How Does Heredity and Environment Influence Intelligence?

There are many claims, opinions, and arguments about where intelligence comes from
- is it from our genetic heritage, or is it a consequence of the environment and
our experiences? Below are some research findings and compelling arguments about
how our genes and our society influence intelligence.
Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Research findings confirming that intelligence is a by-product of our heredity
revolves around finding specific genetic markers and associating IQ levels of
parents and siblings.
Genetic markers on intelligence are believed to be found in chromosomes 4, 6 and
22. The genetic marker in chromosome 6 appears in 1/3 of children with high IQ, and
only 1/6 of children with average IQs.
Identical twins appear to possess more similar IQ levels than fraternal twins.
Arthur Jensen in 1969 reviewed research studies about intelligence and found that
the IQ levels of identical twins are 32% more similar than the IQ levels of
fraternal twins. He also found that the IQ levels of identical twins reared
together are just 11% more similar than the IQ levels of identical twins reared
apart. Thus, Jensen concludes that the environment plays very minimal role in
developing intelligence.
Apart from looking at the intelligence of twins, parents' intelligence also
contributes to the genetic debate. Research shows that the IQ of biological parents
are more predictive of the child's IQ than the IQ of the adoptive parents.
Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Environmental influences come in different packages - family, ethnicity, socio-
economic status, gender, and education.
The family has a critical role in elevating IQ scores. Communication received
during the first 3 years of life is the primary predictor of Stanford-Binet IQ
score at age 3. Moreover, simply moving or exposing children to families with
better environments increases their IQs by 12 points.
Ethnicity also plays an influential role. On average, African American
schoolchildren score 10-15 points lower on standardized tests than White American
schoolchildren. Also, only 15-25% of African American schoolchildren scored higher
than 50% of White American schoolchildren. Additionally, African Americans are
prone to stereotype threat. In one study, 50% of African American and White
American students at Stanford University were told that the verbal part of the
Graduate Record Examination (GRE) will be used to assess their intellectual
abilities, whereas the other 50% were told that the test will be simply
administered to establish its reliability and validity. Both groups of White
American students scored similarly on the two scenarios. However, African Americans
scored better on the second scenario than the first. The first scenario triggered a
stereotype threat. The African American students were pressured on the first
scenario, that how they'd score in the test might confirm a negative stereotype
about their ethnicity. As a result of their anxiety, they performed worse than
they'd normally do.
The notion of intelligence also differs across cultures. Europeans place emphasis
on thinking and reasoning skills; Kenyans on participation in family and community
activities; Ugandas on planning and execution; Iatmul tribe in Papua New Guinea on
remembering the names of 10-20,000 clan members; and tribes at the Caroline Islands
in the Pacific Ocean near eastern Philippines cherish the ability to navigate land
and sea by reading the stars.
Socio-economic status is also very important. Having the means and the resources
gives a sense of security and access to stimulating environments. Within a certain
ethnicity, those in the low SES scored significantly lower than those in the middle
and higher SES.
One's gender can also influence intelligence. On average, males and females have
similar IQ levels. However, males' scores are more variable. Males specifically
perform better in spatial and abstract reasoning, while females tend to be better
at finding synonyms.
Lastly, and perhaps the most important of all, is education. Intervention day care
increases IQ score by 17 points at age 3, and 5 points by age 15. South African
Indian children lost 5 IQ points per year of schooling delayed due to the
unavailability of teachers. The gap between African and White Americans on
standardized test scores is narrowing, especially in college, most likely because
of having similar educational environments. In 1999, James Flynn also discovered
that the human race is becoming more and more intelligent (also called the Flynn
Effect). In the ancient times, only adult priests can read; nowadays, 7-year old
children must already know how to read.