82

CHAPTER 5

SUPERPLASTIC FORMING OF 7075 Al-ALLOY

5.1 SUPERPLASTIC FORMING OF RECTANGULAR BOX

WITH DOME IMPRESSION

The superplastic forming technique is used to form a near-net shape

in superplastic materials, with tremendous cost savings and weight reduction
potential over conventional forming processes. Blow forming of superplastic
sheets uses a single die surface, rather than the matched dies used in typical
sheet metal forming operations. The superplastic sheet material is usually
formed into a fixed die cavity, shaped to the geometry of the desired part,
using gaseous pressure in one single step. To have this capability, a computer
controlled pneumatic operated bulge forming setup was designed and
fabricated. The setup consists of the forming die assembly and the software
module for control.

5.2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

5.2.1 Superplastic Forming Die Assembly and Accessories

The experimental setup consists of an air compressor, a split type

electric furnace, sensors and control units. The forming die consists of the top
and bottom parts, and a space is provided in the bottom part to hold the
forming sheet. The top part of the die is a complex shape (combination of the
rectangular and the dome shape). The complex die assembly was placed
inside the furnace, and the die temperature was maintained by the temperature
 83

controller at the forming temperature. The schematic of the setup is shown in

Figure 5.1. An LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducer) sensor was
used to measure the dynamic height variation of the formed component. The
data acquisition card received the signal from the LVDT, which was input to
the computer, that monitors the motion of the motor, thereby controlling the
forming process. The interface between the sensor, computer and stepper
motor is through the data acquisition card (NIDAQ 6009).

The cross-sectional detail of the top and bottom pressure-forming

die set is shown in Figures 5.2 and 5.3 respectively.

Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of the Experimental setup

(all dimensions in mm)

Figure 5. 2 The cross-sectional detail of the top pressure-forming die

 84

Figure 5.3 The cross-sectional detail of the bottom pressure-forming die

5.2.2 Stepper Motor

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts

electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. This stepper motor is
operated based on the control signals applied to the driver circuit. The
specification of the used stepper motor are, type- unipolar, Voltage - 6V,
Torque - 10Kg cm, step angle- 1.8 deg.

In the experimental setup the stepper motor is coupled with the

pressure regulator knob. So, according to the movement of the stepper motor
the pressure applied to the furnace varies.

5.2.3 LVDT Arrangement

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of

electrical transformer used for measuring the linear displacement (position).
The specifications of the LVDT used are, Range 0-20mm, and output 0-5V.

The LVDT operates only in alternating signals. So, an oscillator is

used to produce an oscillating signal. The output alternating signals are
compared by a phase detector, and amplified and filtered to be converted into
DC output signals of 0-5V. In the experimental setup, the LVDT is connected
 85

to the top of the specimen through the clamp with a stand; according to the
specimen formation, the LVDT is used to identify the forming height.

5.2.4 Pressure Sensor

A pressure transmitter senses the pressure, and outputs a

proportional current signal. The piezo-resistive type pressure sensor has a
diaphragm element, over which the strain gauges are placed. So the pressure
sensor converts 0-10 bar pressure into a 4-20 mA current signal.

5.2.5 Data Acquisition and Interfacing

Data acquisition is the process of real world physical conditions,

and conversion of the resulting samples into digital numeric values, that can
be manipulated by a computer. The National Instruments Data Acquisition
card 6009 has a direct USB interface with the computer. It has 8 analog input
lines, 2 analog output lines and 12 configurable digital input/output lines that
enable easier data acquisition and control.

The signals from the LVDT and pressure sensor are connected to
two analog input lines, and the stepper motor is controlled via four digital
lines configured as outputs.

5.3 SOFTWARE MODULE

The Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench (Lab

VIEW) developed by national instruments, is a powerful analysis
programming language. Lab VIEW is a highly productive graphical
development environment with the performance and flexibility of a
programming language, as well as high-level functionality and configuration
 86

utilities, designed specifically for measurement and automation application.

Lab VIEW integrates data acquisition, analysis and presentation in one
system, making programming simple and manageable.

Lab VIEW programs are called virtual instruments or VIs, having

three parts:

x The front panel

x The block diagram

x The icon/connector

The front panel is the user interface of the virtual instruments. The
front panel contains controls and indicators, which are the Interactive input
and output terminals of the VI, respectively. The block diagram contains this
graphical source code, also known as the G code or block diagram code.

Figure 5.4 shows the block diagram of the control program of the
process with the algorithm. Figure 5.5 shows the front panel of the software
program having text boxes for getting various level limits, and their
corresponding pressure values. It also has indicators for the measured
pressure and dome height values.
 87

Figure 5.4 Algorithm for the control program of the SPF

 88

Figure 5.5 Front panel of lab - view program

5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The experimental work has been divided into the following four
segments.

(i) First segment - only one sample was considered.

(ii) Second segment - two samples were considered.

(iii) Third segment - four samples were considered.

(iv) Fourth segment- twenty samples were considered.

5.4.1 Superplastic Forming Under Constant Pressure

In the first segment, sample I was formed under a constant forming

pressure of 0.5 MPa and temperature of 530C. The deformed sample was
taken out from the die setup, and the thickness distribution was measured,
using a Digital micrometer, and the cavitation effect was measured in the
formed part.
 89

5.4.2 Superplastic Forming Under Variable Pressure

In the second segment, sample II was formed under two different

forming pressures of 0.5 MPa (up to the first 8 mm formation) and 0.45 MPa
(up to the next 8 mm formation), and sample III was formed under three
different forming pressures of 0.5 MPa (up to the first 8 mm formation), 0.45
MPa (up to the next 4 mm formation), 0.4 MPa (up to the last 4 mm
formation). The forming processes of samples II and III were performed at
530C. The deformed samples were taken out from the die setup, and the
distribution of thickness was measured, using a Digital micrometer, and the
cavitation effect in the formed part was also measured.

5.4.3 Superplastic Forming Under Various Temperatures

In the third segment, three different forming pressures of 0.5 MPa

(up to the first 8 mm formation), 0.45 MPa (up to the next 4 mm formation)
and 0.4 MPa (up to the last 4 mm formation) were chosen as constants for all
the samples. The constant forming temperature was changed from 500C to
540C; for sample IV the forming temperature was 500C, for sample V
510C, for sample VI 520C, and for sample VII the forming temperature was
540C; the superplastically formed die setup is shown in Figure 5.1. The
thickness distribution and the cavitation effect were measured in the
superplastically formed parts.

Optical microscopy and SEM were used to inspect the cavitation in

the samples. The specimens were cut, so as to obtain a flat surface for the
metallographic examination, mechanically polished, and then etched with
Kellers reagent, which has a composition of 2 ml HF(48%), 3 ml HCl
(conc.), 5 ml HNO3 (conc.), 190 ml H2O, and the etching time was 15
seconds. From the digitized images, taken with a CCD camera through an
optical microscope, model MM 25 IS, year 2005-2006 at 400X and High
Resolution Scanning Electron Microscope, the grain size variation and cavity
 90

volume fractions were measured and calculated, using the Biovis material
plus software for material science and metallography, and the results were
confirmed with the SEM images.

5.4.4 Superplastic Forming Under Various Sheet Thicknesses and

Annealing Times

Three different forming pressures of 0.5 MPa (up to the first 8 mm

formation), 0.45 MPa (up to the next 4 mm formation) and 0.4 MPa (up to the
last 4 mm formation) were chosen as constants for all the samples. A constant
forming temperature of 530C was selected. The experiment was divided into
four segments.

In the first segment, five 1.25 mm thick sheet samples, namely, A,

B, C, D and E were considered. The annealing time was changed from 60 min
to 180 minutes. For sample A the annealing time of 60 minutes was selected;
for sample B, 90 minutes; for sample C 120 minutes, for sample D 150
minutes, and for sample E 180 minutes was selected. In the second segment,
five 1.50mm thick sheet samples, namely, F, G, H, I and J were considered.
The annealing time was changed from 60 min to 180 minutes. For sample F
the annealing time of 60 minutes was selected; for sample G, 90 minutes, for
sample H 120 minutes, for sample I 150 minutes, and for sample J 180
minutes was selected. In the third segment, five 1.75mm thick sheet samples,
namely, K, L, M, N and O were considered. The annealing time was changed
from 60 min to 180 minutes. For sample K the annealing time of 60 minutes
was selected; for sample L, 90 minutes, for sample M 120 minutes, for
sample
N 150 minutes, and for sample O 180 minutes was selected. In the fourth
segment, five 2.00 mm thick sheet samples, namely, P, Q, R, S and T were
considered. The annealing time was changed from 60 min to 180 minutes. For
 91

sample P the annealing time of 60 minutes was selected; for sample Q, 90

minutes, for sample R 120 minutes, for sample S 150 minutes, and for sample
T 180 minutes was selected. The 7075 Al alloy sheet samples were
superplastically formed in the die setup as shown in Figure 5.1. The forming
time was measured. The superplastically formed part was taken out of the die
setup, and the cavitation effect and thickness distribution were measured,
after the specimens were cut off. The thickness distribution was measured
directly, using a digital micrometer.

5.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.5.1 Thickness Distribution and Cavitation Study under Constant

and Variable Pressure

Strain is accumulated during superplastic deformation, primarily as

a result of grain boundary sliding, rather than by the elongation of the grains
themselves. The thinning factor, that is, the ratio of the thickness at the pole
to the average thickness of the formed part, was also calculated for each
sample. Superplastic materials fail during deformation due to an unstable
plastic flow, or as a consequence of the growth and interlinkage of the
internally nucleated cavities. All Al alloys are prone to cavitation during
superplastic flow (Nieh 1997). Sample I, formed under a constant high
forming pressure, took a less forming time, and had a comparatively lower
thinning factor and high cavity volume fraction; due to the high forming
pressure, the dynamic recrystallisation of the initial formation took place;
(Pilling and Ridley 1989) it controlled the grain growth because it offered
high resistance to the deformation in the initial stage, which was the reason
for the high cavity volume fraction. Sample II was formed under two variable
pressures: the thinning factor was high and the cavity volume fraction was
less, but the forming time increased, due to the dynamic recrystallisation of
 92

the initial stage formation, and in the next stage, the grains slide in a
controlled manner and occupied the voids in a slow and steady formation.
Sample III was formed under three different forming pressures; it took high
forming time, but gave a high thinning factor and less cavity volume fraction,
due to the dynamic recrystallisation of the initial stage to get refined grains; in
the next stage, the forming pressure enhanced the thinning factor, because the
grains slid in a controlled manner, and in the last stage of formation, the
pressure was very less, so, the grains very readily occupy the cavities,
reducing the micro voids, but slightly increasing the grain size, due to the
long forming time. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 show the formed component and the
different locations of the thickness measurement in the components
respectively. Table 5.1 shows the thinning factor of samples I, II and III.
Table 5.2 shows the cavity volume fraction of samples I, II and III.

Figure 5.6 Superplastically formed component of complex shape

 93

Figure 5.7 Locations of thickness measurement in the component

Table 5.1 Thinning factor of samples I, II and III

Average Thickness at Thinning

Sample thickness, tavg Pole, tpole factor,
(mm) (mm) [tpole/tavg]
I 1.350 1.10 0.8148
II 1.461 1.23 0.8419
III 1.456 1.28 0.8791

Figure 5.8 Thickness distribution along the transverse cross- section of

samples I, II and III
 94

Table 5.2 Cavity volume fraction of samples I, II and III

Forming time Cavity volume

Sample Grain size (m)
(minutes) fraction ( %)
I 20 11 12.64
II 40 12 8
III 72 13 5

Figure 5.8 shows the thickness distribution of the completely

formed samples I, II and III along the transverse cross- section. Figures 5.9,
5.10 and 5.11 show the Microstructures of samples I, II and III respectively,
and Figures 5.12, 5.13 and 5.14 show the SEM pictures of the samples I, II
and III respectively. On continuous control, the forming pressure reduced the
cavity volume fraction, and increased the thinning factor.

Figure 5.9 Microstructure of Figure 5.10 Microstructure of

Sample I Sample II

Figure 5.11 Microstructure of Figure 5.12 SEM picture of

SampleIII Sample I
 95

Figure 5.13 SEM picture of Figure 5.14 SEM picture of

Sample II Sample III

5.5.2 Thickness Distribution and Cavitation Study at Different

Forming Temperatures

The flow stresses would generally be lower at slower strain rates

and higher temperatures; however, the effect of changing the strain rate or
temperature on cavitation during superplastic deformation, would vary
widely, depending on the material. The differences which arise, are often the
result of changes in the microstructure of the material, particularly, the grain
size. In the aluminium alloys, increasing the temperature and decreasing the
strain rate, result in a decrease in the overall level of cavitation. Samples IV
and V were formed at temperatures of 500Cand 510C respectively, and took
a long forming time; due to the low forming temperature, the thinning factor
was also low. Even dynamic recrystalisation occurred during the initial stage
formation, and it was not stable for a long time; there was less formability,
thinning factor, and the cavity volume fraction was very high, due to the
instability of the grains in the long forming time at a low forming
temperature. Sample VI was formed at a temperature of 520C, and it took a
comparatively medium forming time for the high temperature, and the
thinning factor was less due to the instability of grains; the grains moved
randomly, and it automatically reduced the thinning factor and increased the
cavity volume fraction. Sample VII was formed at a temperature of 540C,
 96

and took less forming time due to the high temperature; the grains lost their
stability, and this increased the grain growth, increasing the cavity and the
thinning factor, due to the high temperature at which the grains moved fast
and in a random manner. Table 5.3 shows the thinning factor of samples IV,
V, VI and VII. Table 5.4 shows the cavity volume fraction of samples IV, V,
VI and VII.

Table 5.3Thinning factor of samples IV, V, VI and VII

Average Thickness
thickness, Thinning factor,
Sample at Pole, tpole
tpole/tavg
tavg (mm) (mm)
IV 1.452 1.23 0.8471
V 1.371 1.17 0.8534
VI 1.414 1.12 0.7921
VII 1.383 1.19 0.8604

Figure 5.15 Thickness distribution along the transverse cross- section of

samples III, IV, V, VI and VII
 97

Table 5.4 Cavity volume fraction of samples IV, V, VI and VII

Forming time Grain size Cavity volume

Sample
(minutes) ( m) fraction ( %)
IV 185 13 10.25
V 113 13 9.31
VI 85 13 11.69
VII 43 14 13.09

Figure 5.15 shows the thickness distribution of the completely

formed samples of III, IV, V, VI and VII along the transverse cross - section.
Figures 5.16, 5.17, 5.18 and 5.19 show the microstructures of the samples IV,
V, VI and VII respectively.

Figure 5.16 Microstructure of Figure 5.17 Microstructure of

Sample IV Sample V

Figure 5.18 Microstructure of Figure 5.19 Microstructure of

Sample VI Sample VII
 98

5.5.3 Thickness Distribution and Cavitation Study for Various

Annealing Times and Sheet Thicknesses

The thinning factor, which is a ratio of the thickness at the pole to

the average thickness of the formed part, was calculated for each sample and
the cavity volume fraction was calculated in the dome of each sample.
Sample A took a high forming time of 48 minutes and a thinning factor of
0.8562. Due to the variable pressure method, the initial pressure is high, and
dynamic recrystallisation took place, reducing the grain size. After 60
minutes annealing, the grains were stable; so, it took a high forming time and
grains slide in a controlled manner, producing a less cavity volume fraction.
Sample B took a forming time of 34 minutes and the thinning factor of 0.884;
and the cavity volume fraction of 5% was high, due to the instability of the
grains after 90 minutes annealing. It affected the grain boundary strength;
the grains slide rapidly in a controlled manner, reduced the forming time and
increased the thinning factor due to the instability of the grains during the
process results high cavity volume fraction. Sample C and D took a less
forming time and the thinning factors were less. The high cavity volume
fraction due to the high annealing time affected the grain boundary strength;
the grains slide rapidly and randomly, so, automatically the forming time and
thinning factor reduced and the cavity volume fraction increased. Sample E
took a forming time of 32 minutes, and the thinning factor of 0.8333 was less;
the 180 minutes annealing time affected the grain boundary strength and the
grain growth also took place; because of their instability, the grains showed a
high cavity volume fraction, and a less thinning factor. Table 5.5 shows the
thinning factor of samples A, B, C, D and E. Table 5.6 shows the cavity
volume fraction of samples A, B, C, D and E. Figure 5.20 shows the thickness
distribution of the completely formed samples A, B, C, D and E along the
transverse cross- section. Figure 5.21 shows the microstructure
of the samples A, B, C, D, E and Figure 5.22 shows the SEM picture of
sample A.
 99

Table 5.5 Thinning factor of samples A, B, C, D and E

Average Thickness at Thinning

Sample thickness Pole, factor,
tavg (mm) tpole (mm) [tpole/tavg]
A 0.911 0.78 0.8562
B 0.837 0.74 0.8841
C 0.877 0.72 0.8210
D 0.845 0.70 0.8284
E 0.876 0.73 0.8333

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1
Thickness in mm

1 Sample A
Sample B
0.9
Sample C
0.8 Sample D
0.7 Sample E

0.6

0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Measuring Position

Figure 5.20 Thickness distribution along the transverse cross- section of

samples A, B, C, D and E
 100

Table 5.6 Cavity volume fraction of samples A, B, C, D and E

Forming time Grain size Cavity volume

Sample sheet
(minutes) (m) fraction ( %)
Sample A 48 11 1.65
Sample B 34 12 5.0
Sample C 29 12 6.076
Sample D 30 12 5.8
Sample E 32 13 8.0

Figure 5.21 Microstructure of samples A, B, C, D and E

Figure 5.22 SEM picture of sample A

 101

Sample F took a high forming time of 65 minutes, and the thinning

factor of 0.8677 was also high; due to the variable pressure method, dynamic
recrystallisation took place and after 60 minutes annealing the grains were
highly stable, and resisted deformation; so the cavity volume fraction was
also high. Sample G took a forming time of 50 minutes and the thinning
factor of 0.8670 was high. Due to the variable pressure method, dynamic
recrystallisation took place and after 90 minutes annealing, the grains were
stable, took a high forming time, and were sliding in a controlled manner,
because a less cavity volume fraction was obtained. Sample H took a forming
time of 29 minutes and the thinning factor of 0.8738was very high, and the
cavity volume fraction was also high. The 120 minutes annealing time
affected the grain boundary strength; the grains slid rapidly in a controlled
manner, reduced the forming time and increased the thinning factor, due to
the instability of the grains during the process, resulting in a high cavity
volume fraction. Samples I and J took a less forming time, low thinning
factor, and high cavity volume fraction; and the high annealing time affected
the grain boundary strength. The grains slide rapidly and randomly; due to
that the forming time and thinning factor were reduced and the cavity volume
fraction was also high; but compared to sample H here the cavity volume
fraction was low due to the grains adjusting the cavity with their random
movement. Table 5.7 shows the thinning factor of samples F, G, H, I and J.
Table 5.8 shows the cavity volume fraction of samples F, G, H, I and J.
Figure 5.23 shows the thickness distribution of the completely formed
samples F, G, H, I and J along the transverse cross- section. Figure 5.24
shows the microstructure of the samples F, G, H, I, J and Figure 5.25 shows
the SEM picture of sample G.
 102

Table 5.7 Thinning factor of the formed samples F, G, H, I and J

Average Thickness at Thinning

Sample thickness Pole tpole factor
tavg (mm) (mm) [tpole/tavg]
F 1.141 0.99 0.8677
G 1.115 0.97 0.8670
H 1.133 0.99 0.8738
I 1.066 0.90 0.8443
J 1.011 0.85 0.8408

1.6
1.5
1.4
Thickness in mm

1.3
Sample F
1.2
1.1 Sample G
1
0.9 Sample H
0.8 Sample I
0.7
0.6 Sample J
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Measuring Position

Figure 5.23 Thickness distribution along the transverse cross- section of

samples F, G, H, I and J

Table 5.8 cavity volume fraction of the formed samples F, G, H, I and J

Forming time Grain size Cavity volume

Sample sheet
(minutes) (m) fraction ( %)
Sample F 65 12 8
Sample G 50 12 2.135
Sample H 29 12 11.812
Sample I 30 12 4.21
Sample J 31 13 5.8
 103

Figure 5.24 Microstructure of samples F, G, H, I and J

Figure 5.25 SEM picture of Sample G

Sample K took a high forming time of 70 minutes and the thinning

factor of 0.8600 was high. Due to the variable pressure method, dynamic
recrystallisation took place, and after 60 minutes annealing, the grains were
highly stable, and able to resist deformation because the cavity volume
fraction is also high. Sample L took a forming time of 63 minutes; and the 90
minutes annealing time affected the grain boundary strength; the grains slid
rapidly, and it reduced the thinning factor and forming time, due to the
 104

instability of grains during process, resulting in a high cavity volume fraction.

Sample M took a forming time of 52 minutes and the thinning factor of
0.8740 was very high; and the 120 minutes annealing time affected the grain
boundary strength; the grains slide rapidly, reduced the forming time and
increased the thinning factor, producing a very less cavity volume fraction.
Here, the grains moved rapidly in a controlled manner and occupied the
cavity. Samples N and O gave a low thinning factor ; and the high annealing
time affected the grain boundary strength; the grains slide randomly, and
reduced the forming time and thinning factor; the cavity volume fraction is
increased but compared to sample L, it is small due the grains adjusting the
cavity during the random movement. Table 5.9 shows the thinning factor of
samples K, L, M, N and O. Table 5.10 shows the cavity volume fraction of
samples K, L, M, N and O. Figure 5.26 shows the thickness distribution of the
completely formed samples K, L, M, N and O along the transverse cross-
section. Figure 5.27 shows the microstructure of the samples K, L, M, N, O
and Figure 5.28 shows the SEM picture of sample M.

Table 5.9 Thinning factor of the formed samples K, L, M, N and O

Average Thickness
Thinning factor
Sample thickness at Pole tpole
[tpole/tavg]
tavg (mm) (mm)
K 1.29 1.11 0.8600
L 1.209 1.00 0.8271
M 1.27 1.11 0.8740
N 1.274 1.05 0.8242
O 1.302 1.11 0.8525
 105

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
Thickness in mm 1.5
1.4
Sample K
1.3
1.2 Sample L
1.1
Sample M
1
0.9 Sample N
0.8
0.7 Sample O
0.6
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Measuring position

Figure 5.26 Thickness distribution along the transverse cross- section of

samples K, L, M, N and O

Table 5.10 Cavity volume fraction of the formed samples K, L, M, N

and O

Cavity
Forming
Sample Grain size volume
time
sheet (m) fraction
(minutes)
( %)
Sample K 70 12 6.075
Sample L 63 12 10.25
Sample M 52 12 3.923
Sample N 50 13 4.664
Sample O 53 13 7.062
 106

Figure 5.27 Microstructure of samples K, L, M, N and O

Figure 5.28 SEM picture of Sample M

Sample P took a high forming time of 72 minutes, and the thinning

factor of 0.8791 was high. Due to the variable pressure method, dynamic
recrystallisation took place and after 60 minutes annealing, the grains were
highly stable, and resisted deformation because the cavity volume fraction is
also high. Sample Q took a forming time of 64 minutes; and the 90 minutes
annealing time affected the grain boundary strength; the grains slide
randomly, and it reduced the thinning factor, due to the instability of the
grains during the process, resulting in a high cavity volume fraction. Sample
 107

R took a forming time of 54 minutes and the thinning factor of 0.8690 was
high; and the 120 minutes annealing time affected the grain boundary
strength; the grains slide rapidly in a controlled manner, and occupied the
cavity, thus obtaining a very less cavity volume fraction, reduced forming
time and increased thinning factor. Sample S and T gave a low thinning
factor; and the high annealing time affected the grain boundary strength; the
grains slide randomly; it reduced the forming time and thinning factor, and
increased the cavity volume fraction. Table 5.11 shows the thinning factor of
samples P, Q, R, S and T. Table 5.12 shows the cavity volume fraction of
samples P, Q, R, S and T. Figure 5.29 shows the thickness distribution of the
completely formed samples P, Q, R, S and T along the transverse cross-
section. Figure 5.30 shows the microstructure of the samples P, Q, R, S, T and
Figure 5.31 shows the SEM picture of sample R.

Table 5.11 Thinning factor of the formed samples P, Q, R, S and T

Average Thickness Thinning

Sample thickness at Pole tpole factor
tavg (mm) (mm) [tpole/tavg]
P 1.456 1.28 0.8791
Q 1.431 1.21 0.8456
R 1.518 1.32 0.8690
S 1.484 1.23 0.8310
T 1.421 1.13 0.7952
 108

2.1
2
1.9
Thickness in mm 1.8
1.7
Sample P
1.6
Sample Q
1.5
1.4 Sample R
1.3 Sample S
1.2 Sample T
1.1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Measuring position

Figure 5.29 Thickness distribution along the transverse cross- section of

samples P, Q, R, S and T

Table 5.12 Cavity volume fraction of the formed samples P, Q, R, S and T

Forming Cavity
Sample Grain size
time volume
sheet (m)
(minutes) fraction ( %)
Sample P 72 13 5
Sample Q 64 13 4.448
Sample R 54 13 1.973
Sample S 53 13 6.1974
Sample T 53 14 11.4563
 109

Figure 5.30 Microstructure of samples P, Q, R, S and T

Figure 5.31 SEM picture of Sample R

In general, cavities nucleate at the grain boundaries, and their

subsequent growth and coalescence invariably lead to premature failure. The
presence of cavities in the superplastically formed components could
adversely affect their mechanical properties. Under conditions of
homogeneous compression, cavitation is not observed, and cavities which are
produced during superplastic tensile flow are removed, during the subsequent
compressive flow.
 110

Most of the results reported, that the cavity is high and the thinning
is low, or that the cavity is low and the thinning is high; without considering
the initial sheet thickness. In the first segment, sample A had a lesser cavity
volume fraction of 1.65%, while sample B had a high thinning factor of
0.8841 and less forming time; so the annealing time strongly affected the
micro grains. In the second segment, sample G had a lesser cavity volume
fraction of 2.135%, while sample H had a high thinning factor of 0.8738 and
less forming time; here, the thickness increased, so the annealing time was
high. In the third and fourth segment, samples M and R had a lesser cavity
volume fraction and high thinning factor and less forming time. So,
120minutes annealing time was the best. Sample P had a high thinning factor
of 0.8791, and high forming time due to the high stability of the grains after
60 minutes annealing. In all the segments, after 120 minutes annealing did
not produce any adverse effect in the forming time.

5.6 SUMMARY

In the constant pressure method the forming time was 20 minutes,

and the grain growth was less due to the high strain rate; dynamic
recrystalisation took place, but the cavity volume fraction was 12.64%,
because the grains initially gave more resistance to the deformation, and the
thinning factor was 0.8148.

In the two variables pressure method, the forming time was 40

minutes, and the small grain growth took place in a high forming time, but the
cavity volume fraction was 8%; here the grains adjusted the cavity during
slow forming and the thinning factor was 0.8419.
 111

In the three different forming pressures method, the forming time

was 68 minutes, and the small grain growth took place in a high forming time,
but the cavity volume fraction was 5%, and the thinning factor was 0.8791,
due to the very slow and controlled formation.

Continuous control over the forming pressure enhanced the

thinning factor and reduced the cavity volume fraction, due to the controlled
and steady deformation. In the cavity and temperature study, the forming
temperature of the 530C sample gave a better result of the cavity volume
fraction of 5%; the forming time was 68 minutes. The combination of this
temperature and forming time gave good stability to the grains.

The superplastic forming temperature of the Al 7075 alloy is

530C; below this temperature, the micro grains gave high resistance to the
deformation; above this temperature structural instability occurred, because
both these conditions gave high cavity volume fraction.

For a high thickness sheet (1.75 and 2mm) a less cavity volume
fraction and a high thinning factor have been obtained at the same annealing
time (120 minutes). For a low thickness sheet (1.25 and 1.5mm), the
annealing required for a high thinning factor is high, compared to that of a
less cavity volume fraction.

For a sheet of less thickness, when the annealing time was

increased, the cavity volume fraction was also high, whereas in the sheet of
higher thickness, the grains were accommodated easily at a high annealing
time, because the cavity volume fraction was low. The Optical micrograph
and SEM investigation of a high initial sheet thickness, show that during
superplastic deformation, grain boundary sliding accommodated by
intragranular slip is the main mechanism of the deformation process. When
 112

the annealing time is increased, the cavity volume fraction alters more
compared to the grain size.

After 2 hours annealing, irrespective of the thickness (1.25, 1.5,

1.75 and 2mm), the forming time does not affect the forming of the
component, and grain growth was identified only in the less initial sheet
thickness (1.25mm), because the amount of grains were less, compared to that
of the high thickness sheet.