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of the simile, ellipsis, narrative motifs, and allegory. Even sim-
Byzantine Empire has a reputation as signicant litera- ple word play functions as a literary device. The narrative
ture. The founding documents of many countries, includ- mode may be considered a literary device, such as the use
ing Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature. of stream-of-consciousness narrative.
Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a
piece of literature and, in some cases, it is used to improve
7 Other narrative forms a work in progress or a classical piece, as with an ongoing
theatre production. Literary editors can serve a similar
Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of purpose for the authors with whom they work. There are
works that originate in digital environments. many types of literary criticism and each can be used to
Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved critique a piece in a dierent way or critique a dierent
out a niche which often parallels the functionality of aspect of a piece.
prose ction.
Graphic novels and comic books present stories told
in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and
text.

8 Genres of literature 10 Legal status

Literary genre is a mode of categorising literature. The

term originates from French, designating a proposed type 10.1 United Kingdom
or class.[64] However, such classes are subject to change,
and have been used in dierent ways in dierent periods
and traditions.
9 Literary techniques
Main article: Literary technique
A literary technique or literary device can be used by au-
thors in order to enhance the written framework of a piece
of literature, and produce specic eects. Literary tech-
niques encompass a wide range of approaches to crafting
Literary works have been protected by copyright law from
unauthorised reproduction since at least 1710.[65] Liter-
ary works are dened by copyright law to mean any work,
other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written,
spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or
compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer pro-
gram, (c) preparatory design material for a computer pro-
gram, and (d) a database.
It should be noted that literary works are not limited
to works of literature, but include all works expressed
in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical
works).[66]
 7

11 See also 12 Notes

Main articles: Outline of literature and Index of literature [1] This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms
articles such as the prose poem[14] and prosimetrum,[15] and more
generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.[16]
Abram Lipsky refers to it as an open secret that prose
is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm.[17]
Philosophy and literature
[2] However, in some instances a work has been cited in the
explanation of why the award was given.
Lists

List of authors
13 References
List of books
Citations
List of literary magazines

List of literary terms [1] Meyer, Jim (1997). What is Literature? A Denition
Based on Prototypes. Work Papers of the Summer Insti-
List of women writers tute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session. 41
(1). Retrieved 11 February 2014.
List of writers
[2] Simon Ryan; Delyse Ryan. What is Literature?". Foun-
dation: Fundamentals of Literature and Drama. Aus-
Related topics tralian Catholic University. Retrieved 9 February 2014.

[3] Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criti-

Asemic writing cism, 28
Childrens literature [4] Ross, The Emergence of Literature": Making and
Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth Century,
Cultural movement for literary movements. 406
English studies [5] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 16
Ergodic literature [6] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 9

Erotic literature [7] Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538

Hinman collator [8] Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criti-
cism, 4
Hungryalism
[9] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 26
Literature basic topics [10] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 4
Literary agent [11] literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved
9 February 2014.
Literature cycle
[12] Finnegan, Ruth (1974). How Oral Is Oral Literature?".
Literary element Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 37
(1): 5264. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00094842. JSTOR
Literary magazine 614104. (subscription required)
Modern Language Association [13] poetry, n.. Oxford English Dictionary. OUP. Retrieved
13 February 2014. (subscription required)
Orature
[14] Poetic Form: Prose Poem. Poets.org. Academy of
Postcolonial literature American Poets. Retrieved 15 February 2014.

Popular ction [15] Preminger, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry

and Poetics, 981
Rabbinic literature
[16] Preminger, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry
Rhetorical modes and Poetics, 979

Vernacular literature [17] Lipsky, Abram (1908). Rhythm in Prose. The Sewanee
Review. 16 (3): 27789. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
World literature (subscription required)
8 13
[18] Preminger, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry
and Poetics, 9389
[19] Finnegan, Ruth H. (1977). Oral poetry: its nature, signif-
icance, and social context. Indiana University Press. p.
66.
[20] Magoun, Jr., Francis P. (1953). Oral-Formulaic Charac-
ter of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry. Speculum. 28 (3):
44667. doi:10.2307/2847021. JSTOR 2847021. (sub-
scription required)
[21] Alison Booth; Kelly J. Mays. Glossary: P. LitWeb, the
Norton Introduction to Literature Studyspace. Retrieved 15
February 2014.
[22] Gra, Richard (2005). Prose versus Poetry
in Early Greek Theories of Style. Rhetorica:
A Journal of the History of Rhetoric. 23 (4):
30335. doi:10.1525/rh.2005.23.4.303. JSTOR
10.1525/rh.2005.23.4.303. (subscription required)
[23] Goody, Jack (2006). From Oral to Written: An An-
thropological Breakthrough in Storytelling. In Franco
Moretti. The Novel, Volume 1: History, Geography, and
Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-
691-04947-2.
[24] The Novel. A Guide to the Study of Literature: A Com-
panion Text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature.
Brooklyn College. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
[25] Sommerville, C. J. (1996). The News Revolution in Eng-
land: Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information. Oxford:
OUP. p. 18.
[26] Goody, The Novel: History, Geography, and Culture, 19
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ISBN 0-393-97429-4.
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Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyp-
tian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: Uni-
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72527-2
Giraldi, William. The Novellas Long Life
(PDF). The Southern Review (Autumn 2008):
793801. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
9
Goody, Jack (2006). From Oral to Written:
An Anthropological Breakthrough in Story-
telling. In Franco Moretti. The Novel, Volume
1: History, Geography, and Culture. Princeton:
Princeton UP. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-691-04947-
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Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993). The New
Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics.
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02123-6.
Ross, Trevor (1996). The Emergence
of Literature": Making and Reading
the English Canon in the Eighteenth
Century."" (PDF). ELH. 63: 397422.
doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0019. Retrieved 9
February 2014.
14 Further reading
Major forms
Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The Narrative
Modes: Techniques of the Short Story. Cam-
bridge: Brewer. An overview of several hun-
dred short stories.
Gillespie, Gerald (January 1967). Novella,
nouvelle, novella, short novel? A review
of terms. Neophilologus. 51 (1): 117127.
doi:10.1007/BF01511303. Retrieved 6 March
2014. (subscription required)
History
Wheeler, L. Kip. Periods of Literary His-
tory (PDF). Carson-Newman University. Re-
trieved 18 March 2014. Brief summary of ma-
jor periods in literary history of the Western
tradition.
15 External links
Project Gutenberg Online Library
Abacci Project Gutenberg texts matched
with Amazon reviews
Internet Book List similar to IMDb but for books
Internet Archive Digital eBook Collection
10 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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