Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Brian Jewell
Department of Engineering, Calvin College
Engineering 315 Final Paper
Professor Ribeiro
Abstract: Autopilot systems have been crucial to The earliest form of autopilots have been
flight control for decades and have been making in existence for decades. The first systems were
flight easier, safer, and more efficient. However, created an implemented about ten years after the
these autopilot systems are complex devices that Wright Brothers flew the very first airplane: the
require precise control and stability. These Kitty Hawk. These earlier systems were simply a
systems usually include a form of digital control gyroscope that gave the plane a smoother flight
systems to allow for easier implementation. One path. The only control that these systems gave was
example, the Beaver Autopilot system, uses an in the altitude and pitch. They kept the plane from
inner, outer loop system to maintain control while flying with its nose pointed down and from flying
simpler systems often only require something as crooked.
simple as a PID controller to keep the aircraft Around the time of Second World War, the
stable. very first fully functional autopilot systems were
designed and tested. These earlier systems had the
1. Introduction capability to keep the flight path level as well as
launch and land the aircraft. This revolutionary
Since the creation of the first aircraft, the system, however, was not a simple task and it was
ability for people to travel large distances in prone to failure. The systems would often break
relatively short periods of time has drastically down and crash the plane (by making the plane
increased. However, in the beginning of the point straight down as opposed to straight forward.
airplane age, traveling on these craft was difficult To keep the systems operating properly, the plane
as there are many components of air travel and required a crew that was more than twice as large
controlling these components can be an extremely as the original autopilot-less planes. This caused
difficult task for a pilot. In modern aircraft, there problems because it took far more work to keep
are simply too many things for the pilot to control the autopilot working than it did to actually fly the
them all so some form of automation must be plane without such a device. For this reason, the
done. Also, long air trips can cause problems for autopilot was not used very often for many years.
the pilots. While the plane is traveling along the It wasnt until the 1960s that the device really
same trajectory, flying can and does become a took off (to use an atrocious pun). At this point,
rather monotonous job for the pilot and the pilot more sophisticated systems were being introduced
runs a higher risk of falling asleep or suffering and a new form of flight control was in the works:
from a reduced response time. For these reasons, a computer controlled flight. This technique called
autopilot systems have become a blessing to the fly by wire didnt become a standard until closer
aerospace industry. to the 80s but it had its beginnings in the late 60s.
However, these autopilot systems are not The basic concept of the fly by wire
simple systems. They require complex control systems is digital control systems. To understand
systems with robust measuring equipment. The this form of autopilot a brief description of digital
scope of this paper is to give an overview of control systems must be discussed.
autopilot systems (with a description of digital
controls), to examine the Beaver Autopilot System, 3. Digital Control Systems
and to explore a simple flight control example.
In a typical control system, the equipment
2. History to measure and control signals can be extremely
complicated and can require enormous levels of
sophistication. However, if it were possible to use
a computer to control the systems, a simple off
the counter processor could be able to handle
complex control systems. For example, a system
that requires complicated mathematical algorithms
for control could simply digitize the signal and
send it to a processor to take care of the
calculations. The processor (usually called a
minicomputer) is usually inexpensive and
relatively easy to implement. The control system
using these sorts of devices is shown below in Figure 3: Discrete Signal
Figure 1: Digital Control System Block Diagram.
As can be seen, the resulting function is no longer
a smooth signal but it is a series of step functions
that represent the original signal.
To deal with these functions, the z-
Transform must be used. The z-Transform is an
extension of the LaPlace transform and is of the
following form: Z = esT where s is the value from
the LaPlace transform and T is the period of the
Figure 1: Digital Control System Block Diagram sampler (how many seconds between samples). In
the z-Plane, there are several methods of stability
In this system, the digital computer reads in the analysis. For example, a sampled system is stable
digital signals from the feedback loop and the if all of the poles of the closed loop transfer
input and it sends them to the D/A converter. This function T(z) lie within the unit circuit of the z-
converter takes the digital values from the plane.
computer and converts the signals into a usable These systems can readily be constructed
value for the actuator and process. The signals are in MATLAB. The function can be defined as it
then sent via the feedback loop through the would in any transfer function however the
measurement sensors until it reaches the analog to sampling time is also included (so the definition is
digital convert. This portion takes the measured as follows: sys=tf(num,den,Ts) where Ts is the
value and converts it into a binary digital signal sampling time). The systems can be converted
that can be read by the computer. from continuous to digital and back again using the
This digitizing is where the real challenge c2d and d2c commands. Below, in Figure 4:
enters into the picture. Since computers cannot Discrete Step Response the following MATLAB
read the same kind of signals that an analog device code was entered:
can, some method of transforming the analog data >> num=[1];den=[1 1 0];
to readable digital data must be introduced. This is >> sysc=tf(num,den);
done through a method called sampling. A simple >> sysd=c2d(sysc,1,'zoh');
circuit is set up with a switch (shown below in >> sys=feedback(sysd,[1]);
Figure 2: Switch Digitizer). The switch samples >> T=[0:1:20];step(sys,T)
the value of the signal at regular intervals. This code yields the following graph:
4.1.1 Longitudinal Mode Overview distance to the runway is calculated using Distance
Measurement Equipment (DME). However, this
This portion of the auto-pilot controls the equipment doesnt often work well with autopilot
pitch angle and the altitude of the aircraft. The modules because of hardware limitations.
complete block diagram for this portion of the Therefore, a different approach must be used. The
autopilot is shown above in Figure 6: Block three dimensional distance to the runway is
Diagram of Longitudinal Mode. As can be seen by calculated using the following equation.
the above diagram, there are several components
that make up this portion. The main three blocks
of the system are the controllers of this function.
In this equation, R is the three dimensional
They take the values from the outer loops which
distance to the runway, Href is the height above the
pass through constants and integrators and output
runway, and gs is the reference flight path angle
the appropriate controls for the aircraft. The input
or, the angle the plane makes when flying along
signal Href is the current altitude as measured from
the nominal path. Generally, a radio altimeter is
the guidance systems. This value then is taken
used to determine the value of Href.
with the controls new altitude as well as the pitch
During a glideslope approach, there are
angle () and fed into the control blocks of the
two different modes of operation. The first is the
diagram. It should be noted that the gains shown
glideslope armed mode. As the authors of the
in the feedback loops of the system are all variable
Beaver document say: This phase is engaged as
and depend on the velocity of the aircraft. This
the approach mode is selected by the pilot. The
happens because the control to the aircraft will
longitudinal autopilot mode in which the aircraft
change as the speed does. Wind resistance and
flew before selecting the approach mode, usually
other factors contribute to this.
ALH, will be maintained until the aircraft has
The final portion of the longitudinal mode
reached the glideslope reference plane (Rauw,
of the aircraft is the Approach mode. It should be
177). This mode simply tells the aircraft that it is
noted that the Glideslope device is a unique device
going to be landing soon and that it needs to get
to the Beaver autopilot mode. This portion of the
ready for landing. It does not affect any of the
control system is a feedback loop from the Hdot
current flight paths.
output (from Figure 6) to the input Hdotref signal.
The second mode is the glideslope
The glideslope receiver is an on-board
coupled mode. The author describes this mode by
measurement device that interacts with a
saying that This phase is initiated as soon as the
transmitter on the airport runway. This system is
aircraft passes the glideslope reference plane for
an extra feedback loop that has more control over
the first time. In this phase the control laws of the
the descent of the aircraft. To properly operate, the
GS mode take over the longitudinal guidance task The next block is the Actuator and Cable
of the autopilot (Rauw, 177). In this mode, the Dynamics block. This block, for the sake of the
GS actually takes over the rest of the autopilot. It simulation is assumed to be a simple transfer
does this by adding its own signals with the Hdot ref function (a second order is used). At the heart of
input signal. When the GS is not engaged, the the block diagram is the Beaver Dynamics. This
signal that is the output of the GS is zero allowing block is the portion of the control system that reads
the aircraft to operate as it normally would. The in the measured values and operates on them. For
timing of the coupling of the GS is extremely the sake of simulation, the block was assumed to
important. If the GS is coupled too earlier, the be three transfer functions: one of which is a
aircraft will follow the path as shown below in simple constant value, the second is an integrator
Figure 7: Result of Early GS Coupling function, and the third is a derivative function.
After the system was constructed, the outputs were
examined. The plot is shown below in Figure 8:
Simulink Plot.
6. Conclusion