1. What is bridge/bridge engineering?

A structure built to span and provide passage over a river, chasm, road, or any other physical
hurdle. The function required from the bridge and the area where it is constructed decides the design of
the bridge.

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such
as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are
many different designs that each serve a particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of
bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is
constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it.

The first bridges were made by nature as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first
bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a
simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of these early bridges could not support heavy
weights or withstand strong currents. It was these inadequacies which led to the development of better
bridges.

The oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD
during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world's oldest open-spandrel
stone segmental arch bridge. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in
1716. With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed
for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of
steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave
Eiffel.

Bridges are classified on the basis that how the four forces namely shear, compression, tension,
and moment are distributed in the bridge structure.

2. Identify and discuss the two main parts of the bridge.

Superstructure

It is part of the structure which supports traffic and includes deck, slab and girders. All the parts
of the bridge which is mounted on a supporting system can be classified as a Super structure.

It is defined as the entire portion of a bridge structure which primarily receives and supports
loads and, in turn, transfer the reactions resulting there to the bridge substructure. The superstructure
may consist of beam, girder, truss, or cable construction. Superstructure components include:

a. Floor beams
b. Girders
c. Stringers

d. Diaphragms
 1. Intermediate
2. End
3. Continuity
e. Deck
1. Roadway
2. Sidewalk/Overhang
f. Parapet and railings
g. Expansion dam
h. Truss members
1. Chords (top and bottom
2. Vertical and diagonal web members
3. Lateral Bracing
4. Portal
5. End post
i. Struts and wind bracing
j. Cable system
k. Hangers - fixed and expansion type

A superstructure may consist of a single span upon two supports or a combination of two or
more spans having the number and distribution of supports required by their type of construction,
whether consisting of simple, continuous, cantilever, suspension, arch or tower-bent construction.

Substructure

It is that part of the structure, ie piers and abutments, which supports the superstructure and
which transfers the structural load to the foundations.

It is the foundation portion of the bridge that supports the superstructure and transfers the
loads to the earth. The substructure includes:

a. Abutments 3. Web wall

1. Breastwall 4. Pier Cap
2. Wingwalls 5. Footing or pile cap
3. Bridge Seat c. Pile bent
4. Backwall 1. Piles (steel, concrete, or timber)
5. Fooitng or pile cap 2. Bent cap
b. Piers d. Caisson
1. Stem wall e. Piling
2. Colum or pier shaf f. Dolphins and fenders pier protection
3. Enumerate and discuss the types of bridge

a. Flyover
It is a bridge that carries one road or railway line above another either with or without
subsidiary roads, for communication
between two sides.
An overpass (called a flyover in
the United Kingdom and some other
Commonwealth countries) is a bridge,
road, railway or similar structure that
crosses over another road or railway. An
overpass and underpass together form a
grade separation. Stack interchanges are made up of many overpasses.

b. Viaduct
A viaduct is a bridge composed of several small spans for crossing a valley or a gorge.
The term viaduct is derived from the Latin via for
road and ducere, to lead. Like the Roman
aqueducts, many early viaducts comprised a
series of arches of roughly equal length. Viaducts
may span land or water or both.

Viaducts are types of bridges; the term

viaduct refers to long bridges or series of
bridges that are connected to one another or structurally supported by arches or sturdy
platforms between two end towers. As with bridges, viaducts may cross waterways or roadways,
and exist primarily to provide an overhead passage to move trucks, cars, trains and pedestrians
from one point to another.

c. Aqueduct
An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the
term aqueduct is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures
used for this purpose. The term aqueduct also ofen refers specifically to a bridge on an artificial
watercourse. The word is derived from the Latin aqua ("water") and ducere ("to lead").
Aqueducts were used in ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient Rome. In modern times, the
largest aqueducts of all have been built in the United States to supply the country's biggest
cities. The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be
used in modern aqueducts. Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through
tunnels constructed underground. Modern aqueducts may also use pipelines. Historically,
agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops and supply large cities with
drinking water.
 The Romans constructed aqueducts to bring a constant flow of water from distant
sources into cities and towns, supplying public
baths, latrines, fountains and private households.
Waste water was removed by the sewage
systems and released into nearby bodies of
water, keeping the towns clean and free from
noxious waste. Some aqueducts also served
water for mining, processing, manufacturing, and
agriculture.

Aqueducts moved water through gravity

alone, along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were
buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or
less ofen, tunneled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on
bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned
across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to
regulate the supply at need.

Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's cattle-market. By the
3rd century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, to sustain a population of over 1,000,000 in a
water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and
municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as
objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could,
and did, aspire."

Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the
early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and
construction are given by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura (1st century BC). The general
Frontinus gives more detail, in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial
Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting
piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

d. Suspension
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is
hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of
bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical
suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.

This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender
cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement
allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. Like other suspension
bridge types, this type ofen is constructed without falsework.
 The suspension cables must be
anchored at each end of the bridge, since any
load applied to the bridge is transformed into
a tension in these main cables. The main
cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-
level supports, and further continue to
connections with anchors in the ground. The
roadway is supported by vertical suspender
cables or rods, called hangers. In some
circumstances, the towers may sit on a bluff
or canyon edge where the road may proceed directly to the main span, otherwise the bridge will
usually have two smaller spans, running between either pair of pillars and the highway, which
may be supported by suspender cables or may use a truss bridge to make this connection. In the
latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables.

As the name implies, suspension bridges, like the Golden Gate Bridge or Brooklyn
Bridge, suspend the roadway by cables, ropes or chains from two tall towers. These towers
support the majority of the weight as compression pushes down on the suspension bridge's
deck and then travels up the cables, ropes or chains to transfer compression to the towers. The
towers then dissipate the compression directly into the earth.

The supporting cables, on the other hand, receive the bridge's tension forces. These
cables run horizontally between the two far-flung anchorages. Bridge anchorages are essentially
solid rock or massive concrete blocks in which the bridge is grounded. Tensional force passes to
the anchorages and into the ground.

In addition to the cables, almost all suspension bridges feature a supporting truss system
beneath the bridge deck called a deck truss. This helps to stiffen the deck and reduce the
tendency of the roadway to sway and ripple.

Suspension bridges can easily cross distances between 2,000 and 7,000 feet (610 and
2,134 meters), enabling them to span distances beyond the scope of other bridge designs. Given
the complexity of their design and the materials needed to build them, however, they're ofen
the most costly bridge option as well.

But not every suspension bridge is an engineering marvel of modern steel. In fact, the
earliest ones were made of twisted grass. When Spanish conquistadors made their way into Peru
in 1532, they discovered an Incan empire connected by hundreds of suspension bridges,
achieving spans of more than 150 feet (46 meters) across deep mountain gorges. Europe, on the
other hand, wouldn't see its first suspension bridge until nearly 300 years later [source: Foer].
 Of course, suspension bridges made from twisted grass don't last that long, requiring
continual replacement to ensure safe travel across the gap. Today, only one such bridge remains,
measuring 90 feet (27 meters) in the Andes.

e. Cable Stayed
A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables support the
bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the
cables which run directly from the tower to
the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern
or a series of parallel lines. This is in contrast
to the modern suspension bridge, where the
cables supporting the deck are suspended
vertically from the main cable, anchored at
both ends of the bridge and running
between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge
is optimal for spans longer than cantilever
bridges, and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range where cantilever bridges would
rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be
more economical if the span were shortened.
At first glance, the cable-stayed bridge may look like just a variant of the suspension bridge, but
don't let their similar towers and hanging roadways fool you. Cable-stayed bridges differ from
their suspension predecessors in that they don't require anchorages, nor do they need two
towers. Instead, the cables run from the roadway up to a single tower that alone bears the
weight.

The tower of a cable-stayed bridge is responsible for absorbing and dealing with compressional
forces. The cables attach to the roadway in various ways. For example, in a radial pattern, cables
extend from several points on the road to a single point at the tower, like numerous fishing lines
attached to a single pole. In a parallel pattern, the cables attach to both the roadway and the
tower at several separate points. Engineers constructed the first cable-stayed bridges in Europe
following the close of World War II, but the basic design dates back to the 16th century and
Croatian inventor Faust Vrancic. A contemporary of astronomers Tycho Brache and Johannes
Kepler, Vrancic produced the first known sketch of a cable-stayed bridge in his book "Machinae
Novae."

Today, cable-stayed bridges are a popular choice as they offer all the advantages of a suspension
bridge but at a lesser cost for spans of 500 to 2,800 feet (152 to 853 meters). They require less
steel cable, are faster to build and incorporate more precast concrete sections.

Not all bridges requires great hunks of steel and concrete though. Sometimes a tree root or two
will do the trick.
f. Composite
 'Composite' means that the
steel structure of a bridge is fixed to the
concrete structure of the deck so that
the steel and concrete act together, so
reducing deflections and increasing
strength. This is done using 'shear
connectors' fixed to the steel beams
and then embedded in the concrete.
Shear connectors can be welded on,
perhaps using a 'stud welder', or better
still on export work, by fixing nuts and
bolts.

Shear connectors, correctly spaced to resist the loads, make the concrete work
'compositely' with the steel.

Usually the steel carries its own weight and that of the wet concrete. But when the
concrete is 'cured' and has acquired its full strength, then all future loads (traffic, surfacing, wind,
water, pressure, seismic loads) are shared by the steel/concrete composite.

g. Concrete Arch
An arch bridge is a bridge with
abutments at each end shaped as a curved
arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the
weight of the bridge and its loads partially
into a horizontal thrust restrained by the
abutments at either side. A viaduct (a long
bridge) may be made from a series of
arches, although other more economical
structures are typically used today.
Afer more than 2,000 years of architectural
use, the arch continues to feature
prominently in bridge designs and with good reason: Its semicircular structure elegantly
distributes compression through its entire form and diverts weight onto its two abutments, the
components of the bridge that directly take on pressure.

Tensional force in arch bridges, on the other hand is virtually negligible. The natural
curve of the arch and its ability to dissipate the force outward greatly reduces the effects of
tension on the underside of the arch. But as with beams and trusses, even the mighty arch can't
outrun physics forever. The greater the degree of curvature (the larger the semicircle of the
arch), the greater the effects of tension on the underside of the bridge. Build a big enough arch,
and tension will eventually overtake the support structure's natural strength.
 While there's a fair amount of cosmetic variety in arch bridge construction, the basic
structure doesn't change. There are, for example, Roman, Baroque and Renaissance arches, all of
which are architecturally different but structurally the same.

It is the arch itself that gives its namesake bridge its strength. In fact, an arch made of
stone doesn't even need mortar. The ancient Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that are
still standing today. The tricky part, however is building the arch, as the two converging parts of
the structure have no structural integrity until they meet in the middle. As such, additional
scaffolding or support systems are typically needed.

Modern materials such as steel and prestressed concrete allow us to build far larger
arches than the ancient Romans did. Modern arches typically span between 200 and 800 feet
(61 and 244 meters), but West Virginia's New River Gorge Bridge measures an impressive 1,700
feet (518 meters)

h. Steel Truss
Travel around the world, and you'll encounter dozens of variations on your standard
beam bridge. The key differences, however, all come down to the design, location and
composition of the truss.

During the early Industrial

Revolution, beam bridge
construction in the United States
was rapidly developing. Engineers
gave many different truss designs a
whirl in an attempt to perfect it.
Their efforts weren't for naught.
Wooden bridges were soon
replaced by iron models or wood-
and-iron combinations.

All these different truss patterns also factored into how beam bridges were being built.
Some takes featured a through truss above the bridge, while others boasted a deck truss
beneath the bridge.

A single beam spanning any distance undergoes compression and tension. The very top
of the beam gets the most compression, and the very bottom of the beam experiences the most
tension. The middle of the beam experiences very little compression or tension. This is why we
have I-beams, which provide more material on the tops and bottoms of beams to better handle
the forces of compression and tension.

And there's another reason why a truss is more rigid than a single beam: A truss has the
ability to dissipate a load through the truss work. The design of a truss, which is usually a variant
 of a triangle, creates both a very rigid structure and one that transfers the load from a single
point to a considerably wider area.

While truss bridges are largely a product of the Industrial Revolution, our next example,
the arch, dates back much further in time. Grab your sword and sandals, because we're about to
go Roman.

4. What factors are to be considered in design of bridge?

Soil conditions - for design of Foundation,
Ground conditions - for movement of Machinery & Materials,
Height of bridge to be achieved (as per requirements),
Available Plant & Machinery,
No. of Spans - for choosing type of span configurations (cable stayed, suspension, etc),
Live Loads on bridge - vehicular or pedestrian or machinery,
No of Lanes of the bridge deck,
Design life being considered,
Grade of Concrete proposed,
Grade of Steel proposed,
Seismic zone of the location,
Budgeted Cost of the bridge.
5. Discuss
a. Abutment

In engineering, abutment refers to the

substructure at the ends of a bridge span or
dam whereon the structure's superstructure
rests or contacts. Single-span bridges have
abutments at each end which provide vertical
and lateral support for the bridge, as well as
acting as retaining walls to resist lateral
movement of the earthen fill of the bridge
approach. Multi-span bridges require piers to
support ends of spans unsupported by
abutments.

An abutment may be used for the following:

To transfer loads from a superstructure to its foundation elements.
To resist and/or transfer self weight, lateral loads (such as the earth pressure) and wind loads.
To support one end of an approach slab.
b. Pier
Pier is that part of a part of the substructure which supports the superstructure at the
end of the span and which transfers loads on the superstructure to the foundations. Depending
up on aesthetics, site, space and economic constraints various shapes of piers are adopted to
suit to the requirement. Mostly Reinforced Concrete or Prestressed concrete are adopted for the
 construction of piers. Piers are compression
members. Depending on the loading and
bearing articulations, piers may be subjected
to bending as well.

c. Foundation
Foundation is to provided to transmit
the load from the piers or abutments and
wings to and evenly distribute the load on
the strata.

It is to provided sufficiently deep so that it is not affected by the scour caused by the
flow in river and does not undermined.

Types of Bridge Foundation

Shallow Foundation
o Open Foundation
o Block Foundation
Deep Foundation
o Pile Foundation
o Well Foundation