Running head: LEARNER-CENTERED INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Principles of Learner-Centered Instructional Design

Kristine B. Robertson

Western Oregon University

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Principles of Learner-Centered Instructional Design

Many years ago a master teacher said to me, Remember, you dont teach a subject. You

teach a person. As a recent college graduate with more knowledge of her subject than of her

students, I found his advice both apt and frustrating: apt because I knew that my current

instructional approach was not working and had sensed that I did not have the right focus, and

frustrating because, in the moment the advice was offered, I failed to ask for suggestions as to

how to act upon it. Fast-forward a few decades, and I find myself reading several books on

human-centered design. The topics considered in these books vary considerably: Don Normans

The Design of Everyday Things looks at the design of objects, John Medinas Brain Rules

considers the implications of neuroscience for learning, Steve Krugs Dont Make Me Think,

Revisited focuses on website design, and Universal Principles of Design is a compendium of

design generally. Despite their varied fields of interest, all of the books have human-centered

design as their foundational principle.

According to Don Norman (2013), human-centered design is an approach that puts

human needs, capabilities, and behavior first, then designs to accommodate those needs,

capabilities, and ways of behaving (p. 8) Normans particular area of interest is everyday

objects (washing machines, thermostats, doors, etc.). He gives various examples of the perils of

poor design (one example being as the average TV remote, which has numerous features that are

incomprehensible to many), and of the benefits of human-centered design (for example, top-

loading washing machines that are easy to understand and use). According to Norman, in order

to create designs that communicate clearly and well, it is essential for designers to understand not

only technology, but also psychology. It is when the two are brought together that human-

centered design is possible.

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If we apply Normans thesis (that human-centered design the best way forward) to the

specific realm of instructional design, it can be summarized as an approach that puts learner

needs, capabilities, and behavior first, and then designs to accommodate those needs,

capabilities, and ways of behaving. The question then becomes what the needs, capabilities, and

behavior of learners are. Because the books I have read cover so many topics, and because so

many different and varied principles of design are explored in them, I have surveyed them with

the aim of finding those principles most pertinent to learning design. The ones I have identified

as being most relevant are the following:

learners learn best when schools, colleges, and workplaces consider the whole person
(Medina, 2014)

learners learn best when the principles of information design are put into practice
(Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2003; Medina, 2014)

learners learn best when text is simple and clear (Krug, 2014)

learners learn best when they are given an adequate navigational system (Krug, 2014;
Lidwell et al., 2003; Medina, 2014; Norman, 2013)

learners learn best when instruction is regularly assessed and revised (Krug, 2014;
Lidwell et al., 2003; Norman, 2013)

These, then, are the five principles instructional designers should follow to ensure their students

success.

Principle One: Consider the Whole Person

First of all, it is important to recognize that learners have basic human needs that must be

met in order for learning to be optimizedthe whole person must be taken into account. John

Medina (2014) describes some of these in Brain Rules, a book that explores the implications of

brain science for education. Medina shows that exercise, sleep, and stress levels significantly

affect the brain. Unless basic needs for exercise, sleep, and stress reduction are met, it can be
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difficult for students to learn.

The implication of this is that not every problem has an instructional solution.

Sometimes learners fail to succeed not because of inadequate instruction, but because they have

unfulfilled needs. While not all needs can be met by instructional design per se, schools,

workplaces, and other institutions can still help their learners by creating environments that allow

for adequate for exercise, sleep, and stress reduction. Medina (2014) makes several suggestions

as to how institutions can help. For example, walking meetings and more recess time can address

the need for exercise. Allowing for power naps and later school or work start times can address

the need for sleep. Policies enabling greater work-life balance can help to alleviate stress. When

the needs of the whole learner are met, the learner is in a better position to learn. The designer

should be aware of these needs, and encourage those who have it within their power to address

them to do so.

Principle Two: Use the Principles of Information Design

Second, the way in which information is visually presented has a huge impact on

learners. According to Medina (2014), vision is the most powerful of the five senses. The field

of information design offers insight into how information can most effectively be presented

visually. There are many different factors to consider in designing information, but one principle

that encapsulates many of them is the signal-to-noise ratio (Lidwell et al., 2010). Signal is

the message that is being communicated; noise is all the extraneous information that is added

to the signal during communication. The rule is to reduce the noise and emphasize the signal so

that the message is clearly communicated. By doing this, the cognitive load of the learner is

reduced, less mental effort is required, and learning is therefore easier.

There are several strategies for achieving a high signal-to-noise ratio. Robin Williams
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(2008) offers a good summary of them in The Non-Designers Design & Type Books. The four

strategies she outlines are proximity, alignment, repetition, and contrast. Proximity is placing

items that are related to each other close together. Alignment is the careful placement of

everything on a page so that each one has a visual connection with something else on the page

(p. 33). Repetition is a conscious effort to unify all parts of a design by repeating selected

elements (p. 51). Contrast is making certain elements different so that they stand out and this can

be achieved by changes in type, color, and size. When instructors present information using

these four visual design strategies, the result is a high signal-to-noise ratio. This high ratio of

signal to noise should reduce the learners cognitive load, thereby making learning easier.

When considering the visual display of information, designers should not only consider

the signal-to-noise ratio, but also the important role of pictures in communication (Lidwell et al.,

2010; Medina, 2014). According to Lidwell et al. (2010), pictures are generally more easily

recognized and recalled than words, although memory for pictures and words together is superior

to memory for words alone or pictures alone (p. 184). This is especially true for recall that is

delayed by thirty seconds or more and for exposure that is short and casual. Medina (2014)

echoes this assertion and goes on to say that moving pictures (in animation or film) are even

more effective than static pictures. He links this to our evolutionary history which predisposes

us to pay attention to moving things (like dangerous animals). The implication for designers is

clear: to communicate well, use a combination of pictures and text, and to communicate even

more effectively, consider including film or animation.

Principle Three: Keep Text Simple and Clear

Third, it is not only the visual presentation of information that is important: words

themselves are also significant. Steve Krug (2014) addresses the use of words in his book on
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web design. Krug offers various strategies for writing for the web. One is that he urges the

reader to get rid of half the words on each page, then get rid of half of whats left (p. 49).

Krug acknowledges that this might seem excessive, but he insists that the goal is a realistic one.

When applying this strategy to the field of instructional design, I would contend that it is

important to realize that there are times when words should not be minimized. Reducing a

Shakespeare sonnet to a billboard would be an interesting exercise, but only appropriate in the

context of having thoroughly read and reveled in the poetry first. Watching a Powerpoint

presentation of Augustines Confessions is not the same as grappling with the text firsthand.

There are, however, many times in instruction when fewer words convey meaning more

convincingly than a multitude. By keeping their own written text clear and concise, designers

can reduce confusion, thus providing students with more time in which to engage with great

texts.

Krug also argues that a chief feature of clear and concise texts is readability. The concept

of readability is explained by Lidwell et al. (2010) who say that the length of words, how

common they are, and the length and complexity of sentences are influential factors in how

readable a text is. Short, familiar words and short, simple sentences create a more readable text.

Lidwell et al. also suggest that writers should use the active voice when possible and, like Krug,

they urge the writer to reduce the number of words, but with the caveat that they not sacrifice

meaning or clarity in the process (p. 198). In other words, keep text simple, but dont make it

so simple that it becomes confusing.

Principle Four: Provide a Navigational System

Fourth, as in the design of many things, letting people know where they are, where they

have been, and where they are going is crucial. A term that nicely sums up this principle is
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navigation. Krug (2014) talks about navigation in the context of website design. He compares

the experience of looking for a chainsaw at Sears to the experience of looking for something on a

website. Krug says that, both in Sears and when reading a website, you first choose whether to

ask for help or to attempt achieve your goal on your own. In both situations, if you choose to try

on your own, you look to signs for help. In both you are likely to leave if you cannot find what

you want. He then shows how the two situations are different: with websites there is

considerably less sense of scale, direction, or location than there is in a physical environment like

Sears. I propose that a similar analogy can be drawn between Sears and learning environments.

In a learning environment, learners choose whether to ask for help or to try to find what they

need on their own. If they try on their own, they look to signs (textbooks, handouts, Wikipedia)

for help. If they do not ask for help and cannot figure it out, they may give up and leave the

learning process (mentally, not necessary physically). As with websites, learning environments

often fail to provide a sense of scale, direction, or location. This is where good design can make

a difference: tell students where they are, remind them of where they have been, and tell them

where they are going.

This principle of navigation is also discussed by Lidwell et al. (2010) who call it

wayfinding (p. 260). Lidwell et al. suggest four stages to wayfinding: orientation, route

decision, route monitoring, and destination recognition. Orientation is the stage of identifying

where one is, route decision is the stage of deciding which route to take, route monitoring is

making sure the route is going in the correct direction, and destination recognition is knowing

that one has arrived. The third of these four stages points to another related principle that is

significant for instruction: feedback. As learners progress towards their destination, they need to

know that they are, indeed, going in the correct direction. When designing instruction, it is
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helpful to provide learners with a way to see how far they have come and that they have stayed

on a good path. As Norman (2013) says (albeit in a discussion of a very different kind of

product), feedback should be immediate, informative, appropriate, and planned. Thus,

instructional designers need to provide not only a map for navigation, but also feedback to the

learner so that the learner is aware of their progress to the destination.

Principle Five: Assess and Revise Instruction Regularly

Finally, learners learn best when instruction is regularly tested and revised. The term

used to describe this is iterative design (Lidwell et al., 2010; Norman, 2013). Norman (2013)

identifies four activities in human-centered design: observation, idea generation, prototyping,

and testing. He describes these four as being repeated over and over, with each cycle yielding

more insights and getting closer to the desired solution (p. 222). In this process, failures are

understood as contributing vital information about how to improve the design. Lidwell et al.

(2010) echo this idea saying, Whether tests are deemed a success or failure is irrelevant in

design iteration, since both success and failure provide important information about what does

and does not work (p. 142).

This testing is similar to the usability testing advocated by Krug (2014). Krug suggests

using do-it-yourself tests in which a small group of users regularly tests a website. The purpose

of this testing is not to prove anything, but rather to improve what youre building (p. 119).

Instructors generally have a ready-made set of users (learners) on whom to test their product

(instruction). According to Krug, letting the learners try the product and watching what they do

with it is the main method of this testing. Following testing, revisions are made, and then the

product is tested yet again. Thus, no design is ever final and completethere is always room for

change and improvement.

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One aspect of the iterative design process that is inadequately emphasized in the readings

is the important role of continuing professional development for the designer. Not only should a

design be revised in response to usability testing, but it also should be revised in light of new

findings in relevant fields, fields such as educational psychology, brain science, etc. It is very

important for designers themselves to continually be learning so that their design is well-

informed and fresh. Without input from others, without knowing what questions to ask and

different places to look for answers, it is very easy for instruction to become predictable and

stale. Professional development, whether formal or informal, is an integral part of the iterative

design process.

Conclusion

In conclusion, there are several principles that instructional designers should consider in

order to design instruction that is learner-centered. They should remember that the learner is a

whole person, with needs for exercise, sleep, and relaxation. They should put into practice the

ideas of information design, particularly the ideas of proximity, alignment, repetition, and

contrast. They should write text that is as simple and clear as possible. They should create

navigation systems that enable learners to know where they are in relation to where they have

been and where they are going. And they should engage in an iterative design process, a process

which fosters continuous improvement. Above all else, the guiding principle should be to keep

the learner at the center. By following these principles of good design, the instructional designer

can achieve his or her goalthat of helping learners acquire the skills and knowledge they need

to survive, thrive, and contribute in whatever context they may find themselves.
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References

Krug, S. (2014). Dont make me think, revisited. San Francisco, CA: New Riders.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Butler, J. (2010). Universal principles of design. Beverly, MA:

Rockport Publishers.

Medina, J. (2014) Brain rules: 12 rules for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school

Seattle, WA: Pear Press.

Norman, D. (2013). The design of everyday things. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Williams, R. (2008). The non-designers design & type books. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press.