Introduction

Water seems to be a superabundant natural resource on the planet earth. However,

only 0.3 per cent of the world's total amount of water can be used as clean drinking water.

Man requires huge amounts of drinking water every day and extracts it from nature for

innumerable purposes. As natural fresh water resources are limited, sea water plays an

important part as a source for drinking water as well. In order to use this water, it has to be

desalinated. So, sea water desalination is a real challenge for western civilisation.

Desalination can be defined as any process that removes salts from water.

Desalination processes may be used in municipal, industrial, or commercial applications.

With improvements in technology, desalination processes are becoming cost-competitive with

other methods of producing usable water for our growing needs.

A desalination process essentially separates saline water into two parts - one that has a

low concentration of salt (treated water or product water), and the other with a much higher

concentration than the original feed water, usually referred to as brine concentrate or simply

as concentrate. The two major types of technologies that are used around the world for

desalination can be broadly classified as either thermal or membrane. Both technologies need

energy to operate and produce fresh water. Within those two broad types, there are sub-

categories (processes) using different techniques.

 Types of Technologies

THERMAL DISTILLATION

Thermal distillation technologies are widely used in the Middle East, primarily because the

regions petroleum reserves keep energy costs low. The three major, large-scale thermal

processes are multistage flash distillation, multi-effect distillation, and vapour compression

distillation. Another thermal method, solar distillation, is typically used for very small

production rates.

1) Multi-Stage Flash Distillation

Multi-stage flash distillation is a process that sends the saline feed water through

multiple chambers. In these chambers, the water is heated and compressed to a

high temperature and high pressure. As the water progressively passes through the

chambers, the pressure is reduced, causing the water to rapidly boil. This boiling

causes vapour to be produced in each chamber. The vapour, which is composed

of freshwater, is then is condensed and collected.

2) Multi-Effect Distillation
Multi-effect distillation employs the same principals as the multi-stage flash

distillation process except that instead of using multiple chambers of a single vessel

(also known as aneffect), multi-effect distillation uses successive vessels.

A series of evaporator vessels produces water at progressively lower pressures. Water

boils at lower temperatures as pressure decreases, so the water vapour of the first

vessel serves as the heating medium for the second, and so on. The more vessels there

are, the higher the performance ratio will be.

The water vapour that is formed when the water boils is condensed and collected. The

use of multiple vessels makes the multi-effect distillation process more efficient.
3) Vapour Compression Distillation
Vapour compression distillation can function independently or be used in combination

with another thermal distillation process. Vapour compression distillation uses heat
 from the compression of vapour to evaporate the feed water. Vapour compression

distillation units are commonly used to produce freshwater for small- to medium-scale

purposes such as resorts, industries, and petroleum drilling sites.

4) Solar Distillation
Solar desalination is generally used for small-scale operations. Although the designs

of solar distillation units vary greatly, the basic principle is the same: that the sun

provides energy to evaporate freshwater from saline water. In solar distillation, the

water vapour formed from the evaporation process condenses on a clear glass or

plastic covering and is collected as freshwater in a condensate trough. The covering is

used to both transmit radiant energy and allow water vapour to condense on its

interior surface. The salt and un-evaporated water left behind in the still basin form

the brine solution that must be discarded appropriately.

Solar distillation is often used in arid regions where safe freshwater is not available.

Solar distillation units produce differing amounts of freshwater, according to their

design and geographic location.

Recent tests on four solar still designs by the Texas AgriLife Extension Service in

College Station, Texas, have shown that a solar still with as little as 0.7 square meter

surface area can produce enough water for a person to survive.

MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES

Membrane technologies are primarily used in the United States. These systems treat the feed

water by using a pressure gradient to force the water through membranes. The three

major membrane processes are electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal, and reverse

osmosis. Membrane distillation is an emerging membrane-based desalination technology.

1) Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal

 The membranes used in electrodialysis are built to allow the passage of either

positively or negatively charged ions, but not both. Common ionic molecules in saline

water are sodium, chloride, calcium, and carbonate. Electrodialysis uses the driving

force of an electrical potential to attract and move different cations (positively

charged ions) or anions (negatively charged ions) through the permeable membrane.

The cations are attracted to the negative electrode, and the anions are attracted to the

positive electrode. When the membranes are placed so that some allow only cations to

pass and others allow only anions to pass, the process can effectively remove most of

the salts from the water.

The electrodialysis reversal process functions like the electrodialysis process; the only

difference is that in the reverse process, the charge of the electrodes is switched

periodically. This reversal in flow of ions helps remove scaling and other debris from

the membranes, which extends the systems operating life.

2) Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) uses a pressure gradient as the driving force to move high-

pressure saline feed water through a membrane that prevents the salt ions from

passing (see also membrane filtration).

Because the RO membrane has such small pores, the feed water must be pre-treated

adequately before being passed through it. The water can be pre-treated chemically, to

prevent biological growth and scaling, and physically, to remove any suspended

solids.
3) Membrane Distillation
Membrane distillation is a new industrial process where feed water is heated to

increase its vapour pressure, which generates a difference between the partial pressure

at both sides of the membrane. Hot water vapour passes through non-wetted pores of

the hydrophobic membranes, which cannot be wetted by liquid water. The passing

vapour is then condensed on a cooler surface to produce fresh water. In the case of

solutions containing non-volatile substances, only water vapour is transported through

 the membrane. Thus, the process has a potential application for water desalination

and wastewater treatment. Membrane distillation has significantly lower requirements

concerning the pre-treatment of feed water; therefore, it enables the production of

pure water from raw water sources. However, the formation of deposits both

pollutes membrane surfaces and makes it easier for water to

penetrate membrane pores. Consequently, the membranes lose their separation

properties and the membrane distillation process stops. This is why it is essential to

prevent formation of deposits on the membrane surfaces.

In membrane distillation, heat is required to evaporate the feed components (similar to

classical distillation). However, since it operates at low temperatures (50-90C),

the energy demands for heating are relatively low, making it possible to use

renewable energy sources to heat the feed water.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Alternative Energy Sources

Renewable energies and desalination plants are two different technologies that can be

combined in various ways. The interface between the renewable energy systems and the

desalination systems is where the energy generated by renewable energy is directed to the

desalination plant. This energy can be in different forms, such as thermal energy, electricity

or shaft power.

Renewable energy-driven desalination systems fall into two categories: thermal processes and

electromechanical processes. Most desalination plants powered by renewable energy are

stand-alone systems in locations without an electricity grid.

Stand-alone-systems are often hybrid systems, combining more than one type of

renewable energy source, such as wind and solar energy, or including a diesel generator. In

order to ensure continuous or semi-continuous operation independent of weather conditions,

stand-alone systems usually include a storage system.

Mineralisation of Water After Desalination

The lack of dissolved minerals in the high-purity water produced by desalination processes

raises some problems. High-purity water tends to be highly reactive and, unless treated, it can

create severe corrosion difficulties during its transport in conventional pipelines. Also,

untreated desalinated water cannot be used directly as a source of drinking water. A certain

degree of remineralisation is necessary in order to make the water palatable and for re-

introducing some essential ions required for health considerations.

Operation and Maintenance

Desalination plants operation and maintenance depends on the technology used. For

instance, multi-stage flash distillations and reverse osmosis require trained technicians to

operate and maintain the plants, whereas solar desalination requires very low maintenance.

Brine Management

Both thermal and membrane desalination processes produce a stream of brine water that has a

high concentration of salt and other minerals or chemicals that were either removed during

the desalination process or added to help pre-treat the feed water. For all of the processes, the

brine must be disposed of in an economical and environmentally friendly way.

Options for discharging the brine include discharge into the ocean, injection through a well

into a saline aquifer, or evaporation. Each option has advantages and disadvantages. In all

cases, the brine water should have a minimal impact on the surrounding water bodies

or aquifers. Specific considerations for the water quality include saline concentration,

water temperature, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and any constituents added as pre-

treatment.

Costs

The costs of desalination vary significantly depending on the size and type of the desalination

plant, the source and quality of incoming feed water, the plant location, site conditions,

qualified labour, energy costs and plant lifetime. Lower feed water salinity requires less

power consumption and dosing of chemicals to prevent scaling. Larger plant capacity reduces

the unit cost of water due to economies of scale. Lower energy costs and a longer plant

running period reduce unit product water cost. The primary elements of desalination costs

are capital cost and annual running cost. The capital cost includes the purchase cost of major

equipment, auxiliary equipment, land, construction, management overheads, and contingency

costs. The capital costs for seawater desalination plants have decreased over the years due to

the on-going development of processes, components and materials. Annual running costs

consist of costs for energy, labour, chemicals, consumables and spare parts. The energy costs

strongly affect the running costs for thermal processes. Thus, distillation costs fluctuate more

than reverse osmosis as they depend on changing energy costs. In regions where energy is

fairly expensive, reverse osmosis is a favourable choice compared to any other thermal

processes due to its lower energy consumption.

As with all new technologies, progress in desalinating water has been rapid. Whereas it cost

about $9.0/m3 to desalinate seawater around 1960, the costs are now around $1.0/m3 for the
multi-stage flash distillation process. For reverse osmosis, the most popular method, the costs

have fallen to $0.6/m3 for brackish water desalination. There is no reason to believe that the

trend will not continue in the future.

However, it should be noted that the costs of desalination still remain higher than other

alternatives for most regions of the world.

Conclusion

As the world's population continues to grow, existing water supplies will become increasingly

insufficient. As more and more water is required to meet mankind's needs, desalination of sea

water will become an increasingly important source of useable water. Any comprehensive

plan addressing mankind's energy usage or ecologic impact must account for the effect of

desalination; responsible development requires attention to the most energy-efficient methods

of purifying water.

Desalination processes are adapted to produce drinking water in areas where only seawater

or brackish water is available. A number of technologies have been developed for

desalination and can be used at different scales from small communities water supply (e.g.

solar distillation) to huge plants (e.g. reverse osmosis) for cities.

Desalination costs, although continuously decreasing, are still higher than

conventional drinking water supply processes. Consequently, desalination should be applied

if it is the only option.

Pure water produced by desalination processes is corrosive and not appropriate for human

consumption. Thus, remineralisation (e.g. limestone dissolution) is required before

distribution and consumption.

Reference

Hari J. Krishna (2004). Introduction to Desalination Technologies .

J. Paul Guyer, P.E., R.A. (2010). An Introduction to Water Desalination.

MECHELL, J.K.; LESIKAR, B. (2010) . Desalination.