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AA/PDT-04.03-En The Bosch Yellow Jackets Edition 2003 Expert Know-How an Automotive Technology Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems
ACC
Automotive Electrics/Automotive Electronics
Batteries 1 987 722 153 3-934584-21-7 Automotive Technology
Alternators 1 987 722 156 3-934584-22-5
Diesel-Engine Management
Diesel-Engine Management: an Overview 1 987 722 138 3-934584-62-4
Electronic Diesel Control EDC 1 987 722 135 3-934584-47-0
Diesel Accumulator Fuel-Injection System Radar ranging, radar modules
Common Rail CR 1 987 722 175 3-934584-40-3 ACC electronic module, system network
Diesel Fuel-Injection Systems Unit Injector
System/Unit Pump System 1 987 722 179 3-934584-41-1
Operation, object detection and selection, control
Radial-Piston Distributor Data processing and transmission
Fuel-Injection Pumps Type VR 1 987 722 174 3-934584-39-X
Diesel Distributor-Type Fuel-Injection Pumps VE 1 987 722 164 3-934584-38-1
Diesel In-Line Fuel-Injection Pumps 1 987 722 162 3-934584-36-5
Gasoline-Engine Management
Emissions-Control Technology
for Gasoline Engines 1 987 722 102 3-934584-26-8
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System K-Jetronic 1 987 722 159 3-934584-27-6
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System KE-Jetronic 1 987 722 101 3-934584-28-4
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System L-Jetronic 1 987 722 160 3-934584-29-2
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System Mono-Jetronic 1 987 722 105 3-934584-30-6
Spark Plugs 1 987 722 155 3-934584-32-2
Ignition 1 987 722 154 3-934584-31-4
M-Motronic Engine Management 1 987 722 161 3-934584-33-0
ME-Motronic Engine Management 1 987 722 178 3-934584-34-9
Gasoline-Engine Management:
Basics and Components 1 987 722 136 3-934584-48-9
Imprint
Contents
Mentally, driving is a highly demanding activity a driver must maintain a high level
of concentration for long periods and be ready to react within a split second to changing
situations. In particular, drivers must constantly assess the distance and relative speed
of vehicles in front and adjust their own speed accordingly.
Those tasks can now be performed by Boschs electronic Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC) system, which is an extension of the conventional cruise control system.
Like a conventional cruise control system, ACC keeps the vehicle at a set constant
speed. The significant difference, however, is that if a car with ACC is confronted with
a slower moving vehicle ahead, it is automatically slowed down and then follows the
slower vehicle at a set distance. Once the road ahead is clear again, the ACC accelerates
the car back to the previously set cruising speed. In that way, ACC integrates a vehicle
harmoniously into the traffic flow.
Of course, the driver can always override the automatic control system at any time.
When the accelerator is pressed, the vehicle responds in the normal way. And when the
accelerator is released, the ACC adjusts the vehicles speed back to the set cruising speed.
A brief press of the brake pedal is enough to deactivate the ACC.
Fig. 1
1 ACC sensor &
control unit
2 Engine-management
6
ECU
3 Active intervention in
braking via ESP 2 4
4 Controls and display 6
6
C
6
A
N
5 Intervention at the 5 6
engine via EM
7
system with ETC
1
(Electronic Throttle
Control or EGAS) 6
C
AN
3
UAE0732-1Y
(gasoline engines) or
EDC (diesel engines)
6 Sensors
7 Transmission
intervention (optional)
Robert Bosch GmbH
2 ACC function. The main application for ACC is in light to relatively heavy traffic conditions
240
260
220
200
180
140 160
120
100
80
60
40
220
200
180
140 160
120
100
200
80
180
140 160
120
100
80
Fig. 2
a Car with ACC
approaching a
slower vehicle when
travelling at a
240
260
constant speed
220
reduces speed to
match speed of
140 160
slower vehicle in
front
c After vehicle
in front turns off,
UFS0011Y
120
selected
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without intervention by the driver. If the sit- Adjustment and control of vehicle speed is
uation should change, e.g. as a result of an- effected by means of existing subsystems
other vehicle pulling into the gap between which, however, are modified for the pur-
the two vehicles from another lane and poses of ACC (Figure 3):
thereby itself becoming the vehicle in front Engine-management system with torque
of the ACC car, the necessary readjustment control, e.g. Motronic with ETC (Elec-
is also carried out automatically without the tronic Throttle Control or EGAS) (gaso-
need for driver input. line engines) or EDC (diesel engines)
Electronic brake modulation system with
In order to adjust the vehicles speed, the active brake-pressure-increase capability
ACC system electronically opens the throttle (generally based on ESP Electronic Stabil-
within defined limits by means of the engine- ity Program).
management system in order accelerate or
electronically applies the brakes in order to In order to ensure reliable functioning of the
decelerate. ACC (including when cornering), the ESP
provides other important sensor signals re-
Components lating to dynamic handling parameters in
In order to detect vehicles in front and to addition to the deceleration facility. For ulti-
measure the distance and the speed of such mate driving convenience, the combination
vehicles, the ACC system requires a ranging of ACC with an automatic gearbox is also
sensor. In Europe, this takes the form of a desirable.
microwave radar transmitter/receiver. It is The system incorporates special switches
incorporated within the same unit that also and displays to enable the driver to activate
performs the control functions and is there- functions and set the desired speed and time
fore referred to as the ACC Sensor & gap. The instrument cluster then indicates
Control Unit (ACC SCU). the current settings and other ACC-related
information.
Gearbox
Brake
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fD
d Fig. 1
d Object distance
Licht ! fC fC Carrier frequency
fD Differential frequency
1 Road speed of
UFS0001Y
vehicle 1
1 2 Road speed of
vehicle 2
rel = 2- 1 rel Relative speed
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transmission
f. This circumstance means that in the
frequency)
fD Differential
first instance there is an ambiguity with regard
frequency to interpretation. That is because in addition
f Doppler shift to an individual differential frequency, a linear
fges1 = fD f Overall combination of object distance and relative
frequency shift speed has to be taken into account, which is
(positive frequency
represented on the Distance versus relative
gradient)
speed graph by a straight line (Figure 2c).
UFS0012E
fp Positive frequency
shift due to Doppler @
effect
Distance
Time interval
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Fig. 3
However, this method must also be applicable
a Negative addition
when there is more than one target object of Doppler shift to
present. To make that possible, the procedure differential frequency
has to be extended by the addition of more b Effect of Doppler
B B
modulation cycles so that unambiguous D n shift
allocation of target frequencies to objects is c Distance versus
relative speed
possible.
Differential frequency B
D
fC Carrier frequency
Echo-angle detection c (modulated
In order to determine the angle at which the transmission
RADAR locates an object, multiple RADAR frequency)
lobes are transmitted and analysed. fD Differential
frequency
Relative speed rel
a Function
The actual ranging unit of the ACC SCU
1 2 3 is the RADAR transmitter/receiver unit or
RTC (RADAR Transceiver).
Its functions are as follows:
a Overlap of antenna
A Bosch radar unit has the following technical
patterns
b Scanned angular
1 specifications (Table 1):
range of RADAR
beam lobes
2 /1
0.1
1 Left lobe 3/2
2 Center lobe 3 /1
UFS0014E
Design and method of operation A divider circuit for the antenna feed and
The basic components of the RTC (RADAR return-signal mixing
transceiver, Figures 5 and 6) are the following: An electronic frequency modulator and
A high-frequency oscillator (Gunn oscilla- reference oscillator, and
tor) for generating the radar signal A signal preamplifier.
5 RADAR transceiver
UFS0015Y
+ 8V supply
Switch on signal for
VCO Gunn-effect oscillator
Voltage- FLL-ASIC frequency
control circuit Input for saw-tooth
controlled control voltage
oscillator Harmonic
mixer DRO Frequency monitoring
Mic.
+ 5V supply
12.65GHz
2 Radar signal, left
3-channel
pre-amplifier ASIC 2 Radar signal, center
Directional coupler
Lens Antenna Mixer Ground
UAE0705-1E
19 Gunn semiconductor
element 8 11 trolled oscillator (VCO). The high-frequency
10 9 energy generated is passed to a divider circuit
10 Frequency-tuning pin
11 Power-tuning pin via a square waveguide integrated in the os-
cillator.
8 Divider circuit (in situ)
Fig. 8 Divider circuit and antenna feed
1 Micro printed-
The divider circuit (Figure 8) is an electrical
conductor circuit
on quartz glass
printed-conductor circuit with gold conduc-
substrate tor tracks on a quartz glass substrate only
2 Wilkinson power 0.17 mm thick.
divider with two 1 2 3 4 5 First of all, a small proportion of the trans-
surface resistors mitted power is tapped off and fed into the
3 Directionally selective
frequency modulator described further on.
signal separator
The energy is then divided between three
UFS0017Y
2 Fig. 9
5 A Transmission signal
B Receive signal
1 Micro printed-
conductor circuit
5 3
on quartz glass
substrate
2 Wilkinson power
divider with two
surface resistors
4 3 Directionally selective
signal separators
UFS0002Y
for receive and
transmission signals
A B 4 3 antenna patches
5 7 mixer diodes
possible with a larger antenna lens. As each This second ring junction in each branch of
beam lobe overlaps its neighbour by about the divider circuit combines with the anti-
half its width, the overall beam scanning parallel diodes connected at that point to
width is 8 extending outwards from the form a mixer in which an electrical signal
radar module on the front of the vehicle. is generated from the transmission and re-
ceived energy. The frequency of that signal
The Bosch system is a monostatic radar sys- is equal to the difference between the trans-
tem, that means it uses the same antenna mitted and received frequencies.
arrangement in reverse to receive the radar
echoes. This type of system requires less It is this electrical signal that is actually the
space than a bistatic system with separate useful radar signal. Its frequency, which is
transmitter and receiver set-ups. It is there- in the range of 20...200 kHz, contains the in-
fore better suited to use in a motor vehicle. formation about the distance ahead and the
relative speed of the detected objects. The
Mixer differences in amplitude between the three
The first ring junction in each divider circuit branches of the circuit are analysed to deter-
branch splits the power fed to it so that the mine the echo angle.
antenna patch (Figure 9) receives only ap- The electronic circuitry of the radar trans-
proximately half the power. The other half is ceiver receives the useful signal via two sig-
fed to another ring junction. Simultaneously nal lines in each case.
arriving at that point is the radar echo en-
ergy received by the antenna patch.
Robert Bosch GmbH
Echoes from distant objects produce higher That signal is the input for the electronic
mixed frequencies and lower voltage ampli- frequency control. Following further divi-
tudes because the more distant the reflective sion (the frequencies are still too high for
object is, the weaker is the received radar sig- processing by the standard electronics) the
nal. For that reason, they have to be ampli- signal is fed into a discriminator and con-
fied even more. verted into a voltage that is proportional to
the frequency. That is then compared with
Frequency-control electronics the required frequency setting which is also
As all the essential information is contained provided in the form of a voltage. If there is
within the frequency of the useful signal, a difference, the supply voltage of the oscil-
fluctuations in the transmission frequency lator is adjusted until the required frequency
or inconsistencies in the linear progression is obtained.
of the transmitted-frequency gradient would The required frequency itself is, of course,
lead to misinterpretation of the receive signals. a variable quantity. The signal processing
unit specifies its value so as to obtain the
The Bosch ACC radar module is therefore transmission frequency alteration rate of
equipped with high-speed electronic fre- 200 MHz per millisecond that is required for
quency control which compares the trans- interpretation of the return signals.
mitted frequency with the required setting
and adjusts it as necessary about one million In addition, there are permanently pro-
times a second. grammed maximum and minimum levels
that ensure that even if the frequency con-
At the same time, it ensures that the fre- trol fails, the frequency cannot go beyond
quency consistently remains within the the permissible frequency band.
range of 76...77 GHz, which are the statu-
tory limits imposed by telecommunications
authorities for longer-range motor-vehicle
radar systems.
In order to perform those functions, the
frequency control contains not only the
main oscillator but also a reference oscillator
in the form of a DRO (Dielectric Resonator
Oscillator) with a nominal frequency of
12.65 GHz. This is an electronic resonator
circuit consisting of a power transistor and a
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1 ACC sensor & control unit (ACC SCU) 2 ACC sensor & control unit (sectional view)
1 2 3 4
Fig. 2
1 Circuit board 1
2 Oscillator block
3 Beam sources
(rod emitters)
4 Lens
UFS0004Y
UFS0005Y
13 Regulator, 8 V Radar transceiver unit Circuit board 1 Circuit board 2 Circuit board 3
14 Terminal, 5 V with connector
(analog)
15 K-line interface
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tion with the CAN bus, plus interference- 5 Adjustment of ACC module in horizontal and vertical
suppression chokes and capacitors. planes (front view)
y
Integrated connections effectively combine
all three circuit boards into a single electrical
module. As those connections are flexible,
they allow the individual circuit boards to be
folded over one another so as to save space
inside the ACC SCU casing (Figure 4). 1
Fig. 5
1 Adjusting screw 1
Outer casing and adjusters for vertical alignment
3
The Bosch radar sensor and control unit is 2 Screw 2
housed in a pressure die-cast aluminum cas- (fixed anchor point)
ing. The electronic printed-circuit boards 3 Lens
are fitted inside it in such a way that the heat 4 Adjusting screw 3
for horizontal
generated by the circuit components is dissi-
alignment
pated as efficiently as possible.
SFS0019Y
2 x x Axis for vertical
adjustment
On the outside of the casing are three locating 4 y Axis for horizontal
eyes with plastic ball-joint sockets which adjustment
form the fixings for the module. A screw
with specially shaped collar passes through The positioning of the screws at the corners
each of these eyes and screws into a plastic of the casing allows the module to be tilted
thread in the mounting bracket. in two planes (Figure 5). Adjusting screw 1
tilts the casing in the vertical plane (x axis is
the axis of rotation), while screw 3 adjusts the
4 ACC sensor & control unit (ACC SCU), physical casing in the horizontal plane (y axis is the
structure
axis of rotation). Screw 2 acts in both cases
as the fixed anchor point and is not adjusted.
1
8 Adjusting screws
9 The vehicle centre line can be determined (to suit particular
using conventional wheel-alignment methods. vehicle)
9 Sensor bracket
Robert Bosch GmbH
The adjustment accuracy of the ACC sensor, plane can reduce its range and produce er-
i.e. the accuracy with which the sensor is rors in echo-angle detection.
aligned with the vehicle centre line is very The degree of adjustment accuracy de-
important for the correct functioning of the manded is determined by the lane prediction
ACC. and echo-angle evaluation functions and by
plausibility algorithms (sequences of com-
Misalignment of the sensor in the horizontal puting operations). Misalignment of the
plane can impair the units ability to accu- sensor has an effect on those functional
rately locate target objects because it results components that is similar to an offset error.
in misinterpretation of the angular position Upwards of approximately 0.3 of horizontal
of vehicles in front. As a consequence, ap- misalignment, the impairment of function
proach responses may be impaired and vehi- starts to be discernible to the driver. The de-
cles in other lanes may be taken as target ob- gree of adjustment accuracy demanded
jects. should therefore be well inside that limit.
Misalignment of the sensor in the vertical
3
1
Fig. 6
UFS0020Y
1 Lens
2 Radar transceiver
3 Beam sources
(rod emitters)
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EEPROM
CC 610
Input saw-tooth Flash
control voltage D/A
10 bit ADR
SRAM 2 CANH
16 DSP 16 Bit C
CAN
24 4
K line
CONTROL Sc
Right lobe signal SDADC
12 bit 3 2
2
XTAL
UFS0006E
Ground Ground
Q SPU RPU Q
Robert Bosch GmbH
An additional integral DAC (Digital-Analog cycle is 80...100 ms. The program required
Converter) generates an incremental voltage for controlling the procedure is stored in a
gradient. This provides the specified levels for separate SPU Flash EEPROM.
FLL modulation (Frequency Locked Loop, The target-object data comprising details of
see also the section Frequency control) the object attributes distance,speed,angle,
and results in linear modulation of the etc. is transmitted via the serial interface to
transmission frequency. While the voltage the RPU. The function of the RPU is described
rises along that gradient, the three mixed in a separate section of this manual.
radar signals are amplified in the pre-ampli-
fier, digitised with a resolution of 12 bits, The single-chip controller of the RPU incor-
filtered and passed through an FFT (Fast porates all circuit components such as
Fourier Transform). The FFT enables ex- processor, RAM, CAN controller, ADC (ana-
tremely fast conversion of the timing signals log-digital converter), counters, and digital
into frequency signals (Figure 8). interfaces with the EEPROM (erasable, pro-
The DSP controls the timing of the grammable, non-volatile, read-only memory),
modulation process and obtains the results with the SPU, with the diagnostic module
from the CC610 circuit via the parallel inter- and with the oscillator for timing-pulse gen-
face. The data is temporarily stored in an eration.
SRAM with fast read/write access. Once the The program, which is stored in an integral
two double gradients for frequency modula- Flash EEPROM, can also be modified by the
tion have been completed, the mathematical vehicle manufacturer after installation in the
operations described above are performed. vehicle, assuming the appropriate interfaces
The time required for completion of a single are provided.
1.5
V
Voltage
-1.5
0 0.0002 0.0006 0.001 s
Time
mV
60
Voltage level (absolute)
40
20
UFS0021E
0
Fig. 8 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 Hz
a Timing signals Frequency
b Frequency signals
Robert Bosch GmbH
The analog/digital converters monitor the The control function for the lens heater
voltages. If, for example, the monitored power switches on the heater filament in the lens in
supply voltage drops below a specified level, cold weather conditions. As the surface of
the ACC function is disabled. The stabilized the lens heats up, it prevents the build-up of
generated power-supply voltages are also ice or snow on the lens. Both snow and ice
monitored for compliance with specific can attenuate the radar beam to a certain
tolerances. In the event of a fault, the ACC degree and thus limit its intended range.
function would be disabled, a System inac- Although a monitoring circuit could ensure
tive signal sent to the display and a fault that under such circumstances the ACC
code stored in the EEPROM. function were disabled, such an arrangement
would restrict the availability of the system
The CAN interface module enables reliable in poor weather conditions. By employing
digital data communication with the partner pulse-width modulation, the lens heater
control units on the vehicle. In recent years, control circuit is a versatile setup that is re-
the CAN bus has become established as the sponsive to temperature and power supply
standard for serial data transmission in vehicle voltage.
systems. Common transmission rates are
250...500 kBit/s. Voltage regulators
At such fast transmission speeds, special In order that the digital and analog compo-
precautions have to be adopted. The methods nents can operate correctly, they require a
employed include the use of suitable filters. power supply with a constant voltage. The
They prevent harmonic interference that task of keeping that voltage constant is per-
could adversely affect such things as radio formed by a number of voltage regulators.
signal reception in the vehicle. The power supply provided by the battery or
alternator would destroy the sensitive elec-
In order to enable fault diagnosis in the tronic components. The voltage peaks of
course of vehicle servicing, any faults that 100 V that occur and a superimposed AC
occur have to be stored. The ACC SCU has voltage of 2 V have to be filtered out because
an integral EEPROM for that purpose. A of their potential for causing malfunctions.
certain area of that memory is set aside for In addition, the ACC SCU has to be protected
storing faults. The information stored in that from the effect of inadvertent battery pole
memory area can be read and interpreted reversal or the vehicle being started with a
using a special diagnostic tester unit con- 24 V car battery.
nected via a diagnosis interface. In addition, In order to dissipate the power loss it is
the vehicle manufacturer can program the necessary to share this task between two
EEPROM with supplementary, vehicle-spe- voltage regulators. These provide the power
cific data. supply for the analog and digital components
The diagnosis module forms a bidirec- of the RPU, SPU and RTC.
tional interface with the diagnostic tester.
If the diagnostic tester sends the command The Gunn oscillator is supplied by an 8 V
Read fault memory, that instruction is in- voltage regulator.
terpreted by the RPU controller.
The controller then reads the data from the
EEPROM and converts it into a protocol
which is readable by the diagnosis tester. The
diagnosis module also performs a protective
function by shielding the sensitive controller
from direct exposure to other vehicle systems.
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CAN
ESP Electronic Stability Program Displays and controls
Electronic Sensor Deceleration Set "speed" Selected "Target object
Stability signal pre- control "time gap" detected"
SFS0022E
Sensors
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ACC. For this system, the ACC instructions Passive (inductive) speed sensors with a
are merely an additional control input. reluctor ring attached to the wheel hub.
Active speed sensors with a multipolar ring
Bend-sensing systems consisting of a series of adjacent magnets
Present-day ACC systems use ESP sensor of alternating polarity which is attached
signals to ascertain the way in which the to the wheel hub. The sensing probe thus
vehicle is moving. Typically, the CAN trans- detects the change in magnetic flux.
fers the measured data from the ESP control
unit to the ACC control unit. In this way the Safety concept
cost of a separate set of sensors for the ACC Purpose of the safety concept
can be avoided. The aim of the ACC safety concept is to pre-
vent faults in the ACC system causing critical
The ESP sensors described below are available driving situations or vehicle handling scenarios.
to the ACC (the chapter Sensors contains At the same time, however, the object is to
detailed descriptions of the design, usage minimise the limitations on system avail-
and method of operation of those sensors). ability resulting from the safety measures.
The safety concept must ensure that the
Yaw-rate sensor ACC control unit has fail-safe characteristics,
The yaw-rate sensor detects the rate of rota- and must facilitate selectively targeted fault
tion of the vehicle around its vertical axis. diagnosis by providing for
The physical principle on which operation is
based is measurement of the Coriolis force. shut-down of the radar transceiver,
Under the effect of a rotational movement, deactivation of ACC function, and
the pattern of oscillation of an oscillating recording a fault in the fault memory.
mass is made to change.
This demands that all possible fault scenarios
Steering-wheel-angle sensor are reliably distinguished and detected and a
The physical principle on which operation is response appropriate to the nature of the fault
based is measurement of the angle of rotation is initiated.
of the steering column. Depending on the
type of application, these sensors may detect Structure of safety concept
movement by means of sliding contacts or The generally accepted methods of monitor-
by proximity sensing. ing safety-related systems are the principles
of diversity and redundancy.
Acceleration sensor With diverse systems, all computing oper-
The physical principle on which operation is ations are performed simultaneously on
based is measurement of the deflection of a different types of computer with different
flexibly mounted mass under the effect of software.
inertial forces acting along or across the With redundant systems, identical hard-
vehicle axis. ware and software is simply duplicated on
multiple systems.
Wheel-speed sensor With the increasing complexity of todays
The signals from the wheel-speed sensors automotive-control-unit functions, bit-for-
are used by the control unit concerned to bit identity of computing results obtained
determine the speed of rotation of the wheels. from diverse systems is not achievable. In-
The following types of sensor are used: stead of a straightforward check for identity,
a complex plausibility algorithm which tol-
erates divergence of results within defined
limits has to be developed. However, ab-
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solutely comprehensive fault detection is units checking the plausibility and consis-
then no longer possible. tency of ACC messages. In that way, ACC
In addition, in the development of control malfunctions that result in implausible CAN
units it can be said that as objectives, both signals or irregular CAN transmission cycles
diversity and redundancy are in conflict can be detected.
with the aims of cost and size reduction. Examples of function monitoring include
For those reasons, a monitoring concept
was developed for the ACC control unit internal processor hardware tests
which is based on the specific processor internal processor checksum tests
structure of the ACC module and takes equal checking of CAN checksums
account of the complexity of the tasks and checking of CAN message counters
the specific safety requirements of the sys- CAN time-out monitoring
tem. As a consequence, the ACC control unit
with its twin-processor structure and the as- Reciprocal monitoring level
sociated internal communication facilities The reciprocal monitoring level involves the
satisfies the safety requirements in respect of interaction of the two controllers within a
redundant hardware structures and monitor- common monitoring structure. The essen-
ing units. tial difference from the function monitoring
The monitoring concept of the ACC con- level is that the monitoring and the moni-
trol unit is subdivided into three logical lev- tored functions are not running on the same
els which are located within the two con- hardware; instead, each of the two con-
troller units and the external partner control trollers monitors the other.
units. Examples of reciprocal monitoring in-
clude
Component monitoring level
The component monitoring level consists of checksum verification of internal commu-
two independent sections of the two con- nications
trollers. Its functions are restricted to detec- monitoring of internal communication
tion of faults within the controllers periph- timing
erals. It is not linked in any way with moni- calculation and reciprocal checking of test
toring of the computation logic. functions.
Examples of component monitoring in-
clude
Method of operation of the safety concept If the ACC shuts down due to a fault, the
The error messages from the individual vehicle can still be driven without any other
monitoring procedures are centrally analysed functions being restricted in any way. The
by the control unit. There is a differentiated car does not have to be taken to a service
response to errors depending on their severity centre immediately.
and the current dynamic status of the vehicle
as well as the traffic situation. Only a few component failures within the
ACC control unit can only be detected by a
The possible responses are as follows: single monitoring process. In most cases,
more than one fault detection function will
unrestricted continuation of ACC function, be triggered, depending on the nature of the
no fault indication, recording of fault for fault.
subsequent diagnosis,
completion of ACC deceleration sequence The example set out below illustrates how
followed by indication of fault and record- the different monitoring levels complement
ing of fault for subsequent diagnosis, each other. Let us assume the power supply
immediate deactivation of ACC function voltage for the controller units is incorrect.
combined with fault indication and The component monitoring level has a
recording of fault for subsequent diagnosis. voltage check for detecting such faults whereby
the supply is passed through a monitoring
Furthermore, a distinction is made between circuit and compared with tolerance limits.
reversible and irreversible faults as follows: However, this demands that the monitoring
controller continues to operate correctly de-
reversible faults disable the ACC function spite the assumed voltage discrepancy.
only while the fault is present, If, however, the assumed fault leads to a
irreversible faults disable the ACC function malfunction on one of the two controller
for the duration of the current journey. units, this can be detected by the reciprocal
monitoring of internal communication.
Thus in all fault scenarios, the ACC will be The most likely course of events in this
functional again if the fault is no longer pre- example, though, is the total failure of both
sent after the ignition has been switched off controllers, which would be detected as a
and on again. The only exception to this is CAN time-out error by the function moni-
sensor misalignment; in that case, the ACC toring level on one of the partner control
function must be re-enabled by a service units.
centre.
The majority of faults recorded for subse-
quent diagnosis can be allocated to one of
the following categories:
ACC inactive
or instruction
Clean sensor 2 3 4
4 Stand-by
Robert Bosch GmbH
In order to ensure unambiguous distinction 2 ISO display symbols for ACC activation
from other functions, the ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) has defined
a
a symbol (Figure 2). That symbol may be used
to indicate that the system is on stand-by or
that it is active.
UFS0008Y
speed-setting increments are more helpful to recalls the last
the driver. For example, instead of the speed selected speed
increments of around 1 km/h used on con- setting
ventional cruise control systems, steps of (ACC passive)
Displays and selects
between 5 and 10 km/h have proved to be
the set distance
more effective with ACC. 3 ACC controls on the steering wheel (example)
from three possible
With those larger increments, it is easier settings
to make larger adjustments to the desired (ACC active)
speed, e.g. when exiting a stretch of road 2 + button:
where there is a low speed limit because of adopts the speed
currently indicated
roadworks and entering a section of clear 1
by the speedometer
motorway, or vice versa.
as the set speed
(ACC passive)
There are four functions for setting the speed: Increases the set
2 speed in
1. Adoption of the actual speed as the desired increments of
speed (Set). 10 km/h
3 (ACC active)
3 button:
2. Adoption of the next increment above the same by analogy as
actual speed as the desired speed (Set +). 4 + button, i.e.
decreases the set
3. Adoption of the next increment below the speed in decrements
actual speed as the desired speed (Set ). of 10 km/h
4 I/O button:
Switches the ACC
UFS0009Y
Resume
+ Settingdesired distanceordesired time gap
R STEP+ The desired distance or time gap from the
SET+
vehicle in front depends not only on the dri-
+ vers personal preference, but also on traffic
ACC passive ACC active and weather conditions. In order to be able
SET
to accommodate those variations, all manu-
SFS0023E
If the detected object is found to be travelling 6 Display symbols for indicating desired distance/
at a slower speed than the currently set desired desired time gap setting
speed, it is classified as a ranging object.
SFS0025E
2 Amber zone,
In particular, if the sensors vision is im- medium distance
paired, e.g. by a thick layer of wet snow, the 3 Red zone,
system informs the driver of the problem short distance
and shuts down.
7 Display options for indicating object detected
Deactivation
Deactivation is effected in similar fashion to
a conventional cruise control system by op- a
erating an OFF switch or the brake pedal.
Other conditions for deactivation include
incompatible vehicle operating statuses and
vehicle speeds below the minimum possible
speed setting.
A B
Partial deactivation is provided for in the
event of active intervention by the TCS or
ESP slip-control systems. In such cases, the b
ACC may still operate the brakes but the ac-
A
celeration facility is disabled. This allows a
deceleration sequence already in progress to
be completed. In order to restore full ACC Fig. 7
function, the driver must manually reactivate a Symbolic
the system. representation of
straight-ahead view
B
45 b Side-on view
SFS0026Y
A No relevant object
B Relevant object
detected
Robert Bosch GmbH
Object detection and selection interference signals. The noise signal gener-
ated within the radar unit itself, for example,
Radar-signal processing does not occupy a fixed position within the
Fourier Transform spectrum but rather is frequency and time-
All simultaneously located objects (i.e. dif- dependent.
ferent vehicles) produce characteristic signal
attributes the frequency of each individual Every spectrum is first of all subjected to
signal is determined by the distance and rel- noise analysis. Based on the spectral distrib-
ative speed of the object, while the amplitude ution of the noise component, a threshold
is dependent on the reflective properties of curve is then defined. Only signal peaks that
the object. All echo signals superimposed are above that threshold are then interpreted
make up the return signal. as target frequencies.
3 xS Sensor axis
C Angular offset of
object from sensor
axis
Robert Bosch GmbH
The lane probability, spw, is the input vari- 2 Course prediction and object selection
able for the integral object attribute plausi-
bility, plaus. The latter quantity is used as
an index of the relevance of the object when B
combined with the frequency and reliability
of detection. It also takes account of charac- 1
situation such as that illustrated. This would The yaw rate, d/dt, being the rotation of
cause the ACC vehicle to slow down in a the vehicle around its vertical axis, defines
manner that would be unexpected and dis- the current curvature, ky, of the vehicle tra-
concerting for the driver. jectory at the speed of travel, x, in the for-
mula
A reliable course prediction capability is
ky = (d/dt) / x
therefore of great benefit in reducing the risk
of incorrect object selection as illustrated in The trajectory curvature is generally averaged,
the above example. e.g. using a simple low-pass filter.
The basic variable for determining the course ESP sensor data for calculating trajectory
of the vehicle is initially the trajectory cur- curvature
vature. This defines the change of direction Apart from the yaw-rate sensor, known ESP
of the ACC vehicle as a function of the dis- systems also make use of three other sensors
tance travelled. Supplementary to that infor- which allow the curvature to be calculated
mation, the current and past positions of by the methods set out below.
moving or stationary objects may also be
used to determine the projected course of In order to calculate the course curvature, ks,
the vehicle. from the steering-wheel-angle, , two other
vehicle parameters in the form of the steer-
Future ACC systems will make use not only ing-gear ratio, isg, and the wheelbase, dax, are
of navigation systems but also of video sys- required. The following formula then gives a
tems with image-analysis capabilities to de- very good approximation of ks under the
termine the curvature of the vehicles path. conditions that are typical for ACC operation:
ks = /(isg dax)
Trajectory-curvature calculation
The trajectory curvature, k, defines the change Calculation of the trajectory curvature, ka,
of a vehicles direction relative to distance from the lateral acceleration, ay, also requires
travelled. It is given by the formula the vehicle speed, x, thus:
ka = ay/x2
R = 1/k
Calculating the curvature, kv, from the wheel
A number of vehicle sensors are used to de- speeds requires the relative wheel-speed dif-
termine the curvature of the vehicles trajec- ference, /x, and the track measurement,
tory, whereby it is assumed that all calcula- day. In order to minimise power-transmission
tions are only applied inside the vehicles effects, the speed difference = (l r) and
stable-handling limits. In other words, they the linear speed at the non-driven wheels are
do not apply to situations in which the vehi- also calculated.
cle is skidding or there is a high level of
kv = /(x day)
wheel spin.
Although all the methods described can be
The ACC systems known at present require used to determine the trajectory curvature,
a yaw rate corrected for offset in order to be they have varying degrees of suitability in
able to determine vehicle course. This is ob- different conditions. They differ primarily
tained either directly by the ESP system using under conditions where there is a crosswind,
the signals from the steering-wheel-angle where the road is banked, where there are
sensor, lateral-acceleration sensor, wheel- differences in wheel radius, and with regard
speed sensors and yaw-rate sensor, or by the to their accuracy of measurement at different
ACC system itself using offset correction. speeds.
Robert Bosch GmbH
4 Test set-up at Bosch research facility: detection of moving objects using radar sensors
UFS0030Y
Robert Bosch GmbH
Radar Determination of
Level 2
object detection course curvature
Object selection
Level 3
course prediction, tracking
Resumption of the cruise-control function the target vehicle from which a constant gap
using the Resume button (Resume func- is to be maintained. To that end, the target
tion) adopts the last desired speed setting object data is compared with the geometry
as the current desired speed. It is possible of the ACC vehicles predicted path. If there
that the driver may have accelerated the is more than one vehicle in the predicted path,
vehicle to a much higher speed than the then normally, the nearest of the vehicles
set desired speed before pressing the Re- ahead of the ACC vehicle is selected as the
sume button to reactivate the ACC func- target vehicle.
tion. Ideally, the vehicle selected will be the one
The driver may cancel active ACC function whichproducesthelowestrequiredacceleration
by pressing the accelerator. Thus the vehicle as specified by the control unit. However, this
may be travelling at a much higher speed necessitates feedback of the control unit out-
than the set desired speed. put to the target-vehicle selection procedure.
In either situation, the driver may not be fully Once the target vehicle has been selected, a
aware of how large the difference is between required acceleration is calculated on the basis
the actual and the desired speed. The ACC of the object distance and relative speed.
cruise-control function assists the driver in The required distance is calculated from
such situations by gradual adjustment of the desired/required time gap, Set, specified
vehicle speed. by the driver thus:
dSet = Set F
Follow-on control
This second function requires selection of
Actuation systems
(engine management Linear-speed
Vehicle with braking system control
ESP sensors transmission control)
Wheel speed
Yaw rate
Steering-wheel angle Acceleration
Acceleration signal
ACC controller
Bend Control-mode
detection selection
The required time gap is generally in the range The limited field of view of the sensor in
of 1 to 2 seconds with a tendency towards tight bends also leads to situations where
longer times at slower speeds. the target vehicle selected for the constant-
That range can usefully be divided into three gap function may no longer be visible. In
levels so that the driver is then offered three such situations, the bend-detection func-
time-gap programs, i.e. tion prevents the ACC from immediately
accelerating the vehicle.
Short,
Medium and
Long
as illustrated in Figure 3. 3 ACC control unit time-gap programs (stationary)
A 1 ACC vehicle
beam (Figure 4), the ACC system modifies C
C
1 k Curvature of bend
the allowable acceleration to suit the reduced 2Range Radar field of view
visibility when negotiating tight bends. dRange 2Range/k
Robert Bosch GmbH
In practice there are primarily two interfaces Because of the comfort considerations of
as outlined below. common ACC systems, the upper speed
limit is in the range of 160...200 km/h.
Robert Bosch GmbH
It is currently not technically possible Stationary objects are taken account of and
for the system to decide with sufficient analysed by the sensor system only at low
certainty whether or not an object is in speeds.
the same lane as the ACC vehicle. With Only moving or stopping objects are taken
the large number of stationary objects at account of for the purposes of constant gap
the roadside, it would therefore be highly maintenance. This virtually excludes the
likely that the ACC would react to one of possibility of mistaken deceleration in
them by mistake. response to a stationary object at the road-
side.
For those reasons, the Bosch ACC system ACC prevents acceleration of the vehicle if
operates according to the following strategy: it detects stationary objects in its own lane.
2d
rel = a
2 1 > 2 =
rel = 2 - 1
UFS0035E
@
For various pairings of d and a, the table below details the corresponding maximum approach speed that can be adjusted to.
The average deceleration has to be based on a smaller figure than the maximum deceleration since deceleration generally
takes time to build up.
d a rel rel
m m/s2 m/s km/h
50 1 10 36
100 1 14 51
150 1 17 62
50 2 14 51
100 2 20 72
Table 1
150 2 24 88
Robert Bosch GmbH
1 Ambient sensors
Fig. 1
Driver-assistance systems
with multiple sensors for
ranlose
motor vehicles
ge
3
C
a Test vehicle with
video-sensor
technology that
recognises road
signs
2
b Following at a
constant gap on
motorways or in
urban stop-and-go
traffic
1
1 Long range:
the 77-GHz radar
tracks the vehicle
ahead in the same
lane; it detects the
distance and relative
m
speed of the target
id u
vehicle as the basic
functions for the e ge
M n
ra
constant-gap func-
tion (range 120 m,
width of field 8)
2 Close range:
one or more 24-GHz g e
n
ra
radar sensors scan
a broad area
immediately in front
n g
of the vehicle;
Lo
vehicles cutting in
sharply in front can
be reliably detected
(range 14 m, width
of field 50)
3 Medium range:
a stereo camera
scans the lane
ahead of the vehicle
for the constant-gap
function; it also
detects road signs
UFS0036E
and measures
object dimensions
b
(range 50 m, width
a
of field 20)
Robert Bosch GmbH
Sensor technology that ensures total cov- A radar ranging sensor similar to the pre-
erage of the area in front of the vehicle from sent technology for the longer distances
a distance of 1 m upwards across the full (10...120 m)
width of the vehicle so that vehicles cutting An image-producing sensor (e.g. stereo
in very sharply can also be detected. video) for medium-range detection
An additional sensor system for close (5...50 m)
range (e.g. with radar technology opti- A specially optimized radar system for
mised for close-range detection). close-range operation (0.5...10 m).
A function that prevents the vehicle
pulling away automatically after it has The overlaps between the ranges of the three
been stationary longer than a certain sensor systems will allow the reliability of
period. detection to be increased. But in spite of the
highly involved technology, a dilemma still
This mode of operation can and should only remains.
be used for typical traffic-jam situations. As
a result there are restrictions with regard to Response to stationary objects is necessary,
the maximum applicable speeds (approx. and it is achievable since the decision to re-
20...30 km/h) and deactivation of the func- act to them can be left until they are at a dis-
tion if there is no target vehicle within close tance of < 50 m. At speeds of 70 km/h
range. though, this distance is no longer sufficient.
At greater distances, however, the frequency
Stop-and-go in urban traffic of incorrect decisions is so high that station-
The most difficult function to implement is ary objects have to be ignored.
the stop-and-go function for heavy urban
traffic. At speeds of 0...50 km/h or 0...60 km/h, As a consequence, stop-and-go and normal
the system must be capable of automatically ACC function have to be implemented as
distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant two separate modes of operation which offer
objects. the driver different functionalities. The driver
will then have to adjust to the differing cir-
As, in contrast with ACC function at high cumstances. For that reason, driver input
speeds, stationary objects also have to be will probably be required in order to switch
taken into account, absolutely reliable dis- from stop-and-go to the lower-level normal
tinction is very difficult. Depending on the ACC function.
traffic conditions, a car parked at the kerb-
side and partially blocking the carriageway
may represent an obstruction that you have
to stop behind or which you can manoeuvre
around.
Robert Bosch GmbH
1) See:
In addition, the filtering and plausibility
Markus Weinberger. checking of measured data ensures that in-
Der Einfluss von Adaptive Cruise Control Systemen
terference signals do not cause the vehicle to
auf das Fahrverhalten
Dissertation, Shaker Verlag, Aachen, 2001.
react incorrectly.
Robert Bosch GmbH
In practical terms, therefore, mutual inter- one day simply be able to tell the car where
ference between radar sensors is virtually we want to go and it would do the rest. We
impossible. would then lean back and relax and occupy
ourselves in other ways such as reading the
Do ACC radar sensors interfere with speed newspaper.
traps?
Police speed-enforcement equipment is not Unfortunately, even in the information-tech-
affected by ACC systems. As far as radar equip- nology age, that dream remains largely unre-
ment is concerned, it operates at much lower alisable. Even the most sophisticated sensor
frequencies (< 35 GHz) or is based on entirely systems and powerful computers do not begin
different methods of operation (photoelectric to approach the capabilities of a human being.
or laser beam).
And even if the technological capability ex-
What happens if another vehicle cuts in very isted, there would be serious legal issues to
sharply in front of you? consider.
This question expresses the worry that a gap The responsibility for driving the vehicle
control system would respond by restoring would shift from the driver to the manufac-
the required gap without appropriately turer of the automatic vehicle. At present, it
modifying the deceleration rate. In fact, is difficult to imagine how this problem could
however, the system response is designed to be solved, because with manufacturers lia-
be similar to that of a real driver. bility legislation in its present form, no com-
pany would be prepared to take on such re-
If the gap reduces even further (i.e. if the rel- sponsibility.
ative speed is negative), then the speed dif-
ference is equalized relatively quickly. After Nevertheless, there are one or two niches for
that, however, the ACC vehicle drops back automatically driven vehicles:
gradually in the same way as when the vehi- 1. Special stretches of road (e.g. tunnels or
cle cutting in is travelling at the same speed. bridges) with a clearly defined infrastruc-
ture. The chief motive for such an appli-
What happens if you are faced with an on- cation would not be driver convenience
coming vehicle in your lane? but a higher rate of traffic flow, thus ob-
Oncoming vehicles are totally ignored because viating the need for expensive road im-
it is not possible to define an appropriate provements.
reaction on the part of the ACC. 2. Situations where traffic moves very slowly
The system is able to identify an oncoming (no more than 10...20 km/h), and in
vehicle by virtue of the fact that the relative which incorrect system response would
speed measured by the radar sensor is greater only involve very slight risk for the ACC
than the ACC vehicles own speed (in the vehicle and for other traffic.
opposite direction) as measured by the
ABS/ESP wheel-speed sensors. Why are there not yet any collision-
avoidance systems?
It is ultimately the responsibility of the drivers Collisions are prevented either by braking or
of the two converging vehicles to take the ap- by an avoidance manoeuvre. The distance at
propriate action in order to avoid a collision. which braking would have to begin in order
to prevent a collision increases exponentially
When will cars be driven completely auto- in relation to relative speed. The distance re-
matically? quired for an avoidance manoeuvre, on the
It is a dream that we have had almost since other hand, increases only at a linear rate
the invention of the automobile that we might (Figure 1).
Robert Bosch GmbH
100
m
80
Distance for start of manoeuvre
60
1
40
2
20
Fig. 1
Assumptions: 0
Course deviation 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 km/h
of 2.5 m Relative speed
Mean maximum
deceleration =
Mean maximum lateral
acceleration of 8 m/s2
UFS0037E
1 Braking
2 Avoidance
manoeuvre
Robert Bosch GmbH
History of radar
Technology borrowed from the animal world While radar systems used in aviation and ship-
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a ping operate at frequencies between 500 MHz
system that uses radio waves to locate distant and 40 GHz, the frequency band approved for
objects and is traditionally employed primarily ACC is 76...77 GHz.
in aviation and shipping. It has also been widely
used for military applications since the devel- Stages in the development of RADAR
opment of radar-assisted air defences in the The development of electromagnetic detecting
Second World War. More recent areas of ap- and ranging equipment with long-range capa-
plication include space exploration, weather bilities was an enormous challenge to the de-
forecasting and, now, motor vehicles where it is signers. Only a minute part of the energy origi-
used to measure the distance between vehicles nally transmitted was reflected back by the tar-
for the ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) system. get. For that reason a very high-energy signal
that is concentrated in as narrow a beam as
The idea for RADAR came from the sonar possible has to be produced. This demands
(Sound Navigation and Ranging) system which highly sensitive transmitters and receivers using
uses sound echoes to determine the distance signals with a wavelength that is shorter than
and position of objects, and which itself was the dimensions of the target.
copied from the navigation techniques of certain The development of radar technology was
animals. Bats, for example, make high-pitched marked by the following milestones and per-
sounds with frequencies in the ultrasonic range sonalities:
of 30...120 kHz. The echoes that bounce back 1837 Morse: The telegraph becomes widely
off solid objects are picked up by the bats highly established. Here, electrical currents are
sensitive ears. That information then helps the used for the first time in communicating
bat to find its way around and to locate its prey. over longer distances.
1861/1876 Reis and Bell: Replacement of the
telegraph by the telephone provides a
much more direct and user-friendly method
of telecommunication
1864 Maxwell, Hertz and Marconi:
Existence of radio waves is theoretically
and experimentally confirmed. Radio
waves are reflected off metal objects in
precisely the same way as light is reflected
by a mirror.
1922 Marconi: The pioneer of radio provides
the impetus for the continuation of earlier
research into radio ranging
UFS0038Y
Glossary
Abbreviation Stands for Explanation
Sensors
Sensors register operating states (e.g. engine Since their output signals directly affect not
speed) and setpoint/desired values (e.g. ac- only the engines power output, torque, and
celerator-pedal position). They convert emissions, but also vehicle handling and
physical quantities (e.g. pressure) or chemi- safety, sensors, although they are becoming
cal quantities (e.g. exhaust-gas concentra- smaller and smaller, must also fulfill de-
tion) into electric signals. mands that they be faster and more precise.
These stipulations can be complied with
thanks to mechatronics.
Automotive applications
Depending upon the level of integration,
Sensors and actuators represent the inter- signal conditioning, analog/digital conver-
faces between the ECUs, as the processing sion, and self-calibration functions can all
units, and the vehicle with its complex drive, be integrated in the sensor (Fig. 1), and in
braking, chassis, and bodywork functions future a small microcomputer for further
(for instance, the Engine Management, the signal processing will be added. The advan-
Electronic Stability Program ESP, and the air tages are as follows:
conditioner). As a rule, a matching circuit in
the sensor converts the signals so that they Lower levels of computing power are
can be processed by the ECU. needed in the ECU,
A uniform, flexible, and bus-compatible
The field of mechatronics, in which mech- interface becomes possible for all sensors,
anical, electronic, and data-processing com- Direct multiple use of a given sensor
ponents are interlinked and cooperate through the data bus,
closely with each other, is rapidly gaining in Registration of even smaller measured
importance. These are integrated in modules quantities,
(e.g. in the crankshaft CSWS (Composite Simple sensor calibration.
Seal with Sensor) module complete with
rpm sensor).
Resistant to
Multiple interference A
Figure 1 1st integration level SE SA SG
tap-off (analog) D
SE Sensor(s)
SA Analog signal
conditioning Immune to
Bus-
2nd integration level SE SA A interference SG
A/D Analog-digital D compatible (digital)
UAE0037-1E
converter
SG Digital ECU Immune to
Bus-
MC Microcomputer 3rd integration level SE SA A MC interference SG
D compatible (digital)
(evaluation
electronics)
Robert Bosch GmbH
UAE0644-1Y
2 Part of the
saves on chip surface), the same magnetic
oscillating element 2 field is used to directly measure the oscilla-
3 Coriolis acceleration tion velocity by inductive means. The differ-
sensor ent physical construction of drive system
Fig. 2
1 Frequency-determin-
ing coupling spring
2 Permanent magnet
3 Direction of
oscillation
3
4 Oscillating element
5 Coriolis acceleration
2 N
sensor
S
6 Direction of Coriolis
acceleration 1
7 Retaining/guide B
UAE0706-1Y
spring
Yaw rate
Oscillating velocity
B Permanent-magnet 7 6 5 4 0 2 mm
field
Robert Bosch GmbH
and sensor system serves to avoid undesir- oscillator. To avoid excessive damping of this
able coupling between the two sections. In movement, the sensor must be operated in a
order to suppress unwanted external acceler- vacuum. Although the chips small size and
ation effects, the opposing sensor signals are the somewhat simpler production process
subtracted from each other. The external ac- result in considerable cost reductions, this
celeration effects can be measured by apply- miniaturization is at the expense of reduc-
ing summation. The high-precision micro- tions in the measuring effect, which in any
mechanical construction helps to suppress case is not very pronounced, and therefore
the effects of high oscillatory acceleration of the achievable precision. It also places
which is several factors of 10 higher than the more severe demands on the electronics.
low-level Coriolis acceleration (cross sensi- The systems high flexural stability, and
tivity far below 40 dB). Here, the drive and mounting in the axis of gravity, serve to me-
measurement systems are rigorously decou- chanically suppress the effects of unwanted
pled from each other. acceleration from the side.
CDrv1
CDrv2 1
CDrv Det1
CDrv Det2
0.5 mm
Fig. 3
1 Comb-like structure
2 2 Rotary oscillator
CDet1 CDet2 3 Measuring axis
CDrv Drive electrodes
-FC +FC
UKI0044-1Y
Hall-effect vane 6
switches
The LWS1 uses 14 Hall-effect vane switches
6 Fastening sleeve to register the angle and the rotations of the
for steering column steering wheel. The Hall-effect vane switch is
Robert Bosch GmbH
processor in which plausibility tests are per- 2 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3 (principle)
formed and information on angular position
decoded and conditioned ready for the CAN-
Bus. The bottom half of the assembly contains 1
the step-down gearing and the remaining five
Hall-effect vane switches.
The LWS1 was superseded by the LWS3 Fig. 2
1 Steering-column
due to the large number of sensor elements
shaft
required, together with the necessity for the 2 5
2 AMR sensor
magnets to be aligned with the Hall-IC. 6 elements
3 3 Gearwheel with m
Magnetoresistive steering-wheel-angle 4 7 teeth
sensor LWS3 4 Evaluation
The LWS 3 also depends upon AMR (aniso- electronics
5 Magnets
tropic magnetoresistive sensors) for its oper-
UFL0030Y
6 Gearwheel with
ation. The AMRs electrical resistance n > m teeth
changes according to the direction of an ex- 7 Gearwheel with
ternal magnetic field. In the LWS3, the infor- m + 1 teeth
mation on angle across a range of four com-
plete rotations is provided by measuring the 3 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3
angles of two gearwheels which are rotated
by a third gearwheel on the steering-column
shaft. The first two gearwheels differ by one
tooth which means that a definite pair of
angular variables is associated with every
possible steering-wheel position.
By applying a mathematical algorithm (a
computing process which follows a defined
step-by-step procedure) referred to here as a
modified vernier principle, it is possible to
UFL0031Y
2 Steering box
up to 360, a single AMR angle-of-rotation 3 Steering-wheel-
sensor (LWS4) on the end of the steering shaft angle sensor
would be accurate enough for ESP (Fig. 4). 4 Steering rack
Robert Bosch GmbH
Operating concept
When the sensor is subjected to acceleration
which is lateral to the spring, the spring-
1 Hall-effect acceleration sensor (opened)
mass system changes its neutral position ac-
cordingly. Its deflection is a measure for the
acceleration. The magnetic flux F from the
moving magnet generates a Hall voltage UH
1
in the Hall-effect sensor. The output voltage
NAE0795Y
V
UH = const a
4
U0
1
Output voltage UA
3
Fig. 2
N
S
1 Hall-effect sensor 2 3
2
2 Permanent magnet
3 Spring a
4 Damping plate 1
4
IW Eddy currents IW
(damping)
UH Hall voltage
UAE0645Y
0
UAE0796E
Application
Piezoelectric bimorphous bending elements
and two-layer piezoceramic elements are
used as acceleration sensors in passenger-re-
straint systems for triggering the seat-belt
tighteners, the airbags, and the roll-over bar.
UAE0797Y
The voltage resulting from the element
bend is picked off at the electrodes attached Fig. 2
to the sensor elements outside metallized 1 Bending element
surfaces.
The sensor element shares a hermetically- For signal conditioning, the acceleration
sealed housing with the initial signal-ampli- sensor is provided with a hybrid circuit
fication stage, and is sometimes encased in comprised of an impedance converter, a fil-
gel for mechanical protection. ter, and an amplifier. This serves to define
the sensitivity and useful frequency range.
The filter suppresses the high-frequency sig-
nal components. When subjected to acceler-
1 Bending element from a piezoelectric acceleration ation, the piezo bending elements deflect to
sensor
such an extent due to their own mass that
they generate a dynamic, easy-to-evaluate
non-DC signal with a maximum frequency
a 1 which is typically 10 Hz.
a =0
U A= 0
By reversing the actuator principle and ap-
plying voltage, the sensors correct operation
can be checked within the framework of
OBD on-board diagnosis. All that is re-
quired is an additional actuator electrode. Fig. 1
b 1 a=0 a Inoperative
UA>0
Depending upon installation position and b Applied acceleration a
direction of acceleration, there are single or
UAE0293-1Y
1 Piezo-ceramic bim-
dual sensors available (Fig. 2). Sensors are
porphous bending
also on the market which are designed element
specifically for vertical or horizontal mount- UA Measuring-circuit
ing (Fig. 2). voltage
Robert Bosch GmbH
a b
1
3
2
Fig. 1
a Side-airbag sensor
3
b Front-airbag sensor
UAE0799Y
1 Casing
2 Sensor and evalua- 1 2
tion chip
3 Cover
Robert Bosch GmbH
either integrated with the sensor on the Dual micromechanical sensors (4) are
same chip, or is located very close to it. used for instance in the ESP Electronic Sta-
Closed-loop position controls with electro- bility Program for vehicle dynamics control:
static return are also available. Basically, these consist of two individual sen-
The evaluation circuit incorporates func- sors, whereby a micromechanical yaw-rate
tions for sensor-deviation compensation sensor and a micromechanical acceleration
and for self-diagnosis during the sensor sensor are combined to form a single unit.
start-up phase. During self-diagnosis, elec- This reduces the number of individual com-
trostatic forces are applied to deflect the ponents and signal lines, as well as requiring
comb-like structure and simulate the less room and less attachment hardware in
processes which take place during acceler- the vehicle.
ation in the vehicle.
2 Comb-like structure of the sensor measuring element 4 Lateral-acceleration sensor combined with yaw-rate
sensor (dual sensor)
100 m
3 Fig. 2
2 1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass with
1 electrode
2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
UAE0800Y
UAE0678Y
Fig. 4
a Acceleration in
a
sensing direction
Yaw rate
1 2 3
C2 CM C1
Fig. 3
1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass with
electrodes
a 2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C1
4 Printed Al conductor
5 Bond pad
6 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C2
UAE0801Y
C1 C2 CM 7 Silicon oxide
a Acceleration in
4 5 6 7 sensing direction
CM Measuring capacity
Robert Bosch GmbH
2 Permanent magnet
3 Soft-iron core (pole
terns in the vicinity of the brakes from dis-
pin) torting the sensor's signals. Various pole-pin
4 Winding configurations and installation options are
5 Trigger wheel available to adapt the system to the different
Robert Bosch GmbH
1 2 3
A typical feature of the active wheel-speed
sensor is the local amplifier circuit. Both
components measuring element and am-
plifier are integrated in a single sensor
casing. The active sensor requires a power
supply of between 4.5 and 20 volts, and it is
connected to the ECU by a two-conductor
Fig. 3
wire. The wheel-speed data is impressed on
UAE0878Y
1 Wheel bearing
one of the two conductors (supply lines) as 2 Sensor
load-independent current. As with the in- 3 Multipole ring/
ductive wheel-speed sensor, the current's Bearing seal
Robert Bosch GmbH
Requirements Microcomputer
Highly sophisticated state-of-the-art open- The microcomputer comprises both the cen-
loop and closed-loop control concepts are tral processing unit (CPU) for processing
essential for meeting the demands for func- arithmetic operations and logical relation-
tion, safety, environmental compatibility and ships, and special function modules to moni-
comfort associated with the wide range of tor external signals and to generate the con-
automotive subsystems installed in modern- trol signals for external servo elements. These
day vehicles. Sensors monitor the reference peripheral modules are largely capable of as-
and controlled variables, which an electronic suming complete control of real-time oper-
control unit (ECU) then converts into the ations. The program-controlled CPU could
signals required to adjust the final control- only discharge these at the price of both ad-
ling elements/actuators. The input signals ditional complication and curtailment in the
can be analog (e.g. voltage characteristic at number of functions (e.g. determining the
pressure sensor), digital (e.g. switch position) moment at which an event occurred).
or pulse-shaped (i.e. information content as
a function of time; e.g. engine-speed signal). Computing power
These signals are processed after being con- Apart from the architecture (e.g. accumu-
ditioned (filtering, amplification, pulse shap- lator, register machine) and the word length
ing) and converted (analog/digital); digital (4 ... 32 bits), the product of the internal
signal-processing methods are preferred. clock frequency and the average number of
Thanks to modern semiconductor tech- clock pulses required per instruction deter-
nology, powerful computer units, with their mines the CPUs power:
accompanying program and data memories, Clock frequency: 1 ... 40 MHz (typical),
and special peripheral circuitry, designed Clock pulses per instruction:
specifically for real-time applications, can all 1 ... 32 pulses (typical), depending on the
be integrated on only a few chips. CPU's architecture and the instruction
Modern vehicles are equipped with nu- (e.g. 6 pulses for addition, 32 pulses for
merous digital control units (ECUs), e.g. for multiplication).
engine management, ABS, and transmission-
shift control. Improved performance and ad-
ditional functions are obtained by synchro- Electronic control unit (ECU)
nizing the processes controlled by the indi-
vidual control units, and by adapting (in real Digital input signals
time) their respective parameters to each For registering a switch position or digital
other. An example of this type of function is sensor signals (e.g. rotational-speed pulses
traction control (TCS) which reduces the from a Hall-effect sensor).
driving torque when the drive wheels spin. Voltage range: 0 V to battery voltage.
Up to now, data between the control units
(in the example cited above, ABS/TCS and Analog input signals
engine management) has been exchanged Signals from analog sensors (lambda sensor,
mostly through separate lines. However, this pressure sensor, potentiometer).
type of point-to-point connection is only Voltage range: Several mV up to 5 V.
suitable for a limited number of signals. The
data-transmission potential between the in- Pulse-shaped input signals
dividual ECUs can be enhanced by using a Signals from inductive rpm sensors. After
simple network topology designed specifi- signal conditioning, they are further
cally for serial data transmission in automo- processed as digital signals.
tive applications. Voltage range: 0.5 V to 100 V.
1
Microcomputer
Microcomputer
(CPU) Volatile read/write (ROM, EPROM, write memory
memory (RAM) flash EPROM) (EEPROM)
for variable data For programs and
Arithmetic and Logic Unit permanent data records
(ALU) Memory capacity
4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit Memory capacity Memory capacity 32 bytes
64 bytes 32 kbytes 2 kbytes 512 kbytes 1 kbyte
(Timer, time SPI,
processing unit, CAN)
input capture,
Robert Bosch GmbH
output-compare
register)
Communication
Monitoring Resolution Resolution with external
circuit 50 ns 8 10 bit Data rate chips via
(watchdog) Counter Time range 4 32 8 32 200 bit/s address/
8 64 bit 50 ns 1s channels channels 1 Mbit /s data bus
UAE0454-1E
Electronic control unit (ECU)
67
Robert Bosch GmbH
1 3
6
Fig. 2
1 Digital input signals 9
2 Analog input signals 2
3 Protective circuit 3 4 5 7
4 Amplifier, filter 2
5 A/D converter 9
UAE0455-1E
6 Digital signal
processing
7 D/A converter
8 Circuit-breaker
9 Power amplifier
Robert Bosch GmbH
Protocol
The protocol consists of a number of a spe-
cific collection execution statements which
are used to control data communications
3 Bus-system interfacing
1 1 1
3
2 2 ... 2
Multiplex bus
2
1 1 1
2 2 ... 2
Drivetrain bus
2
1 1 1
2 2 ... 2
UAE0456-1E
Telecommunications bus
2 Fig. 3
1 ECU
2 Bus controller
3 Gateway
Robert Bosch GmbH
3 Gasoline-engine ECUs
a b
Fig. 3
a 1979 Jetronic ECU
with 290 compo-
nents and a weight
of 1.14 kg
UAE0857Y
b 1996 Motronic
hybrid ECU with
82 components and
a weight of 0.25 kg
Robert Bosch GmbH
72 Data transfer between electronic systems System overview, serial data transfer (CAN)
CAN
UAE0283-2E
3 Addressing and message filtering (acceptance check) 4 Bit-by-bit arbitration (allocation of bus
access in case of several messages)
The transmitters with low-priority messages reserved for future extensions. The remain-
automatically become receivers, and repeat ing 4 bits in this field define the number of
their transmission attempt as soon as the data bytes in the next data field. This enables
bus is vacant again. the receiver to determine whether all data
In order that all messages have a chance of has been received.
entering the bus, the bus speed must be ap-
propriate to the number of stations partici- The Data field contains the actual message
pating in the bus. A cycle time is defined for information comprised of between 0 and
those signals which fluctuate permanently 8 bytes. A message with data length = 0 is
(e.g. engine speed). used to synchronize distributed processes. A
number of signals can be transmitted in a
single message (e.g. engine rpm and engine
Message format temperature).
CAN permits two different formats which
only differ with respect to the length of their The CRC Field (Cyclic Redundancy
identifiers. The standard-format identifier is Check) contains the frame check word for
11 bits long, and the extended-format iden- detecting possible transmission interference.
tifier 29 bits. Both formats are compatible
with each other and can be used together in The ACK Field contains the acknowledge-
a network. The data frame comprises seven ment signals used by the receiver stations to
consecutive fields (Fig. 5) and is a maximum confirm receipt of the message in non-
of 130 bits long (standard format) or 150 corrupted form. This field comprises the ACK
bits (extended format). slot and the recessive ACK delimiter. The
ACK slot is also transmitted recessively and
The bus is recessive at idle. With its domi- overwritten dominantly by the receivers
nant bit, the Start of frame indicates the upon the message being correctly received.
beginning of a message and synchronizes all Here, it is irrelevant whether the message is
stations. of significance or not for the particular re-
ceiver in the sense of the message filtering or
The Arbitration field consists of the mes- acceptance check. Only correct reception is
sages identifier (as described above) and an confirmed.
additional control bit. While this field is be-
ing transmitted, the transmitter accompa-
nies the transmission of each bit with a
check to ensure that it is still authorized to 5 CAN message format
The End of frame marks the end of the tion erases these opposite-polarity bits after
message and comprises 7 recessive bits. receiving the message. Line errors can be de-
tected using the bitstuffing principle.
The Inter-frame space comprises three bits
which serve to separate successive messages. If one of the stations detects an error, it in-
This means that the bus remains in the re- terrupts the actual transmission by sending
cessive IDLE mode until a station starts a an Error frame comprising six successive
bus access. dominant bits. Its effect is based on the in-
tended violation of the stuffing rule, and the
As a rule, a sending station initiates data object is to prevent other stations accepting
transmission by sending a data frame. It is the faulty message.
also possible for a receiving station to call in
data from a sending station by transmitting Defective stations could have a derogatory
a remote frame. effect upon the bus system by sending an
error frame and interrupting faultless
Detecting errors messages. To prevent this, CAN is provided
A number of control mechanisms for de- with a function which differentiates between
tecting errors are integrated in the CAN pro- sporadic errors and those which are perma-
tocol. nent, and which is capable of identifying the
faulty station. This takes place using statisti-
In the CRC field, the receiving station cal evaluation of the error situations.
compares the received CRC sequence with
the sequence calculated from the message. Standardization
The International Organization for Stan-
With the Frame check, frame errors are dardization (ISO) and SAE (Society of Auto-
recognized by checking the frame structure. motive Engineers) have issued CAN stan-
The CAN protocol contains a number of dards for data exchange in automotive appli-
fixed-format bit fields which are checked by cations:
all stations.
For low-speed applications up to
The ACK check is the receiving stations 125 kbit/s: ISO 11519-2, and
confirmation that a message frame has been For high-speed applications above
received. Its absence signifies for instance 125 kbit/s: ISO 11898 and SAE J 22584
that a transmission error has been detected. (passenger cars) and SAE J 1939 (trucks
and buses).
Monitoring indicates that the sender ob- Furthermore, an ISO Standard on CAN
serves (monitors) the bus level and com- Diagnosis (ISO 15765 Draft) is being
pares the differences between the bit that has prepared.
been sent and the bit that has been checked.
Functions
Vehicle coordination Mobile
Multimedia
Actuators
Sensors
Modules
UAE0674-3E
Robert Bosch GmbH
I O S
Indication of object detected, 30 Object classification, 34, 44 Safety concept, 25-27
Input signals (data processing), 66 Object identification, 32 Sensor and control unit, 15
Interfaces with actuation systems, 42 Object selection, 34 Sensor technology
Inter-frame space (CAN), 76 Object tracking, 33 (future developments), 45
ISO symbols, 29 Objects, stationary, 44 Sensors, 54
Operation, 28-31 Sensotronic Brake Control, 24
Output signals (data processing), 68 Serial data transmission (CAN), 72
L Overall system (data processing), 69 Set, 29
Lane change, 44 Set Speed Control, 4
Lane prediction, 18 Shutdown due to fault, ACC, 27
Lane probability, 34 P Signal conditioning (data processing),
Latency time (data processing), 69 Partial deactivation, 31 68
Lateral offset, 33 Passive wheel-speed sensor, 64 Signal echo, 7
Lens (radar module), 15 Performance quality, 34 Signal processing (data processing),
Lens heater, 21 Physical principles of measurement, 7 68
Linear dynamics, 43 Piezoelectric acceleration sensors, 61 Spectral analysis, 32
Linear-speed control, 39, 42 Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensors, 55 Speed range, 42
Location (radar module), 15 Plausibility checking level, 38 Standardisation (CAN), 76
Logistical concept (CARTRONIC) Pre-amplifier, 14 Start Of Frame (CAN), 75
(data processing), 69 Principle of radar ranging, 7 Stationary objects, 44
Principles of measurement (physical), 7 Steering-angle sensors, 24, 58-59
Prospects (data transmission), 77 Stop-and-go (future developments), 47
M Protocol (data processing), 69 Surface micromechanical acceleration
Magnetoresistive steering-wheel-angle Pulse-type input signals sensors, 62-63
sensor, 59 (data processing), 66 Symbols (ISO), 29
Main oscillator, 14 System architecture, 22
Maximum approach speed, 44 System network, 22-27
Memory capacity (electronic systems), Q System overview (ACC), 4-6
71 Questions, frequently asked, 48-50 System overview (data transmission),
Message format (CAN), 75 72
Microcomputers, 66
Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors, R
56-57 Radar (module) adjusting mechanism, 17 T
Microwave radar, 6 Radar (module) housing, 17 Target frequency, 32
Millimeter-wave radar, 6 RADAR (principle of ranging), 7 Target-object selection, 34
Miniaturization (electronic systems), 71 RADAR Time-gap programs, 41
Misalignment (radar module), 18 (Radio Detection and Ranging), 51 Topology (data processing), 69
Mixer, 13 RADAR beam, 10 Torque-control interface, 42
Modulation of transmission frequency, 8 RADAR frequencies, 7 Tracking, 33
Monitoring (components), 25 RADAR lobes, 9, 10 Trajectory curvature, 35
Monitoring (function), 26 RADAR modules, 10-14 Trajectory curvature changes, 36
Monitoring level, 38 Radar ranging sensor, 7-14 Transceiver, 16
Monitoring, reciprocal, 26 Radar signal processing, 32 Transceiver unit, 16
Multigradient FMCW method, 32 Radar transceiver unit, 16 Transfer rates, 21
Multiplex application (CAN), 73 RADAR transceiver, 10, 11 Transmission frequency, 8
RADAR transmitter and receiver, 10 Transmission power, 14
Rain, 48 Transmission speed (data processing),
N Real-time applications (CAN), 73 69
Navigation systems, 36 Reference oscillator, 14
Networking, 22 Reflection, 7
Noise analysis, 32 Required acceleration, 39
Noise signal, 32 Requirements (data processing), 66
Requirements (radar module), 15
Response options, 26
Robert Bosch GmbH
U Abbreviations M
Use on motor vehicles (sensors), 54 MIC: Microwave Integrated Circuit
A
ACC: Adaptive Cruise Control
V ACC SCU: ACC Sensor & Control P
Vehicle trajectory, 35 Unit PU: Processing Unit
Video-image analysis, 36 ADC: Analog-digital converter
Voltage regulators, 21
R
C RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging
W CAN: Controller Area Network RAM: Random Access Memory
Wheel-speed sensors, 24, 64 RPU: Regulation Processing Unit
Wheel-speed sensors (active), 25 D RTC: Radar Transceiver
Wheel-speed sensors, passive DAC: Digital-analog converter
(inductive), 25 DRO: Dielectric Resonator Oscillator
DSP: Digital Signal Processor S
SBC: Sensotronic Brake Control
Y SCU: Signal and Control Unit
Yaw rate, 35 E SMD: Surface Mounted Device
Yaw-rate sensor, 24 ECD: Electronically Controlled SPU: Signal Processing Unit
Yaw-rate sensors, micromechanical, Deceleration
56-57 EDC: Electronic Diesel Control T
Yaw-rate sensors, piezoelectric, 55 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable TCS: Traction Control System
Programmable Read-Only Memory
EMC: Electromagnetic compatibility
ESP: Electronic Stability Program V
VCO: Voltage Controlled Oscillator
F
FFT: Fast Fourier Transform
FMCW: Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave
FMCW RADAR: Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave RADAR
I
ISO: International Organization for
Standardization